Beruflich Dokumente
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November 2009
November 2009
FOREWORD
Insert Picture of
Dr. Capito
LOURDES B. CAPITO, MD
President
Philippine Obstetrical and Gynecological Society (Foundation), Inc. (POGS), 2009
In the role of the POGS to provide its members with updates, current and standard
practice recommendations and guidelines, this publication will fulfill the objective of continuing
education and implementation of refinements in Obstetrics and Gynecology. In keeping with the
highest standards of care, the Level and Grades of Clinical Practice/Recommendation has been
adopted for every recommendation that is completed and decided.
It becomes easy, dignified and scientific to conduct the practice of Obstetrics and
Gynecology specifically on Cesarean Section. Now, the Clinical Practice Guidelines on Cesarean
Section will hope to update and make the practice current and responsive to world-class standards
and make the patients under our care deserving of the trust and confidence that we, Obstetricians,
impart with utmost care and compassion.
LOURDES BLANCO-CAPITO, MD
INTRODUCTION
The Clinical Practice Guidelines on Cesarean Section is the First Edition of this
Publication, 2009. The Philippine Obstetrical and Gynecological Society, (Foundation), Inc.
(POGS), through the AdHoc Committee on Clinical Practice Guidelines initiated and led to
completion the publication of this manual in plenary consultation with the Residency Accredited
Training Hospitals Chairs and Training Officers, The Regional Board of Directors, The Board of
Trustees, The Task Force Reviewers for Cesarean Section and the Committee on Continuing
Medical Education.
This publication represents the collective effort of the POGS in updating the clinical
practice of Obstetrics and Gynecology, specifically on Cesarean Section, and making it
responsive to the most current and acceptable standard in this procedure. A greater part of the
inputs incorporated in this edition are the contributions originating from the day-to-day academic
interactions from the faculty of the different Residency-Accredited Hospitals in Obstetrics and
Gynecology in the country.
This Clinical Practice Guideline on Cesarean Section is envisioned to become the handy
companion of the Obstetrician-Gynecologist in his/her day-to-day rendition of quality care and
decision making in managing the Obstetric patient. This is also envisioned to provide the
academic institutions in the country and in Southeast Asia updated information and Cesarean
Section procedure refinements being practiced in the Philippines.
Profound gratitude is extended to all the members of the POGS, the Chairs and Training
Officers of the Residency-Training Accredited Institutions, the Regional Directors, The Task
Force On Cesarean Section Reviewers/Contributors, The CME Committee members, and the
2009 POGS Board of Trustees.
OFFICERS
Lourdes B. Capito, MD
President
Regta L. Pichay, MD
Vice President
Christia S. Padolina, MD
Public Relations Officer
BOARD OF TRUSTEES
Mayumi S. Bismarck, MD
Virgilio B. Castro, MD
Efren J. Domingo, MD, PhD
Gil S. Gonzales, MD
Diosdado V. Mariano, MD
Ma. Socorro M. Solis, MD
ADHOC COMMITTEE ON CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINES ON CESAREAN SECTION
MEMBERS
Jennifer T. Co, MD
Jericho Thaddeus P. Luna, MD
Josephine M. Lumitao, MD
Lisa Teresa P. Jabson, MD
Noel E. Raymundo, MD
Elisa O. Tiu, MD
FELLOWS
Rachelle U. delos Reyes, MD Ana Victoria V. Dy Echo, MD
May Nueva-Hipolito, MD Michelle R. Ong, MD
Renee Vina G. Sicam, MD
Regional Directors
Ellen A. Manzano, MD (Region 1) Evelyn R. Lacson, MD (Region 6)
Melchor C. dela Cruz, MD (Region 2) Belinda N. Paares, MD (Region 7)
Concepcion P. Aronza, MD (Region 3) Realino G. Molina, MD (Region 8)
Ernesto S. Naval, MD (Region 4) Suzette S. Montuno, MD (Region 9)
Rowena M. Auxillos, MD (Region 4A) Jana Joy R. Tusalem, MD (Region 10)
Cecilia Valdes-Neptuno, MD (Region 5) Amelia A. Vega, MD (Region 11)
.
CPG ON CESAREAN SECTION
TOPICS / CONTENTS
Part I:
Indications for Cesarean Section
Breech Presentation .. 1
Multiple Pregnancy ..
Premature Rupture of Membranes ..
Placenta Previa ..
Intrauterine Growth Restriction ..
Abnormal Fetal Heart Rate Pattern ..
Optimal Decision to Delivery Interval ..
Infections in Pregnancy
Hepatitis B Infection ..
Herpes Simplex Virus ..
Human Immunodeficiency ..
Maternal Request for Cesarean Section ..
Part II:
Prenatal Provision of Information Regarding Cesarean Section ..
Optimal Time of Planned Cesarean Section ..
Routine Laboratory Tests for Cesarean Section ..
Prophylactic Antibiotics ..
Shaving ..
Abdominal Incision ..
Removal of Placenta During Cesarean Section ..
Closure of Peritoneum During Cesarean Section ..
Closure of Subcutaneous Tissue During Cesarean Section ..
Use of Indwelling Foley Catheter in Cesarean Section ..
Pediatric Attendance at Cesarean Section ..
Early Skin to Skin Contact and Breastfeeding after Cesarean Section ..
Feeding After Cesarean Section ..
Wound Care/Gauze and Transparent Polyurethane Dressings (Tegaderm)
for Cesarean Section ..
Length of Hospital Stay ..
Sexual Intercourse After Cesarean Section ;.
BREECH AS INDICATION FOR CESAREAN SECTION
A. Recommendations
B. Supporting Evidence
A systematic review by Hofmeyr, et. al. showed that ECV at term reduced the
number of nonvertex births compared to no ECV (5 randomized control trials (RCT),
n=433, RR 0.38, 95% CI 0.18-0.80). It also showed that ECV reduced the number of CS
compared to no ECV (5 RCT, n=433, RR 0.55, 95% CI 0.33-0.91).1 One study compared
ECV initiated at 34-35 weeks compared to term. There is still a reduction of non-vertex
births by 9.5% and CS by 7%. However, the result was not statistically significant.2
Some of the complications and incidences attributable to ECV include the
following: fetal heart rate abnormalities the most common is transient bradycardia
(1.1% to 16%), placental abruption (0.4% to 1%), painless vaginal bleeding (1.1%),
admission for induction of labor (3%).3 A systematic review of adverse outcomes of ECV
and persistent breech at term from studies of women who had ECV starting 36 weeks and
a control group of women without ECV (11 studies, n=2503) showed that there was no
increased risk of antepartum fetal death, but the numbers were small. There was no
uterine rupture, abruptio placenta, prelabor rupture of membranes, or cord prolapse.
However, these outcomes were not examined among controls. The incidence of labor
within 24 hours was not significantly higher among those who underwent ECV compared
to those who had persistent breech.4
2. Term, breech
3. Preterm, breech
The results of the systematic review and the term breech trial cannot be
extrapolated to preterm breech deliveries.
An observational study showed that survival rates were lower for babies born
breech (84.5%) compared to babies born in cephalic presentation (89.4%). However, the
survival for preterm fetuses in breech presentation was significantly greater in those
delivered by CS (86.5%) than those delivered vaginally (77.4%).9
A multicenter RCT was attempted in 26 hospitals in the UK comparing elective
versus selective CS for the delivery of the preterm breech infant between 26-32 weeks.
However, no conclusions were drawn because the trial was terminated after 17 months
due to low recruitment and no formal statistical analysis was done.10
C. References
1. Hofmeyr GJ, Kulier R. External cephalic version facilitation for breech presentation at
term. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; Issue 2.
2. Hutton EK, Hofmeyr GJ. External cephalic version for breech presentation before term.
Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; Issue 2.
3. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Cesarean Section. London: RCOG
Press 2004.
4. Nassar N, Roberts CL, Barratt A, Bell JC, Olive EC, Peat B. Systematic review of
adverse outcomes of external cephalic version and persisting breech presentation at term.
Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2006; 20(2):163-171.
5. Hofmeyr GJ, Hannah ME. Planned cesarean section for term breech delivery. Cochrane
Database Syst Rev 2009; Issue 2.
6. Hannah ME, Hannah WJ, Hewson SA, Hodnett ED, Saigal S, et. al. Planned caesarean
section versus planned vaginal birth for breech presentation at term: a randomised
multicentre trial. Lancet 2000;356:13751383.
7. Herbst A, Thorngren-Jerneck K. Mode of delivery in breech presentation at term:
Increased neonatal morbidity with vaginal delivery. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand
2001;80:731737.
8. Rietberg CC, Elferink-Stinkens PM, Brand R, van Loon AJ, Van Hemel OJ, Visser GH.
Term breech presentation in The Netherlands from 1995 to 1999: mortality and morbidity
in relation to the mode of delivery of 33824 infants. Int J Gynaecol Obstet
2003;110:604609.
9. Confidential Enquiry into Stillbirths and Deaths in Infancy. An enquiry into the quality of
care and its effect on the survival of babies born at 27-28 weeks. Project 27/28. London:
TSO; 2003.
10. Penn ZJ, Steer PJ, Grant A. A multicentre randomised controlled trial comparing elective
and selective caesarean section for the delivery of the preterm breech infant. Br J Obstet
Gynaecol 1996;103(7):684-689.
MULTIPLE PREGNANCY AS INDICATION FOR CESAREAN SECTION
A. Recommendations
In a twin pregnancy where the first of twin is not cephalic, a planned CS should
be offered.1 (Level I, Grade A)
B. Supporting Evidence
1. Mode of Delivery
2. Timing of Delivery
C. References
1. Hogle KL, Hutton EK, McBrien KA, Barrett JFR, Hanah ME. Cesarean delivery for
twins: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003;188:220-227.
2. Morrison JJ, Rennie, JM, Milton PJ. Neonatal respiratory morbidity and mode of delivery
at term: influence of timing of elective caesarean section. Br J Obstet Gynaecol
1995;102:101-106.
3. Sairam S, Costeloe K, Thilaganathan B. Prospective risk of stillbirth in multiple-gestation
pregnancies: A population-based analysis. Obstet Gynecol 2002;100:638-641.
4. Chang EY. Timing of delivery in multiple gestation. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2004;
47(1):237-247.
5. Cesarean Section (Clinical Guideline No. 13). NICE. (www.nice.org.uk) April 2004.
PRELABOR RUPTURE OF MEMBRANES AS INDICATION FOR CESAREAN
SECTION
A. Recommendation
B. Supporting Evidence
C. Reference
Peleg D, Hannah ME, Hodnett ED, Foster GA, Willan AR, Farine D. Predictors of cesarean
delivery after prelabor rupture of membranes at term. Obstet Gynecol 1999;93(6):1031-1035.
PLACENTA PREVIA AS INDICATION FOR CESAREAN SECTION
A. Recommendations
B. Supporting Evidence
CS is required for patients with placenta previa totalis. Bhide et. al, reported on
women with placenta previa and demonstrated that when the placental edge was within 1 cm
of the internal cervical os within 2 weeks of delivery, all patients required a CS. In contrast, if
the placental edge to internal cervical os distance was 2 cm or more, the likelihood of
achieving a vaginal delivery was at least 63%.1 For the latter condition, it is theorized that the
fetal head is able to compress the placenta and lower uterine segment enough to prevent
hemorrhage and allow vaginal delivery.2 Bhide, et. al. proposed that the term placenta previa
should only be used when the placental edge overlapped or was within 2 cm of the internal
cervical os in late pregnancy. If the placental edge was located further than 2 cm but within
3.5 cm from the internal cervical os, the placenta should be termed low-lying. In the latter
case, although there is a good chance of a vaginal delivery, the incidence of post- hemorrhage
remains high. Therefore, a low-lying placenta deserves an attempt at vaginal delivery, but
should warn the clinician of the possibility of hemorrhagic complications, so that appropriate
precautions can be taken.3
Women having a CS for placenta previa are at increased risk of blood loss of greater
than 1000 ml compared to CS for other indications (RR 3.97, 95% CI 3.24- 4.85)2. Hence, the
CS should be carried out by an experienced operator with available blood transfusion
services.
C. References
1. Bhide A, Prefumo F, Moore J, et al. Placental edge to internal cervical os distance in the
late third trimester and mode of delivery in placenta praevia. Br J Obstet Gynecol
2003;110:860864.
2. Reed B, Cyper R, Shields A. Diagnosis and management of placenta previa.
Postgraduate Obstetrics and Gynecology 2008;28(20):1-6.
3. Bhide A, Thilaganathan B. Recent advances in the management of placenta previa. Curr
Opin Obstet Gynecol 2004;16:447-451.
4. Thomas J, Paranjothy S, Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists Clinical
Effectiveness Support Unit. The National Sentinel Caesarean Section Audit Report.
London: RCOG Press; 2001.
INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RESTRICTION AS INDICATION FOR
CESAREAN SECTION
A. Recommendations
Cesarean section (CS) should not routinely be offered for intrauterine growth
restriction (IUGR).2 (Level I, Grade A)
B. Supporting Evidence
A reported one third of pregnancies with small for gestational age (SGA) fetuses
require cesarean delivery.1 However, there is not enough evidence to evaluate the use of a
policy for elective CS for small babies. In a systematic review by Grant, et. al., babies
delivered by elective CS were less likely to develop respiratory distress syndrome (OR 0.43,
95% CI 0.18-1.0), neonatal seizures (0/39 vs 2/42) and fewer deaths (2/62 vs. 6/60) but these
differences did not reach statistical significance. Mothers, on the other hand, were more likely
to have serous morbidity (OR 6.44, 95% CI 1.48-27.89).2 When the cause of IUGR is chronic
hypoxia, it seems logical to avoid acute hypoxia during labor and delivery.3
No randomized trials have conclusively dealt with the issue of delivery timing across
the whole clinical spectrum of IUGR. In principle, delivery timing is straightforward in the
term fetus when fetal lung maturity has been documented, if there is fetal distress or if the
maternal condition dictates delivery.4
C. References
1. GRIT Study Group. A randomised trial of timed delivery for the compromised preterm
fetus: short term outcomes and Bayesian interpretation. Br J Obstet Gynecol
2003;110:2732.
2. Grant A, Glazener CMA. Elective cesarean section versus expectant management for
delivery of small baby. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; Issue 2.
3. Lin CC. Fetal growth retardation. In: Lin CC, Verp MS, Sabbagha RE, eds. The high-risk
fetus. New York: Springer, 1993:36095.
4. Alberry M, Soothill P. Management of fetal growth restriction. Arch Dis Child Fetal
Neonatal Ed 2007;92:F62F67.
ABNORMAL FETAL HEART RATE PATTERN AS INDICATION FOR
CESAREAN SECTION
A. Recommendation
Detection of an abnormal fetal heart rate (FHR) pattern (Category III) warrants
immediate intervention, usually through immediate cesarean section (CS).1-6
(Level I, Grade A)
B. Supporting Evidence
Abnormal FHR pattern is identified as the main indication for intrapartum CS.
Different studies support the need for immediate CS when an abnormal FHR pattern is
identified. Overall, there was a significant trend towards neonatal acidosis (pH < 7.2) and 5
minute Apgar score of < 7 in cases with abnormal FHR patterns. Ominous patterns were
associated with increased incidence of neurological morbidity (neonatal encephalopathy) (OR
2.9, 95% CI 1.07-7.77).
A systematic review showed an association between the presence of late
decelerations with reduced Apgar scores and metabolic acidosis. Occurrence of multiple late
decelerations was associated with an increase in odds ratio (OR) of cerebral palsy (OR 3.9,
95% CI 1.7-9.3). The risk was further increased when the late decelerations were
accompanied by reduced baseline variability (OR 3.6, 95% CI 1.9-6.7). These were
predictive of subsequent abnormal neurological outcomes.
Uncomplicated variable decelerations were not associated with poor Apgar scores of
metabolic acidosis. However, variable decelerations with atypical features loss of primary
or secondary rise in baseline rate, slow return to baseline, prolonged increase in secondary
rise in baseline rate, biphasic deceleration, loss of variability during the deceleration, change
in the baseline fetal heart rate pattern - were associated with poor adverse neonatal
outcome.3,4
Presence of prolonged deceleration is associated with poor neonatal outcome.
Systematic reviews showed a correlation with significantly lower mean arterial pH values
compared with controls (pH 7.06 0.07 and 7.09 0.06 compared with 7.24 0.06).
Sinusoidal pattern is observed in cases of fetal anemia. In cases where this is
encountered, fetomaternal hemorrhage must be excluded. Its presence is associated with poor
neonatal outcome.5,6
C. References
1. Macones GA, Hankins GD, Spong CY, Hauth J, Moore T. The 2008 National Institute of
Child Health and Human Development workshop report on electronic fetal monitoring:
update on definitions, interpretation, and research guidelines. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal
Nurs 2009;38(1):4-5.
2. Low JA, Victory R, Derrick EJ. Predictive value of electronic fetal monitoring for
interpretation of intrapartum fetal asphyxia with metabolic acidosis. Obstet Gynecol
1999;93;285-291.
3. Ozden S, Demitci F. Significance for fetal outcome of poor prognostic features in fetal
heart rate traces with variable decelerations. Arch Gynecol Obstet 1999;262:141-149.
4. Krebs HB, Petres RE, Dunn LJ. Intrpartum fetal heart rate monitoring: Atypical variable
decelerations. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1983;145:297-305.
5. Modanlou HDS, Freeman RK. Sinusoidal fetal heart rate pattern. Its definition and
clinical significance. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1982;142:1033-1038.
6. Egley CC, Bowes WA Jr, Wagner D. Sinusoidal fetal heart rate pattern during labor. Am
J Perinatol 1991;8:197-202.
7. Berkus MD, Langer O, Samueloff A, Xenakis EM, Field NT. Electronic fetal monitoring:
whats reassuring? Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1999;78:15-21.
8. Samueloff A, Langer O, Berkus M, Field N, Xenakis E, Ridgeway L. Is fetal heart rate
variability a good predictor of fetal outcome? Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1994;73:39-44.
9. Williams KP, Galerneau F. Interpretation of fetal heart rate pattern in the prediction of
neonatal academia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003;188:820-823.
10. RCOG Evidence-based Clinical Guideline No.8. The Use of Electronic Fetal Monitoring.
COG Press 2001.
11. SOGC Clinical Practice Guideline No.112. Fetal Health Surveillance in Labor. JOGC
March 2002.
12. ACOG Practice Bulletin No.70. Interpretation of fetal heart rate monitoring. Obstet
Gynecol 2005;186;1453-1461.
OPTIMAL DECISION-TO-DELIVERY INTERVAL
A. Recommendations
Only in a few instances would delivery have to be achieved much faster than 30
minutes to avoid disability or death because in most cases, delivery after 30
minutes is not associated with adverse fetal outcome.7-9 (Level II-2, Grade B)
B. Supporting Evidence
C. References
A. Recommendation
Pregnant women with hepatitis B infection with high infectivity may benefit from
an elective cesarean section (CS) in reducing mother-to-child transmission
(MTCT). However, recommending such mode of delivery should proceed with
extreme caution.1 (Level I, Grade B)
B. Supporting Evidence
A systematic review by Yang, et. al. compared elective CS versus planned vaginal
delivery in preventing MTCT of hepatitis B virus. This study included 4 randomized control
trials (RCT) (n=789). There was strong evidence that elective CS could effectively reduce
the rate of MTCT (CS: 10.5%, vaginal delivery: 28%), with no reported increase in maternal
morbidity. 1
Serological screening for hepatitis B should be offered to all pregnant women.
Hepatitis B immunoglobulin and hepatitis B vaccine reduce MTCT. The vaccine and
immunoglobulin are given to the infant at birth followed by either a one month and six month
dose or at 5 weekly intervals.2,3
Most MTCT occurs at birth or postnatally. Transmission at birth may be due to
microperfusion of maternal blood into the infants circulation during placental separation or
by the infant swallowing maternal blood, amniotic fluid or vaginal secretions at vaginal
birth.4
C. References
1. Yang J, Zen X, Men Y, Zhao L. Elective cesarean section versus vaginal delivery for
preventing mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis B virus a systematic review.
Virology 2008;5:100
2. Wong VC, Ip HM, Reesink HW, Lelie PN, Reerink-Brongers EE, et al. Prevention of the
HBsAg carrier state in newborn infants of mothers who are chronic carriers of HBsAg
and HBeAg by administration of hepatitis-B vaccine and hepatitis-B immunoglobulin:
Double-blind randomized placebo-controlled study. Lancet 1984;1:921926.
3. Xu Z-Y, Liu C-B, Francis DP. Prevention of perinatal acquisition of hepatitis B virus
carriage using vaccine: preliminary report of a randomized, double-blind placebo-
controlled and comparative trial. J Pediatr 1985;76:713718.
4. Beasley RP, Trepo C, Stevens CE, Szmuness W. The e antigen and vertical transmission
of hepatitis B surface antigen. Am J Epidemiol 1977;105:9498.
HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS
A. Recommendations
When primary genital herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection is acquired during the
first two trimesters of pregnancy, it is advisable to carry out sequential viral
cultures on genital secretions from 32nd week of gestation. If two consecutive
cultures are negative and there are no active herpetic genital lesions at the time of
delivery, it is possible to perform a vaginal delivery.1 (Level II-3, Grade B)
In cases where it is not possible to have viral cultures, in the absence of active
herpetic lesions at the time of delivery, it is possible to perform vaginal delivery.
(GPP)
Pregnant women with primary genital HSV infection detected in the third
trimester of pregnancy should be offered planned cesarean section (CS).2-6 (Level
III, Grade C)
In cases where affected pregnant patients are seen in labor with ruptured
membranes, the CS should be performed as quickly as possible within 46 hours
after membranes rupture. (Level III, Grade C)
In cases where affected pregnancy patients are seen at time when vaginal delivery
is irreversible, a maternal and neonatal intravenous acyclovir therapy is
recommended.10-12 (Level I, Grade B)
Pregnant women with nonprimary HSV at time of birth should not routinely be
offered planned CS.4,7,8 (Level II-3, Grade C)
B. Supporting Evidence
For pregnant patients who acquired the primary infection during the first 2
trimesters of pregnancy and had seroconversion completed at the time of delivery, the
risk of HSV transmission to the fetus is low. At this time, the fetus is expected to be
protected by maternal antibodies.1
One case series involving 101 pregnant women with HSV (both primary and
recurrent disease) found the risk of neonatal herpes to be highest for women who
acquired primary infection during the third trimester (3 cases of neonatal infection out of
9 cases of exposure).2 Another study identified 94 women who acquired HSV during
pregnancy but with no MTCT to the infants. There were 9 women who acquired genital
HSV near the onset of labor and in this group, 4 of the 9 infants developed neonatal HSV
infection.3 A study of 15,923 asymptomatic women in early labor reported isolating
HSV from 56 women. 18 women (35%) had a primary infection and neonatal HSV
developed in 6 infants (33%).4 None of the studies are large enough to address the effect
of mode of birth on MTCT.
Despite limited evidence there is consensus about current practice to offer CS for
primary infection during the 3rd trimester because of the high mortality associated with
neonatal herpes.5,6
The risk of neonatal infection with recurrent HSV is lower than with primary
HSV infection (8% with recurrent infection and 33% with primary HSV infection).7,8
Recurrent HSV may not cause symptomatic lesions, for example with cervical ulceration.
A study of 15,923 asymptomatic women in early labor reported isolating HSV from 34
women, neonatal HSV developed in 1 of the infants (3%).4 To prevent MTCT of HSV in
asymptomatic women antenatal screening using HSV cultures was proposed, but this test
also did not predict infants risk at birth.9
Three randomized control trials (RCT) evaluate using oral acyclovir from 36
weeks to prevent recurrence of HSV at the time of birth. These found a reduction in CS
for HSV, however do not report the effect of acyclovir on MTCT.10-12
E. References
1. Anzivino E, Fioriti D, Mischitelli M, Bellizzi A, Barucca V, et. al. Herpes simplex virus
infection in pregnancy and in neonate: status of art of epidemiology, diagnosis, therapy
and prevention. Virology 2009;6:40.
2. Nahmias AJ, Josey WE, Naib ZM, Freeman MG, Fernandez RJ, Wheeler JH. Perinatal
risk associated with maternal genital herpes simplex virus infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol
1971;110:825834.
3. Brown ZA, Selke S, Zeh J, Kopelman J, Maslow A, et al. The acquisition of herpes
simplex virus during pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1997;337:509515.
4. Brown ZA, Benedetti J, Ashley R, Burchett S, Selke S, et al. Neonatal herpes simplex
virus infection in relation to asymptomatic maternal infection at the time of labor. N Engl
J Med 1991;324:12471252.
5. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Management of genital herpes in
pregnancy. Guideline No. 30. London: RCOG Press; 2002.
6. Brocklehurst P, Carney O, Ross E, Mindel A. The management of recurrent genital
herpes infection in pregnancy: a postal survey of obstetric practice. Br J Obstet Gynecol
1995;102:791797.
7. Prober CG, Sullender WM, Yasukawa LL, Au DS, Yeager AS, Arvin AM. Low risk of
herpes simplex virus infections in neonates exposed to the virus at the time of vaginal
delivery to mothers with recurrent genital herpes simplex infections. N Engl J Med
1987;316:240244.
8. Catalano PM, Merritt AO, Mead PB. Incidence of genital herpes simplex virus at the time
of delivery in women with known risk factors. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991;164:1303
1306.
9. Arvin AM, Hensleigh PA, Prober CG, Au DS, Yasukawa LL, Wittek AE, et. al. Failure
of antepartum maternal cultures to predict the infants risk of exposure to herpes simplex
virus at delivery. N Engl J Med 1986;315:796800.
10. Brocklehurst P, Kinghorn G, Carney O, Helsen K, Ross E, Ellis E, et. al. A randomised
placebo controlled trial of suppressive acyclovir in late pregnancy in women with
recurrent genital herpes infection. Br J Obstet Gynecol 1998;105:275280.
11. Scott LL, Sanchez PJ, Jackson GL, Zeray F, Wendel GD Jr. Acyclovir suppression to
prevent cesarean delivery after first-episode genital herpes. Obstet Gynecol 1996;87:69
73.
12. Braig S, Luton D, Sibony O, Edlinger C, Boissinot C, Blot P, et. al. Acyclovir
prophylaxis in late pregnancy prevents recurrent genital herpes and viral shedding. Eur J
Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2001;96:5558.
HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION
A. Recommendation
B. Supporting Evidence
C. References
A. Recommendations
If a patient requests for cesarean section (CS) without a clear indication, the
reason for the request should be examined, discussed, and documented. The
discussion should include the overall benefits and risks of cesarean delivery
compared with vaginal birth.6-7 (Level III, Grade C)
If the reason for the maternal request for CS is fear of childbirth, the obstetrician
should take the time to talk to the patient or to offer counseling in order to help
her address her fears.5 (Level III, Grade C)
It is the option of the clinician to refuse to do the CS and to refer the patient to
another doctor for second opinion.9 (Level III, Grade C)
B. Supporting Evidence
C. References
1. Schenker JG, Cain JM. FIGO Committee Report. FIGO Committee for the Ethical
Aspects of Human Reproduction and Womens Health. International Federation of
Gynecology and Obstetrics. Int J Obstet Gynecol 1999;64:317322.
2. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Surgery and Patient Choice. In:
Ethics in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: ACOG 2004:2125.
3. Gamble JA, Creedy DK. Womens request for a cesarean section: a critique of the
literature. Birth 2000;27:256263.
4. Gamble JA, Creedy DK. Womens preference for a cesarean section: incidence and
associated factors. Birth 2001;28(2):101-110.
5. Saisto T, Ylikorkala O, Halmesmaki E. Factors associated with fear of delivery in second
pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 1999;94:679682.
6. McCourt C, Weaver J, Statham H, Beake S, Gamble J, Creedy DK. Elective cesarean
section and decision making: a critical review of the literature. Birth 2007;34(1):65-79.
7. Weaver JJ, Statham H, Richards M. Are there "unnecessary" cesarean sections?
Perceptions of women and obstetricians about cesarean sections for nonclinical
indications. Birth. 2007;34(1):32-41.
8. Viswanathan M, Visco AG, Hartmann K, Wechter ME, Gartlehner G, et. al. Cesarean
delivery on maternal request. Evid Rep Technol Assess 2006;(133):1-138.
9. Bettes BA, Coleman VH, Zinberg S, Spong CY, Portney B, et. al. Cesarean Delivery on
Maternal Request: Obstetrician-gynecologists Knowledge, Perception and Practice
Patterns. Obstet Gynecol 2007;109:57-66.
10. Cesarean Delivery on Maternal Request, Structured Abstract. March 2006. Agency for
Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, MD.
http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/tp/cesarreqtp.htm
11. NIH Consensus Statements. 2006;23(1):1-29.
PRENATAL PROVISION OF INFORMATION REGARDING CESAREAN
SECTION
A. Recommendations
Patients who have definite indications for abdominal delivery during the antenatal
period should be informed of the indications, procedure, risks, benefits, anesthesia
coverage, and the implications on future pregnancy.1-4 (Level I, Grade A)
Information for women considering a VBAC should include: risks of VBAC and
elective CS, warning signs in labor, philosophy and policies of hospital and staff,
strategies to improve chances of success, and information about probability of
success with specific care givers.8-10 (Level I, Grade A)
B. Supporting Evidence
There are two options for the mode of delivery of a pregnant woman who had a
previous cesarean birth: planned elective repeat CS, or planned vaginal birth. Enough
information during the antenatal period must be provided to allow the woman enough
preparation for the proper timing of the procedure.
A systematic review by Rossi, et. al. compared maternal morbidity with planned
VBAC, compared with elective CS. This study showed that trial of labor after a previous
CS is a feasible option, with a success rate of 73%. The incidence of maternal morbidity
is similar in women undergoing VBAC and those choosing elective CS. The risk of
uterine rupture is 3-fold greater in patients planning VBAC compared to those
undergoing elective CS, however, the risks of blood transfusions and hysterectomy are
the same in both birth options.3 This study showed that the higher risk of uterine rupture
in women planning VBAC is counterbalanced by the reduction in maternal mobility,
uterine rupture and hysterectomy when VBAC is successful.10
Studies have focused on identifying risk or predictive factors of unsuccessful
VBAC. Good predictors for successful trial of labor include maternal age less than 40, a
history of previous spontaneous vaginal delivery before the initial CS, cervical dilatation
greater than 4 cm at admission, birthweight less than 4000 g. On the other hand, a history
of dystocia, multiple prior CS, alcohol and cigarette use, cephalopelvic disproportion and
obesity are associated with failure of VBAC and increased morbidity.1
C. References
1. Horey D, Weaver J, Russell H. Information for pregnant women about caesarean birth.
Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009;Issue 2.
2. Dodd JM, Crowther CA, Huertas E, Guise JM, Horey D. Planned elective repeat
caesarean section versus planned vaginal birth for women with a previous caesarean
birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009;Issue 2.
3. O'Connor AM, Bennett CL, Stacey D, Barry M, Col NF, et. al. Decision aids for people
facing health treatment or screening decisions. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009;Issue
2.
4. Shorten A, Shorten B, Keogh J, West S and Morris J. Making choices for childbirth: A
randomized control trial of a decision-aid for informed birth after cesarean. Birth
2005;32(4):252-261.
5. Thomas J, Paranjothy S. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists Clinical
Effectiveness Support Unit. National Sentinel Caesarean Section Audit Report. RCOG
Press, 2001.
6. Johanson R, Newburn M, McFarlane A. Has the medicalisation of childbirth gone too
far? BMJ 2002;324(7342):892-895.
7. Commonwealth Department of Human Services and Health. Review of professional
indemnity arrangements for health care professionals (Tito F, chair). Compensation and
professional indemnity in health care: a final report. Canberra: Australian Government
Publishing Service, 1995.
8. Fraser W, Maunsell E, Hodnett E, Moutquin JM. Randomized controlled trial of a
prenatal vaginal birth after cesarean section education and support program. Am J
Gynecol Obstet 1994;176(2):419-425.
9. Saisto T, Salmela-Aro K, Nurmi JE, Kononen T, Halmesmaki E. A randomized
controlled trial of intervention in fear of childbirth. Obstet Gynecol 2001;98(5):820-826.
10. Rossi AC, DAddario V. Maternal morbidity following a trial of labor after cesarean
section vs. elective repeat cesarean delivery: a systematic review with metaanalysis. Am J
Obstet Gynecol 2008.
OPTIMAL TIME OF PLANNED CESAREAN SECTION
A. Recommendations
B. Supporting Evidence
A cross-sectional study done in the north of England (n=179,701) showed that 0.08%
(n=149) of babies born 34 weeks age of gestation or more had respiratory distress syndrome
(RDS) requiring ventilatory support and without any evidence of aspiration or intrapartum
infection. Of these babies, " (n=36) were already actually 37 weeks or older, but 88% (n=32)
were born by planned CS. This shows that babies who are considered term and mature by
internationally agreed definition by reaching 37 weeks age of gestation, can develop
potentially lethal pulmonary immaturity at birth, particularly if born by planned CS prior to
labor. Furthermore, those born at 37-38 weeks are 120x at greater risk of developing RDS
than those born at 39-41 weeks.1
A large prospective observational study (n=33,289) attempted to establish whether
the timing of delivery between 37 to 42 weeks age of gestation influences the respiratory
outcome in order to guide obstetricians on the appropriate timing of planned CS at term.2 All
cases of RDS or transient tachypnea of the newborn (TTN) requiring neonatal intensive care
unit (NICU) admission were collected over nine years. The incidence of RDS is 0.22% (95%
CI 1.7-2.7) while the incidence of TTN was 0.57% (95% CI 4.9-6.5). Respiratory morbidity
was significantly higher for newborns delivered by CS prior to the onset of labor (0.35%)
compared with those born by CS during labor (0.53%) (OR 2.0, 95% CI 5.2-8.9, p < 0.001).
There was a significant trend towards decreasing relative risk for respiratory morbidity for
delivery by prelabor CS during 37 to 37 6/7 weeks versus 38 to 38 6/7 weeks (RR 1.74, 95%
CI 1.1-2.8, p < 0.02) and during 38 to 38 6/7 weeks compared to 39 to 39 6/7 weeks (RR 2.4,
95% CI 1.2-4.8, p < 0.02). From the National Sentinel Cesarean Section (NSCS) Audit data,
about 10% of pregnant women go into labor prior to 39 weeks. The average planned CS rate
is about 10%. Therefore about 1% of women about to undergo planned CS after 39 weeks
may go into labor prior to that time. It is estimated that for a hospital with about 3,000
deliveries per year, performing planned CS at or after 39 weeks will prevent 1 case of TTN or
RDS per year, but would increase unscheduled CS rate by 10%.
Other studies but with a retrospective nature using a perinatal database showed the
same findings. A 5-year study in the Netherlands gave a 5.1% incidence of respiratory
problems for neonates born by CS after 37 weeks gestation. The relative risk is significantly
decreased with CS delivery at 38-42 weeks compared with 37-38 weeks (RR 0.14, 95% CI
0.03-0.64, p < 0.001).3 Zanardo showed in a 3-year study that neonatal respiratory odds ratio
was significantly higher in the group delivered by elective CS compared with vaginal
delivery (OR 2.6, 95% CI 1.35-5.9, p < 0.01). After 39 weeks though there was no significant
difference in risk of RDS between the two groups.4
Recently, a systematic review was conducted to assess the relationship between
delivery by elective CS and respiratory morbidity in the term and near-term newborn.4
Medline, Embase, Cochrane and Web of Science databases were searched. There were nine
studies eligible for inclusion. However, a pooled risk estimate cannot be established because
the methodology of the studies varied. All studies found that delivery by planned CS
compared with vaginal delivery increased the risk of respiratory morbidities in the newborn,
albeit in some studies it was not statistically significant. While some studies presented much
higher risk estimates, the overall risk of respiratory morbidities is increased about 2-3x, even
among deliveries after 37 completed weeks.
C. References
A. Recommendations
Routine laboratory test during cesarean section (CS) include hematocrit and
indirect Coombs. (Level III, Grade C)
For those without documented blood typing on antenatal check-up, it should also
be requested on admission. (GPP)
B. Supporting Evidence
Search of the literature for the past 10 years has not yielded any study on routine
laboratory tests for CS. The 22nd edition of Williams Obstetrics recommends that the
hematocrit be rechecked and indirect Coombs test requested. If the latter is positive, then
availability of compatible blood must be assured.
C. Reference
Cunningham FG, Leveno KJ, Bloom SL, Hauth JC, Gilstrap LC, Wenstrom KD. 22nd edition
Williams Obstetrics. McGraw-Hill 2005, p 603.
PROPHYLACTIC ANTIBIOTICS
A. Recommendations
B. Supporting Evidence
C. References
1. Smaill F, Hofmeyr GJ. Antibiotic prophylaxis for cesarean section. Cochrane Database
Syst Rev 2009; Issue 2.
2. Hopkins L, Smaill F. Antibiotic prophylaxis regimens and drugs for caesarean section.
Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; Issue 2.
3. Harrigill KM, Miller HS, Haynes DE. The effect of intraabdominal irrigation at cesarean
delivery on maternal morbidity: a randomized trial. Obstet Gynecol 2003;101:8085.
4. Lewis DF, Otterson WN, Dunnihoo DR. Antibiotic prophylactic uterine lavage in
cesarean section: a double-blind comparison of saline, ticarcillin, and cefoxitin irrigation
in indigent patients. South Med J 1990;83:274276.
5. Magann EF, Dodson MK, Ray MA, Harris RL, Martin JN Jr, Morrison JC. Preoperative
skin preparation and intraoperative pelvic irrigation: impact on post-cesarean
endometritis and wound infection. Obstet Gynecol 1993;81:922925.
6. Reid VC, Hartmann KE, MCMahon. Vaginal preparation with povidone iodine and
postcesarean infectious morbidity: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol
2001;97:147152.
7. Pitt C, Sanchez-Ramos L, Kaunitz AM. Adjunctive intravaginal metronidazole for the
prevention of postcesarean endometritis: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol
2001;98:745750.
8. Thigpen BD, Hood WA, Chauhan S, Bufkin L, Bofill J, et. al. Timing of prophylactic
antibiotic administration in the uninfected laboring gravida: a randomized clinical trial.
Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005;192(6):1864-1868.
SHAVING
A. Recommendations
Removing hair before surgery using depilatory cream results in fewer surgical site
infections than shaving. (Level I, Grade A)
B. Supporting Evidence
C. Reference
A. Recommendation
B. Supporting Evidence
C. References
1. Mathai M, Hofmeyr GJ. Abdominal surgical incisions for caesarean section. Cochrane
Database Syst Rev 2007; Issue 1.
2. National Collaborating Centre for Women's and Children's Health. Caesarean section.
London (UK): National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE); 2004 Apr. 142
REMOVAL OF PLACENTA DURING CESAREAN SECTION
A. Recommendation
B. Supporting Evidence
There are varied opinions regarding the optimal method for placental removal during
cesarean section (CS). The two methods compared in the randomized control trials (RCT) are
manual removal and controlled cord traction or spontaneous separation of the placenta. The
Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (RCOG) reports a higher rate of use of
controlled cord traction (73%) compared with manual removal.1,2 There were 9 RCTs that
have studied the outcomes comparing the two methods. Eight of the 9 RCTs included both
blood loss and endometritis as primary outcomes.
The Cochrane Database included 15 studies (n=4694).3 Manual removal of the placenta
was associated with more endometritis (RR 1.64, 95% CI 1.42-1.90; 4134 women, 13 trials);
more blood loss (ml) (weighted mean difference (WMD) 94.42 ml, 95% CI 17.19-171.64;
2001 women, 8 trials); more blood loss > 1000 ml (RR 1.81, 95% CI 1.44-2.28; 872 women,
2 trials); lower hematocrit after delivery (%) (WMD 1.55, 95% CI -3.09 to -0.01; 384
women, 2 trials); greater hematocrit fall after delivery (%) (WMD 0.39, 95% CI 0.00-0.78;
1777 women, 5 trials); longer duration of hospital stay (days) (WMD 0.39 days, 95% CI
0.17- 0.61; 546 women, 3 trials). Thus, delivery of the placenta with cord traction at CS has
more advantages compared to manual removal. These are less endometritis, less blood loss,
less decrease in hematocrit levels postoperatively, and shorter duration of hospital stay.
Five of the RCTs were included in a meta-analysis evaluating the outcome of postpartum
endometritis.4,5,6,7,8 There was an increased incidence of endometritis with manual removal of
the placenta compared to spontaneous separation (RR 1.54, 95% CI 1.23-1.92).
Three RCTs reported blood loss as an outcome measure.4,7,9 Meta analysis of these RCTs
showed no difference between manual removal and spontaneous separation of the placenta
(SMD 0.62ml, 95% CI 1.17-2.4).
C. References
A. Recommendations
Nonclosure of both the visceral and parietal peritoneum after cesarean section
(CS) leads to shorter operative time and less postoperative fever.1 (Level I, Grade
A).
B. Supporting Evidence
There are many ways of performing a CS with the technique dependent on the
clinical presentation and the obstetricians preference. Suturing of the peritoneal layers at CS
may or may not be done.
A meta-analysis compared controlled trials leaving the visceral and/or parietal
peritoneum unsutured at CS with a technique which involves suturing the peritoneum in
women undergoing elective or emergency CS. Fourteen trials, involving 2908 women, were
included and analyzed. The methodological quality of the trials was variable. Nonclosure of
the peritoneum reduced operating time whether both or either layer was not sutured. For both
layers, the operating time was reduced by 6.05 minutes (95% CI -6.74 to -5.37). There was
significantly less postoperative fever and reduced postoperative stay in hospital for visceral
peritoneum and for both layer nonclosure. The number of postoperative analgesic doses was
reduced in the peritoneal nonclosure group (weighted mean difference (WMD) -0.20, 95% CI
-0.33 to -0.08). There were no other statistically significant differences. The trend for wound
infection tended to favor nonclosure, while endometritis results were variable. Long-term
follow up in one trial showed no significant differences. The power of the study to show
differences was low. There was improved short-term postoperative outcome if the peritoneum
was not closed. Long-term studies following CS are limited, but data from other surgical
procedures are reassuring. There is at present no evidence to justify the time taken and cost of
peritoneal closure.
Several studies, on the other hand, have shown that nonclosure of the peritoneum is
associated with increased incidence of adhesions on second operation. A retrospective chart
review by Hamel (n=62 cases), showed that closure of the peritoneum resulted in
significantly fewer extensive adhesions when compared to nonclosure (31.2% vs. 70%,
p=0.013).3 A retrospective cohort study (n=612) by Yiyang, et. al.,4 likewise showed that
among women with no parietal closure 16.2% had visceral adhesions, vs. only 8.1% of those
with closure (p=0.0003). Closure of the visceral peritoneum had a similar effect.
C. References
1. Bamigboye AA, Hofmeyr GJ. Closure versus non-closure of the peritoneum at caesarean
section. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003; Issue 4.
2. Berghall V, Baxter JK, and Chauhan SP. Evidence-based surgery for cesarean delivery.
Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005;193:1607-1617.
3. Hamel, KJ. Incidence of adhesions at repeat delivery. American J Obstet Gynecol
2008;e31-32.
4. Yiyang Z, Qunxi C, Weiling W. Closure vs. nonclosure of peritoneum at cesarean
delivery. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2006;94(2):1037.
CLOSURE OF SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE DURING CESAREAN SECTION
A. Recommendations
Closure of the subcutaneous tissue should be performed if the patient has more
than 2 cm subcutaneous fat.1-9 (Level I, Grade A)
B. Supporting Evidence
The technique for closure of the abdominal wall during cesarean section (CS) varies
greatly among clinicians. The subcutaneous tissue may be sutured or left unsutured with the
skin sutured directly after the fascia. The rationale for closure of the subcutaneous tissue is
the elimination of space in order to prevent the formation of hematomas or seromas which
may later be foci of infection. On the other hand, leaving the subcutaneous tissue unsutured
will result in faster surgical time, less foreign material that could become a focus of infection,
and greater skin mobility leading to a better-looking scar.
A survey of Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (RCOG) members
and fellows showed the wide variation in practice among obstetricians: 42% always closed
the subcutaneous fat, 1% sometimes closed it, 21% never closed it, 28% closed it if it was
thick, and 8% closed it if it was thin.1
A Cochrane systematic review assessed the techniques and materials for closure of
the abdominal wall in CS.2 It included 7 studies (n=2056), all of which were assessed to be
generally satisfactory in quality. Six of these randomized control trials (RCT) (n=1853)
looked into the maternal outcomes of closure versus nonclosure of the subcutaneous
fat.3,4,5,6,7,8 There was no difference in the risk of wound infection between the closure and the
nonclosure group (RR 1.02, 95% CI 0.69-1.5). There was a significant decreased risk of
hematoma or seroma formation with subcutaneous fat closure versus nonclosure (RR 0.52,
95% CI 0.33-0.82). The aggregate outcome of wound complication which included one or
more of wound infection, wound separation, hematoma, or seroma, was significantly less
frequent in the closure group (RR 0.68, 95% CI 0.52-0.88). The reviewers, however, felt the
effects on hematoma/seroma may not be robust because its subjective nature in terms of
diagnoses and the fact that wound infection rates were the same in the closure and nonclosure
group. The most common complication, which was seroma may not even cause pathology or
influence the well-being or satisfaction of women or even affect long-term outcomes.
Another meta-analysis attempted to define the role of suture closure of the
subcutaneous fat in preventing wound complications after CS.9 There were 3 RCTs (n=875)
which included patients with any thickness of subcutaneous fat and noted a decreased
incidence of wound disruption with closure (RR 0.56, 95% CI 0.36-0.86). Two RCTs
(n=181) reported results from patients with subcutaneous depth of 2 cm or less and noted no
difference (RR 1.01, 95% CI 0.46-2.2. Five studies (n=887) had results from patients with
subcutaneous depth greater than 2 cm. Although only 1 study had a significant effect by
itself, the overall relative risk when results were statistically combined demonstrated a
significant decrease in wound disruption (RR 0.66, 95% CI 0.48-0.91). This shows that in
women with subcutaneous thickness greater than 2 cm, subcutaneous closure resulted in a
risk reduction of 6.2% and 16.2% women would need subcutaneous closure to prevent 1
wound disruption (number needed to treat).
A multicenter randomized trial (n=280) evaluated the efficacy of the additional use
of subcutaneous drain in preventing wound complications among women with at least 4 cm
subcutaneous thickness undergoing CS.10 In this study, the composite wound morbidity rate
was 17.4% (25/144) in the suture group and 22.7% (28/124) in the suture plus drain group
(RR 1.3, 95% CI 0.82.1). Individual wound complication rates, including subcutaneous
dehiscence (15.3% vs 21.8%), seroma (9.0% vs 10.6%), hematoma (2.2% vs 2.4%), abscess
(0.7% vs 3.3%), fascial dehiscence (1.4% vs 1.7%), and hospital readmission for wound
complications (3.5% vs 6.6%), were similar (p > 0.05) between women treated with suture
alone and those treated with suture plus drain, respectively. Based on this study, the authors
concluded that the additional use of subcutaneous drain is not effective for the prevention of
wound complications in obese women undergoing cesarean delivery.
C. References
A. Recommendations
An indwelling urinary catheter may be removed less than 24 hours after CS.5-9
(Level I, Grade A)
Removal of the urinary bladder catheter should be carried out once a woman is
mobile after a regional anesthetic and not sooner than 12 hours after the last
epidural top up dose.10 (Grade C)
B. Supporting Evidence
C. References
A. Recommendations
B. Supporting Evidence
In the previously cited data from 44,938 deliveries in the prospectively collected,
hospital-based cohort study (from 1990 to 2002) on term (> 37 weeks) singleton infants,
general anesthesia, fetal distress, and noncephalic presentation increased the need for
resuscitation.1
In the previously cited study by Levine et. al., (n=17,867 consecutive deliveries)
35 (5.8%) of 596 CS for fetal heart rate abnormality or using general anesthesia had 1-
minute Apgar under 4 in contrast to 115 of 10,270 (1.1%) of vaginal deliveries.3
A large observational study from the USA (n=3,940) reported that infants born
by CS with general anesthesia are at an increased risk of having 1- and 5-minute Apgar
scores of < 7 when compared with those born by CS with regional anesthesia (1-minute
Apgar < 7 RR 3.13, 95% CI 2.5-3.88; 5-minute Apgar RR 3.6, 95% CI 1.81-7.00) and the
need for resuscitation (RR 2.02, 95% CI 1.39-2.9).5
Earlier studies also reported the higher risk of vigorous resuscitation after CS
under general anaesthesia.6
A. Recommendation
Newborns delivered via cesarean section (CS) (as with all newborns), should be
placed preferably skin-to-skin with the mother as soon as possible (if baby and
mother are deemed stable). They should be given the opportunity to latch on in
the recovery room within one hour after birth or as soon as possible, if latching on
in the operating room was not performed.1-7 (Level 1A, Grade A)
B. Supporting Evidence
Laboratory evidence points to oxytocin and prolactin pulsatility patterns being different
in vaginally delivered (n=20) versus abdominally delivered mothers (n=17) with the former
having significantly more pulses than the CS ones. Mode of delivery and infant's age at first
breastfeed were the most important, independent variables showing a relation to the release
pattern of oxytocin on day 2.1
A 9 month follow-up of 7,825 mother-infant pairs in Hongkong (where breastfeeding
rate was about 30%) showed that cesarean delivery was a risk factor for not initiating
breastfeeding, for breastfeeding less than 1 month, and remained a significant hazard against
breast-feeding duration.2
CS was likewise reported to significantly delay initiation of breastfeeding in a
prospective follow-up of 203 primiparous women in Australia, but this did not impact
significantly on continuation of breastfeeding at 8 months.3
Data from the Mexican Demographic and Health Survey (1987), CS was a risk factor
for non-initiation of breastfeeding (OR 0.64 95% CI 0.50-0.82), and for short breastfeeding
duration (OR 0.58 95% CI 0.37-0.91), but, once lactation was established, was not correlated
with breastfeeding duration (OR 0.97, 95% CI 086-1.11).4
Despite these challenges to breastfeeding, practices can be modified to lessen the
adverse impact of mother-infant separation on breastfeeding. If the newborn is latched on
within two hours after delivery, long-term lactation success was not affected by the cesarean
delivery, even up to six months.5
Early skin-to-skin contact begins ideally at birth and involves placing the naked baby,
covered across the back with a warm blanket, prone on the mother's bare chest. In a
systematic review of 30 studies (n=1925 mother-infant dyads), Moore and co-workers
reported statistically significant and positive effects of early skin-to-skin contact on
breastfeeding at 1 to 4 months of age (10 trials; 552 participants) (OR 1.82, 95% CI 1.08-
3.07), and breastfeeding duration (7 trials; 324 participants) (weighted mean difference
(WMD) 42.55, 95% CI -1.69 to 86.79). Late preterm infants had better cardiorespiratory
stability with early skin-to-skin contact (1 trial; 35 participants) (WMD 2.88, 95% CI 0.53-
5.23). No adverse effects were found. The authors concluded that, despite methodologic
limitations, skin-to-skin contact may benefit breastfeeding outcomes, early mother-infant
attachment, infant crying and cardio-respiratory stability, and has no apparent short or long-
term negative effects.6
In a prospective cohort of 393 women who delivered term, singleton, babies in
cephalic presentation via forceps or cesarean delivery in the second stage of labor, women
who had a longer in-patient stay (with additional lactation support) after CS were more likely
to achieve exclusive breastfeeding at hospital discharge (78% vs 66%, p = 0.03).7
The World Health Organizations Step 4 in its Ten Successful Steps to Successful
Breastfeeding emphasizes that health personnel should help mothers initiate breastfeeding
within a half-hour after birth.8
The Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (RCOG) (United Kingdom,
2004) states that (1) Early skin-to-skin contact between the woman and her baby should be
encouraged and facilitated because it improves maternal perceptions of their infant,
mothering skills, maternal behavior, breastfeeding outcomes, and reduces infant crying, and
(2) Women who have had a CS should be offered additional support to help them to start
breastfeeding as soon possible after the birth of their baby. This is because women who have
had a CS are less likely to start breastfeeding in the first few hours after the birth, but, when
breastfeeding is established, they are as likely to continue as women who have a vaginal
birth.9
The Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine states that Infants are to be put to the breast
as soon after birth as feasible for both mother and infant (within an hour after birth). This is
to be instituted in either the delivery room or recovery room, and every mother is to be
instructed in proper breastfeeding technique. Women need help to ensure that they are able to
position and attach their babies at the breast. Those delivered by CS may need additional
help from nursing staff to attain comfortable positioning.10
The American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology (ACOG) (USA, 2007) states that
(1) The immediate postpartum period should allow the woman and her newborn to
experience optimal bonding with immediate physical contact, preferably skin to skin. The
initial feeding should occur as soon after birth as possible, preferably in the first hour when
the baby is awake, alert, and ready to suckle. (2) Although abdominal delivery may make
breastfeeding more challenging, these mothers should still be encouraged to breastfeed.11
C. References
A. Recommendation
There is no evidence to recommend a policy of delaying oral fluids and food after
cesarean section (CS). Postpartum women who are recovering well after an
uncomplicated CS can be allowed to eat or drink when they feel hungry or
thirsty.1, 6-11 (Level I, Grade A)
B. Supporting Evidence
C. References
1. Guedj P, Eldor J, Stark M. Immediate post operative oral rehydration after caesarean
section. Asia-Oceania Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 1991;17(2):125-9.
2. Bennett VR, Brown LK. Myles textbook for midwives 13th edition. Toronto: Churchill
Livingstone 1999
3. Sellers PM. Midwifery. Vol. 2, Kenwyn: Juta & co. Ltd, 1993.
4. Gabbe SG, Niebyl JR, Simpson JL. Obstetrics: normal and problem pregnancies. 3rd
Edition. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1996.
5. Knuppel RA, Drukker JE. High risk pregnancy: a team approach. 2nd Edition. London:
WB Saunders Company, 1993.
6. Kramer RL, Van Someren JK, Qualls CR, Curet LB. Postoperative management of
cesarean patients: the effect of immediate feeding on the incidence of ileus. Obstetrics
and Gynecology 1996; 88:29-32.
7. Mangesi L, Hofmeyr GJ. Early compared with delayed oral fluids and food after
caesarean section. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2007 Issue 3.
8. Burrows WR, Gingo AJ, Rose SM, Zwick SI, Kosty DL, Dierker LJ, et al. Safety and
efficacy of early post operative solid food consumption after caesarean section. Journal
of Reproductive Medicine 1995; 40:463-7.
9. Patolia DS, Hilliard RLM, Toy EC, Baker B. Early feeding after cesarean: randomized
trial. Obstetrics and Gynecology 2001; 98(1):113-6.
10. Pruitt B, Brumfield C, Owen J, Savage K, Cliver S. Early feeding after cesarean: a
randomized clinical trial [abstract]. Obstetrics and Gynecology 2000; 95(4 Suppl):64S.
11. Weinstein L, Dyne PL, Duerbeck NB. The PROEF diet - a new postoperative regimen for
oral early feeding. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 1993; 168:128-31.
WOUND CARE / GAUZE AND DRESSINGS
A. Recommendations
Remove the dressing 24 hours after the cesarean section (CS). (Level III, Grade
C)
Assess the wound for signs of infection (such as increasing pain, redness or
discharge) and separation or dehiscence. (Level III, Grade C)
Gently clean and dry the wound daily. (Level III, Grade C)
Encourage the woman to wear loose, comfortable clothes and cotton underwear.
(Level III, Grade C)
B. Supportive Evidence
The CS incision site is traditionally dressed with dry gauze and tape. However,
transparent polyurethane dressings like Tegaderm are used more recently due to the following
advantages: (1) breathable film allows moisture vapor and oxygen exchange, (2) sterile and
waterproof dressing provides an effective barrier to microorganisms, (3) visibility of the
wound site, (4) allows the patient to shower. Aside from the cost, a major disadvantage is the
limited absorptive capacity of Tegaderm making it more suitable to wounds with only light to
moderate amounts of exudate.
In an effort to identify whether a systematic review or any clinical trial already
existed on the most appropriate type of surgical dressing for CS, the Cochrane Database of
Systematic Reviews, Reproductive Health Library, PubMed, and National Guideline
Clearinghouse were searched. There was no study about this topic which specifically focused
on CS. There was a Cochrane review regarding the choice of dressings for central venous
catheter. The authors conclusion was that there is a high level of uncertainty regarding the
risk of infection with the central venous catheter dressings identified in the review and further
research is necessary. Other studies mentioned that polyurethane semipermeable film
dressings should be used in preference to traditional mesh gauze dressings in the management
of soft tissue skin graft donor sites.
The decision of which type of dressing is the most appropriate for CS has yet to be
tested rigorously in randomized controlled clinical trials.
C. References
1. Cesarean Section (Clinical Guideline No. 13). National Institute for Health and Clinical
Excellence. (www.nice.org.uk) April 2004.
2. Cho CY, Lo JS. Dressing the Part. Dermatology Clinics. 1998; 16 (1): 25-47.
3. Gillies D, O'Riordan L, Carr D, Frost J, Gunning R, O'Brien I. Gauze and tape and
transparent polyurethane dressings for central venous catheters. Cochrane Database of
Systematic Reviews 2003, Issue 3.
4. Wound Care - Management of skin graft donor sites from the Best Practice Information
Sheet produced by The Joanna Briggs Institute. World of Irish Nursing 2003; 11(4).
LENGTH OF HOSPITAL STAY
A. Recommendation
B. Supporting Evidence
A meta-analysis reviewing the effect of early postnatal discharge versus usual care
from the hospital for healthy mothers and term infants showed that there is no significant
differences in infant readmission: readmission occurring within 3-8 weeks postpartum (RR
1.23, 95% CI 0.37-4.07), maternal readmission with 3-6 weeks postpartum (RR 0.76, 95%
CI 0.17-3.37) and proportion of women breastfeeding at 6 months postpartum (RR 0.70, 95%
CI 0.47-1.03).
C. Reference
Brown S, Small R, Faber B, Krastev A, Davis P. Early postnatal discharge from hospital for
healthy mothers and term infants. Cochraine Database of Systematic Reviews 2007, Issue 3.
SEXUAL INTERCOURSE AFTER CESAREAN SECTION
A. Recommendation
Sexual intercourse after cesarean section (CS) may be resumed as early as two
weeks postpartum for as long as the patient feels comfortable. However, the
earlier the resumption of sexual activity, the greater the likelihood of
dyspareunia.1 (Level I, Grade A)
B. Supporting Evidence
There were one randomized control trial (RCT)1 and 4 cohort studies that assessed
sexual function after birth. The outcome measures used in the evaluation of postpartum
sexual function are recommencement of sexual activity after birth1,2 and dyspareunia
following birth.1,3,4 At 3 months following birth, there was no significant difference between
those who underwent vaginal delivery and those who underwent CS in terms of: (1) reporting
not having sex since birth (RR 1.12, 95% CI 0.89-1.42) and (2) having pain during sex on the
most recent occasion (RR 1.03, 95% CI 0.91-1.16). 1
A study on the delivery method and self-reported postpartum general health status
among primiparous women (n=971) detected no difference between women who delivered
vaginally (whether assisted or spontaneous) and those who delivered abdominally by CS in
terms of the two outcomes mentioned.5 Another cohort study with a smaller sample size
(n=66) also did not detect any difference in dyspareunia at 2-8 weeks postpartum between the
two groups of women. 4 The study of Hogberg reported that one month postpartum, more
women who underwent CS were more likely to have resumed sexual intercourse compared
with those who delivered vaginally.2 There was also more dyspareunia in the first 3 months
postpartum among women who delivered vaginally. However at six months, there was
already no difference detected in the incidence of dyspareunia between the two groups.3
C. References
1. Hannah ME, Hannah WJ, Hodnett ED, Chalmers B, Kung R, Willan A, et al. Outcomes
at 3 months after planned cesarean vs planned vaginal delivery for breech presentation at
term: The international randomized Term Breech Trial. JAMA 2002; 287:182231.
2. Hogberg U, Sandstrom A, Nilsson NG. Reproductive patterns among Swedish women
born 19361960. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1992; 71:20714.
3. Barrett G, Pendry E, Peacock J, Victor C, Thakar R, Manyonda I. Womens sexual health
after childbirth. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2000; 107:18695.
4. Goetsch MF. Postpartum dyspareunia. An unexplored problem. Journal of Reproductive
Medicine 1999;44:9638.
5. Lydon-Rochelle MT, Holt VL, Martin DP. Delivery method and self-reported postpartum
general health status among primiparous women. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol
2001;15:23240.
APPENDIX
LEVEL DEFINITION
I Evidence obtained from at least one properly randomized controlled trial
Evidence obtained from well-designed controlled trials without
II-1
randomization
Evidence obtained from well-designed cohort or case-control analytic
II-2
studies, preferably from more than one center or research group
Evidence obtained from multiple time series with or without the
II-3
intervention.
Opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical experience; descriptive
III
studies and case reports or reports of expert committees.
GRADE DEFINITION
There is good evidence to support the recommendation of the practice in
A
abnormal uterine bleeding.
There is fair evidence to support the recommendation of the practice in
B
abnormal uterine bleeding.
There is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against the inclusion of
C
the practice in abnormal uterine bleeding.
There is fair evidence to support the recommendation that the practice be
D
excluded in abnormal uterine bleeding.
There is good evidence to support the recommendation that the practice be
E
excluded in abnormal uterine bleeding.
A good practice point (GPP) is a recommendation for best practice based
GPP
on the experience of the Technical Working Group.