MATERIALS AND METHODS

How to write the materials and methods

Objectives:
Know how to address the intended audience of a
Methods section
Recognize which details to include and exclude from a
Methods section
Organize a Methods section following standard moves
Use capitalization, abbreviations, and parentheses
appropriately
Format numbers and units correctly
Use verb tense and voice in conventional manners
 How to write the materials

The major purpose of a Methods section is

to describe, for other audience, the procedures that

were used to obtain the results presented in the
article.

To describe the experimental design

(Reproducibility: corner stone of scientific method)
 How to write the materials

A well-written Methods section serves as a resource for

expert scientists who wish to

(1) develop similar procedures,

(2) compare their own procedure with those presented,

(3) familiarize themselves with procedures in a branch

of science other than their own.
 Materials

Describe what you used

Materials: soil, water, food,
Chemicals: Solvents and
reagents
Samples
Animals
Plants
Human subjects
Criteria for detail
Informed consent
Microorganisms (genus,
species, strain)
Sampling site
Geographic location
 Methods

Describe instrumentation
Custom built: Home made/Domestic equipments
Commercially available : GC, FT-IR, XRD, SEM/EDX, HRTEM
Ordinary lab equipments are not included in the list
If more instruments are involved, have a separate subheadings
Equipment/apparatus
Source and special characteristics
Specification
Operating condition
Trade names (if necessary) (Show Examples for this from
articles)
 Methods

1) Experimental methods
Describe procedure

Analytical procedures

Field collection procedures

Synthetic procedures

Quality assurance/ control

 Methods

2) Numerical methods

Statistical applications

Statistical methods used must be described

Ordinary methods with no comment
Advanced/unusual methods: support with
literature

Theoretical modeling
 Materials and Methods

Headings
This section usually has subheadings
Construct subheadings that match the results
Measurement and Analysis
Be precise
Methods are similar to cookbook recipes
Questions such as how and how much": precisely
answer

Example: If a reaction mixture was heated, give

the temp.
 Materials and Methods

Need for reference

New method: provide the detail

Published method: cite the reference

Examples:
Cells were broken as previously described (9)
Cells were broken by ultrasonic treatment as
previously described (9)
 Materials and Methods

Tabular Material

Properties of a number of chemicals

Large number of microbial strains
Every table must have a title: descriptive enough
To stand alone
To be used in the text referring the table
Body of information should be concise
Abbreviations should be self explanatory (or footnote)
 Materials and Methods

Use logical format: Columns are preferred to rows

Organize the table to fit the page
Orientation: Portrait and not landscape
Avoid vertical lines, except as needed
 Materials and Methods

Correct form and Grammar

Do not make the common error of mixing some of the
results in this section
This is the place where precise use of English is a must

Examples
Employing a straight platinum wire rabbit, sheep and human
blood agar plates were inoculated
To determine its respiratory quotient, the organism,
Having completed the study, the bacteria were of no further
interest
 Materials and Methods

Blood samples were taken from 48 informed and

consenting patients the subjects ranged in age from 6
months to 22 years
How to Write the Results?
 How to write the results

Objectives
Distinguish between the description and
interpretation of data
Organize and present your results in a clear,
logical manner
Refer appropriately to a figure or graph in the
text
Use appropriate tense, voice, and word choice
Prepare a properly formatted figure and table
 Styles of writing the results and discussion
part

In many journal articles, the Results section is

actually a combined Results and Discussion
(R&D) section.

Combined R&D sections are preferred by many

scientists who want to present and discuss
results in an unbroken chain of thought.

The combination is often more concise because

less time is spent reminding the reader which
results are being discussed.
 Styles of writing the results and
discussion part
Combined R&D sections are not all alike; rather,
they fall on a continuum with fully separated
R&D sections at one end and fully integrated
R&D sections at the other.

Within this continuum, three patterns emerge:

blocked R&D, iterative R&D, and integrated
R&D.
 Blocked R&D

An approach for combined R&D sections in

which all results are presented first, followed by
paragraphs dedicated to the discussion.

For three sets of results, the pattern would be as

follows:
[R1, R2, R3] [D1, D2, D3]
 Iterative R&D

An approach for combined R&D sections in

which authors alternate back and forth between
results and discussion.

For three sets of results, the pattern would be

as follows:

[R1 D1] [R2 D2] [R3 D3]

 Integrated R&D

An approach for combined R&D sections in

which results and discussion are seamlessly
integrated with no obvious pattern.

This pattern is less common, but when done well

is quite effective
 How to write the results?

Content of the results

There are two ingredients of this section that you need to

avail

overall description of the experiments

Data

Results should be presented in the past tense

How to write the results?
 How to write the results?...
How do you present your data?

- Present representative data rather than endlessly

repetitive data

The compulsion to include everything, leaving nothing out,

doesnt prove that one has unlimited information; it proves that
one lacks discrimination.
Aarnson, 1977

The fool collects facts; the wise man selects them.

John Wesley Powell
 How to write the results?...

How to handle numbers?

If very few determinations are to be presented, describe

them in the text
Repetitive determinations should be given in tables or
graphs
State only those variables that effect your reactions
However, it is often good insurance to state what you did
not find under the conditions of your experiments
If statistics are used to describe the results, they should
be meaningful statistics
 How to write the results?...

Strive for Clarity

The results should be short and sweet, without verbiage

This section is very important, it is often the shortest,

particularly if it is preceded by a well-written materials
and methods section and followed by a well-written
discussion

The results need to be clearly and simply stated

because it is the results that constitute the new
knowledge that you are contributing to the world
 How to write the results?...

Avoid redundancy

Do not be guilty of redundancy in the results

The most common fault is the repetition in words of what

is already apparent to the reader from examinations of
figures and tables

Even worse is the actual presentation in the text, of all or

many of the data shown in the tables or figures
 How to write the results?...

Do not be verbose in citing figures and tables

Example: DO NOT SAY

It is clearly shown in Table 1 that nocillin inhibited the

growth of N. gonorrhoeae.

But SAY

Nocillin inhibited the growth of N.gonorrhoeae (Table 1).

How to Write the Discussion?
 How to Write Discussion?

A Discussion section should be as satisfying to read as

the last chapter of a mystery novel.
The ground work is laid in the introduction section

Technological tools are described in the Methods

section,

Evidence is revealed in the Results section,

But, it is in the Discussion section where the mystery

is solved.
 How to Write Discussion?

Two major purposes of the Discussion section are to

interpret or explain results presented in the paper and to
propose broader implications of these findings.

Not surprisingly, each purpose is associated with a

slightly different audience.

The interpretation of results, like the Results section

itself, is typically written for an expert audience. (Hence,
the novice chemist is likely to have trouble
How to Write Discussion?
Alternatively, the broader
implications of the work
are typically accessible to
a scientific audience or
even a general audience

This shift in audience

completes the hourglass
structure of the IMRD
format.
 How to write the discussion?

Submove 1.2 is the heart of the Discussion section;

mechanisms are proposed,
results are elaborated, and/or
the authors postulate why or how a particular
behaviour was observed.
Whenever possible, references to relevant literature
should be included
references that provide additional insights,
references that refute an argument, or
references that corroborate the findings at hand
 How to write the discussion?

In this way, your work can be connected to a larger body

of evidence, moving toward the ultimate goal of scientific
consensus.

Corroborate
To strengthen and support results or interpretations,
using evidence from the literature.
 Tense and Voice

Both past tense and present tense are common in the

Discussion section.

The work was done in the past, but knowledge exists

in the present.

For example,
Plaper et al. (2002) state that three Cr3+ compounds
were examined (work done in the past) but that the
hydroxyl radical is a known mediator of DNA damage
(knowledge that exists in the present).
 Tense and Voice

Similarly, the present tense, active-voice combination is

used in the Discussion section to state scientific truths
(knowledge expected to be true over time)

Note that interpretations and/or mechanisms put forth in

a Discussion section are often considered to be truths
and therefore are stated in present tense active voice.
 common verb tensevoice combinations
and their functions, with example sentences.
Tense and Voice
 How to Write Discussion?

Components of Discussion
What are the essential features of a good discussion?
Try to present the principles, relationships and
generalizations shown by the results.
And bear in mind, in a good Discussion, you
discuss- you do not recapitulate-the results
Point out any exceptions or any lack of correlation
and define unsettled points.
Never take the high-risk of alternative trying to cover
up or fudge data that do not quite fit
Show how your results and interpretations agree (or
contrast) with previously published work
 How to Write Discussion?

Dont be shy; discuss the theoretical implications of

your work as well as any possible practical
applications
State your conclusions as clearly as possible
Summarize your evidence for each conclusion
Factual Relationships
The primary purpose of the Discussion is to show the
relationship among observed facts
Stories
The story about the biologist who trained flea
The story of a science teacher experiment on alcohol
 How to Write Discussion?

Significance of the Paper

Too often, the significance of the results is not

discussed, or not discussed adequately
The discussion should end with a short summary or
conclusion regarding the significance of the work

Finally, good writing, like good music has a fitting climax.

Thistle, 1947

However, Many scientific papers end Not with a bang but a

whimper.
 How to Write Discussion?

Defining Scientific Truth

In showing the relationships among observed facts, you

do not need to reach cosmic conclusions
Seldom will you able to illuminate the whole truth; more
often, the best you could do is shine a spotlight on one
area of the truth.
Your one area of truth can be illuminated by your data;
if you extrapolate to a bigger picture than that shown by
your data, you may appear foolish to the point that even
your data-supported conclusions are cast into doubt.
 How to Write Discussion?

Truth?
Words such as truth and prove seldom appear in
scientific writing.

In a computer-based analysis of 180 journal articles,

prove was found only twice, and truth never occurred.

Hedging words are used instead. For example, data

suggest (not prove), results offer evidence (not proof),
and findings (not truths) are reported.
 How to state the Acknowledgements

Important element: Courtesy

Ingredients of the Acknowledgements
Who we should acknowledge?
Significant technical help
Sources of special equipment/materials
Sources of finance
Be very specific in acknowledging ideas, suggestions or
interpretations
The use of wish in acknowledgment: not recommended
Example I wish to thank Biniam Tesfaye
I thank Beniam Tesfaye
 How to cite references?

Manuscripts containing innumerable references are more

likely a sign of insecurity than a mark of scholarship
- William C. Roberts
Rules to follow
List only significant published references
In case of absolute necessity for secondary sources: Parenthetically
or foot note
Accepted publications should be listed in the list In press
References of secondary materials should be kept minimum
Check check check before submission: in text and in the list
 How to cite references?

Reference styles
Journals vary in style of references
Example: 52(scientific journals) vs 33(styes)
Some journals print titles of articles and some do not
Some insist on inclusive pagination whereas others print
first page only
 How to cite references?

Three general ways of citing references

1) Name and year system (Harvard System)
very popular for many years and is used in many journals and
books
Quite convenient for the Author since references are
unnumbered: deleting or adding is easier
Disadvantages
Destracting to the readers if citations are more
Costly for publisher
Example:
Smith, Jones and Higginbotham (1998) vs (7)
 How to cite references?

The et al. rule

Less than 2/3 Authors: write in full
More than 3 authors: Full writing for the first time
followed by et al
Some permit up to six authors to write in full but to use et
al for more
Some require full listing no matter how many Authors
Example:
Pengram Guo, Taicheng Duan, Xuejie Song, Jingwei Xu, Hangting
Chen
Talanta 77 (2008) 624-627
In text Guo et al (2008)
 How to cite references?

2) Alphabet- Number System

It involves citation by number from an alphabetized
list
It is the modification of name and year system
Keeps printing expenses with in bounds
Relatively easy for authors to prepare and for the
readers to use
 How to cite references?

3) Citation order system

Citing references in the order they appear in the text
Avoids substantial printing expense of the name and year
system
Readers: quick for referencing (short page articles)
Authors are not quite interested: Renumbering consequence in
case of addition/deletion of references
 How to cite references?

Citation and reference software

Software: EndNote
Citation of electronic sources
Importance of having hard copy
In case of cease to update
In case of disappearance before your paper is
published
In case of change of URL (Uniform recourse
Locator)
Electronic citation formats are available from web
sources
 How to cite references?

http://www.iso.ch/infoe/guide.html
http://www.askanexpert.com/plcite.html
http://www.unm.edu/nxli/reference/alpha.html
 How to write a review Paper?

Characteristics of a review paper

Not an original publication

Sporadically may contain new data

Collection of previously published literature

Pages: 10- 50

Subject covers fairly general area

Embraces more audience than research paper

More than annotated bibliographies

 Organization of a review paper

Research paper Review paper

Title Title
Abstract Abstract
Introduction Introduction (greatly
Materials and Methods expanded)
Results Materials and Methods (
Discussion new data)
Conclusion Discussion (expand)
References Conclusion
References
 How to write a review Paper?

Types of review Papers

Type: is contingent on demand of the journal
1) Annotated Bibliographies: Bibliographic
completeness is a requirement
- Book Series
- Annual review of ,
- Recent advances in,
- Year book of, etc
2) Authoritative and critically evaluated types:
( Examples: Seminar/Review of related literature)
 How to write a review Paper?

Importance of Introductory paragraphs and Conclusions

Readers are much more influenced by the
introduction part
Readers are also influenced by the first paragraph of
each major sections
Good to take the trouble to write a form of conclusion
since review covers a wide subject and for a wide
audience.
 How to write a conference report?

Conferences
Provide opportunities to present ideas
Avenues for collecting ideas to enrich your
preliminary data
Organization
Statement of the problem
Methodology not detailed
Results: briefly stated
Discussion: At considerable length
 How to write a conference report?

Status of conference report

Is it a validly published primary data?

What is a valid publication?

Unlimited circulation and availability
Most conference reports are one shot ephemeral
publications
Not purchased widely
 How to write a conference report?

Confirmed of refined original research data

Conference reports: data are tentative or
inconclusive
Peer reviewed
Conference reports: The convener of the
conference is the editor
Exceptions are there!
Some proceedings have equal merit as referred journal articles
 How to write a conference report?

Format of conference reports

Depends on whether the proceeding is considered
equivalent to primary article or not.
If equivalent : Follow the format of the journal
If not equivalent : Follow the format of the editor or
conference convener
One to two printed pages is required
Abstract/ extended Abstract
 How to Write a Thesis?

Purpose
To prove the candidates ability in communicating
original research
A thesis should exhibit the same form of disciplined
writing like primary articles
Thesis is longer and more involved than scientific paper
 How to Write a Thesis?

Tips for writing

Follow the style of the organization in organizing the
contents
Style of thesis is like a review paper. Its purpose is to
review the work that led to your degree.
When to write the thesis?
Soon after finishing the experiment.
 Oral Presentation

Talk low, talk slow, and dont say too much.

- John Wayne
Organization of the Paper

Use the same logical way as the full paper

- Begin with the problem and end with the solution
Most important factor in presentation: TIME
The time allowed for presentation varies
- Conferences/ Seminars : 20 - 30 min
*15-20 min for presentation;
* 5-10 min for questions and answers
 Oral Presentation

- Thesis/Dissertation defense
* 45 min presentation
* 30 min to hours : questions and answers
You should organize your presentation considering this
key factor: TIME
- Introduction : Brief
- Experimental : Very Brief
- Results and discussions: Brief
Stick to your most important points
 Oral Presentation

Slides
Should be designed to serve the purpose

Preferred to be wider rather than high

Should be prepared using computers

The lighting in the hall should be dim

Best slides have white background in black text

Should not be crowded: Six lines per slide (Font:

24???)
 Oral Presentation

Each slide should be for a specific topic

Get to the presentation hall ahead of the audience

The slide is meant only to supplement

Never read from the slide to the audience (Insulting)

 Oral Presentation

Presentation is a two way process

Presenter Audience
- Organized - Courtesy
-Focused (main points) - Do not be disagreeable
-Avoid technical detail
-Define terms
-Explain Difficult concepts
-Rehearse
In short, both the speaker and the audience should be
considerate to each other.
 Oral Presentation

The two most popular slide show programs

Microsoft power Point (PPT)

Adobe Persuasion

Color Usage

Select the best contrast between background and text

Provides good printouts for audience distribution
Use no more than three types of colors per slide
Be consistent on your color usage
 Oral Presentation

The style of this presentation for instance is:

Title: Blue, Bold, 28

Subtitle: Red, Bold, 24

Text: Black on light blue textured background

 Oral Presentation

Slide Show Transitions

Transitions are visual effects applied to a slide when it
appears on the screen

There are many fancy effects to choose

Whatever transition you decide on, stick to it

Thank you all
&
Good Luck