Anth.106 Ppt. Background Lecture No. 7 o PDF

ANT.
106:
Introduction to Archaeology.
Notes & images compiled by Gregory Mumford ( 2017)
Lecture-: Background to Doc.7

Ancient Zimbabwe culture (SE Africa)
In Search of Ancient Africa, from popularized books/movies to archaeology
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2012 (6th ed): chp.12
12. Why Did Things Change? Explanation in Archaeology.
Broad similarities may
Great Zimbabwe Ruins
be misleading:
& Zimbabwe culture:
- Chaco Canyon (New Mexico)
From early speculations,
& Mesa Verde (Colorado)
through ignorance,
have similar &
architectural
Racism & expressions
artifactual different theories,
to
tomore
more recentsocieties
complex scientific
in Mexico.
investigations, analysis,
Does this necessarily
interpretations, and mean
ongoing
Mexico work of such
= the origin
northern developments?
- Great Zimbabwe ruins =
initially said to be built by
non-Africans versus Shona
peoples of Zimbabwe
(formerly Rhodesia pre-1981).
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2004 (4th ed.):
Documentaries: Ancient Nubia & the Zimbabwe Ruins/Culture.
AD 1885-1895:
Africa has been less
extensively explored
through archaeology,
but the last century has
seen increasing work in
all nations:
Re-discovering
Africas ancient-more
recent civilizations:
Egypt
Nubia
Ethiopia
Zimbabwe
Timbouctou
Kano, etc.
Distribution of stone ruins (200+) similar to Great Zimbabwe Ruins: AD 1000-1500
Mostly in Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia)
Some in Botswana, South Africa, Mozambique, Zambia?
Zimbabwe
Great Zimbabwe:
Discovering the Zimbabwe Ruins in late 1800s Early speculations
Chevron pattern
(significance unknown)
2m
9.75 m. high, 5 m. wide, 250 m long
The Zimbabwe
culture:
(1). Searchers:
i.e., Early explorers
AD 1627 map
noting Zimbaos (Great Zimbabwe)
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2004 (4th ed.):
Documentaries: Ancient Nubia & the Zimbabwe Ruins/Culture.
AD 1885-1895:
Africa has been less
extensively explored
through archaeology,
but the last century has
contained increasing
work in all nations:
Re-discovering
Africas ancient-more
recent civilizations:
Egypt
Nubia
Ethiopia
Zimbabwe
Timbouctou
Kano, etc.
1872
Early travelers to Great Zimbabwe:

Carl Mauch visited Great Zimbabwe
in March 1872: he made a decent sketch
of the Great Zimbabwe in his journal
Early excavations (selected):
1891: BSA company & Royal
Geographical Society
exploratory mission: J.T. Bent
1902-3: Hall and White
1905: David Randall-MacIver
7 excavations.
1929: excavations by Dr.
Gertrude Caton-Thompson
1958: Robinson
1964-1970: P.S. Garlake
1968 & 1970: T. Huffman
More recent work
Theories:
King Solomons Mines (Ophir)
Queen of Shebas kingdom
Phoenician trading post
Etc.
BUT =Indigenous Shona culture
An African kingdom!
NOT a foreign-derived import
Great Zimbabwe Ruins:
Early excavations:
E.g., Halls extensive excavations in 1902+; the first accurate plan is made.
Early conclusions:
1905:
David Randall-McIvers investigations & analysis revealed that
the Great Zimbabwe ruins were medieval in date & originated
from Africa i.e., local Shona culture.
1929:
Gertrude Caton-Thompsons excavations also agreed with this
namely that the Great Zimbabwe reflected indigenous culture.
The Zimbabwe
culture:
(2). The Evidence:
i.e., From which conclusions
are drawn
Distribution of stone ruins (100s) similar to Great Zimbabwe Ruins: AD 1000-1500
Zimbabwe
The Great Zimbabwe (enclosure): Overview of evidence
Discovering the Zimbabwe Ruins in late 1800s Early speculations
Chevron pattern

Site plan.
200 acres (80 hectares):
10,00020,000 population
Low-lying ruins:
1. Outlying settlement & walls
- Posselt Ruin
- Ridge Ruins
- Renders Ruin
- Mauch Ruin
- Philips Ruin
- Maund Ruin
- East Ruin
- Camp Ruin
- Outspan Ruin
2. The Great Enclosure Wall
3. The Elliptical Building
4. The Conical Tower
Great Zimbabwe Ruin (from Hill Ruin):
The region around the Zimbabwe

Ruin held woodland savannah
vegetation: i.e., temperate climate
Probably originally less wooded

during the period of occupation.
The hills surrounding the ruins

display granite outcrops, from
which the builders obtained granite
stone for construction.
The area between the Hill Ruin and

the Great Zimbabwe originally was
covered by circular daga-(plaster)-
walled huts: i.e., = main city.
The Great Zimbabwe enclosure

also once contained circular daga-
huts, walls, and platforms (red stain).
Great Zimbabwe: Outer wall of the Elliptical Building, finest phase of masonry.
(The Hill Ruin lies in the background, to the right).
Chevron pattern
2m
Great Zimbabwe: Aerial view of the Elliptical Building, finest structure at the site.
Now interpreted as the royal residence (the focus for the entire site complex).
A paved walkway between the
Great Outer Enclosure wall and
the inner wall of the Elliptical Enclosure
The inner wall (left) is an earlier
construction with less regularly placed
and less-well-dressed stone courses.
The outer wall (right) is the last phase
of construction, being built with better
dressed and regularly placed courses.
These walls form an obvious long-term

a. Defensive feature for the outer and
inner portions of the enclosure.
b. Reflection of wealth & power
through the labour-intensive
nature of the construction.
c. Possible display of piety should
the nature of the structure be
interpreted differently than a
royal residential area.
Great Zimbabwe Ruins: Later
The Elliptical Building. structure
Earliest stone structure at
site = enclosure-1
Other earlier (poorer)
construction marked in grey
The great Outer Wall was
built with finely dressed,
regular courses (with upper
chevron pattern), beginning
at the west side and growing
in thickness as it went east.
In the past, various people
theorized that this wall had
been built by non-Africans
Now most people agree with
the indigenous traditions that
this is entirely an African-
derived structure & culture.
Great Zimbabwe
Ruins:
-Remains of a clay-
walled house in front
of Elliptical Buildings
entryway.
- Enclosure 7 has a
buttressed entryway
suggesting that the
stone walling system Low mound of a
did have a practical
defensive function. daga-hut
- In essence, the
stone walls replaced
the thorn and other
types of enclosures
that subdivided other
villages and huts
elsewhere.
Great Zimbabwe:
Elliptical Building,
Conical tower.
Earliest walling
system on lower
left with less well-
placed courses.(1)
Later wall system 3
inserted, seen in
foreground, with
finer stone courses
dressed stones &
decorative bands
of dark stone (2).
Daga-plaster had
2
originally covered
the outer walls 1
(reddish stain)
Conical tower has
distinct batter -seen
in later building (3)
Great Zimbabwe Ruins: The Elliptical Building.
The conical tower.
The Conical tower lies at the far eastern end of

the Elliptical Enclosure, built in the last phase of
this structure (contemporary with great Encl.-Wall)
Each course was inset slightly to create this
tall tower with a distinct batter = very stable.
The forecourt originally held a series of slabs
surmounted by sculptured birds: Totems? Cult
Conical tower
Foreground contains 1st phase of construction
Exterior enclosures:
Many pre-date the construction of the
Great Zimbabwe Ruin.
The majority of the population resided in huts,
which lay outside these enclosures.
The var. enclosures may be scaled in size
according to the relative rank of their
inhabitants:
i.e., at the very least Zimbabwe culture
represents a stratified society: Chiefdom(?)
Taking into consideration 200+ other sites
Probably = Early State Complex Society
(has all the features of complex state soc.)
The Great Zimbabwe spans the last phase

of construction at this settlement complex.
It = largest of ALL the Zimbabwe enclosures
Masony+walls from a palace structure:SE of Great Zimbabwe
https://www.britannica.com/place/Great-Zimbabwe
Site plan.
The Hill Ruin / Complex:

Labelled the acropolis by
European excavators
Defined as the Zimbabwe
(enclosure) by local Shona
tradition.Function? Fort? Cult?
Hill Site/Complex built over granite boulders
using granite building stone.
Granite boulders were shaped
by heating & rapid cooling
splitting the rocks.
Site plan.
Hill Ruin: 262-300 ft. (80m) high hill
Walling systems carefully placed
amongst the granite boulders,
sculpting and using the natural
topography (30 ft. high walls; 10 m)
Smaller enclosures in early style
Western encl. wall capped by
turrets and monoliths.
Hill ruins/complex/acropolis.
The Hill Complex:
Construction area covers about
45 x 100 metres.
Earliest occupation at the Great

Zimbabwe complex/site:
ca. 900 AD+
Unshaped/rough granite and

shaped granite pieces used in
the building of walls, 6 m wide
by 11 metres high.
Interior of enclosure contains

traces of daga-housing
Entry to hill complex

The Zimbabwe
culture:
(3). Survey and
Excavation:
i.e., More recent projects
Early excavations (selected):
1891: BSA company & Royal
Geographical Society
exploratory mission: J.T. Bent
1902-3: Hall and White
1905: David Randall-MacIver
7 excavations.
1929: excavations by Dr.
Gertrude Caton-Thompson
1958: Robinson
1964-1970: P.S. Garlake
1968 & 1970: T. Huffman
1980s+ More recent work
Theories:
King Solomons Mines (Ophir)
Queen of Shebas kingdom
Phoenician trading post
Etc.
BUT =Indigenous Shona culture
An African kingdom!
NOT a foreign-derived import
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2008 (5th ed.): chp.1
1. The Searchers: The History of Archaeology.
6.3. Archaeology of
continents:
- Relatively less studied areas
becoming a focus for research
Africa:
- African Iron Age cultures
- Investigations of the Zimbabwe
ruins (southeast Africa)
- J.D. Clark 1970. The Prehistory
of Africa.
Australia:
- Relatively little studied continent
- 1960s J. Mulvaney found earlier
human occupation in Queensland
(in late Ice Age) via C14
More recent research(?):
See work by Dr. David Collet
in the late 1980s at Gr. Zmb.
The Great Zimbabwe Ruins
is now a World Heritage Site;
Unfortunately, it still needs
much funding for its continued
maintenance and investigation:
E.g., Ground and aerial
reconnaissance surveys
would be very useful:
Magnetometry
Electrical resistivity
GPR
LiDAR surveys
Etc.
2015 mapping G.Z. settlement
Great Zimbabwe (and related sites) mapping (2015)
Great Zimbabwe mapping: https://zamaniproject.org/index.php/gislayouts.html
The Zimbabwe
culture:
(4). Dating:
i.e., The means by which
we have absolute dates (C14)
and/or relative dates
4. When? Dating Methods and Chronology.
9.1. Trapped electron dating:
Thermoluminescence (TL), optical,
& electron spin resonance dating
display indirect radioactive decay.
Focus on radiation received by sample
(assuming annual dose = constant).
9.2.a. Thermoluminescence dating:
TL advantages versus C14, it
a. dates pottery (i.e., clay)
b. dates inorganic items (burnt flint)
earlier than C14 limit (50,000 BP)
9.2.b. Basis ofcan
TL-dating method:
be used on pottery,
Dating minerals set to 0 by 500 C/932 F
and burnt flint, etc. (i.e., non-org.),
accidentally/intentionally (pottery; flints)
but ithas
Clay hassomean radioactive
increasingly broad
elements
error range
obtained the&earlier
internally in time
externally.
one goes
Gauge radioactivity accuracy
site soils
(1 yr. capsule;
OLS = usedradiation
more nowcounter; sample)
(need specialist, including for sampling)
Lab heats sample; measures light radiation
4. When? Dating Methods and Chronology.
8.2.b. C14 history & basis of method.
Radiocarbon
1949 W. Libby obtained 1st C14 date
dates calibrated
Need organic samples -wood
with tree-rings seq.
-charcoal
-seeds
-plants
-bones
Various counting errors, cosmic
radiation, etc. uncertainty in
measurements (+/- std. deviation).
Samples sizes decreasing
a. 1950s-60s: 10-20 g. wood
b. 1970s-80s: 5 g pure carbon
c. Now: 5-10 mg samples
test precious items
C14 dates expressed before 1950 AD
when listing years BP (before present)
+/-100 yrs 68% +/-200 yrs 95%
Calibration with tree-rings calendar
years.
Great Zimbabwe C14 dates:
Iron Age Pottery from GZ:
Nos.1 & 3 = Robinson Period II
No.2 = Robinson Period III
No.4 = Zimbabwe Period III
(influenced by IV)
No.7 = Robinson Period IV
Iron Age Pottery outside GZ:
Nos.5-6, 8 = Period IV
Some earlier, debated dates:
Period I: C14 = AD 320 +/- 150yr
Later! (= before encl.)
Period II:
Period III: C14 = AD 1440 +/-150yr
Period III/IV: C14=AD 1380+/-90yr
Period IV: C14 = AD 1450-(1485?)

> = abandonment of site
Ritual usage until 1800s
More
recent
dates/
phases
(AD/CE):
Period-1
300-900
0.52 hect
Period 2
900-1000
2.18 hect
Period 3
1000-1200
9.3 hect
Period 4
1200-1700
125 hect
Period 5
1700-1900
95 hect Great Zimbabwe phases
G.Zimbabwe: cross-cultural dating. > Persian
A. Potsherds from imported vessels:
a. Persian faience vessels (3 on left)
13th/14th? cent. AD (ca.1300 AD)
b. Persian bowl tin-glazed interior and a
grey-blue underglaze decoration (right):
14th Cent. AD
c. Chinese stoneware sherd (upper right):
13th Cent. AD
B. Potsherds from imported vessels: Chinese
d. Chinese celadon sherds (Renders Ruin)
Blue-grey = Ming dynasty (1368-1644)
made frequently for export.
Crackled sea-green glaze = Lung Chuan
wares (also = Ming dynasty)
Note: Chinese pottery frequently appear in
coastal Africa in 14th-15th Cents. AD
Great Zimbabwe also had celadon wares:
Yuan dynasty (AD 1279-1368)
Sung dynasty (AD 960-1279)
The Zimbabwe
culture:
(5). Social
Organization:
i.e., Hierarchy in society:
E.g., Roles, tombs, housing, etc.
The Zimbabwe
culture:
(5). Social
Organization:
(a). Settlement layout
Great Zimbabwe: Aerial view of Elliptical Building, finest structure at the site.
Now interpreted as the royal residence (the focus for the entire site complex).
- Remains of a clay-walled house excavated amongst the stone walls of the site
Great enclosure:
Elite+royal housing
Great Zimbabwe housing within Great Enclosure: reconstruction
https://www.kidsdiscover.com/shop/issues/african-history-for-kids/
Great Zimbabwe
Ruins:
-Remains of a clay-
walled house in front
of Elliptical Buildings
entryway.
- Enclosure 7 has a
buttressed entryway
suggesting that the
stone walling system Low mound of a
did have a practical
defensive function. daga-hut
- In essence, the
stone walls replaced
the thorn and other
types of enclosures
that subdivided other
villages and huts
elsewhere.

vegetation.

during the period of occupation.



Great
Zimbabwe:
Posselt Ruin
in the valley:
Another very
elaborate
structure,
perhaps
related to the
main enclosure
& Elliptical Bldg
Smaller scale
version with
small conical
towers.
Most of the
population
lived outside
these stone
enclosures.
2015 mapping G.Z. settlement
Suggestion of daga-type housing composing exterior
Lekkerwater Ruin (central Mashonaland): examples of housing
22 ft diam. Circular, daga-dwelling hut placed in front of the stone enclosure wall
Identical to ones built in Great Zimbabwe; 7 radiocarbon dates ca. AD 1350
Zimbabwe
Culture:
Housing
Reconstructed
hut of timber &
plaster (daga).
Integrated into
and outside the
stone enclosures.
Contains:
Hearths
Roof poles
Platforms
Pottery deposits
Threshold
Etc.
Zimbabwe culture:
AD 1000: Phase-1 Leopards Kopje industry in SE Africa:
People resided in circular pole-&-clay housing (3 m. diam.)
Iron tools = rare;
Copper mostly for jewelry (adornment)
Pastoralist lifestyle: mostly cattle; some sheep and goats
Cultivated crops: sorghum, millet, ground beans, cowpeas
Iron Age:
AD 1100 Shift in economy (Cattle still main focus, but > TRADE)
Increased prosperity
Iron tools
Stone walling segregating hilltop-dwellings of the elite
Great Zimbabwe (GZ) settlement begins Gumanye phase
AD 1100-1200 Wealthy burials = increased social stratification
AD 1250-80 GZ: simple stone walling appears (transfer from Mapungubwe)
Large town 78 hectares with ca. 18,000 persons
Wealth collected at Great Zimbabwe from outlying region
patronage? Gifts? Or tribute? And trade
Peak in export of gold (via Indian Ocean coast)
Foreground contains 1st phase of construction
Exterior enclosures:
Many pre-date the construction of the
Great Zimbabwe Ruin.
The majority of the population resided in huts

outside these enclosures.
These enclosures may be scaled in size

according to the relative rank of their
inhabitants: i.e., at the very least it represents
a stratified society (chiefdom)?
Probably an Early State Complex Society

(has all the features of complex state soc.)
The Great Zimbabwe spans the last phase

of construction at this settlement complex.
The Zimbabwe
culture:
(5). Social
Organization:
(b). Social rankings etc.
Social organization:
i.e., What professions & classes can
we extrapolate?
a. Ruler of sorts: chief? King?
b. Upper class / elite (nobility?)
c. Priests? Religious leaders?
d. Warriors: i.e., weaponry, etc.
e. Variously ranked officials:
supervising different aspects
f. Traders / merchants (external?)
g. Artisans/craftsmen:
Potters; Metal workers; carpenters;
jewelers; stone masons; etc.
h. Farmers / peasants / etc.
i. Unskilled labor / POWs? / slaves?
ALSO examining Swahili coast and

Arab traders and related documents
The Zimbabwe
culture:
(6). Environment:
i.e., The geographical setting:
Topography, climate, vegetation,
Etc.
Geographical & political map: Broader context
Saharan North Africa
-Now mostly Moslem
Sub-Saharan Africa
-Now Christian & other faiths
Diverse regions with deserts,

jungles, savannah, lowlands,
highlands, coastal plains,
Diverse resources
Diverse climate
Diverse cultures & peoples

Zimbabwe
Diverse religions
Next slide
Diverse languages
Topography
Rainfall
Zimbabwes
overall climate
varies:
Temperatures vary
widely by altitude:
WINTER:
May-September:
Dry season,
including a short
cooler stretch.
54-55 deg. F av.
SUMMER:
November-March:
Wet season with
much precipitation.
75 deg. F av.
Temperature ranges across Zimbabwe
Topography &
vegetation
Vegetation:
Forest
Moist savanna
woodland
Mopana
woodland
Mopanna tree+
scrub savanna
Dry savanna
woodland
Dry savanna
woodland+tree
savanna
Grassland
Cultivated land
Distribution of stone ruins (100s) similar to Great Zimbabwe Ruins: AD 1000-1500
Zimbabwe

vegetation.

during the period of main occupation.



Great Zimbabwe culture: soapstone dishes with animal & human friezes
Baboon on leash
Zebra
Cattle frieze
Guilloche motif
The Zimbabwe
culture:
(7). Subsistence
and diet:
i.e., Floral and faunal foods:
domesticated & wild types ...
Subsistence: GZ & Z-culture sorghum
Farming: staple = grain crops
and processing grains:
e.g., grindstones; querns.
a. Sorghum, cowpeas,
finger millet, ground beans.
b. yam, bananas (later), and
African ground nuts.
c. Major drink: hwahwa-beer. cowpeas
Domestic animals: Livestock, Finger millet
pastoral lifestyle sedentary
a. Cattle (models; burial-off.)
b. Sheep & goats yam
Hunting wild game: small-large
E.g., gazelle, etc.
Fishing: Many riverine fish.
Zimbabwe culture:
Iron tools = rare;
Iron Age:
AD 1100 Shift in economy (Cattle still main focus, but > = TRADE)
Iron tools
patronage? Gifts? Or tribute?
Great Zimbabwe culture:
Early cattle models either
pre-dating enclosures, or
dating to earliest stone walls.
Models of humped cattle,
reflecting the importance of
pastoralism in Shona society.
Note: Agriculture also played
an importance role:
sorghum, millet, ground beans
cowpeas
Zimbabwe culture:
AD 1250+
Great Zimbabwe = centre of a widespread network of sites
Other stone buildings across the Zimbabwe plateau yield
identical pottery (i.e., = related to central site).
Is it a kingdom/empire(?)
Cattle herding = major importance at Great Zimbabwe
Cattle = kept outside main settlements
AD 1300+/-: Phase-2 Leopards Kopje industry in SE Africa:

Beginning of construction in dry stone masonry zimbabwes
Mining and working gold
Manufacture of cotton textiles
Glass beads from coastal trade
Ca. 1450 AD Decline of Great Zimbabwe
Political power moves to a northern site, which begins to
evolve as the main trading route to the coast.
Northern copper = a major trade item
Zimbabwe culture:
Typical beer pot
for Shona peoples
An opaque beer
(called hwahwa),
traditionally
fermented
mostly from
sorghum,
(or millet),
etc.
The Zimbabwe
culture:
(8). Technology:
i.e., Industries / Crafts:
Especially characteristic types
Iron Age Pottery from GZ:
Nos.1 & 3 = Robinson Period II
No.2 = Robinson Period III
No.4 = Zimbabwe Period III
(influenced by IV)
No.7 = Robinson Period IV
Iron Age Pottery outside GZ:
Nos.5-6, 8 = Period IV
Technology:
Debated dates:
Period I: C14 = AD
Handmade, coil320 +/-pottery
built 150yr
Later! (before encl.)
Period
Some II: mat turning
(but NOT wheel turned)
Period III: C14 = AD 1440 +/-150yr
Decorated with incising,
impressions,
Period etc.:1380+/-90yr
III/IV: C14=AD
geometric & other designs.
Period IV: C14 = AD 1450-(1485?)
Firing > abandonment
baked. of site
Ritual usage until 1800s
Technology: Example of Shona pottery
Shona pottery
Handmade by
coil construction
Incised, painted,
and impressed
decoration
Great Zimbabwe culture: technology.
IRON ORE mined, smelted/processed, cast,
and completed (e.g., haft; etc.):
Iron spoon (= imported [Renders Ruin]; rare!)
Three iron hoes (from Renders Ruin)
Iron gongs (flange-welded) (Renders Ruin)
Copper working technology:

One-piece soapstone mould for casting
X-shaped copper ingots (open casting)
Metal working:
Top row (lower illustration):
Large copper ingot (Ingombe Ilede site)
Small copper ingot (Great Zimbabwe)
Three tanged iron arroweads
Bottom row (lower illustration):

Gad (used in mining)
Axe
Hoe
Knife
Tanged foliate spearhead
Great Zimbabwe:
Soapstone mould
for open casting
a copper ingot
Iron Age iron tools from the Great Zimbabwe
Gold sources are found throughout
Gold mines,
the region mining,
around & smelting
the Great Zimbabwe
Hence, gold jewelry appears in the

stone enclosures across the Zimbabwe
plateau.
Great Zimbabwe:
Gold work includes:
- Figurines (e.g., rhinoceros)
- Sceptre(?)
- Drawn/pulled wire
- Coiled wire
- Small strips
- Thin sheeting originally affixed to wood
- Cast beads
Granite working:
Granite surface = heated
to split off slabs
Water cooling rock
rapidly: (see doc.)
Breaking into smaller bits
(pounders/hammers)
Fine-tuning shapes and
sizes
Great Zimbabwe:
More elaborate stone architecture: Stone masons, cutting, design, building
Chevron pattern
2m
Great Zimbabwe
culture: carving
Soapstone dish bearing a

herringbone decoration.
This style of decoration

appears on other dishes.
It has been compared with

Islamic mihrabs(mosques)
which have similar carved
coral decoration (below),
dating to the 14th-18th cent
AD.
Possible influences in
decorative motifs, or
perhaps independent
ornamental styles (i.e.,
relatively simple pattern).
The Zimbabwe
culture:
(9). Trade and
Exchange:
i.e., Imports & exports of
various materials, products, etc.
Early trade re: Zimbabwe culture, Swahili coast & Indian Ocean
Gold
Ivory
Gold
Ivory
Medieval Indian Ocean trade, including slaves: 1200-1500

Zimbabwe culture resources: gold, copper,
GZ
Trade relations:
Established links existed between Great Zimbabwe and the
site of Kilwa Kiswani in East Africa: Gold & ivory exported
Kilwa KisIwani mosque dates as early as 11th cent. AD (site earlier)
http://masshumanities.org/global-in-african-nature-great-zimbabwe-and-kilwa-kisiwani
the region around the Great Zimbabwe

plateau.
Some recent scholars argue:

Great Zimbabwe:
archival
Gold workrecords and archeological
includes:
evidence pointrhinoceros)
- Figurines (e.g., to a significant
Swahili and Arab trading presence
- Sceptre(?)
in Great Zimbabwe,
- Drawn/pulled wire with traders
and caravans traveling to the
- Coiled wire
imperial city in order to establish
- Small strips
and negotiate trade partnerships.
Breeanna Elliot, Oct. 25, 2016.
- Cast beads
masshumanities, The Public Humanist
http://masshumanities.org/global-in-african-nature-great-zimbabwe-and-kilwa-kisiwani/
Great Zimbabwe: Trade products.
Spherical, oblate, and cylinder beads of glass from the Great Zimbabwe
Exact origin uncertain, but definitely via the medieval Indian Ocean trading
network.
Similar beads appear in contemporary African East Coast city states,
suggesting commercial connections with Central Africa (in African Iron Age).
Later, Portuguese introduced larger, irregularly shaped opaque beads.
Medieval Indian Ocean commerce

Great Islamic pottery
Zimbabwe:
Imported glass
from Islamic
Near East.
Ground surface
below the later
Elliptical Building
yielded some
similar glass.
Date: medieval
Period
Similar glass
produced in
Cairo, Aleppo, &
Damascus in
13th-15th cents.
AD.
Great Zimbabwe
culture:



Islamic mihrabs (mosques)
AD.
perhaps independent
ornamental styles (i.e., =
-Local/regional influences?
Great Zimbabwe: Trade products. > Persian
A. Potsherds from imported vessels:
a. Persian faience vessels (3 on left)
13th/14th? cent. AD (ca.1300 AD)
b. Persian bowl tin-glazed interior and a
grey-blue underglaze decoration (right):
14th Cent. AD
c. Chinese stoneware sherd (upper right):
13th Cent. AD
B. Potsherds from imported vessels: Chinese
d. Chinese celadon sherds (Renders Ruin)
Blue-grey = Ming dynasty (1368-1644)
made frequently for export.
Crackled sea-green glaze = Lung Chuan
wares (also = Ming dynasty)
Note: Chinese pottery frequently appear in
coastal Africa in 14th-15th Cents. AD
Great Zimbabwe also had celadon wares:
Yuan dynasty (AD 1279-1368)
Sung dynasty (AD 960-1279)
Zimbabwe culture related site:
Manyikeni in Mozambique,
about 50 km west of the coast.
350 km SE of Great Zimbabwe
Dating around 12001700 AD
Kingdom of Mwenu Mutapa
Small limestone enclosure:
20 m diameter; 50 cm high, &
containing dry laid masonry
like construction at Great GZ
Zimbabwe ruins and other Manyikeni
Zimbabwe culture sites
Site displays non-indigenous
Cenchrus Ciliaris grass, which
is typical of Zimbabwe: import
Indian
Cattle bones from centre (elite diet);
ovi-caprines exterior (commoners)
Ocean
The Zimbabwe
culture:
(10). Cognitive
archaeology:
i.e., Beliefs/religion, art, etc.
The Zimbabwe
culture:
(10). Cognitive
archaeology:
(a). RELIGION
Traditional Religion: Ethnoarchaeological data
Traditional Shona religion concentrates
upon on interacting with spirit world:
a. Spirits of deceased;
b. of strangers;
c. of ancestors;
d. of the land;
e. of venerated heroes.
Many Shona recognized a high deity
(with different names) who was believed
to be remote from human life (but = more
accessible in southern Shona lands).
The spirit world displayed a theoretically
fixed, ancient hierarchy (but = flexible):
1. High deity
2. Spirits of heroes
3. Spirits of the land
4. Spirits of ancestors
5. Spirits of strangers.
Interactions via mediums(priest/shaman).
P. Garlake reconstruction of enclosure platform: offerings & rituals
Small soapstone figurines found

in large amounts in various
locations at Great Zimbabwe.
Some = phallic figurines
Others = anthropomorphic, etc.
E.g., Lower right figurine has

a navel and breasts
Other pottery figurines, similar

to the far right anthropomorphic
figurine, appear at other Iron Age
sites in Mashonaland.
Function?:
- Probably cultic items of some
sort: fertility cult? Other rituals?
(very little = known for sure!)
RELIGION
Bird sculptures on monoliths
of varying heights:
e.g., 1 metre several metres
(tallest one fell in 1903)
Birds vary in detail and style,
carved in soapstone. Totems?
Two anthropomorphic figures
ex-situ (claimed to be from GZ)
Great Zimbabwe Ruins: The Elliptical Building.
The conical tower.
The Conical tower lies at the far eastern end of

Elliptical
the Might reflect a grain
Enclosure, built intower
the last phase of
this structure (contemporary with great Encl.-Wall)
Perhaps
Each course wasphallic symbolto create this
inset slightly
tall tower with a distinct batter = very stable.
The forecourt originally held a series of slabs
surmounted by sculptured birds: Totems? Cult
Zimbabwe cultural region:
Gold mining region around the
Zambezi River
Promoted growth of kingdoms
in 7th Cent. AD+
Modern Zimbabwe & Mozambique
have yielded 100s of stone ruins,
the best known of which =
Built by the Shona peoples
Cultic(?) aspects to the
Early 11th Cent early 15th Cent.
Great Zimbabwe ruins:
(= AD 1000-1400s)
Continuity?
Peak in 1400s, but = abandoned!
Changed function?
(king moved royal residence north)
Greater emphasis?
Theory: soil depleted of nutrients
i.e., venerated site of
around site & land overgrazed
ancestor
(main rulers= etc.
subsistence pastoralism)
Site still important religious shrine
19th century (1800s): Zulu period
The Zimbabwe
culture:
(10). Cognitive
archaeology:
(b). ART
Great Zimbabwe
culture: ART:



Islamic mihrabs (mosques)
AD.
perhaps independent
ornamental styles (i.e.,
Great Zimbabwe culture: ART
the region around the Great Zimbabwe

plateau.
Great Zimbabwe:
Gold work includes:
- Figurines (e.g., rhinoceros)
- Sceptre(?)
- Drawn/pulled wire
- Coiled wire
- Small strips
- Cast beads
The Zimbabwe
culture:
(10). Cognitive
archaeology:
(c). MORTUARY
Elite burials contemporary with/of Zimbabwe culture:
South of Great Zimbabwe, in Kingdom of Mapungubwe 1075-1220
AD, at junction of the Limpopo
& Shashe rivers (in Zimbabwe).
Gold objects placed in elite burials
on a royal hill (Mapungubwe hill)
during 13th century AD.
1997 discovery of royal graves with gold items at Thulamela (SA):
1 th
Great Zimbabwe culture, dating 13 17th centuries AD (C14 dating)
http://www.traveller24.com/FindYourEscape/SAHeritage/one-of-sas-most-invaluable-heritage-gold-collections-has-been-stolen-20170924
Zimbabwe culture burials:
More affluent persons were

buried with ornaments, etc.
E.g., copper wire wound
around legs
Bracelets, anklets, etc.
Traces of an indigenous
cotton shroud placed
over some bodies
Peter Garlake, 1973: pl. 64

The Zimbabwe
culture:
(11). The People
themselves:
i.e., Life expectancy, appearance,
Health, nutrition, medical care,
population diversity, identity, etc.
The Elliptical Building.
Earliest structure at site =
enclosure-1
Other earlier (poorer)
construction marked in grey
The great Outer Wall was
ETHNICITY
built with finely dressed,
regular courses (with upper
chevron pattern), beginning
at the west side and growing
in thickness as it went east.
In the past, various people
theorized that this wall had
been built by non-Africans
Now most people agree with
the indigenous traditions that
this is entirely an African-
derived structure & culture.
Zambezi River
ETHNICITY
in 7th Cent. AD+
(= AD 1000-1400s)
(main subsistence = pastoralism)
SHONA CULTURE: Traditions
The Shona people = subdivided
into W. Shonas (= Bakalanga)
and E. Shonas.
Totems = very important to them
i.e., = group/clan identification.
Members from same clan use
similar types/forms of totems:
These totems are often body parts
and animals: E.g., Bird totems.
Members from the same totem
recognize descent from a single
common ancestor, namely the
founder of the group totem; Traditional
They are prohibited from marrying Shona garb
or have sexual relations within
the same totem group
CLOTHING: http://www.rebirth.co.za/traditional_african_clothing1.htm
Venda people: from northern province in South Africa with close ties to Shona people,
who built the Zimbabwe culture enclosures: Both Venda+Shona have similar clothing.
Copper/bronze wire ornamentation:
Coiling wire over a fibre(?) core to form
bracelets & anklets.
Coiled copper wire wound round the legs of
a young woman buried at Dambarare
(17th cent. AD cemetery).
Copper working tools:
Iron pincers (below [top])
Iron drawplate to draw/pull copper into wire
Bioarchaeology Zimbabwe culture:
No evidence of human remains or burials have ever been
found at Great Zimbabwe, yet indications from historical censuses
as well as demographic reconstruction, suggest that infant
and child mortality would have been very high, perhaps of the
order of 300 to 400 deaths before the age of five years from
every 1,000 births. 30-40%
This observation is given more weight by the recovery of 96 burials
from the archaeological site of K2 (CE10001220), located in
the Shashe-Limpopo area where the three countries of Botswana,
South Africa and Zimbabwe meet. Of these burials, 54 were infants
whose age ranged from zero to three years [42].
The evidence from other sites in the region also points to
high infant mortality.
ARTICLE: What was the population of Great Zimbabwe (CE1000 1800)?
June 14, 2017. PLOS ONE,
By Shadreck Chirikure, Thomas Moultrie, Foreman Bandama, Collett Dandara,
Munyaradzi Manyanga http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0178335
The Zimbabwe
culture:
(12). Change:
i.e., Evidence for how and
why change occurred
Zambezi River
in 7th Cent. AD+
(= AD 1000-1400s)
(main subsistence = pastoralism)
Zimbabwe culture:
Iron tools = rare;
Iron Age:
AD 1100 Shift in economy (Cattle still main focus, but > TRADE)
Iron tools
patronage? Gifts? Or tribute?
Zimbabwe culture:
AD 1250+
Great Zimbabwe = centre of a widespread network of sites
Other stone buildings across the Zimbabwe plateau yield
identical pottery (i.e., = related to central site).
Is it a kingdom/empire(?)
Cattle herding = major importance at Great Zimbabwe
Cattle kept outside main settlements
AD 1300+/-: Phase-2 Leopards Kopje industry in SE Africa:

Beginning of construction in dry stone masonry zimbabwes
Mining and working gold
Manufacture of cotton textiles
Glass beads from coastal trade
Ca. 1450 AD Decline of Great Zimbabwe
Political power moves to a northern site, which begins to
evolve as the main trading route to the coast.
Northern copper = a major trade item
More
recent
dates/
phases
(AD/CE):
Period-1
300-900
0.52 hect
Period 2
900-1000
2.18 hect
Period 3
1000-1200
9.3 hect
Period 4
1200-1700
125 hect
Period 5
1700-1900
95 hect Great Zimbabwe phases
Naletale Ruins: Late 17th/early 18th Cent. AD (AD 1700) evolved from Zimbabwe
Located in Matabeleland:
Regular stone courses
Dressed walls
Check pattern friezes
Retaining terraces and
building platforms
Bumbusi site:
A late Zimbabwe culture site
in western Zimbabwe.
It dates approximately to
1700s 1800s AD
It features:
Massive sandstone walls,
including boulders.
Platforms & residential structures
It is similar to Zimbabwe culture
sites in construction, etc.
Investigations, etc.:
1946: National monument
2000: excavation of 18 huts
2008: On list of endangered
world monuments.
The Zimbabwe
culture:
(*). Heritage.
Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2012 (6th ed): chp.14
14. Whose Past? Archaeology and the Public.
1.1. Introduction:
Regarding archaeological work
one can ask many questions?
- Why investigate the past?
- What does it mean to us?
- What is its meaning to others?
- Whose past is it?
- Whose responsibility?
E.g., Parthenon in Athens has a
specific meaning to modern Greeks.
E.g., Great Zimbabwe Ruins has a
specific meaning to the modern
descendants in Zimbabwe.
E.g., Humanitys past means different
things to different peoples & individuals.
Is it worth protecting? preserving?
Should looting be stopped? . . .
On state land vs. private land?
The Zimbabwe
culture:
(*). Sources:
General sources on Africa
Specific sources on the
archaeology of Zimbabwe
1931
Other selected sources:
Encyclopedia Britannica: entry on Great Zimbabwe
https://www.britannica.com/place/Great-Zimbabwe
History Today:
http://www.historytoday.com/ann-hills/great-zimbabwes-trading-past
Radiocarbon dating at Great Zimbabwe:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273293590_A_Bayesian_chronology_for_Great_Zimbabwe_re-threading_the_sequence_of_a_vandalised_monument
Population at Great Zimbabwe:

http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0178335
Trade links with Kilwa Kisiwani (East Africa):

http://masshumanities.org/global-in-african-nature-great-zimbabwe-and-kilwa-kisiwani/
ZAMANI Project (University of CapeTown).

E.g., Great Zimbabwe (and related sites) mapping (2015)
https://zamaniproject.org/index.php/gislayouts.html

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Lecture-: Background to Doc.7

Early travelers to Great Zimbabwe:

9.75 m. high, 5 m. wide, 250 m long

The region around the Zimbabwe

Probably originally less wooded

The hills surrounding the ruins

The area between the Hill Ruin and

The Great Zimbabwe enclosure

These walls form an obvious long-term

The Conical tower lies at the far eastern end of

The Great Zimbabwe spans the last phase

The Hill Ruin / Complex:

Earliest occupation at the Great

Unshaped/rough granite and

Interior of enclosure contains

Entry to hill complex

Period III: C14 = AD 1440 +/-150yr

Period III/IV: C14=AD 1380+/-90yr

Period IV: C14 = AD 1450-(1485?)

The region around the Zimbabwe

Probably originally less wooded

The hills surrounding the ruins

The area between the Hill Ruin and

The Great Zimbabwe enclosure

The majority of the population resided in huts

These enclosures may be scaled in size

Probably an Early State Complex Society

The Great Zimbabwe spans the last phase

ALSO examining Swahili coast and

Diverse regions with deserts,

Diverse cultures & peoples

The region around the Zimbabwe

Probably originally less wooded

The hills surrounding the ruins

The area between the Hill Ruin and

The Great Zimbabwe enclosure

AD 1300+/-: Phase-2 Leopards Kopje industry in SE Africa:

Copper working technology:

Bottom row (lower illustration):

Hence, gold jewelry appears in the

Soapstone dish bearing a

This style of decoration

It has been compared with

Medieval Indian Ocean trade, including slaves: 1200-1500

Hence, gold jewelry appears in the

Some recent scholars argue:

Medieval Indian Ocean commerce

Soapstone dish bearing a

This style of decoration

It has been compared with

Small soapstone figurines found

Some = phallic figurines

Others = anthropomorphic, etc.

E.g., Lower right figurine has

Other pottery figurines, similar

The Conical tower lies at the far eastern end of

Soapstone dish bearing a

This style of decoration

It has been compared with

Hence, gold jewelry appears in the

More affluent persons were

Peter Garlake, 1973: pl. 64