Music Notation in the ‘Twentieth Century A Practical Guidebook by KURT STONEMusic Notation in the Twentieth Century A Practical Guidebook by KURT STONE W. W. NORTON & COMPANY New York * LondonContents ———————————————————————— Preface sit Iniroduction ” Acknowledgments a Part One: Basie Procedures 1 1. General Conventions 2 somevisvons AND seimots 3 wwoex umes 30 iaecoo 3 orev 30 renouanon 4 TLACEnaNT OF Dans AND OTHER tonnes 6 reat motearons JP tous 9 werate praise 16 Rmmomins 35 uses 19 store ono cuscevores 21 rsinclnownolonearine 38 wonowraLues 22 seems, roumons, sx sans wesrwvonons. 28 ‘ocettaneoun) 4 feoounrora vans son 47 2 “name cosaacrensnecs 26 iy Pte 2 ecewrns 33 vacrorones 67 cums 36 aneroamons 71 cusens 57 Tatfranonolveto 74 cusmwoos 68 Tunis AnD amu TevoUos 73 asics 65 tens 7 manefiowasr sore) 65 Crore nOTES PLACEMENT 79 InoeemraTe on APHOxMATE wouohow vaesTo. 60 rciee 66 wtviii MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY IIL. Duration and Rhythm: Preliminary Survey 8i maratony Nore 81 reamine 110 uvrunic THEN 14 PRACTICAL EXAMPLES 115 NOTATIONAL coNséiENCES &2 IV. Duration and Rhythm: Individual Items 123 BEAMED ACCELERANDO AND nests 1 RITARDANDO 124 SPRTIAL OR PROPORTIONAL norte Nores. 125 oration 136 DDURATIONAL EQUIVALENTS. 127 ‘rewroinoicarions 145 PEAMATAS, COMMAS, AND DOURLE mies 146 STHOKES 128 “TIME SIGNATURES (METER). 146 newors 129 ‘tReMo10s. 147, REGULAR NOTE DIviioNS 129 V. Indeterminate Events 152 AvTenwarive events 152 INDETERMINATE REPEATS. 154 cores. 153 VIL Scores and Parts 158 Cconpuctor's sions 158 EMEARSAL LETTERS/REHEARSAL curs 160 NMNERSMEASURE NUMBERS 168 ‘oxour stens 162 scone serurs. 170 PARTS MISCELLANEOUS DETAILS 162 soLaltutTt INDICATIONS. 175 PARTS: DIVISI(TWO OR MORE PARTS ON A TIME SIGNATURES: LACEMENT 177, Sivote star®) 164 Part Two: Specific Notation 185 VIL. Wind Instruments: General Topics 186 AMSOUND OR BREATH SOUND 186 HUMMING WHILE PLAYING 188 senDWWc THe rrcH 187 onoua 188 rLurrer ToxouE 188 LvertenED souNos. 190 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS ix (01d woodwinds 191 Pa ce 1% Bases = ie enema Saas as SaaS ee ee X. Percussion 2s PICTOGRAMS. 205 ricroceaMs” 210 AANGES OF PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS ‘watn perovte ren 213 AMD MINED ENSEMBLES. 275 ‘GENERAL raacrices 2/9 FECTS AND TECHNIQUES 221 PRELIMINARY REMARKS 228 ABrEccio/NOn anpeacio 228 enone THE HrcH 229 GLIANDO (WHISPERING). 229 ccuusrens 231 DPAMFINGMUFFLING (EroUFFER) 231 ceRNAlL wuze 235 FINGERNAIL PLUCKING 295 foussanvos 236 MALE FEDAL. 239) mansonics 239 {AISSeR VioRER (L.): LEY vinnate. 240 226 sunina 240 PEDAL Noise 242 EDA supe 243 Peat rm 243 mapas 244 InpIcaTions 246 ruscrnum 246 manok 246 SCORDATURA (ABNORMAL TUNING) 245 star nzzcato 247 SOUNDING BOARD 2484X) MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY ‘TUNING-REY SLIDES. 25/ oan 248 Etre a ed nue 29 Torrren osc stems) 250 ymin SOUNDS GEENA. aanoue, 290 med) mas 237 See eee TL (marine rw Tmo Sees (CAL Yiano 257 SSuRiGes AnD aanuines 257 * repats 269) SILENT DEPRESSION OF KEYS 272 STACCATO REVERHERATIONS 272 ccuustens 259 ‘cRossING OF nanos 260 naRwowes 261 ‘TIED NOTES FROM ONE HAND 10 THE TWSIDE THE PANO 262 ‘omuen 273, XIII, Organ 24 RACES AND aantines 274 rwoats 278 cuustens 274 rneorstearion 278 ‘KEYS (HELD AND RELEASED) 274 stors 279 mawuats 277 XIV. Keyboard Reductions 281 ‘cHorat scones 281 ‘ORCHESTRA scones. 289 XV. Voice 292 Asrearion 292 ‘BEAMS VERSUS FLAGS. 203 rauserro 299 Fuurtex roncue 293 Nouri rostrions 295 NASAL voice 296 Puowenics 296 ronraMento. 296 chest NOTE/LOWeST Nore 294 suuns. 296 IRMALE/ENHALE. 295° SPRECHESANG, SPRECHSTINME, INTERPRETIVE MARKINGS (ARTICULATION, SPOKEN 297, DYNAMICS, EXPRESSION MARKS) 295 TEXT PLACEMENT UNDER THE MUSIC. 299) Wi TABLE OF CONTENTS xi ext resenrarion 200 wimearo(non vienaro. 304 reso.0s 30! wwusreninc 304 UwvoIceD ocAL EFFECTS. 305 Bowed String Instruments 306; PRELIMINARY NOTE 305 FINGERING WITHOUT sowING JIT Annseviations 107 rvceevatt Fuck 317 ‘00Y oF wNstRUMENT 307 isemonacs_311 sarc 3208 Gueeped cons 309 nunicato 322 DaMMNG €rourrER) 310 starensa rie staines 315 ounce stors 370 aitniece 315 XVII. Taped (Prerecorded) Sound 316 ucraome NOTATION 316 ‘conTvouS veRsUs INTERRUPTED (CUNG OF TAFED SOUNDS. 317 tare 320 Appendix I; Neumatic Notation (Plainchant or Gregorian Chant) and Later Developments 32 Appendix Il: The History and Operation of the Index of New ‘Musical Notation and the International Conference on New Musical Notation 332 Appendix I: Facsimile Reproductions 341 Bibliography 33 Index HSPreface ‘When composers of serious music, inthe early 1950s, began to explore areas far beyond all traditional concepts, conventional notation soon proved insufficient for dealing adequately with the new musical techniques and philosophies. The invention of new notational signs and procedures thus became imperative. ‘As the musical experiments and innovations continued and spread, new nota- tional devices proliferated. Moreover, experiments conducted simultaneously in different parts of the world often brought forth identical signs for different ef- fects, and vice versa After two decades ofthis disconcerting and ever-increasing deluge of new no- tation, invariably accompanied by endless explanations and more or less idiosyn- cratic instructions, communications from composer to performer had become seriously impaired. It seemed the righ time to take stock, examine the new in- ventions for clarity and efficiency in practical use, select the devices that ap- peared most universally satisfactory, eliminate duplications, and codify the results in a practical guidebook, In 1970, I proposed this plan to a number of individuals and organizations. AS result, the /ndex of New Musical Notation was established, under my direction, Jn the Music Division of the Library ofthe Performing Arts at Lincoln Center, [New York, (For details, see the Inroduction and Appendix 2,) ‘The Index project was funded by the Rockefeller Foundation (with the New ‘York Public Library as sponsoring organization) and later also by the Ford Foun- dation (with the Music Library Association as sponsor). ‘The resulting efforts culminated in an Intemational Conference on New Musi- cal Notation, organized jointly by the Index project and the University of Ghent, Belgium. At the conference, which was held in Ghent in 1974, eighty profes. sional musicians, composers, music editors, and musicologsts from seventeen counties seruinized and discussed close to 400 selected nolational signs and procedures presented by the Index project, and then voted on them, The present book contains, as its nucleus, all those devices endorsed or recommended a that conference, along with a comprehensive, integrated presentation of traditional ‘notation, based on more than thirty years of editorial experience in the field, ‘Thus, virally the entre arsenal of notation, old and new of serious music in the twentieth century is covered by this guidebook.Introduction re New Music and New Notation [New notation has never been generated exclusively by new musical ideas. New ideas are an integral part of composed music, at least in Wester civilization, and ‘notational procedures have generally been sufficiently adaptable to cope wit them, Only a fundamental break with established musical aesthetics and philosophies can bring about a commensurate notational change, and sich profound upheavals hhave occurred extremely rarely. In fact, there have been only thre in all of West xm music history ‘The first of these basic reorientations was the momentous shift from monody ‘o polyphony around 4.0. 900. The notational consequences were epochal: the vagueness of neumatic pitch notation was rendered obsolete and was replaced with the intervallic precision of staff notation. And perhaps even more important, the specificity of durations was introduced: mensural notation. Both of these in- novations have remained indispensable elements of music notation ever since Centuries went by during which the linear predominance of early polyphony eradually saw itself challenged by emerging vertical phenomena: chords and chord progressions. During the fileenth and sixteenth centuries, a perfect bal- ance of the horizontal and vertical forces was achieved; but around the year 1600, chordal harmony took on a life ofits own by becoming an independent functional force capable of dominating the linear elements that had previously reigned supreme. [Now the traditional partooks, being purely linear, were no longer appropri= ate, since they failed to capture the essence ofthe new music, the harmonic func- tions. Thus the second major notational change came about: partbooks were superseded by score notation because a score, showing all parts underneath each ‘other, enables the reader (0 follow not only the horizontal (melodic, linear) aspects of a given composition, but als the vertical (harmonic) ones. Inthe 1950s the third stylistic upheaval began to erupt, an upheaval which de- veloped in two sharply contrasting directions. One ofthese was characterized by ‘an unprecedented increase in precision of every conceivable component of musical texture, with particular emphasis on formerly subsidiary elements such 1s dynamics, timbre, pitch inflections (microtones), location of sound sources,avi MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 2 0 fr, Ths lo wen a pod the watoa ae as, en Siperstng the conventional geometic poprssion ot Ie, 4,8 lr 32, sth tbe ahmetial 12,2643. Neen to sy, etna otto PcG tn ah sen as oh, a ches tga ot ps poet ari clparin plese opt The ahr sisi ten ejeced precision. nse, inated diese srigany eying dois of indtranacy, chr betwen aerate prove, an the ullaaton of exracous, unde sods ad ici Snot. Al eerie tal ne gotaton, event the bene of Secieds ohh st emeteue sepals, ts eer “Sapte Sain tec eh wee ee Ponce ome nee bos Som by drawing eal on the perfor conve inaginaton a gem ity, Nataly tend wet ony eld for new neta sigs a fora = tly new ade owed wean ech, Fete On secinn tomcat Dares oi Sach te 98 toy sever oun of Asi embraced te new sal ends and setts, tis tot auping hat estan, 0, war nen everywhere th rent san don, Ata est, msians were som engl inca dlge of wana die, eveadicino, wd gnnrd cof, ‘Afr abotra decade of hie mac rlfraton, serps wee ma 1 - rave the notational maze by calecting. deciing, an egg the new “The most comprehensive of these efforts was Erhard Karkoschka's Das Schnbidde neuen tk (Cel, 1968 Engh sition —Notaronn New ‘Musie~London and New York, 1972) Here ed the ajo attempt 0 Geni gu tears cles Be weg ite ponent ‘cation mn tc ovine oe vous spate, cy (cr detente vogenes and efcecy. an exch sgn emctesonly doce peter axing hy ‘Otter alec tllrned: The net exeaive Aman ont is Howard satis New Muse Voeaary (1975, Univesity of ints Pest) and the [Sonu weponlees, 20h Cont Moesion 65 Coen ea “AN of hus wenn Ee om one stor any me, ba Oy hon ag ince share acormentiinn ny eal the peo opinion ofthe spective authors The genet bolic Notation nthe Twentieth Centers oq in Foro 1 is ot collesion, bat compendium of slo 2 tne een dt sept fa ean, Wats ‘ats of search doe by Index ef New Masel Neon eat scanty warn nt i wt 92 ae INTRODUCTION xiii project) followed by the deliberations and decisions of the International Conference on New Musical Notation (Ghent, Belgium, 1974); 3. it does not teat new notation as a phenomenon apart from traditional ‘procedures, but integrates it nto the total notational vocabulary ofall ser ‘ous music writen in the twentieth century, ‘The Index of New Musical Notation and the International Conference on New Musical Notation Inthe early 1950s, when the first published examples of new musical notation ar- rived from Europe, the author was chief editor of Associated Music Publishers, Inc., New York, then the foremost American importer of European music, The names of the new composers were still quite unfamiliar, but soon they were to ‘dominate the field: for example, Luciano Berio, Pietre Boulez, Sylvano Bussott, Roman Haubenstock-Ramati, Karlheinz Stockhausen. Shorty thereafter, similar ‘American efforts appeared, mainly in the works of Earle Brown* and Joh. Cage. ‘The author became interested in these unprecedented manifestations, studied {and compared them, attended countless rehearsals and performances to find out how they worked in actual practice, and eventually began to lecture and write about new notational developments, ‘Writing and lecturing, however, were only one side of the coin, A much less entertaining aspect was thatthe new notational deluge proved tobe a serious hin- uratinal Eauivalences 1. Herel Loca of Somers see pore 127 nd Brent 2 dynamics 16 Leger Lines 30 Dyes BolnreDymamic Leet 1 SIs ema DMRS 17 Note-Heads 30 Level ofPromnence of Musical &- Shapes 30 Horie 176. Uses of Different Shapes u >. Mente rf "Note Sie Dynamics 18 Placement of Dynamics and SubnoChongesofyamicLevels 19 Other Verbal Indications 31 GENERAL CONVENTIONS 4. Dyas 31.5 TheDifer Meanings of Sars 38 1 Tempo fees 2 The Nunn ofr ond Yee 38 Pla ncn 2 Placement of Rests Spacings, Positions, and Sizes Eyeab (Miscellaneous) “ ‘Opening Mesures (Troma Repeats 33” Neon “ 1 Repeted Atco (Simi) “33m Clef Changes “s * Roped Chore 3) G tite ste Changes ‘ Cope Meares 3 0. Mhe al ou Line “ 0. Repsed Pars of Meares 44 Aten, ts Rope Secon Sh Nts and Ree PH Running Heads i ee ew Stems 47 ‘Slurs and Ties: Stn Lenth ° Phrasing/Bowing/Brewhing 35. Stem Drco o Abbreviations and Symbols All abbreviations included in this book appear in the pertinent sections. For other abbreviations, current musi dictionaries should be consulted (see Bibliography). “Most abbreviations suggested inthis guide were chosen according tothe fol lowing criteria: If possible, the abbreviation should be applicable to several major languages, such an. = niente (Italian), nothing (English), or nichts (German, ‘The abbreviation must not be misleading from languoge to language. For sample, the abbreviation of an English term must not be similar tothe abbrevi tion of a word with a different meaning in another major language. Thus, the ab- breviations Tromb. or Trb, for Trombone might confuse Ttalian musicians because they could mean Tromba, Less ambiguous choices, therefore, are Ton and Trbn., which also serve (though pehaps not ideally) {0 convey the Italian ‘and French terms. Similarly, Cor. for Cornet is too close to the French Cor and the Haan Corno, AS a result, Cr. was chosen for the English term Comet, and While it may not immediately convey Kornett toa German, it will not indicate a ferent instrument either. Arpeggio A. Arpesaio Sign ‘An ordinary arpeggio sign is generally taken to meant4° MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY rolled upward, and thatthe arpeggio begins before the beat, with its last note fall: inte If the arpeggio is to begin on the beat peggio must be written out is must be indicated verbally, the at B. Direction If precise directional indications are desied, arrowheads should be added at the top or botiom, respectively, ofthe arpeggio sign: 18 If rapid successions of up and down rolls are wanted (for example, in guit harp musi), the following arpeggio sign should be used ©. Rhythm. ‘Slow arpeggios and arpeggios in rhythmic patterns must be written out D. Speed ‘Arpegatos with increasing or decreasing speed are best notated with ac: celerando or ritardando bes E. Non Arpeagio If individual arpeggio signs are replaced by the instruction sempre arpegsio, 1 vertical square bracket or the instruction non arpeggio must be used when the chords or intervals are to be played together again: sempre ave nom arpeealo Articulation ‘The traditional signs of articulation are imprecise and progress abruply, whether from slight to heavy accents or from staccatssimo to molto tenuto, Yet none of the numerous proposals for improvement have found wide enough acceptance so far to warrant endorsement. Traditional signs remain the most frequently em- ployed and most universally understood, except for afew additions from Schoen- bera’s Suite for Piano, Op. 25, and other sources, intended to fill the gaps in the traditional succession GENERAL CONVENTIONS 5 light staccato (for stacatssimo, use Jf the staccato dot and the indication stacatssimo or saccatiss.) hard, heavy staccato (sometimes accented tenuto {ft Gitano marae) ere ie eee ym if Reeaseed it ie f atta Jf sare rere “The proper positions of these sign inside or outside the staff are governed by ‘certain conventions. ‘The following signs should always appear outside the staff (except the tenuto lines): 2 GIA ee tee “The following signs depend on the note-heads or stem-ends forthe postions inside of outside the staff:5. MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Staccato dots are one or 1% spaces from the center of the note-head, depend- ing on whether the note-head isin a space or on a line, For note-heads outside the staff, the staccato dots should never be closer than one full staf-space from the Senter of the note-head “Tenuto lines are spaced like staccato dots, and in combinations of tenuto lines snd staccato dots (non legato) the distance between the dot (which is closest (0 he note-head) and the line is one staff-space. ‘In double-stemmed notation, staccato dots and tenuto lines should appear as shown: F ? ‘Although accents are usually placed outside the staff tere are situations when itis necessary or desirable o place an accent inside the staff, in which case it should appear in a space rather than on a Tine and should never be closer tothe note-head than a fourth: ae ae ‘Aniculation signs on whole notes are centered above or below the note(s), as if the notes had stems: 4 see Slurs and Ties in ‘Antculation signs in combination with slurs and ts ‘Combination with Articulation Signs, page 42 ff. ‘Embouchure and tonguing indications: see Woodwinds and Brasses, pages 192 and 204, Phasing: see Slur and Ties: Phrasing/Bowing/Breathing, page 35 ff See also the listings of the various instruments and voice for specific effects and their notation Barlines |A. In Music for Individual Instruments Harp: the baslnes connect both staves, (Organ: the bartines connect only the manual staves; the pedal staff is barred separately, except atthe beginning of each line; there, the curved brace covers the two manual staves only, while te straight line that follows must always con- rect all three. (See also page 274.) Piano; the barlines connect both staves. If more than two staves are needed, ‘may be advantageous to bar the right- and left-hand staves separately, the musi cal texture permitting, (This does not, however, affect the brace atthe beginning GENERAL CONVENTIONS. 7 ‘of each line: while each ofthe two hands might have its own curved brace, the straight line that follows must always connect ll staves.) (See also page 257 1.) (One-staff instruments and voice: added staff-lines for unpitched or unvoiced effects should have short barlines not connected tothe barlines of the pitched staff, except at the beginning ofthe line. Percussion: Most individual percussion instruments, from snare drum 10 ‘marimba, will tone or another of the situation listed above. B. In Chamber and Choral Scores ‘One solo (instrument or voice) with accompaniment; the solo staff should be barred separately ‘More than one solo with accompaniment: each solo staff should be barred sep rately ‘Duos, trios, quartets, etc., consisting of instruments notated on single staves (uch a8 string quartets or woodwind quintets) all staves should be barred together In cases ofa single nonfamily member (clarinet quintet, for example) the nonmember generally is bared separately. If piano or ether two-staffin- srument is inchided (e.g., @ piano tro), it must be barred separately. In such ‘eases the other instruments are often barred separately too. Vocal or choral ensembles: each staff must be barred separately, although choral music is occasionally bared together when condensed onto two staff-lines Gee ** below). Percussion: since percussion groups change from piece to piece, the only gen- ‘eral suggestion one can advance is to keep in mind the procedures listed above ‘when deciding how to handle single-line, single-staff, and two-staff instruments, ‘whether singly or in groups. Its generally not advisable to bar different kinds of percussion instruments, notated on separate lines, together. (For a more detailed discussion, see Percussion, page 215 ff.) G._ In Orchestra and Band Scores Instrumental families should be barred together as follows: (Orchestra scores: woodwinds; basses; percussion;*harp(s); Keyboards) each harp andior keyboard instrument separately); instrumental solos);** vocal solo(¢); chorus;** strings (see sample score on page 171). Band scores: flutes and double reeds; clarinets; saxophones; basses (some- times subdivided string bass; percussion* (see sample score on page 174), “ihre is pret el of percussion, shoul be sbi into pitched tal nue instrament ‘nd tnpthed nes (ose generally ned on single nes), ed the tines should show sch [rwpings. (Sento Feestion, Score Order page 21810) Vocal par an istumentl sols ae bared separately If te fil soe ices x chars, itis {at (ne mie texte pening) 10 conenee tra two nes and fo bar te wo save together requis of the bern: pow erterece wih ee Such an arargement makes (te wal ple clearer forte cond8 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY an Some contemporary scores contain relatively large numbers of unconven: tional instruments of are structured according to principles that ignore or contra ict conventional concepts. These must, of course, be barred according to such ‘unconventional instrumentations or ideas, but in general itis bes, if for none other than practical reasons, to adhere to Conventional setups D. Vertical Alignment of Barlines ‘An exact vertical alignment ofthe barlines in single-line parts and, to a lesser degree, indouble- and triple-saff music (piano, harp, organ, etc.) can be confus ing to performers, especially in relatively uniform-looking music. Its therefore ‘advisable to creat, if necessary, very slight irregularities inthe horizontal spac: ing of the music so thatthe bartines will not fall directly above or below one another: Poor alignment—barlines coincide E, Dotted Barlines Dotted batlines,: or { are used for subdividing complicated meters, such as: fd) i OTE dL Ol and in new editions of old music to distinguish between the original barlines, (solid lines) and those added by the editor (dotted lines). F. Double Barlines (two regular barlines) 1. AT METER CHANGES. Th the past, meter changes occurred so rarely that double barnes were placed before each new time signature to alert the performer. With the increase in meter changes in more recent music, this practice has largely been abandoned, and double barlines should no longer be used at meter changes. GENERAL CONVENTIONS 9 2. AT TeMPO CHANGES Double barlines should be used at tempo changes unless such changes occur very frequently, in which case double barlines should be used only at structurally significant divisions, 3. OTHER uses Double barlines should be used chiefly between major sections of a move- ment, e., before and after a tio section, between variations, etc G. Final Barlines (one regular and one heavy batline) “These appear at the end of a composition or movement. H Repeat Bars (Gnal balines with repeat dots) See Repeated Sections, page 34 f, Beams A. Beam Thickness The thickness of abeam should be equal to half a staff-space, This is important because a musician's eye is s0 accustomed to this thickness (due to more than 100 years of standardized engravers” tools that the slightest variation can inhibit Perception. (Most musicians are not even aware ofthese minute varitions; they react subconsciously.) There can be circumstances, however, which make it esirable or even necessary to reduce (never increase!) the thickness of the ‘beams, as explained inthe following paragraph. B. Space between Beams ‘When two or more beams are used, the engravers’ rule is that the space be- tween beams should be a quarter of a staff-space (see the ist example below). In hhand-drawn (autographed) music, there is always a danger that such narrow spaces may fil in. Some autographers therefore widen the space to half a staff- space, but this is not a good solution because the beams then take up too much ly in groups of three oF more (see the second example). ‘The best compromise is to reduce the thickness ofthe beams slightly (see third ‘example) and adhere tothe engravers" rule: Good Poor Aceplbe compromise Beam Positions inthe Staff 1. WORIZONTAL. BEAMS 4. SINGLE BEAMS In upstemmed groups, the beam either hangs from a line or straddles it, ex-10 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY ‘cept when the notes are inthe second space, in which ease the beam lies on the top line (see *): In downstemmed groups, the beam either lies on top ofa fine or stradlles| ‘except when the notes are inthe third space, in which case the beam hangs fro the bottom line (see *): TI ~ sedge tine In the last pair of notes (**), the beam straddles an imaginary leer line Beams should never be centered between two staf-lines, since the very harrow spaces remaining between the beam and the stafflines are almost sue t¢ ane Incorrect 1. TWO OR MORE BEAMS ‘The rules for single-beam pesitions given above also apply to double and ‘multiple beams: the ouside (primary) beam either hangs from a staff-line (up- stems), lies on a line (downstems), or straddles a line (ether stem direction). ‘The inner (secondary) beam(s) are governed by the position of the primary gm ie ‘Concerning the lengths of stems, see page 47 f 2. SLANTING BEAMS 4. SINGLE BEAMS ‘The engravers’ rules forthe proper slanting angles of beams are too complex to permit inclusion in this list of general guidelines. A widely followed com promise is to use horizontal beams most of the time, and to slant the beams only for wide skips, broken chords, and similar exteme eases. Even in these lauer siwations, however, the beams should slant as litle as possible—not more than one staff-space—and they should slat around a staf-line ‘Fo eile information Gncudng. for example, charts with close to 30 iferentwo- ste ingle {am sans ame!) ee The At of hak Engraving and Processing by Ted Ros, pes 1081 GENERAL CONVENTIONS I =F caer nan from one line 1 another = EE, The reason for woid- ing inertia is that they form arow ingles or wees between the team andthe saline (ee Ft example below). which ae Hkly foil in (eee exmniphe bow, ig “ef Ewe Line-toline slants The wedges filled in Note also the differences between manuscript and engravers’ slants: Manuscript slants Engravers slams te ‘When the notes move along an iregular path, the beam should slant according to the general tend of the notes (but ata shallower angle) or not slant at al tip - Se fh, nounLe BEAMS (TO wEAMS) ‘The above also applies to double beams, especially the caveat that the space between the two slanting beams should not cross a staff-line: Correct Incorrect Unlike the situation for horizontal beams, the spaces between three or more slanting beams are generally widened to half a staff-space to avoid wedges: #225 00 BEEE Correct Incorrect12) Music NOTATION IN TH TWENTIETH CENTURY If such slanting beams occur outside the staff, normal spacing (i... one quarter ofa staff-space between beams) is used: ae J. FRACTIONAL BEAMS Fractional beams are used for the individual shorter notes within a beamed ‘group. They should be as long asthe note-head is wide and must point toward the ote of which they area fraction, usually a dotted note: 4 = = In cases of syncopation, fractional beams must point inthe direction of the syn ™ ST pl8 7B (8 TH) Incorrect, This lst parenthetical notation i wrong inj because the inconecty paced fs factional beam suguet tha the snteenth shyt grouped th he preceding eighh, whereas its not would be conet if the tine signature were binary (f) sole anol For details of proper hythmic beaming, see Duration and Rhythm, page 110 ff. For stem directions in beamed groups, see Stems, page 50, D. Beams in Two-Staff Notation In two-staff notation the notes of a beamed group may be placed inthe upper and lower staf, withthe beam between the staves. |. IDENTICAL TIME-VALUES THROUGHOUT THE BEAMED GROUP GENERAL CONVENTIONS 13 There seems to be no rule concerning the horizontal spacing of the note- hheads versus that of the stems. The best procedure is to arrive by eye at @ jicious compromise or disregard stem spacing altogether. 2. DIFFERENT TIME-VALUES Shorter time-valiues naturally necessitate additional beams, These should be placed above or below the basic beamis), depending on whether the note-head of the fist shorter time-value points up or down. Since this notation is sometimes rather complex, the following step-by-step procedure is suggested: ‘The rhythm to be notated is 79, ie, along note followed by shorter ones (in this ease two), Step 1: write the notes and draw only the basic or primary beam: ayy Step 2: add the additional beam above or below the basic beam on the note- head sid of the first shorter value: ayy I Step 2 is not followed, beam comers (see circles) result, which should OT pt ty th tt Ifa beamed group begins with short notes which ae followed by longer ones, the rules become more elusive,* but one consideration persists—if possible, beam corners should be avoided, as follows: a & fe Aided beam ed beam ym corners are enctl cea ces (eeu cele) Correct Incorrect * Unite the complex rales of bem sas, one fade pracy 0 directions on these beaming ‘ote in English argge manual14 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY a eae ee hy nea eer ea a ‘ 5 oe = ‘fr Oe . * ia 2 Correct Incorrect (The arrows show the beam corners.) ily oly OH ile, ribet 3. METRIC DIVISIONS OR EAT-UNITS IN GROUPS OF SIXTEENTH NOTES ‘These are indicated by interrupting the second beam wherever the metric division occurs, When the second beam retuens, the note-head position of the frst note determines whether the beam should be drawn above or below the basic ‘beam (i... the one which continues throughout the group) caer ee ee 4. METRIC DIVISIONS OR BEAT-UNITS IN GROUPS OF THREE OR MORE BEAMS ‘The basic beam(s) must be either on the top or bottom, rather than in the ‘middle, in order to avoid beam corners: = tl 10 divion connect sonneting “rong (eam cox bi double bea SHS aca esti (For beaming in vocal music, see Voice, Beams versus Flags, page 293.) A more detailed discussion of metrie/chythmic beaming will be found in Duration and Rhythm, Beaming, page 110 ff GENERAL CONVENTIONS 15, E. Extended and Bridging Beams 1. SIMPLE BEAM EXTENSIONS AND mRIDGES In music of metsicitythmic complexity itis helpful to notae syncopated en- trances (phrases beginning off the beat, of notes in off-beat position) by extend ing the beams) leftward tothe nearest beat Similarly, ifthe beat-unit ends tended tothe ight: __3. th one or more ress, the beam(s) should be ex 7 Finally, the heam(s) should bridge ests appearing within a beat nit ‘an. The rests as well asthe beams may have tobe adjusted slightly up or down {o prevent them from touching each other 2. BEAM EXTENSIONS AND BRIDGES WITH STEMLETS Everything suggested above can be notated even more clearly by adding very short stems (stemlets) to the beam extensions or bridges wherever they cover rests, paSsr "Note that rests or beams may have tobe raised or lowered even more than in ‘notation without stemiets, to assure suficent space between rests and stemles Note also that the frst group ofthe second measure of this example can not be ‘notated without stemlets, because this would result in unatached second beams, hich isnot considered proper notation: =F = (The following notation, allt often employed, should not be used, since it ‘obs the beam ofits proper function of indicating time-values: Z[.) ‘The positioning of resis and the shortness of the stemlts are of particular im- portance in eighth rests, because their "buttons," especialy if hand-drawn and16, MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY slighty enlarged, may at frst glance look Hike note-heads if they touch the stems: SBR SPE teiehihret “baton” to aa SF tere and stem wo tone) Comet Incorrect Stems in most notation 3. SINGLE NoTES A single note, especially if it occurs as the fist or last note in a eatunit, is often writen traditionally, ie., with lag(s), rather than with extended beams): eS might be more sensible, however, not to make such exceptions, and to use ex tended beams in all instances, as shown in the following notation of the above Extended and bridging beams should either be used consistently throughout a ‘composition, or not at all. Mixtures of extended and unextended beaming usually lead to confusion. For the use of beams in thythmicaly complex textures (polymetric, polyrhyth- ‘mic, and aperiodic music, et.) see Duration and Rhythm, Beaming, page 110 ff Dyna ‘A. Dynamic Balance/ Dynamic Levels In the last few decades, composers have striven for greater precision in dy- namics, Among the numerous experiments, two major directions are discernible: J. ARSoLUTE DywAMacs [Numerals indicating precise decibel levels replace the vague traditional indica tions. Often these numerals denote twelve different, equidistant levels, 2, INDIVIDUAL D¥NaMIcs Each instrument or voice is marked according to its actual dynamic intensity, so that a ute's forte would equal a trumpet’s mezzo piano, etc. This procedure GENERAL CONVENTIONS 17 has proved impractical and unrealistic in actual performance situations and has largely been abandoned. Only one innovative aspect of this technique has sur. Vived: the creation of subdivisions of the traditional levels by placing a plus sign (+) after a dynamic marking: DL P+ mp, mp, mf mit, f. $+, Ml. ete (A minus sign [—] has proved less practical becase i can, in certain contexts, bbe misread asa tenuto line, oF 35 @ hyphen.) Itis advisable, however, o use the plus sign only inthe notation of electronic. ‘music, where such minute differences in dynamic levels can be achieved me- chanically, with dials, Another reason for discouraging its use is thatthe plus sign can be misleading: ap+, for example, may be interpreted as "more piano,”* Le., softer! 1B, Fluctuating Dynamics 1. NARROW RANGE AA is placed after the conventional dynamic to indicate thatthe desired level should be more or less that of the dynamic marking. The marking should be boxed tis understood that the indicated fluctuation implies growing louder and softer, rather than remaining on one panicular level, I the boxed marking is followed by crescendo and diminuendo wedges, all ‘dynamic changes indicated by the wedges must remain within the narrow limits of the + indication === <=> R= => > - = > 2. wiDE RANGE Ifa wider range of fluctuation is desired, a two headed arrow should be placed between the upper and lower limits: Por This indication may also indicate that the performer is to choose one level within the given boundaries. In such eases, the words ad li. or choice should be placed above the box on fist occurrence ‘The bored dynamics are considered cancelled as soon as an unboxed dynamic ‘marking appears ‘See also Indeterminate Events, Choices, page 153 ff. C. Levels of Prominence of Musical Materials Prominent or solo material should be indicated with bold angles atthe begin- fing and atthe end ofthe respective passages: FT18 MUSIC NOTATION INTHE TWENTIETH CENTURY If different levels of prominence are wanted, the angles should be identified with leters (rather than with numerals, since numerals already have too many fanctions in musical notation) AT” of FX 7] =first in prominence BI— oc [B —~]=second in prominence CEH o (E — 1=third in prominence, etc. Nan The A BC... . system has the advantage over Schoenberg's Ht (Haup stimme—principal part) and NT (Vebenstimme—secondary part) in that it does not depend on any language and is no limited to wo marked levels only. D. Niente abbreviated, an “n.” should be used, rather ready has a number of other meanings: ian a zero, since the latter al _—= pn. E. NoteSize Dynamics Note-size dynamics are best suited for nontraditional, approximate notation of pitches and/or durations, where they can express a great variety and subtlety of dynamic inflections. Large notes are louder; small notes are softer; crescendo and di {eet follow the same principle: endo ef able: GENERAL CONVENTIONS 19 The following, to show but one alternative, is atleast as efficient. F. Subito Changes of Dynamic Levels ‘The rapid changes of dynamic levels, typical of the music of our era, often {eave too litle space for the abbreviation sub, A vertical stroke should be used stead: Spl PPS le Ifthe abbreviation sub. i used, it should follow the dynamic indication rather than precede it so thatthe new dynamic level will appear precisely where itis to o ut g Pie if pa, 7 a Glissandos ‘There is no universal agreement concerning the "proper" execution of gis Sandos on bowed string instruments (smooth slides versus fst chains of individ- tual pitches) If a particular interpretation is wanted it should be explained at its first appearance A thin, straight line should be used to indicate a glissando. It is customary to add the abbreviation gliss., but this is not mandatory; the line suffices, (To facilitate comparison, most of the following examples show the same du- ‘ation {a haf note} within one measure. For glissandos across a baline, sce page 21) A. Noteto/Note and NotetoRest Glisandos 1. GUSSANDO ENDING IN A NOTE ‘The line leads tothe next regular note = 2. GLISSANDO FOLLOWED BY 4 REST The line ends with a small, parenthetical note-head. The small note-head isnot articulated; it merely ends the glissando: |20° MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 3. GLISSANDO FOLLOWED BY A SLIGHTLY SEPARATED NOTE ‘A small comma is placed between the end of the line and the new pitch Be B. Open-Ended Glissandos 1 FINAL PITCH IS APPROXIMATE The line ends in the vicinity of a final pitch; ‘The line ends with an arrowhead when the final pitch lies beyond the 2. OPENING PITCH 1S APPROXIMATE ‘The duration of the glissando must be indicated with a cue-note and bracket sa J. OPENING AND FINAL PITCHES ARE APPROXIMATE ‘The durations of glissandos must be indicated with cue-notes and brackets: i J , C. Curved or Undulating Glisandos ‘The line traces the approximate course ofthe glissando: z= D. Quick, Shot Slides (Portamenta) 1. wo 4 Nore ‘Short slides having no specific opening pitch or duration should be performed Ie pce nos, Uie ashe ie: a 2. UT OF 4 NoTE ‘Same as above, except that itis customary to use short, curved lines: e GENERAL CONVENTIONS 2 ‘an All the glissandos described ahove may be supplied with dynamic indica- tions, as well as with constant or changing timbral specifications (mutes, bow positions, mouth postions in vocal musi, ee.) E. Compound Durations of Glissandos Compound durations are those which cannot be expressed by a single note- value within a measure, or which go across a barlin. To indicat such durations, Stems with or without flags or beams must be attached tothe glissando line but ‘without note-heads) specifying intermediate stages inthe total glissando. (Stems Without flags or beams should only denote quarter notes in order 1 avoid am biuities, since mere stems without note-heads do not differentiate between ‘quarter notes and half notes, An explanatory footnote at frst occurrence is ree- SeeSSy 1. GLISSANDO ENDING IN A NoTE ‘Across a barlne: 2. GUISSANDO FOLLOWED BY A REST Line ends with a small, parenthetical note-head: 41. OPEN-ENDED GLISSANDO 4. UNDULATING GUISSANDO In this example, a rather long, undulating glissando has a duration cue-tine Which shows approximately where and when the various pitches are to sound: Gad) Grace Notes Grace notes are performed as fast as possible and must always be notated before the beat, They should have upstems regardless oftheir positon i the staff unless the staff contains more than one part22° MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Single grace notes should be notated as eighths; two or more grace notes as sixteemths. Single grace notes must have a thin slanted line though stem and fag; (wo or more grace notes must have the slanted fine trough stem and heams.* i used to be customary to slur grace notes tothe main note, but since such slurs are superfluous itis recommended that they be omitted. AS a result ofthis ‘omission, a tied grace note becomes more immediately recognizable, Should it be desired to perform a grace note detached, which is very rare, a staccato dot will serve to indicate this. rey Meas thy pay i was also customary to begin a full-size legato slur at the first main note of a phrase, regardless of whether or not that ote Was preceded by one or more grace ‘notes, This practice should be revised to include the grace note() in the slurs TF See also Slurs and Ties on Grace Notes, page 42. Horizontal Lines A. Stafflines ‘Stafflines may take the form of either fve-line staves or single staff-lines. For alterations of five-tine staves and single lines, the mide line ofthe staff should become the singe line: Qa AS For combinations of fve-line staves and single lines, the single line may be idded above or below the staff (see individual instruments); it should be sepa- “1 esate mined, singe grace nes nm it pga, wich have mend dus tons deeming on the drtoal contest n which ey scar GET meets GET perme hen eared cy pers ren o7 arses opined a ree er cee eee GENERAL CONVENTIONS 23, rated sufficiently from the five-line staf to prevent mistaking it for part of the full th B. Grids ‘The lines ofa grid must be spaced farther apart than those of a regular five-tine staf, or example: ‘Two-line grid for two cymbals o¢ three tom-toms: Tro cymbals Three tomtom Rt FFour-line grid for the strings of a viola: Practically all horizontal lines not belonging to the staff or grid categories are temporary (occasional) and essentially rational. Asa result of music's increas- ing complexity, however, freedom concerning graphic details has had to give way to greater specificity. Thus the variety of horizontal lines—solid, dotted, broken, wavy, etc.—which used to be employed quite indiscriminately, has become identified more and more with distinct meanings, as itemized below. Un- fortunately, there are also occasional mixtures and cross-overs, such asthe com- bination of solid and dotted lines for piano pedaling, or the occasional use of sold lines for timbral phenomena rather than the dotted lines customary for this category. In spite of these occasional inconsistencies, itis strongly suggested thatthe procedures listed below be employed wherever possible . Solid Lincs, Brackets, and Arrows ‘These are generally used for purely durational indications and structural groupings. 1. SOLID LINES, ETC., FOR DURATIONAL INDICATIONS Brackets, solid (—-) or broken (— —), are used for ire sol cae popes fleEf STR roken brackets have he advetge of sving venice pce: —5—> vers Fo the fete beam, ee Duration and Rhythm. Beamed Accelero and Ritrando, page lar note di2M MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Heavy lines and arrows are used for pitch dur ns in spatial notation — the gas represent silence. Brackets denote durational indications in spatial notation, including a heavy continuation line with arowhead: ho -——" compete Brackets show first and second endings eae Solid lines serve as word extenders in vocal texts: bran bow. fe the ty 2. SOLID LINES, ETC., FOR TIMBRAL INDICATIONS ‘Thin arrows are used for gradual transitions of mute postions in brass music: «nd for mouth positions in vocal music: “Thin lines with several arrowheads in the same direction convey variations in he rates of transitions: Trumpet: decelerating (from muted to open) GENERAL CONVENTIONS 25, Voice: accelerating (from nasal to normal) Da norm. orn, = natura J. MIXED SOLID AND AROKEN tines Pedaling indications for piano, vibraphone, ete., include a broken line for radual lifting of the pedal: iS ate LS BA D. Dotted oF Broken Lines ‘These are generally used for transpositions and timbres and for the instrument ‘manipulations which produce the: (Octave transpositions:* &° ‘non vibrato: half valve: hand tremolo (voice): hand over mouth bocca chiusa (voice): be nasal tone (voice): A See also the mixture of broken and solid lines in pedaling indications for piano, etc., above E, Wary Lines ‘These are generally used for pulsating pitch inflections or 4 pitches rm All wavy Hines must appear above the noe(s) to which they per in double-stemmed music: 5. aoe ith eee ly alternating except 1. SHADED Lines double wil; eset fluter tongue: flrs or fame flute ips: lps Me tina and 15% ae inthe proces of ing replaced by a mere numerator 15, ep.26 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 2. UNSHADED LINES, REGULAR vibrato: fost WAM slow AN ttemolo (wide, fast vibrato): VU J. UNSHADED LINES, IRREGULAR. vibrato or tremolo with variations in width andlor speed: mal ~~ or afr fl ere sim 4. SHADED AND IRREGULAR LINES the same as above, but with dynamics “builtin” ( toad} Mn oe WW dS cess Wit these las graphic devices, the limits of stanardizable wavy line have ben reached. The net step would ene the field of “implicit graphic,” which Should not be subjected to standardization (ee Notation Suited for Sanda. tion, page 336 soft; heav Instructions Verbal instructions are best placed where they apply, instead of in footnotes, Which require the performer to look down and possibly lose his place. Inregular Note Divisions: Graphic Characteristics (For durational aspects see Duration and Rhythm, Iregular Note Di page 129 ff.) A. Brackets versus Sars in Unbeamed and Partially Beamed Groups ‘Square brackets, rather than slurs, shouldbe used for unbeamed pes, ec, to-avoid ambiguities. Shrs will this only indicate phrasing or refer to ober typi cal slur functions such as bowing The numerals and brackets shouldbe placed atthe stem-side ofthe respective sroups 2 tha the space atthe note-heads wll be fee fr slurs and other aticul tion marks: a ee GENERAL CONVENTIONS 27 ‘The same with slurs instead of brackets (incorrect) qs gE SSS 2: ap Gage nn. The difference between non legato (the fist, wnslurred triplet) and legato {the second, slurred triplet), which is obvious in the bracket notation, is impossi ble to indicate in notation with triplet slurs. Ifa group contains both upstems and dowstems, its often best et the ma- jority of stems determine th position of the numeral and bracket, but much depends onthe anoint of uticultion Th les iterfrence wit oicalation aad phasing, the better The same applies to groups wih equal numberof up- and Saas ae imereatts = ee A el dy (aus yas ec cues ms) Phrasing and articulation marks are always placed closer to the note:heads than the numerals and brackets a on B. Beamed Groups 1. FULL-LENGTH BEAMS [No brackets are needed as long asthe numeral is placed atthe beam side: 4 5 mm weer ch pip oe cen stemmed groups in vocal music (see Voice, page 297), brackets do become es- sential ne Se eee [re 2. FULL-LENGTH REAMS WITH! SUBDIVISIONS “Multiple beams make it possible to show the individual sub-units ofa beamed ‘group through interruptions of the beam closest to the note-heads. No brackets ‘are needed in such beaming:28 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 3. EXTENDED REAMS Tn recent practice, beams are often extended in order to show complete bea units (see Beams: Extended and Bridging Beams, page 15), This style of nots tion reduces the need for brackets in ite ular groups = Sire Be 44, COMBINATIONS OF BEAMED AND UNBEAMED NOTES (OR RESTS) ‘These require brackets, because there is no full-length beam fo show the total group: , Itegular Note Divisions within Regular Groups of Notes ‘Although itis possible to show such iregular units by interuptions of secon dary beams, itis safest. use brackets as well Regular and iregular sub-units must not be beamed together if there is only a single beam: cms FO COS TT mere FECES ITSO el , Irregular Note Divisions within Iregular Groups of Notes ‘The numeral for the total group and the numerals forthe iregular subunits should be placed at opposite sides of the group: —— rior fararaniitae, =< (ECan eee Beak Single-beam groups (eighth notes) —3 a crepes ™ of tf eer GENERAL CONVENTIONS 29 Multiple-beam groups (sixteenths and shorter values): 535 2 ere In double-stemmed musie (wo parts on a staff, all numerals are placed atthe ‘stem sides of the respective pats, along with ll other signs, and all numerals should be bracketed: (This would be clearer on two staves.) E. Horizontal Locations of Numerals and Brackets ‘Traditionally, the numeral for an iregular group of notes was centered on the {otal group regardless of whether its graphic center happened to coincide with ts ‘darational center. In the fist two examples below, the graphic and durational ‘centers coincide (more or less; thereafter, they do not mn CLE fy cee cera er gtr In more recent music the numerals ofa bracketed group are often placed in the leas bt er In groups with full-length beams and without brackets, the traditional style of, placing the numeral inthe graphic center is stil valid (but see below ras teeter erie Since the last two methods contradict each ther, itis suggested that acompro- rise system be employed for groups with full-length beams, i.c., groups which normally would not require brackets forthe numeral: If the praphic center ofthe group coincides reasonably well with its dura tional center, place the numeral a its durational center without brackets wie cm30 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY If the two centers are too dissimilar to assure proper execution, add brackets and extend them tothe ight where necessary: ‘This example isa borderline case and had better be notated —=3—, with a bracket: Exception: The following groups are so short that their duration is clear in spite of the off-center position of the numeral and the lack of brackets. It is customary, therefore, t0 place the numerals for such groups in the “wrong” position: 3 oe lec Leger Lines Lege lines must maintain the same verical spacing a staf-lines, since they rep ‘resent vertical extensions ofthe staf. ITintervals of a second are on leer lines, the lines) between the seconds) and the staff must be twice as wide as ordinary leper lines: = a z = vou iti nd Note-Heads ‘A. Shapes 1. REGULAR NOTE-HEADS Black note-heads are slightly ova: tee wet SS sa mt ses their diferent shadings 2. DIAMOND-SHAPED NOTE-HEADS ‘These should have slightly inward-curved sides o distinguish them 3s much as ON 5 J J. X-SMAPED NOTE-HEADS ‘These have their stems atached right or lef, in the same manner as regular fe eads: | (ot). For half and whole notes the xis enced ( White note-heads: the heads of -) must be clearly distinguished by aunough the whole nt ison replaced by two Hed half wes (pp) be cause a stemless, encircled x might not be recognized as a note GENERAL CONVENTIONS 37 ‘Traditionally, x and diamond-shaped note-heads were combined: x for quar- ter notes ant shore vale; amos fr hal and whole notes fF F*) ‘They continue to he used this way, especially for cymbals in simple percussion contexts (see page 219), but itis preferable to keep them separate, thus provid- ing two sets of noteheads (Ff * and |) instal of only one. Less frequently used note-heads are included below. B._ Uses of Different Shapes ‘Whenever possible, the following broad rules for correct note-head usage should be observed: reqularrowteads J do forexact pitches diamond nceeads J J» for special playing modes or tone pro duction, sch a8 half-valve. (a5), tabla for sng harmonics, false voice, silent depression of keys (pian), held (mechanically secured) ys (organ, et for indeterminate pitches, noises, speaking voice and unvoiced sounds, ii release of certain held notes (organ) reshaped notereads 1d ( cn te hens for sods fs own trough an in pice by ene samen eee eee eee we J) eines oe ae 217 Placement of Dynamics and Other Verbal Indications It is important to observe the customary placement of dynamics and other in- structions because performers expect them to appeat in specific locations. Excep- tions to these routines tend to slow down rehearsals, ‘A. Dynamics 1. INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC (SCORES AND/OR PARTS) Single staves (scores): below the music. Single staves (pats): below the music Single staves with two or more polyphonic parts: atthe stem side of the up- and downstemmed part, Double staves (piano, et.) centered between staves unless polyphonic texture ‘makes it necessary to position dynamics close to the respective voces ‘Three staves (organ): mamval staves as in other double-staff notation; pedal Salf below, to avoid confusion with dynamics appearing below the lower manual staf,