Escherichia coli

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?Escherichia coli

Status konservasi

Status konservasi: Aman

Klasifikasi ilmiah

Superdomain: Phylogenetica
Filum: Proteobacteria
Kelas: Gamma Proteobacteria
Ordo: Enterobacteriales
Famili: Enterobacteriaceae
Genus: Escherichia
Spesies: E. coli

Nama binomial

Escherichia coli
T. Escherich, 1885

Escherichia coli, atau biasa disingkat E. coli, adalah salah satu jenis spesiesutama bakteri gram negatif. Pada umumnya,

bakteri yang ditemukan oleh Theodor Escherich ini dapat ditemukan dalam usus besar manusia. Kebanyakan E. Coli tidak

berbahaya, tetapi beberapa, seperti E. Coli tipe O157:H7, dapat mengakibatkan keracunan makanan yang serius pada

manusia. E. Coli yang tidak berbahaya dapat menguntungkan manusia dengan memproduksi vitamin K2, atau dengan

mencegah baketi lain di dalam usus.

E. coli banyak digunakan dalam teknologi rekayasa genetika. Biasa digunakan sebagai vektor untuk menyisipkan gen-

gen tertentu yang diinginkan untuk dikembangkan. E. coli dipilih karena pertumbuhannya sangat cepat dan mudah dalam

penanganannya.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae
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Saccharomyces cerevisiae

S. cerevisiae under DIC microscopy

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Ascomycota

Subphylum: Saccharomycotina

Class: Saccharomycetes

Order: Saccharomycetales

Family: Saccharomycetaceae

Genus: Saccharomyces

Species: S. cerevisiae

Binomial name

Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Meyen ex E.C. Hansen

Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a species of budding yeast. It is perhaps the most useful yeast owing to its use since ancient

times in baking and brewing. It is believed that it was originally isolated from the skins of grapes (one can see the yeast as a

component of the thin white film on the skins of some dark-colored fruits such as plums; it exists among the waxes of

the cuticle). It is one of the most intensively studied eukaryotic model organisms in molecularand cell biology, much

like Escherichia coli as the model prokaryote. It is the microorganism behind the most common type

of fermentation. S. cerevisiaecells are round to ovoid, 5–10 micrometres in diameter. It reproduces by a division process

known as budding.

Many proteins important in human biology were first discovered by studying their homologs in yeast; these proteins

include cell cycle proteins, signaling proteins, and protein-processing enzymes. The petite mutation in S. cerevisiae is of

particular interest.

Antibodies against S. cerevisiae are found in 60–70% of patients with Crohn's disease and 10–15% of patients

with ulcerative colitis.

"Saccharomyces" derives from Latinized Greek and means "sugar mold" or "sugar fungus", saccharo- being the combining

form "sugar-" and myces being "fungus". cerevisiae comes from Latin and means "of beer". Other names for the organism

are:

 S. cerevisiae short form of the scientific name

 Brewer's yeast though other species are also used in brewing

 Ale yeast

 Top-fermenting yeast

 Baker's yeast

 Budding yeast

This species is also the main source of nutritional yeast and yeast extract.

 Contents

 [hide]

1 Biology

o 1.1 Life cycle

o 1.2 Nutritional requirements

o 1.3 Mating

o 1.4 Cell cycle

2 Yeast in biological research

o 2.1 A model organism

o 2.2 Genome sequencing

o 2.3 Other tools in yeast research

3 Yeast in commercial applications

o 3.1 Brewing

o 3.2 Uses in aquaria

4 See also

5 References

6 Line notes

7 External links

o 7.1 CO2 injection by yeast for

planted aquaria

[edit]Biology

[edit]Life cycle
There are two forms in which yeast cells can survive and grow: haploid and diploid. The haploid cells undergo a simple life

cycle of mitosis and growth, and under conditions of high stress will generally simply die. The diploid cells (the preferential

'form' of yeast) similarly undergo a simple life cycle of mitosis and growth, but under conditions of stress can undergo

sporulation, entering meiosis and producing a variety of haploid spores, which can proceed on to mate.

[edit]Nutritional requirements
All strains of S. cerevisiae can grow aerobically on glucose, maltose, and trehalose and fail to grow

on lactose and cellobiose. However, growth on other sugars is variable. It was shown that galactose and fructose were two of

the best fermenting sugars. The ability of yeasts to use different sugars can differ depending on whether they are grown

aerobically or anaerobically. Some strains cannot grow anaerobically on sucrose and trehalose.

All strains can utilize ammonia and urea as the sole nitrogen source, but cannot utilize nitrate since they lack the ability to

reduce them to ammonium ions. They can also utilize most amino acids, small peptides and nitrogen bases as a nitrogen
source. Histidine, glycine, cystine and lysine are, however, not readily utilized. S. cerevisiae does not excrete proteases so

extracellular protein cannot be metabolized.

Yeasts also have a requirement for phosphorus, which is assimilated as a dihydrogen phosphate ion, and sulfur, which can be

assimilated as a sulfate ion or as organic sulfur compounds like the amino acids methionine and cysteine. Some metals

like magnesium, iron, calcium, zinc also are required for good growth of the yeast.

[edit]Mating

Main article: Mating of yeast

Yeast has two mating types, a and α (alpha), which show primitive aspects of sex differentiation, and are hence of great

interest. For more information on the biological importance of these two cell types, where they come from (from a molecular

biology point of view), and details of the process of mating type switching, see Mating of yeast.

[edit]Cell cycle
Growth in yeast is synchronised with the growth of the bud, which reaches the size of the mature cell by the time it separates

from the parent cell. In rapidly growing yeast cultures, all the cells can be seen to have buds since bud formation occupies

the whole cell cycle. Both mother and daughter cell can initiate bud formation before cell separation has occurred. In yeast

cultures which are growing more slowly, cells lacking buds can be seen and bud formation only occupies a part of the cell

cycle. The cell cycle in yeast normally consists of the following stages—G1, S, G2 and M—which are the normal stages

of mitosis.

[edit]Yeast in biological research

[edit]A model organism

When researchers look for an organism to use in their studies, they look for several traits. Among these are size, generation

time, accessibility, manipulation, genetics, conservation of mechanisms, and potential economic benefit. The yeast species S.
pombe and S. cerevisiae are both well studied; these two species diverged approximately 300 to 600 million years before

present, and are significant tools in the study of DNA damage and repair mechanisms.[1]

The alpha-factor of S. cerevisiae, has been compared to the liphophilic peptide created by the fungus Tremella mesenterica.

[2]

S. cerevisiae has developed as a model organism because it scores favorably on a number of these criteria.

 As a single celled organism S. cerevisiae is small with a short generation time (doubling time 1.5–2 hours at 30

°C) and can be easily cultured. These are all positive characteristics in that they allow for the swift production and

maintenance of multiple specimen lines at low cost.

 S. cerevisiae can be transformed allowing for either the addition of new genes or deletion through homologous

recombination. Furthermore, The ability to grow S. cerevisiae as a haploid simplifies the creation of gene knockouts

strains.

 As a eukaryote, S. cerevisiae shares the complex internal cell structure of plants and animals without the high

percentage of non-coding DNA that can confound research in higher eukaryotes.

 S. cerevisiae research is a strong economic driver, at least initially, as a result of its established use in industry.

[edit]Genome sequencing
S. cerevisiae was the first eukaryotic genome that was completely sequenced.[3] The genome sequence was released in

the public domain on April 24, 1996. Since then, regular updates have been maintained at the Saccharomyces Genome

Database (SGD). This database is a highly annotated and cross-referenced database for yeast researchers. Another

important S. cerevisiae database is maintained by the Munich Information Center for Protein Sequences (MIPS). The

genome is composed of about 12,156,677 base pairs and 6,275 genes, compactly organized on 16 chromosomes. Only about

5,800 of these are believed to be true functional genes. It is estimated that yeast shares about 23% of its genome with that

of humans .

[edit]Other tools in yeast research

The availability of the S. cerevisiae genome sequence and the complete set of deletion mutants has further enhanced the

power of S. cerevisiae as a model for understanding the regulation of eukaryotic cells. A project underway to analyze the

genetic interactions of all double deletion mutants through synthetic genetic array analysis will take this research one step

further.

Approaches have been developed by yeast scientists which can be applied in many different fields of biological and

medicinal science. These include yeast two-hybrid for studying protein interactions and tetrad analysis.

[edit]Yeast in commercial applications

[edit]Brewing

Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used in brewing beer, when it is sometimes called a top-fermenting or top cropping yeast. It is

so called because during the fermentation process its hydrophobic surface causes the flocs to adhere to CO 2 and rise to the

top of the fermentation vessel. It is one of the major types of yeast used in the brewing of ale, along with Saccharomyces

pastorianus which is used in the brewing of lager. Top-fermenting yeasts are fermented at higher temperatures than lager

yeasts and the resulting ales have a different flavor than the same beverage fermented with a lager yeast. "Fruity esters" may

be formed if the ale yeast undergoes temperatures near 21 °C (70 ° Fahrenheit), or if the fermentation temperature of the

beverage fluctuates during the process. Lager yeast normally ferments at a temperature of approximately 5 °C (40

°Fahrenheit), where ale yeast becomes dormant. Lager yeast can be fermented at a higher temperature normally used for ale

yeast, and this application is often used in a beer style known as "steam beer".

[edit]Uses in aquaria
Owing to the high cost of commercial CO2 cylinder systems, CO2 injection by yeast is one of the most

popular DIY approaches followed by aquaculturists for providing CO2 to underwater aquatic plants. The yeast culture is

generally maintained in plastic bottles and typical systems provide one bubble every 3–7 seconds. Various approaches have

been devised to allow proper absorption of the gas into the water.
Staphylococcus aureus
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?Staphylococcus aureus

Klasifikasi ilmiah

Domain: Bacteria

Kerajaan: Eubacteria

Filum: Firmicutes

Kelas: Bacilli

Ordo: Bacillales

Famili: Staphylococcaceae

Genus: Staphylococcus

Spesies: S. aureus

Nama binomial

Staphylococcus aureus
Rosenbach 1884
Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) adalah bakteri gram positif yang menghasilkan pigmen kuning, bersifat aerob fakultatif,

tidak menghasilkanspora dan tidak motil, umumnya tumbuh berpasangan maupun berkelompok, dengan diameter sekitar

0,8-1,0 µm.[1][2] S. aureus tumbuh dengan optimum pada suhu 37oC dengan waktu pembelahan 0,47 jam. [3] S.

aureus merupakan mikroflora normal manusia[3]. Bakteri ini biasanya terdapat pada saluran pernafasan atas dan kulit [1][4].

Keberadaan S. aureus pada saluran pernafasan atas dan kulit pada individu jarang menyebabkan penyakit, individu sehat

biasanya hanya berperan sebagai karier [1]. Infeksi serius akan terjadi ketika resistensi inang melemah karena adanya

perubahan hormon; adanya penyakit, luka, atau perlakuan menggunakan steroid atau obat lain yang mempengaruhi imunitas

sehingga terjadi pelemahan inang[1].

Infeksi S. aureus diasosiasikan dengan beberapa kondisi patologi, diantaranya bisul, jerawat, pneumonia, meningitis,

dan arthritits[1]. Sebagian besar penyakit yang disebabkan oleh bakteri ini memproduksi nanah, oleh karena itu bakteri ini

disebut piogenik[1]. S. aureus juga menghasilkan katalase, yaitu enzim yang mengkonversi H2O2 menjadi H2O dan O2,

dan koagulase, enzim yang menyebabkan fibrin berkoagulasi dan menggumpal[1]. Koagulase diasosiasikan dengan

patogenitas karena penggumpalan fibrin yang disebabkan oleh enzim ini terakumulasi di sekitar bakteri sehingga agen

pelindung inang kesulitan mencapai bakteri dan fagositosis terhambat[1].

Daftar isi

 [sembunyikan]

1 Mikrobiologi

o 1.1 Quorum Sensing

2 Faktor Virulensi

o 2.1 Koagulase

o 2.2 Protein A

o 2.3 Eksotoksin sitolitik

o 2.4 Enterotoksin

o 2.5 Leukocidin

o 2.6 Exfoliatin

3 Resistensi

o 3.1 Resisten penisilin

o 3.2 Resisten Metisilin (Methicillin-resistant S.

aureus/MRSA)

4 Kontrol

5 Lihat Pula

6 Referensi

[sunting]Mikrobiologi

S. aureus termasuk bakteri osmotoleran, yaitu bakteri yang dapat hidup di lingkungan dengan rentang konsentrasi zat terlarut

(contohnya garam) yang luas, dan dapat hidup pada konsentrasi NaCl sekitar 3 Molar.[3] Habitat alami S aureus pada
manusia adalah di daerah kulit, hidung, mulut, dan usus besar, di mana pada keadaan sistem imun normal, S. aureus tidak

bersifat patogen (mikroflora normal manusia).[3]

[sunting]Quorum Sensing
S. aureus memiliki kemampuan Quorum sensing menggunakan sinyal oligopeptida untuk memproduksi toksin dan

faktor virulensi .[3]

[sunting]Faktor Virulensi

[sunting]Koagulase

S. aureus produksi enzim koagulase yang berfungsi unuk menggumpalkan firinogen di dalam plasma darah sehingga S.

aureus terlindung dari fagositosis dan respon imun lain dari inang. [3]

[sunting]Protein A
Letak protein A ada pada dinding sel S. aureus dan dapat mengganggu sistem imun inang dengan

mengikat antibodi immunoglobin G (IgG).[3]

[sunting]Eksotoksin sitolitik
α-toksin, β-toksin, γ-toksin, dan δ-toksin menyerang membran sel mamalia [2]. α-toksin, β-toksin, dan δ-toksin dapat

menyebabkan hemolisis[1]. δ-toksin juga menyebabkan leukolisis sel inang[1]. Sementara itu, γ-toksin menyebabkan

terbunuhnya sel inang[1].

[sunting]Enterotoksin

Enterotoksin menyebabkan keracunan makanan[2]. Enterotoksin merupakan superantigen yang lebih stabil pada suhu panas

jika dibandingkan dengan S. aureus[2]. enterotoksin (A, B, C, D, dan E) menginduksi diare, muntah dan shock [1].

[sunting]Leukocidin

Toksin ini memusnahkan leukosit sel inang[1].

[sunting]Exfoliatin

Exfoliatin termasuk dalam superantigen juga, menyebabkan sindrom kulit melepuh pada anak-anak [2].

[sunting]Resistensi

[sunting]Resisten penisilin
Hampir semua isolat S. aureus resisten terhadap penisilin G[2]. Hal ini disebabkan oleh keberadaan enzim β-laktamase yang

dapat merusak struktur β-laktam pada penisilin[2]. Untuk mengatasi hal ini, dapat digunakan penisilin yang bersifat resisten

β-laktamase, contohnya nafcillin atau oksasilin[2].

[sunting]Resisten Metisilin (Methicillin-resistant S. aureus/MRSA)

Sebagian isolat S. aureus resisten terhadap methisilin karena adanya modifikasi protein pengikat penisilin[2]. Protein ini

mengkode peptidoglikan transpeptidase baru yang mempunyai afinitas rendah terhadap antibiotic β-laktam, sehingga terapi

β-laktam tidak responsif[2]. Salah satu contoh antibiotik yang digunakan terhadap MRSA adalah vankomisin[5]
[sunting]Kontrol

Tidak ada vaksin yang efektif terhadap S. aureus[2]. Kontrol infeksi lebih ditujukan pada tindakan menjaga kebersihan,

contohnya mencuci tangan[2].

[sunting]Lihat Pula