Topic X Introduction

1 to Behaviour
Modification
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Describe the characteristics of human behaviour;
2. Explain the defining characteristics of behaviour modification;
3. Compare the historical roots of behaviour modification shared by
prominent figures; and
4. Explain the ways behaviour modification can improve peoples
lives.

X INTRODUCTION
Behaviour modification is a treatment procedure or technique used to change
behaviour by altering a persons current environment to help the person function
better in everyday life (Pear & Martin, 2003). Behaviour modification focuses on
using principles of learning and cognition to understand and change peoples
behaviour. In this course, you will learn more about behaviour modification, and
the principles and procedures used to understand and change human behaviour.
Since behaviour modification focuses on behaviour and behaviour change, it is
appropriate to begin the course with a discussion on What is behaviour?

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ACTIVITY 1.1

1. List down at least 10 words which you think are behaviours.

2. What characteristics do they share?
3. Can you see the behaviours?

1.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN

BEHAVIOUR
What do we mean by behaviour? Essentially, behaviour is anything that a person
says or does. Walking, talking, throwing, yelling, writing, reading, and cooking
may be some of the behaviours you have listed down when you were completing
Activity 1.1. How about getting an A in an exam, or losing 5 kg? No, those
are products or outcomes of behaviour. For a better distinction, these are the
characteristics that define behaviour as summarised in Miltenberger (2008)
(Table 1.1).

Table 1.1: Characteristics of Human Behaviour

Characteristics Explanation
(a) Behaviour is what Because behaviour involves a persons actions, it is usually
people do and described using action verbs. However, instead of describing a
say. behaviour, many times, we label a behaviour. When you say
that a person is angry, you have not identified the persons
behaviour. A description of an angry behaviour could be
Maria screamed at her brother, ran out of the house and
slammed the door.
(b) Behaviour has Physical dimensions of a behaviour can be measured using:
one or more (i) Frequency. You can measure the frequency of a behaviour
dimensions that by counting the number of times a behaviour occurs.
can be measured. Example: Annie bit her fingernails 6 times within an hour.
(ii) Duration. You can measure the duration of a behaviour,
or the amount of time a behaviour starts until it stops.
Example: Sarah exercised for 30 minutes.
(iii) Intensity. You can measure the intensity of a behaviour
or the physical force involved in the behaviour.
Example: Michael ran at a speed of 10 km/h on a
treadmill for 10 minutes.

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(c) Behaviour is Behaviours can be observed, described, and recorded by others

observable. or by the persons engaging in the behaviour.

(d) Behaviour has Because a behaviour is an action that involves movement

an impact on through space and time (Johnston & Pennypacker, 1981), the
the occurrence of a behaviour has some effect on the environment in
environment. which it occurs.

(e) Behaviour is Its occurrence is systematically influenced by environmental

lawful. events.

(f) Behaviour may An overt behaviour is an action that can be observed and
be overt or recorded by a person other than the one engaging in the
covert. behaviour. Covert behaviours, also known as private events, are
not observable to others. Example: thinking.

SELF-CHECK 1.1

1. Give three examples each of overt and covert behaviours.

2. List four defining characteristics of behaviour modification.

ACTIVITY 1.2

Identify the characteristics of the following behaviour: Samantha sits at

her computer and types her assignment.
(a) Is Samantha engaging in a behaviour?
(b) Can the behaviour be observed, measured and recorded?
(c) Can you identify the other characteristics?

1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF BEHAVIOUR

MODIFICATION
Behaviour modification is the field of psychology concerned with analysing and
modifying human behaviour. Prior to engaging in the process of behaviour
modification, it is important to identify the functional relationship between
environmental events and a particular behaviour to understand the reasons for
the behaviour to occur. Modifying behaviour involves developing and
implementing procedures to help people change their behaviour. This will also

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4 X TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION

include altering an individuals environment with the goal of improving some

aspect of a persons life (Martin & Pear, 2003).

The term environment refers to the people, objects, and events currently present
in ones immediate surroundings that can affect behaviour. The people, objects
and events that make up a persons environment are called stimuli (plural of
stimulus).

Following are some characteristics that define behaviour modification:

(a) Focuses on behaviour. Behaviour modification procedures are designed

to change behaviour, not a persons characteristic. Therefore, behaviour
modification de-emphasises labelling. For example, behaviour is not used
to change autism (label); rather, it is used to change problem behaviours
exhibited by children with autism.

(b) In behaviour modification, the behaviour to be modified is called the target

behaviour. A behavioural excess is an undesirable target behaviour
that a person wants to decrease in frequency, duration, or intensity. A
behavioural deficit, on the other hand, is a desirable target behaviour that a
person wants to increase in frequency, duration, or intensity. Here are some
examples as shown in Figure 1.1:

Figure 1.1: Behavioural excess versus behavioural deficit

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(c) To identify whether the behaviour is excessive or deficient, it is important

to consider the context in which it occurs. For example, a child drawing on
a paper is an appropriate behaviour, but if the child draws on the wall,
most parents would regard that behaviour as behavioural excess.

(d) In behaviour modification, methods and rationales must be described

precisely because in order for the behaviour modification to be effective
each time it is used, the specific changes in environmental events must
occur each time. By describing procedures precisely, researchers and other
professionals make it more likely that the procedures will be used correctly
each time. The precise procedures also make it possible for individuals such
as parents, teachers, job supervisors and others to help individuals in
everyday situations.

(e) To a large extent, the techniques stem from basic and applied research in
the psychology of learning in general, and the principles of operant and
classical conditioning in particular.

1.3 HISTORICAL ROOTS OF BEHAVIOUR

MODIFICATION
A number of historical events have contributed to the development of behaviour
modification. Let us briefly consider some important figures in the field as
explained in Table 1.2:

Table 1.2: Major Figures Who Contributed to the Development of Behaviour Modification

Prominent Figure Contributions

Ivan P. Pavlov Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, conducted experiments that
(18491936) uncovered the basic processes of respondent conditioning
(classical conditioning, to be discussed in detail in Topic 3).

He demonstrated that a reflex (salivation in response to the

presence of food) could be conditioned to a neutral
stimulus. In Pavlovs experiments, a neutral stimulus (the
sound of a metronome) was presented at the same time
when food was presented to a dog. After a few pairings, the
dog salivated in response to the sound of the metronome
alone. Pavlov called this a conditioned reflex.

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Edward L. Thorndike The study of instrumental conditioning began with a series

(18741949) of experiments by E. L. Thorndike, who was greatly
influenced by Darwins theory of evolution.
Thorndikes major contribution was the description of law
of effect, which states that a behaviour that produces a
desire or positive effect on the environment is more likely to
be repeated in the future. The explanation is similar to
evolution, in which genes that promote survival or fitness
are selected across generations.

John B. Watson John B. Watson was the first to study how the process of
(19791958) learning affects our behaviour, and he formed the school of
thought known as Behaviourism.

The central idea behind behaviourism is that only

observable behaviours are worthy of research since other
abstractions such as a persons mood or thoughts are too
subjective. This belief was dominant in psychological
research in the United States for a good 50 years.

B. F. Skinner B. F. Skinner was responsible for changes in how researchers

(19041990) conceptualise and study instrumental conditioning (operant
conditioning).

His method was simpler than Thorndikes and has been

widely accepted. Skinner also expanded the field of
behaviourism originally described by Watson. He is
considered to be a Radical Behaviourist because of this
belief, although nowadays it is believed that both internal
and external stimuli influence our behaviour. Skinner
explained the distinction between respondent conditioning
(described by Pavlov) and operant conditioning in which
the consequence of behaviour controls the future occurrence
of the behaviour (as in Thorndikes Law of Effect). Skinners
research elaborated the basic principles of operant
behaviour (to be discussed in Topic 3). His work is the
foundation of behaviour modification.

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SELF-CHECK 1.2

1. What is behaviour? Briefly discuss the characteristics of human

behaviour.
2. What are the characteristics of behaviour modification?

1.4 AREAS OF APPLICATION THAT CAN

IMPROVE PEOPLES LIVES
Since the beginning of behaviour modification research with humans in the
1950s, thousands of studies have established the effectiveness of behaviour
modification principles and procedures. Successful applications have been
documented with populations ranging from persons with profound
developmental disabilities to the highly intelligent, with the very young and the
very old. This section briefly reviews the different areas of application.

Table 1.3 briefly describes some of the major areas of application in which
behaviour modification has a solid foundation and a promising future.

Table 1.3: Major Areas in Which Behaviour Modification May be Applied

Major Areas Description

Parenting and child Behaviour modification techniques have been applied to more
management effectively help parents teach their children to walk, develop
initial language, provide effective toilet training, and so
on. Parents can also learn to use behaviour modification
procedures to help children overcome or decrease problem
behaviours, such as bedwetting, nail-biting, temper tantrums,
aggressive behaviours, bad manners, and others.

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Developmental People with developmental disabilities often have serious

disabilities behavioural deficits, and behaviour modification has been used
to teach a variety of functional skills to overcome such deficits,
such as helping autistic children who have difficulties relating
or communicating with other people.

In addition, people with developmental disabilities may also

exhibit serious problems such as self-injurious behaviours,
aggressive behaviours, and destructive behaviours. Behaviour
modification techniques can be applied to decrease these
behavioural excesses.
Classroom It has been well-documented that behaviour modification
management applications in classrooms have progressed on several fronts.
Many applications in school were designed to change students
behaviours that were disruptive to academic learning.

Examples of such behaviours include out-of-seat behaviour

and tantrums. Other applications include modifying reading
behaviour, improving handwriting, and many more.
Considerable success has also been seen in applications with
individuals with special problems such as learning difficulties
and hyperactivity.

Rehabilitation Rehabilitation is the process of helping people regain normal

functions after an injury or trauma, and very often, health
conditions or injuries may result in habitual ways of
performing daily routines at home or at work no longer
possible for the individual. New routines must be developed
and learned.

Behaviour modification techniques can be used in rehabilitation

to promote compliance with rehabilitation routines such as
attending physiotherapy sessions to help manage chronic pain
and to teach new skills that can replace skills lost through
injury or trauma.
Promotion of healthy An important area of behaviour modification involves the
living application of techniques to help people stay healthy such as
getting adequate exercise and eating well-balanced meals.
Behaviour modification procedures are used to promote health-
related behaviours by increasing healthy lifestyle behaviours,
e.g. exercise, and decreasing unhealthy behaviours, e.g.
smoking, drinking.

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Business, industry and Behaviour modification has been applied to improve the
human services performance of individuals and job safety in a wide variety of
organisational settings. It emphasises frequent feedback and
rewards for employees who show desirable behaviours.

The use of behaviour modification in business and industry has

resulted in increased productivity and profits of organisations
e.g. by reducing absenteeism and accidents on the job, and
increased job satisfaction of workers.

Clinical psychology Behaviour modification in clinical psychology is often known as

behaviour therapy. Psychological principles and procedures are
applied to the treatment of a wide range of personal and clinical
problems, such as anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive
disorders, stress-related problems, phobia, sexual dysfunction,
and marital problems. In some cases, behaviour therapy may be
combined with medical treatments for better outcomes.

Sports psychology Considerable research has examined behaviour modification

techniques for effectively improving athletes skills. Coaches
can use goal setting strategies and reinforcement strategies to
motivate athletes, and all these techniques are based on
principles used in behaviour modification. A number of
behavioural strategies have also been used to help athletes
better prepare for serious competition in sports.

ACTIVITY 1.3

Behaviour modification has been applied in many areas: parenting and child
management, classroom management, rehabilitation, just to name a few. In
addition to the areas discussed, briefly describe two areas in which behaviour
modification can be applied. Post your answers in myVLE.

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10 X TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION

Behaviour is defined as an individuals actions that have one or more

physical dimensions that can be observed, measured and recorded. A
behaviour may be overt or covert. It is lawful, and its occurrence has an
impact on the physical or social environment.

Behaviour modification is the field of psychology concerned with analysing

and modifying behaviour; therefore, its main focus is on behaviour.

Behaviour modification involves the systematic application of learning

principles and techniques to assess and improve individuals covert and
overt behaviours in order to help them function more fully in society.

The historical roots of behaviour modification can be found in the works of

Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, and B. F. Skinner.

Behaviour modification procedures have been applied successfully to all

aspects of human behaviour.

Applications Behavioural excess

Behaviour Environment
Behaviour modification Stimulus
Behavioural deficit

Chance, P. (2002). Learning and behaviour (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Martin, G., & Pear, J. (2003). Behaviour modification: What it is and how to do it
(7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Miltenberger, R. G. (2008). Behaviour modification: Principles and procedures

(4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

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