Heat transfer

Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal

engineering that concerns the generation,
use, conversion, and exchange of thermal
energy (heat) between physical systems.
Heat transfer is classified into various
mechanisms, such as thermal conduction,
thermal convection, thermal radiation, and
transfer of energy by phase changes.
Engineers also consider the transfer of mass Simulation of thermal convection in the Earth's mantle. Colors span
of differing chemical species, either cold or from red and green to blue with decreasing temperatures. A hot,
hot, to achieve heat transfer. While these less-dense lower boundary layer sends plumes of hot material
mechanisms have distinct characteristics, upwards, and cold material from the top moves downwards.
they often occur simultaneously in the same
system.

Heat conduction, also called diffusion, is the direct microscopic exchange of kinetic energy of particles through the
boundary between two systems. When an object is at a different temperature from another body or its surroundings,
heat flows so that the body and the surroundings reach the same temperature, at which point they are in thermal
equilibrium. Such spontaneous heat transfer always occurs from a region of high temperature to another region of
lower temperature, as described by the second law of thermodynamics.

Heat convection occurs when bulk flow of a fluid (gas or liquid) carries heat along with the flow of matter in the fluid.
The flow of fluid may be forced by external processes, or sometimes (in gravitational fields) by buoyancy forces caused
when thermal energy expands the fluid (for example in a fire plume), thus influencing its own transfer. The latter
process is often called "natural convection". All convective processes also move heat partly by diffusion, as well.
Another form of convection is forced convection. In this case the fluid is forced to flow by use of a pump, fan or other
mechanical means.

Thermal radiation occurs through a vacuum or any transparent medium (solid or fluid). It is the transfer of energy by
means of photons in electromagnetic waves governed by the same laws.[1]

Contents
1 Overview
2 Mechanisms
2.1 Advection
2.2 Conduction
2.3 Convection
2.3.1 Convection-cooling
2.4 Convection vs. conduction
2.5 Radiation
3 Phase transition
3.1 Boiling
3.2 Condensation
3.3 Melting
 4 Modeling approaches
4.1 Climate models
4.2 Heat equation
4.3 Lumped system analysis
5 Engineering
5.1 Insulation, radiance and resistance
5.2 Devices
5.2.1 Heat exchangers

6 Examples
6.1 Architecture
6.2 Climate engineering
6.3 Greenhouse effect
6.4 Heat transfer in the human body
6.5 Cooling techniques
6.5.1 Evaporative cooling
6.5.2 Laser cooling
6.5.3 Magnetic cooling
6.5.4 Radiative cooling
6.6 Thermal energy storage
7 See also
8 References
9 External links

Overview
Heat is defined in physics as the transfer of thermal energy
across a well-defined boundary around a thermodynamic
system. The thermodynamic free energy is the amount of
work that a thermodynamic system can perform. Enthalpy is
a thermodynamic potential, designated by the letter "H", that
is the sum of the internal energy of the system (U) plus the
product of pressure (P) and volume (V). Joule is a unit to
quantify energy, work, or the amount of heat.

Heat transfer is a process function (or path function), as

opposed to functions of state; therefore, the amount of heat
transferred in a thermodynamic process that changes the
Earth's long wave thermal radiation intensity, from
state of a system depends on how that process occurs, not
clouds, atmosphere and surface.
only the net difference between the initial and final states of
the process.

Thermodynamic and mechanical heat transfer is calculated with the heat transfer coefficient, the proportionality
between the heat flux and the thermodynamic driving force for the flow of heat. Heat flux is a quantitative, vectorial
representation of heat-flow through a surface.[2]

In engineering contexts, the term heat is taken as synonymous to thermal energy. This usage has its origin in the
historical interpretation of heat as a fluid (Caloric) that can be transferred by various causes,[3] and that is also
common in the language of laymen and everyday life.
The transport equations for thermal energy (Fourier's law), mechanical momentum (Newton's law for fluids), and
mass transfer (Fick's laws of diffusion) are similar,[4][5] and analogies among these three transport processes have been
developed to facilitate prediction of conversion from any one to the others.[5]

Thermal engineering concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange of heat transfer. As such, heat transfer is
involved in almost every sector of the economy.[6] Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal
conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and transfer of energy by phase changes.

Mechanisms
The fundamental modes of heat transfer are:

Advection
Advection is the transport mechanism of a fluid from one location to another, and is
dependent on motion and momentum of that fluid.
Conduction or diffusion
The transfer of energy between objects that are in physical contact. Thermal conductivity is
the property of a material to conduct heat and evaluated primarily in terms of Fourier's Law
for heat conduction.
Convection
The transfer of energy between an object and its environment, due to fluid motion. The
average temperature is a reference for evaluating properties related to convective heat
transfer.
Radiation
The transfer of energy by the emission of electromagnetic radiation.

Advection
By transferring matter, energyincluding thermal energyis moved by the physical transfer of a hot or cold object
from one place to another.[7] This can be as simple as placing hot water in a bottle and heating a bed, or the movement
of an iceberg in changing ocean currents. A practical example is thermal hydraulics. This can be described by the
formula:

where Q is heat flux (W/m), is density (kg/m), is heat capacity at constant pressure (J/kgK), T is the change
in temperature (K), is velocity (m/s).

Conduction
On a microscopic scale, heat conduction occurs as hot, rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and molecules interact with
neighboring atoms and molecules, transferring some of their energy (heat) to these neighboring particles. In other
words, heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent atoms vibrate against one another, or as electrons move from
one atom to another. Conduction is the most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between solid objects
in thermal contact. Fluidsespecially gasesare less conductive. Thermal contact conductance is the study of heat
conduction between solid bodies in contact.[8] The process of heat transfer from one place to another place without the
movement of particles is called conduction. Example: Heat transfer through Metal rods. Steady state conduction (see
Fourier's law) is a form of conduction that happens when the temperature difference driving the conduction is
constant, so that after an equilibration time, the spatial distribution of temperatures in the conducting object does not
change any further.[9] In steady state conduction, the amount of heat entering a section is equal to amount of heat
coming out.[8]
Transient conduction (see Heat equation) occurs when the temperature within an object changes as a function of time.
Analysis of transient systems is more complex and often calls for the application of approximation theories or
numerical analysis by computer.[8]

Convection
The flow of fluid may be forced by external processes, or sometimes (in gravitational fields) by buoyancy forces caused
when thermal energy expands the fluid (for example in a fire plume), thus influencing its own transfer. The latter
process is often called "natural convection". All convective processes also move heat partly by diffusion, as well.
Another form of convection is forced convection. In this case the fluid is forced to flow by using a pump, fan or other
mechanical means.

Convective heat transfer, or convection, is the transfer of heat from one place to another by the movement of fluids, a
process that is essentially the transfer of heat via mass transfer. Bulk motion of fluid enhances heat transfer in many
physical situations, such as (for example) between a solid surface and the fluid.[10] Convection is usually the dominant
form of heat transfer in liquids and gases. Although sometimes discussed as a third method of heat transfer,
convection is usually used to describe the combined effects of heat conduction within the fluid (diffusion) and heat
transference by bulk fluid flow streaming.[11] The process of transport by fluid streaming is known as advection, but
pure advection is a term that is generally associated only with mass transport in fluids, such as advection of pebbles in
a river. In the case of heat transfer in fluids, where transport by advection in a fluid is always also accompanied by
transport via heat diffusion (also known as heat conduction) the process of heat convection is understood to refer to
the sum of heat transport by advection and diffusion/conduction.

Free, or natural, convection occurs when bulk fluid motions (streams and currents) are caused by buoyancy forces that
result from density variations due to variations of temperature in the fluid. Forced convection is a term used when the
streams and currents in the fluid are induced by external meanssuch as fans, stirrers, and pumpscreating an
artificially induced convection current.[12]

Convection-cooling
Convective cooling is sometimes described as Newton's law of cooling:

The rate of heat loss of a body is proportional to the temperature difference between the body and its
surroundings.

However, by definition, the validity of Newton's law of Cooling requires that the rate of heat loss from convection be a
linear function of ("proportional to") the temperature difference that drives heat transfer, and in convective cooling
this is sometimes not the case. In general, convection is not linearly dependent on temperature gradients, and in some
cases is strongly nonlinear. In these cases, Newton's law does not apply.

Convection vs. conduction

In a body of fluid that is heated from underneath its container, conduction and convection can be considered to
compete for dominance. If heat conduction is too great, fluid moving down by convection is heated by conduction so
fast that its downward movement will be stopped due to its buoyancy, while fluid moving up by convection is cooled by
conduction so fast that its driving buoyancy will diminish. On the other hand, if heat conduction is very low, a large
temperature gradient may be formed and convection might be very strong.

The Rayleigh number ( ) is the product of the Grashof and Prandtl numbers. It is a measure which determines the
relative strength of conduction and convection.[13]
where

g is acceleration due to gravity,

is the density with being the density difference between the lower and upper ends,
is the dynamic viscosity,
is the Thermal diffusivity,
is the volume thermal expansivity (sometimes denoted elsewhere),
T is the temperature,
is the kinematic viscosity, and
L is characteristic length.
The Rayleigh number can be understood as the ratio between the rate of heat transfer by convection to the rate of heat
transfer by conduction; or, equivalently, the ratio between the corresponding timescales (i.e. conduction timescale
divided by convection timescale), up to a numerical factor. This can be seen as follows, where all calculations are up to
numerical factors depending on the geometry of the system.

The buoyancy force driving the convection is roughly , so the corresponding pressure is roughly . In
steady state, this is canceled by the shear stress due to viscosity, and therefore roughly equals ,
where V is the typical fluid velocity due to convection and the order of its timescale. The conduction timescale,
on the other hand, is of the order of .

Convection occurs when the Rayleigh number is above 1,0002,000.

Radiation
Thermal radiation occurs through a vacuum or any transparent medium
(solid or fluid). It is the transfer of energy by means of photons in
electromagnetic waves governed by the same laws.[1]

Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter as electromagnetic waves,

due to the pool of thermal energy in all matter with a temperature above
absolute zero. Thermal radiation propagates without the presence of
matter through the vacuum of space.[14]

Red-hot iron object, transferring Thermal radiation is a direct result of the random movements of atoms and
heat to the surrounding environment
molecules in matter. Since these atoms and molecules are composed of
through thermal radiation
charged particles (protons and electrons), their movement results in the
emission of electromagnetic radiation, which carries energy away from the
surface.

The Stefan-Boltzmann equation, which describes the rate of transfer of radiant energy, is as follows for an object in a
vacuum :

For radiative transfer between two objects, the equation is as follows:

where Q is the heat flux, is the emissivity (unity for a black body), is the StefanBoltzmann constant, and T is the
absolute temperature (in kelvins or degrees Rankine). Radiation is typically only important for very hot objects, or for
objects with a large temperature difference.

Radiation from the sun, or solar radiation, can be harvested for heat and power.[15] Unlike conductive and convective
forms of heat transfer, thermal radiation can be concentrated in a small spot by using reflecting mirrors, which is
exploited in concentrating solar power generation.[16] For example, the sunlight reflected from mirrors heats the PS10
solar power tower and during the day it can heat water to 285 C (545 F).

Phase transition
Phase transition or phase change, takes place in a
thermodynamic system from one phase or state of matter to
another one by heat transfer. Phase change examples are the
melting of ice or the boiling of water. The Mason equation
explains the growth of a water droplet based on the effects of
heat transport on evaporation and condensation.

Phase transitions involve the four fundamental states of

matter:

Solid Deposition, freezing and solid to solid

transformation.
Gas Boiling/evaporation, recombination/deionization,
and sublimation.
Liquid Condensation and melting/fusion.
Plasma Ionization. Lightning is a highly visible form of energy
transfer and is an example of plasma present at
Earth's surface. Typically, lightning discharges
Boiling 30,000 amperes at up to 100 million volts, and
emits light, radio waves, X-rays and even gamma
rays.[17] Plasma temperatures in lightning can
approach 28,000 kelvins (27,726.85 C)
(49,940.33 F) and electron densities may exceed
1024 m3.

The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor

pressure of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid[18][19] and
the liquid evaporates resulting in an abrupt change in vapor volume.

Saturation temperature means boiling point. The saturation temperature is

Nucleate boiling of water. the temperature for a corresponding saturation pressure at which a liquid
boils into its vapor phase. The liquid can be said to be saturated with
thermal energy. Any addition of thermal energy results in a phase
transition.

At standard atmospheric pressure and low temperatures, no boiling occurs and the heat transfer rate is controlled
by the usual single-phase mechanisms. As the surface temperature is increased, local boiling occurs and vapor bubbles
nucleate, grow into the surrounding cooler fluid, and collapse. This is sub-cooled nucleate boiling, and is a very
efficient heat transfer mechanism. At high bubble generation rates, the bubbles begin to interfere and the heat flux no
longer increases rapidly with surface temperature (this is the departure from nucleate boiling, or DNB).
At similar standard atmospheric pressure and high temperatures, the hydrodynamically-quieter regime of film
boiling is reached. Heat fluxes across the stable vapor layers are low, but rise slowly with temperature. Any contact
between fluid and the surface that may be seen probably leads to the extremely rapid nucleation of a fresh vapor layer
("spontaneous nucleation"). At higher temperatures still, a maximum in the heat flux is reached (the critical heat flux,
or CHF).

The Leidenfrost Effect demonstrates how nucleate boiling slows heat transfer due to gas bubbles on the heater's
surface. As mentioned, gas-phase thermal conductivity is much lower than liquid-phase thermal conductivity, so the
outcome is a kind of "gas thermal barrier".

Condensation
Condensation occurs when a vapor is cooled and changes its phase to a liquid. During condensation, the latent heat of
vaporization must be released. The amount of the heat is the same as that absorbed during vaporization at the same
fluid pressure.[20]

There are several types of condensation:

Homogeneous condensation, as during a formation of fog.

Condensation in direct contact with subcooled liquid.
Condensation on direct contact with a cooling wall of a heat exchanger: This is the most common mode used in
industry:

Filmwise condensation is when a liquid film is formed on the subcooled surface, and usually occurs when the
liquid wets the surface.
Dropwise condensation is when liquid drops are formed on the subcooled surface, and usually occurs when
the liquid does not wet the surface.

Dropwise condensation is difficult to sustain reliably; therefore, industrial equipment is

normally designed to operate in filmwise condensation mode.

Melting
Melting is a thermal process that results in the phase transition of a
substance from a solid to a liquid. The internal energy of a substance is
increased, typically with heat or pressure, resulting in a rise of its
temperature to the melting point, at which the ordering of ionic or
molecular entities in the solid breaks down to a less ordered state and the
solid liquefies. Molten substances generally have reduced viscosity with
elevated temperature; an exception to this maxim is the element sulfur,
whose viscosity increases to a point due to polymerization and then
decreases with higher temperatures in its molten state.[21]

Modeling approaches
Heat transfer can be modeled in the following ways.

Climate models
Climate models study the radiant heat transfer by using quantitative
methods to simulate the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, land
Ice melting
surface, and ice.
Heat equation
The heat equation is an important partial differential equation that describes the distribution of heat (or variation in
temperature) in a given region over time. In some cases, exact solutions of the equation are available;[22] in other cases
the equation must be solved numerically using computational methods.

Lumped system analysis

Lumped system analysis often reduces the complexity of the equations to one first-order linear differential equation,
in which case heating and cooling are described by a simple exponential solution, often referred to as Newton's law of
cooling.

System analysis by the lumped capacitance model is a common approximation in transient conduction that may be
used whenever heat conduction within an object is much faster than heat conduction across the boundary of the
object. This is a method of approximation that reduces one aspect of the transient conduction systemthat within the
objectto an equivalent steady state system. That is, the method assumes that the temperature within the object is
completely uniform, although its value may be changing in time.

In this method, the ratio of the conductive heat resistance within the object to the convective heat transfer resistance
across the object's boundary, known as the Biot number, is calculated. For small Biot numbers, the approximation of
spatially uniform temperature within the object can be used: it can be presumed that heat transferred into the object
has time to uniformly distribute itself, due to the lower resistance to doing so, as compared with the resistance to heat
entering the object.[23]

Engineering
Heat transfer has broad application to the functioning of numerous devices
and systems. Heat-transfer principles may be used to preserve, increase, or
decrease temperature in a wide variety of circumstances. Heat transfer
methods are used in numerous disciplines, such as automotive
engineering, thermal management of electronic devices and systems,
climate control, insulation, materials processing, and power station
engineering.

Heat exposure as part of a fire test

Insulation, radiance and resistance for firestop products
Thermal insulators are materials specifically designed to reduce the flow of
heat by limiting conduction, convection, or both. Thermal resistance is a
heat property and the measurement by which an object or material resists to heat flow (heat per time unit or thermal
resistance) to temperature difference.

Radiance or spectral radiance are measures of the quantity of radiation that passes through or is emitted. Radiant
barriers are materials that reflect radiation, and therefore reduce the flow of heat from radiation sources. Good
insulators are not necessarily good radiant barriers, and vice versa. Metal, for instance, is an excellent reflector and a
poor insulator.

The effectiveness of a radiant barrier is indicated by its reflectivity, which is the fraction of radiation reflected. A
material with a high reflectivity (at a given wavelength) has a low emissivity (at that same wavelength), and vice versa.
At any specific wavelength, reflectivity=1 - emissivity. An ideal radiant barrier would have a reflectivity of 1, and would
therefore reflect 100 percent of incoming radiation. Vacuum flasks, or Dewars, are silvered to approach this ideal. In
the vacuum of space, satellites use multi-layer insulation, which consists of many layers of aluminized (shiny) Mylar to
greatly reduce radiation heat transfer and control satellite temperature.
Devices
A heat engine is a system that performs the conversion of a
flow of thermal energy (heat) to mechanical energy to
perform mechanical work.[24][25]

A thermocouple is a temperature-measuring device and

widely used type of temperature sensor for measurement and
control, and can also be used to convert heat into electric
power.

A thermoelectric cooler is a solid state electronic device that

pumps (transfers) heat from one side of the device to the
other when electric current is passed through it. It is based on
the Peltier effect.

A thermal diode or thermal rectifier is a device that causes

heat to flow preferentially in one direction.
Schematic flow of energy in a heat engine.

Heat exchangers
A heat exchanger is used for more efficient heat transfer or to dissipate heat. Heat exchangers are widely used in
refrigeration, air conditioning, space heating, power generation, and chemical processing. One common example of a
heat exchanger is a car's radiator, in which the hot coolant fluid is cooled by the flow of air over the radiator's surface.

Common types of heat exchanger flows include parallel flow, counter flow, and cross flow. In parallel flow, both fluids
move in the same direction while transferring heat; in counter flow, the fluids move in opposite directions; and in
cross flow, the fluids move at right angles to each other. Common constructions for heat exchanger include shell and
tube, double pipe, extruded finned pipe, spiral fin pipe, u-tube, and stacked plate.

A heat sink is a component that transfers heat generated within a solid material to a fluid medium, such as air or a
liquid. Examples of heat sinks are the heat exchangers used in refrigeration and air conditioning systems or the
radiator in a car. A heat pipe is another heat-transfer device that combines thermal conductivity and phase transition
to efficiently transfer heat between two solid interfaces.

Examples

Architecture
Efficient energy use is the goal to reduce the amount of energy required in heating or cooling. In architecture,
condensation and air currents can cause cosmetic or structural damage. An energy audit can help to assess the
implementation of recommended corrective procedures. For instance, insulation improvements, air sealing of
structural leaks or the addition of energy-efficient windows and doors.[26]

Smart meter is a device that records electric energy consumption in intervals.

Thermal transmittance is the rate of transfer of heat through a structure divided by the difference in temperature
across the structure. It is expressed in watts per square meter per kelvin, or W/(mK). Well-insulated parts of a
building have a low thermal transmittance, whereas poorly-insulated parts of a building have a high thermal
transmittance.
Thermostat is a device to monitor and control temperature.

Climate engineering
Climate engineering consists of carbon dioxide removal and
solar radiation management. Since the amount of carbon
dioxide determines the radiative balance of Earth
atmosphere, carbon dioxide removal techniques can be
applied to reduce the radiative forcing. Solar radiation
management is the attempt to absorb less solar radiation to
offset the effects of greenhouse gases.

Greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation
from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric An example application in climate engineering
includes the creation of Biochar through the
greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since
pyrolysis process. Thus, storing greenhouse
part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface and the
gases in carbon reduces the radiative forcing
lower atmosphere, it results in an elevation of the average capacity in the atmosphere, causing more long-
surface temperature above what it would be in the absence of wave (infrared) radiation out to Space.
the gases.

Heat transfer in the human body

The principles of heat transfer in engineering systems can be
applied to the human body in order to determine how the
body transfers heat. Heat is produced in the body by the
continuous metabolism of nutrients which provides energy
for the systems of the body.[27] The human body must
maintain a consistent internal temperature in order to
maintain healthy bodily functions. Therefore, excess heat
must be dissipated from the body to keep it from overheating.
When a person engages in elevated levels of physical activity, A representation of the exchanges of energy
the body requires additional fuel which increases the between the source (the Sun), the Earth's
metabolic rate and the rate of heat production. The body surface, the Earth's atmosphere, and the ultimate
sink outer space. The ability of the atmosphere to
must then use additional methods to remove the additional
capture and recycle energy emitted by the Earth
heat produced in order to keep the internal temperature at a
surface is the defining characteristic of the
healthy level. greenhouse effect.

Heat transfer by convection is driven by the movement of

fluids over the surface of the body. This convective fluid can be either a liquid or a gas. For heat transfer from the outer
surface of the body, the convection mechanism is dependent on the surface area of the body, the velocity of the air, and
the temperature gradient between the surface of the skin and the ambient air.[28] The normal temperature of the body
is approximately 37 C. Heat transfer occurs more readily when the temperature of the surroundings is significantly
less than the normal body temperature. This concept explains why a person feels cold when not enough covering is
worn when exposed to a cold environment. Clothing can be considered an insulator which provides thermal resistance
to heat flow over the covered portion of the body.[29] This thermal resistance causes the temperature on the surface of
the clothing to be less than the temperature on the surface of the skin. This smaller temperature gradient between the
surface temperature and the ambient temperature will cause a lower rate of heat transfer than if the skin were not
covered.

In order to ensure that one portion of the body is not significantly hotter than another portion, heat must be
distributed evenly through the bodily tissues. Blood flowing through blood vessels acts as a convective fluid and helps
to prevent any buildup of excess heat inside the tissues of the body. This flow of blood through the vessels can be
modeled as pipe flow in an engineering system. The heat carried by the blood is determined by the temperature of the
surrounding tissue, the diameter of the blood vessel, the thickness of the fluid, velocity of the flow, and the heat
transfer coefficient of the blood. The velocity, blood vessel diameter, and the fluid thickness can all be related with the
Reynolds Number, a dimensionless number used in fluid mechanics to characterize the flow of fluids.

Latent heat loss, also known as evaporative heat loss, accounts for a large fraction of heat loss from the body. When
the core temperature of the body increases, the body triggers sweat glands in the skin to bring additional moisture to
the surface of the skin. The liquid is then transformed into vapor which removes heat from the surface of the body.[30]
The rate of evaporation heat loss is directly related to the vapor pressure at the skin surface and the amount of
moisture present on the skin.[28] Therefore, the maximum of heat transfer will occur when the skin is completely wet.
The body continuously loses water by evaporation but the most significant amount of heat loss occurs during periods
of increased physical activity.

Cooling techniques

Evaporative cooling
Evaporative cooling happens when water vapor is added to the
surrounding air. The energy needed to evaporate the water is taken from
the air in the form of sensible heat and converted into latent heat, while the
air remains at a constant enthalpy. Latent heat describes the amount of
heat that is needed to evaporate the liquid; this heat comes from the liquid
itself and the surrounding gas and surfaces. The greater the difference
between the two temperatures, the greater the evaporative cooling effect.
When the temperatures are the same, no net evaporation of water in air
occurs; thus, there is no cooling effect.

Laser cooling
In quantum physics, laser cooling is used to achieve temperatures of near
absolute zero (273.15 C, 459.67 F) of atomic and molecular samples to
observe unique quantum effects that can only occur at this heat level.
A traditional air cooler in Mirzapur,
Doppler cooling is the most common method of laser cooling. Uttar Pradesh, India
Sympathetic cooling is a process in which particles of one type cool
particles of another type. Typically, atomic ions that can be directly
laser-cooled are used to cool nearby ions or atoms. This technique allows cooling of ions and atoms that cannot
be laser cooled directly.

Magnetic cooling
Magnetic evaporative cooling is a process for lowering the temperature of a group of atoms, after pre-cooled by
methods such as laser cooling. Magnetic refrigeration cools below 0.3K, by making use of the magnetocaloric effect.

Radiative cooling
Radiative cooling is the process by which a body loses heat by radiation. Outgoing energy is an important effect in the
Earth's energy budget. In the case of the Earth-atmosphere system, it refers to the process by which long-wave
(infrared) radiation is emitted to balance the absorption of short-wave (visible) energy from the Sun. Convective
transport of heat and evaporative transport of latent heat both remove heat from the surface and redistribute it in the
atmosphere.
Thermal energy storage
Thermal energy storage includes technologies for collecting and storing energy for later use. It may be employed to
balance energy demand between day and nighttime. The thermal reservoir may be maintained at a temperature above
or below that of the ambient environment. Applications include space heating, domestic or process hot water systems,
or generating electricity.

See also
Combined forced and natural convection
Heat capacity
Heat transfer physics
StefanBoltzmann law
Thermal contact conductance
Thermal physics
Thermal resistance in electronics
Thermal science
Heat transfer enhancement

References
1. Geankoplis, Christie John (2003). Transport Processes and Separation Principles (4th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-
13-101367-X.
2. "B.S. Chemical Engineering" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101210121252/http://catalog.njit.edu/undergraduate/
programs/chemicalengineering.php). New Jersey Institute of Technology, Chemical Engineering Departement.
Archived from the original (http://catalog.njit.edu/undergraduate/programs/chemicalengineering.php) on 10
December 2010. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
3. Lienhard, John H. IV; Lienhard, John H. V (2008). A Heat Transfer Textbook (http://ahtt.mit.edu) (3rd ed.).
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Phlogiston Press. ISBN 978-0-9713835-3-1. OCLC 230956959 (https://www.worldca
t.org/oclc/230956959).
4. Welty, James R.; Wicks, Charles E.; Wilson, Robert Elliott (1976). Fundamentals of momentum, heat, and mass
transfer (https://books.google.com/?id=hZxRAAAAMAAJ&cd=3) (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-
93354-0. OCLC 2213384 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2213384).
5. Faghri, Amir; Zhang, Yuwen; Howell, John (2010). Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer. Columbia, MO: Global
Digital Press. ISBN 978-0-9842760-0-4.
6. Taylor, R. A. (2012). "Socioeconomic impacts of heat transfer research". International Communications in Heat
and Mass Transfer. 39 (10): 14671473. doi:10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2012.09.007 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2
Fj.icheatmasstransfer.2012.09.007).
7. "Mass transfer" (https://www.thermalfluidscentral.org/encyclopedia/index.php/Mass_Transfer). Thermal-
FluidsPedia. Thermal Fluids Central.
8. Abbott, J.M.; Smith, H.C.; Van Ness, M.M. (2005). Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics (7th
ed.). Boston, Montreal: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-310445-0.
9. "Heat conduction" (https://www.thermalfluidscentral.org/encyclopedia/index.php/Heat_Conduction). Thermal-
FluidsPedia. Thermal Fluids Central.
10. engel, Yunus (2003). Heat Transfer: A practical approach (https://books.google.com/books?id=nrbfpSZTwskC)
(2nd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-245893-0.
11. "Convective heat transfer" (https://www.thermalfluidscentral.org/encyclopedia/index.php/Convective_Heat_Transf
er). Thermal-FluidsPedia. Thermal Fluids Central.
12. "Convection Heat Transfer" (http://www.engineersedge.com/heat_transfer/convection.htm). Engineers Edge.
Retrieved 2009-04-20.
13. Incropera, Frank P.; et al. (2012). Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer (7th ed.). Wiley. p. 603. ISBN 978-0-
470-64615-1.
14. "Radiation" (https://www.thermalfluidscentral.org/encyclopedia/index.php/Radiation). Thermal-FluidsPedia.
Thermal Fluids Central.
15. Mojiri, A (2013). "Spectral beam splitting for efficient conversion of solar energyA review". Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews. 28: 654663. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.026 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.rser.201
3.08.026).
16. Taylor, Robert A.; Phelan, Patrick E.; Otanicar, Todd P.; Walker, Chad A.; Nguyen, Monica; Trimble, Steven;
Prasher, Ravi (March 2011). "Applicability of nanofluids in high flux solar collectors" (http://digitalcommons.lmu.ed
u/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1019&context=mech_fac). Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy. 3 (2):
023104. doi:10.1063/1.3571565 (https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.3571565).
17. See Flashes in the Sky: Earth's Gamma-Ray Bursts Triggered by Lightning (http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/s
olarsystem/rhessi_tgf.html)
18. David.E. Goldberg (1988). 3,000 Solved Problems in Chemistry (1st ed.). McGraw-Hill. Section 17.43, page 321.
ISBN 0-07-023684-4.
19. Louis Theodore, R. Ryan Dupont and Kumar Ganesan (Editors) (1999). Pollution Prevention: The Waste
Management Approach to the 21st Century. CRC Press. Section 27, page 15. ISBN 1-56670-495-2.
20. Tro, Nivaldo (2008). Chemistry: A Molecular Approach. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. p. 479.
"When a substance condenses from a gas to a liquid, the same amount of heat is involved, but the heat is emitted
rather than absorbed."
21. C. Michael Hogan (2011) Sulfur, Encyclopedia of Earth, eds. A. Jorgensen and C. J. Cleveland, National Council
for Science and the environment, Washington DC
22. Wendl, M. C. (2012). Theoretical Foundations of Conduction and Convection Heat Transfer (http://wendl.weebly.c
om/textbook.html). Wendl Foundation.
23. "How to simplify for small Biot numbers" (http://www.pirobloc.com/en/blog-en/how-to-simplify-for-small-biot-numbe
rs). Retrieved December 21, 2016.
24. Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics, 3rd ed. p. 159, (1985) by G. J. Van Wylen and R. E. Sonntag: "A
heat engine may be defined as a device that operates in a thermodynamic cycle and does a certain amount of net
positive work as a result of heat transfer from a high-temperature body and to a low-temperature body. Often the
term heat engine is used in a broader sense to include all devices that produce work, either through heat transfer
or combustion, even though the device does not operate in a thermodynamic cycle. The internal-combustion
engine and the gas turbine are examples of such devices, and calling these heat engines is an acceptable use of
the term."
25. Mechanical efficiency of heat engines, p. 1 (2007) by James R. Senf: "Heat engines are made to provide
mechanical energy from thermal energy."
26. "EnergySavers: Tips on Saving Money & Energy at Home" (http://www.energysavers.gov/pdfs/energy_savers.pdf)
(PDF). U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved March 2, 2012.
27. Hartman, Carl; Bibb, Lewis. (1913). "The Human Body and Its Enemies". World Book Co., p. 232.
28. Cengel, Yunus A. and Ghajar, Afshin J. "Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals and Applications", McGraw-Hill,
4th Edition, 2010.
29. Tao, Xiaoming. "Smart fibres, fabrics, and clothing", Woodhead Publishing, 2001
30. Wilmore, Jack H.; Costill, David L.; Kenney, Larry. "Physiology of sport and exercise". Human Kinetics. 2008: 256.

External links
A Heat Transfer Textbook (http://ahtt.mit.edu) - (free download).
Thermal-FluidsPedia (https://www.thermalfluidscentral.org/encyclopedia/index.php/Main_Page) - An online
thermal fluids encyclopedia.
Hyperphysics Article on Heat Transfer (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/heatra.html) -
Overview
Interseasonal Heat Transfer (http://www.icax.co.uk/thermalbank.html) - a practical example of how heat transfer is
used to heat buildings without burning fossil fuels.
Aspects of Heat Transfer, Cambridge University (http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2007/HT/heat_transfer.h
tml)
Thermal-Fluids Central (https://www.thermalfluidscentral.org/)
Energy2D: Interactive Heat Transfer Simulations for Everyone (http://energy.concord.org/energy2d/)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&oldid=808121594"

This page was last edited on 1 November 2017, at 00:35.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using
this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.