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INDUCED OVER VOLTAGE SENSITIVITY

ANALYSIS USING STIDA

Conference Paper September 2002

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3p.6
ICLP 2002 Cracow, Poland September 2-6, 2002
2. SIMULATIONS
In the simulations two standard overhead lines, one
horizontal [7] and the other vertical, were used. For both
cases the influence of the ground wire were studied. The
locations of the conductors in the two configurations are
shown in the Figure No.2. All the distances are in meters.
1.12
0.6
0.6
1.12
0.6
1.64 0.6
10 10
Figure No.2: Overhead lines configurations.
Several studies have been done previously in order to
determine the location on the line where the maximum
over voltage takes place when lightning flashes are
located along the perpendicular bisector of the line. It has
been reported by Montao et al. [5] that this point is
located around 1 and 1.5 km from the center of the line.
They called this distance the Critical Over voltage
Distance (COD). However, that study was of limited
value because the results are based on a single conductor
line. In the present study the induced voltage was
calculated at three points located at 500, 1500 and 2000
meters from the center of the line. In the analysis the
voltage at each conductor was calculated and the
maximum was selected. The conductivity of the ground
was assumed to vary between 0.01 and 0.0001 S/m. The
relative dielectric constant of the ground was kept
constant at 10 [2]. The striking distance to the power line
was calculated from the relationship:
S = 10 I 0.65
where, S is the striking distance in meters and I is the peak
current in kA. During the simulations, the peak current was
kept constant in 50 kA. Hence, the minimum distance to the
strike point at ground is equal to 150 meters. In studying
the effect of the rise time of the current and the return
stroke speed on the induced voltages the point of strike was
kept at this minimum distance. In the calculation the initial
return stroke speed, Vo, was changed from 110 m/ s to 200
m/ s in ten steps. The way in which the rise time of the
current, tf , was varied in the calculations is depicted in
Table 1. In studying the effect of the distance to the point
of strike on the induced voltages, the point of strike was
varied in ten steps from 150 m from the line to 1500 m. In
these calculations the peak of the current at the base of the
channel was kept at 50 kA with a rise time of 1.2 s and a
decay time of 50 s.
Study Case
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
tf [ s] 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 5
Table No.1: Rise time values selected for induced voltage
calculation
237
3. DISCUSSION
For the sensitivity analysis the induced voltage for 1440
cases were obtained. The results are presented in the figures
3 to 15. In these figures the first bar corresponds to the
smallest value of the variable involve and the last one to the
largest value. As can be seen, the peak voltages calculated
are in the range of 100 kV. The peak induced voltage
decreases with increasing distance to the strike point. Note
also that the maximum over voltage takes place at the
distance of 2000 meters from the center of the line when
the ground is perfectly conducting. Note that the positive
peak of the over voltage decreases with decreasing
conductivity at 1500 m and 2000 m. At 500 m it remains
more or less the same. On the other hand, the negative
peak of the induced over voltage increases with
decreasing conductivity. Observe also that the negative
peak for low conductivity is larger than the positive peak
obtained for perfectly conducting ground. The reason for
this is that the negative peak is mainly created by the
horizontal field over finitely conducting ground and that it
increases with decreasing conductivity. Observe that for a
given peak current, the magnitude of the over voltage
decreases with increasing rise time of the current. The
reason for this is that the peak of the horizontal field
decreases with increasing rise time of the current. This is
the case since the content of higher frequencies in the
electromagnetic fields decreases with decreasing rise time
of the current. Comparison of the magnitudes of the
induced voltages of the two main configurations,
horizontal and vertical, shows that the voltages induced in
the vertical configuration are higher than for the
horizontal one. The reason for this is that the height of the
conductors of the vertical configuration are larger than
those of the horizontal one. For example, the upper
conductor of the vertical configuration is 1.2 meters
above the horizontal ones. This will increase the voltage
induced in the line through the coupling of the vertical
electric field. In analyzing the effects of the return stroke
velocity on induced voltages, the distance of the
discharge and the return stroke current were kept constant
at 150 meters and 50 kA respectively. From the data one
can see that in the case of perfectly conducting ground the
induced voltages reduces with increasing return stroke
velocity. The reason for this is the following. When the
ground is perfectly conducting and when the striking
point is located close to the line, the peak induced voltage
is determined mainly by the static component of the
electric field. The peak value of this component decreases
with increasing return stroke velocity if the return stroke
current is kept constant. The reason for this is that in the
TCS model, the effective charge per unit length of the
return stroke channel decreases with increasing speed of
8 9 10 the return stroke. Thus the above result is model
7 9 10 dependent. With decreasing conductivity, the contribution
to the induced voltage from the horizontal field caused by
the finite conductivity increases. This component of the
field increases with increasing return stroke velocity for a
238 26th International Conference on Lightning Protection

given peak current. Therefore, at low conductivities the 5. REFERENCE

induced voltage increases with increasing return stroke
speed. This one can observe in the figures. No2 and 8.
Note how the polarity of the peak induced voltage
changes with conductivity. The negative peak increases
with decreasing conductivity. The reason for this is that
the contribution of the horizontal electric field generated
by the finitely conducting ground to the induced voltage
is negative and this contribution increases with decreasing
ground conductivity.
Observe that an introduction of an overhead ground
wire decreases the voltages induced in the line. In order to
analyze this effect we define a protective ratio as follow:
Induced Voltage with Ground wire
Pr otective Ratio =
Induced Voltage without Ground wire
The average protective ratios for different configurations
are given in tables 2 and 3. This ratio determine the
effectiveness of the ground wire on the reduction of the
induce voltage.
4. CONCLUSSIONS
An analysis of the way in which the lightning
induced voltages in power lines vary with the
configuration of the line, ground conductivity and the
return stroke velocity has been presented. The results
show that the effectiveness of the overhead ground
wire in reducing the positive induced over voltages
decreases with increasing (or decreasing)
conductivity.
[1] Heidler F., C. Hopf, "Measurement Results of the
Electric Fields in Cloud-To-Ground Lightning
in Nearby Munich", IEEE Transactions on
Electromagnetic Compatibility, Special Issue on
Lightning, Vol.40, No.4, November 1998.
[2] Voislav, Jankov. Estimation of the Maximal
Induced Over voltage on an Overhead Line due to
Nearby Lightning , IEEE Transactions On power
Delivery Vol.12, No.1, pp. 315-324, Jan 1997.
[3] Rachidi F., C.A. Nucci, M. Ianoz, C. Mazzetti,
Influence of a lossy ground on Lightning Induced
Voltages on Overhead lines, IEEE Transactions
on Electromagnetic Compatibility, Vol.38, pp. 250-
264, August 1996.
[4] Cooray V., Scuka V., Lightning-induced voltages
in Power lines: Validity of Various approximations
Made in Overvoltages Calculations, IEEE
Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility,
Vol.40, pp. 355-363, August 1996.
[5] Montao R., Cordero A, Martinez M., Sensibility
analysis of induced overvoltages by lightning
stroke near Distribution system Using ATP-
EMTP. Proceeding of the International
Conference on Power Systems Transients
(IPST99), pp353-358, June 1999,
[6] Rachidi F., C.A. Nucci, M. Ianoz, C. Mazzetti,
Lightning-induced voltages on overhead lines,
IEEE Transactions on Electromagnetic
Compatibility, Vol.35, pp. 75-85, February 1993
[7] IEE Std 1410-1997. IEEE Guide for improving
the lightning performance of Electric Overhead
Distribution Lines

Horizontal Configuration Vertical Configuration

Inf 0.01 0.001 0.0001 Inf 0.01 0.001 0.0001
tf 0.75 0.77 0.78 0.78 0.64 0.63 0.65 0.75
500 m Vo 0.71 0.69 0.72 0.67 0.63 0.61 0.66 0.67
Yo 0.64 0.62 0.64 0.62 0.63 0.61 0.66 0.71
tf 0.73 0.76 0.77 0.78 0.63 0.60 0.64 0.85
1500 m Vo 0.71 0.68 0.69 0.96 0.63 0.59 0.63 0.96
Yo 0.68 0.70 0.68 0.75 0.63 0.62 0.66 0.86
tf 0.74 0.77 0.78 0.87 0.63 0.60 0.65 0.91
2000 m Vo 0.71 0.67 0.70 1.15 0.64 0.59 0.66 1.15
Yo 0.68 0.71 0.72 0.95 0.64 0.63 0.70 1.03
Table No.1: Average Protective Ratio for the maximum positive peak achieved .

Horizontal Configuration Vertical Configuration

Inf 0.01 0.001 0.0001 Inf 0.01 0.001 0.0001
tf 1.00 1.6 0.63 0.60 1.00 1.6 0.80 0.77
500 m Vo 1.00 1.65 0.76 0.73 1.00 1.5 0.78 0.74
Yo 1.00 0.85 0.68 0.59 1.00 1.57 0.73 0.78
tf 1.00 1.04 0.62 0.59 1.00 1.40 0.81 0.75
1500 m Vo 1.00 0.76 0.74 0.72 1.00 0.79 0.75 0.72
Yo 1.00 0.65 0.57 0.56 1.00 0.92 0.74 0.71
tf 1.00 1.17 0.62 0.59 1.00 1.89 0.83 0.74
2000 m Vo 1.00 0.85 0.77 0.72 1.00 0.89 0.78 0.72
Yo 1.00 0.60 0.57 0.56 1.00 0.80 0.72 0.70
Table No.2: Average Protective Ratio for the minimum negative peak achieved.
ICLP 2002 Cracow, Poland September 2-6, 2002 239

(a)
100 (d)
Yo: 150
Yo: 300 150
Yo: 450 Yo: 150
Yo: 600 Yo: 300
50 Yo: 750 100 Yo: 450
Yo: 900 Yo: 600
Yo: 1050 Yo: 750
Yo: 900
Yo: 1200 50 Yo: 1050
Yo: 1350
0 Yo: 1500 Yo: 1200
1 2 3 4 0 Yo: 1350
Yo: 1500
(b) 1 2 3 4
Induced Voltage [kV]

100 (e)

Induced Voltage [kV]

200

50
100

0
1 2 3 4 0
(c) 1 2 3 4
100 (f)
200

50
100

0
1 2 3 4 0
Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001 1 2 3 4
Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001

Figure No. 3: Induce voltage at different observation points for the horizontal configuration without ground wire when Yo is
changed. (a) Maximum at 500 m, (b) Maximum at 1500 m, (c) Maximum at 2000 m, (d) Minimum at 500 m, (e) Minimum
at 1500 m, (f) Minimum at 2000 m.
(a)
150 Vo: 110
(d)
Vo: 120 200 Vo: 110
Vo: 130
100 Vo: 140
Vo: 120
Vo: 130
Vo: 150 Vo: 140
50 Vo: 160 100 Vo: 150
Vo: 170 Vo: 160
Vo: 180 Vo: 170
Vo: 190 Vo: 180
0 Vo: 200 Vo: 190
1 2 3 4 0 Vo: 200
(b) 1 2 3 4
Induced Voltage [kV]

100 (e)
Induced Voltage [kV]

300

50 200

100
0
1 2 3 4 0
(c) 1 2 3 4
100 (f)
300

50 200

100
0
1 2 3 4 0
1 2 3 4
Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001
Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001

Figure No. 4: Induce voltage at different observation points for the horizontal configuration without ground wire when Vo is
changed. (a) Maximum at 500 m, (b) Maximum at 1500 m, (c) Maximum at 2000 m, (d) Minimum at 500 m, (e) Minimum
at 1500 m, (f) Minimum at 2000 m.
(a)
150 (d)
tf:
tf:
0.5 us
1 us
200 tf: 0.5 us
tf: 1.5 us tf: 1 us
100 tf: 2 us tf: 1.5 us
tf: 2.5 us tf: 2 us

50 tf: 3 us 100 tf: 2.5 us

tf: 5 us tf: 3 us
tf: 7 us tf: 5 us
tf: 9 us tf: 7 us
0 tf: 10 us tf: 9 us
1 2 3 4 0 tf: 10 us
1 2 3 4
Induced Voltage [kV]

(b)
(e)
Induced Voltage [kV]

150
300
100
200
50
100
0
1 2 3 4 0
1 2 3 4
(c) (f)
150
300
100
200
50
100
0
1 2 3 4 0
1 2 3 4
Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001
Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001

Figure No. 5: Induce voltage at different observation points for the horizontal without ground wire configuration when tf is
changed. (a) Maximum at 500 m, (b) Maximum at 1500 m, (c) Maximum at 2000 m, (d) Minimum at 500 m, (e) Minimum
at 1500 m, (f) Minimum at 2000 m.
(a)
100 (d)
Yo: 150 100 Yo: 150
Yo: 300
Yo: 300
Yo: 450
Yo: 450
Yo: 600
Yo: 600
50 Yo: 750
50 Yo: 750
Yo: 900
Yo: 900
Yo: 1050
Yo: 1050
Yo: 1200
Yo: 1200
Yo: 1350
0 Yo: 1500
0
Yo: 1350
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Yo: 1500
Induced Voltage [kV]

(b)
Induced Voltage [kV]

100 (e)
150

100
50
50
0 0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
(c) (f)
100 150

100
50
50

0 0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001 Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001

Figure No. 6: Induce voltage at different observation points for the horizontal with ground wire configuration when Yo is
changed. (a) Maximum at 500 m, (b) Maximum at 1500 m, (c) Maximum at 2000 m,(d) Minimum at 500 m, (e) Minimum
at 1500 m, (f) Minimum at 2000 m.
240 26th International Conference on Lightning Protection

(a)
100
Vo: 110 (d)
Vo: 120 150
Vo: 130 Vo: 110
Vo: 140 Vo: 120
50 Vo: 150 100 Vo: 130
Vo: 160 Vo: 140
Vo: 170 Vo: 150
Vo: 160
Vo: 180 50 Vo: 170
Vo: 190
0 Vo: 200 Vo: 180
1 2 3 4 0 Vo: 190
Vo: 200
1
Induced Voltage [kV]

(b) 2 3 4
100

Induced Voltage [kV]

(e)
200

50
100

0
1 2 3 4 0
(c) 1 2 3 4
100 (f)
200

50
100

0
1 2 3 4 0
Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001 1 2 3 4
Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001

Figure No. 7: Induce voltage at different observation points for the horizontal with ground wire configuration when Vo is
changed. (a) Maximum at 500 m, (b) Maximum at 1500 m, (c) Maximum at 2000 m,(d) Minimum at 500 m, (e) Minimum
at 1500 m, (f) Minimum at 2000 m.
(a)
100 (d)
tf: 0.5 us
tf: 1 us 100 tf: 0.5 us
tf: 1.5 us tf: 1 us
tf: 2 us tf: 1.5 us
50 tf: 2.5 us tf: 2 us
tf: 3 us 50 tf: 2.5 us
tf: 5 us tf: 3 us
tf: 7 us tf: 5 us
tf: 9 us tf: 7 us
0 tf: 10 us tf: 9 us
1 2 3 4 0 tf: 10 us
1 2 3 4
Induced Voltage [kV]

(b)
100 (e)
Induced Voltage [kV]

150

50 100

50
0
1 2 3 4 0
(c) 1 2 3 4
100 (f)
150

50 100

50
0
1 2 3 4 0
1 2 3 4
Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001
Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001

Figure No. 8: Induce voltage at different observation points for the horizontal with ground wire configuration when t f is
changed. (a) Maximum at 500 m, (b) Maximum at 1500 m, (c) Maximum at 2000 m,(d) Minimum at 500 m, (e) Minimum
at 1500 m, (f) Minimum at 2000 m.
(a)
150 (d)
Yo: 150 150
Yo: 300 Yo: 150
Yo: 450 Yo: 300
100 Yo: 600 Yo: 450
Yo: 750
100 Yo: 600
Yo: 900 Yo: 750
50 Yo: 1050 Yo: 900
Yo: 1200
50 Yo: 1050
Yo: 1350 Yo: 1200
0 Yo: 1500 Yo: 1350
1 2 3 4 0 Yo: 1500
(b) 1 2 3 4
Induced Voltage [kV]

Induced Voltage [kV]

150 (e)
200
100

50 100

0
1 2 3 4 0
(c) 1 2 3 4
150 (f)
200
100
100
50

0
1 2 3 4 0
1 2 3 4
Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001
Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001

Figure No. 9: Induce voltage at different observation points for the vertical configuration without ground wire when Yo
is changed. (a) Maximum at 500 m, (b) Maximum at 1500 m, (c) Maximum at 2000 m, (d) Minimum at 500 m, (e)
Minimum at 1500 m, (f) Minimum at 2000 m.
(a)
150 (d)
Vo: 110 200 Vo: 110
Vo: 120
Vo: 130 Vo: 120
100 Vo: 140
Vo: 130
Vo: 140
Vo: 150
Vo: 160 100 Vo: 150
50 Vo: 170
Vo: 160
Vo: 170
Vo: 180
Vo: 180
Vo: 190
0 Vo: 200
0
Vo: 190
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Vo: 200
(b)
Induced Voltage [kV]

Induced Voltage [kV]

(e)
150 300
100 200
50 100
0 0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
(c) (f)
150 300
100 200
50 100

0 0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001
Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001

Figure No. 10: Induce voltage at different observation points for the vertical configuration without ground wire when Vo is
changed. (a) Maximum at 500 m, (b) Maximum at 1500 m, (c) Maximum at 2000 m, (d) Minimum at 500 m, (e) Minimum
at 1500 m, (f) Minimum at 2000 m.
ICLP 2002 Cracow, Poland September 2-6, 2002 241

(a)
150 (d)
tf: 0.5 us
tf: 1 us 150
tf: 0.5 us
100 tf:
tf:
1.5 us
2 us tf: 1 us
tf: 2.5 us 100 tf:
tf:
1.5 us
2 us
tf: 3 us
50 tf: 5 us tf: 2.5 us
tf: 3 us
tf: 7 us 50 tf: 5 us
tf: 9 us
0 tf: 10 us tf: 7 us
1 2 3 4 tf: 9 us
0 tf: 10 us
(b) 1 2 3 4
Induced Voltage [kV]

150 (e)

Induced Voltage [kV]

300
100
200
50
100
0
1 2 3 4 0
(c) 1 2 3 4
150 (f)
300
100
200
50
100
0
1 2 3 4 0
1 2 3 4
Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001 Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001

Figure No. 11: Induce voltage at different observation points for the vertical without ground wire configuration when t f is
changed. (a) Maximum at 500 m, (b) Maximum at 1500 m, (c) Maximum at 2000 m, (d) Minimum at 500 m, (e) Minimum
at 1500 m, (f) Minimum at 2000 m.
(a)
100 Yo: 150
(d)
Yo: 300 100 Yo: 150
Yo: 450 Yo: 300
Yo: 600 Yo: 450
50 Yo: 750 Yo: 600
Yo: 900 50 Yo: 750
Yo: 1050 Yo: 900
Yo: 1200 Yo: 1050
Yo: 1350 Yo: 1200
0 Yo: 1500 Yo: 1350
1 2 3 4 0 Yo: 1500
1 2 3 4
Induced Voltage [kV]

(b)
100 (e)
Induced Voltage [kV]

150

50 100

50
0
1 2 3 4 0
(c) 1 2 3 4
100 (f)
150

50 100

50
0
1 2 3 4 0
1 2 3 4
Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001
Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001

Figure No. 12: Induce voltage at different observation points for the vertical with ground wire configuration when Yo is
changed. (a) Maximum at 500 m, (b) Maximum at 1500 m, (c) Maximum at 2000 m,(d) Minimum at 500 m, (e)
Minimum at 1500 m, (f) Minimum at 2000 m.
(a)
100 (d)
Vo:
Vo:
110
120
150 Vo: 110
Vo: 130 Vo: 120
Vo: 140 Vo: 130
50 Vo: 150
100 Vo: 140
Vo: 160 Vo: 150
Vo: 170 Vo: 160
Vo: 180
50 Vo: 170
Vo: 190 Vo: 180
0 Vo: 200 Vo: 190
1 2 3 4 0 Vo: 200
1 2 3 4
Induced Voltage [kV]

(b) (e)
Induced Voltage [kV]

100
300

200
50
100
0
1 2 3 4 0
(c) 1 2 3 4
100 (f)
300

200
50
100
0
1 2 3 4 0
1 2 3 4
Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001
Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001

Figure No. 13: Induce voltage at different observation points for the vertical with ground wire configuration when Vo is
changed. (a) Maximum at 500 m, (b) Maximum at 1500 m, (c) Maximum at 2000 m,(d) Minimum at 500 m, (e) Minimum
at 1500 m, (f) Minimum at 2000 m.
(a) (d)
100 tf: 0.5 us 150
tf: 1 us tf: 0.5 us
tf: 1.5 us tf: 1 us
tf: 1.5 us
tf: 2 us 100 tf: 2 us
50 tf: 2.5 us
tf: 2.5 us
tf: 3 us
tf: 3 us
tf: 5 us 50 tf: 5 us
tf: 7 us
tf: 7 us
tf: 9 us
0 tf: 10 us
0
tf: 9 us
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
tf: 10 us
Induced Voltage [kV]

(b)
Induced Voltage [kV]

(e)
100 200

50 100

0 0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
(c) (f)
100 150

100
50
50

0 0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001 Case 1: Sigma Infinite;Case 2: Sigma 0.01; Case 3: Sigma 0.001; Case 4: Sigma 0.0001

Figure No. 14: Induce voltage at different observation points for the vertical with ground wire configuration when t f is
changed. (a) Maximum at 500 m, (b) Maximum at 1500 m, (c) Maximum at 2000 m,(d) Minimum at 500 m, (e)
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Minimum at 1500 m, (f) Minimum at 2000 m.