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ENGINEERS HANDBOOK
VOLUME VI
DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURABILITY
SOCIETY OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERS
OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS, 1992
VOLUME VI
DESIG N FO R MANUFACTURABILITY
All rights reserved, including those of translation. This book, or parts thereof, may not be
reproduced in any form without written permission of the copyright owner. The Society
does not, by publication of data in this book, ensure to anyone the use of such data
against liability of any kind, including infringement of any patent. Publication of any data
in this book does not constitute a recommendation of any patent or proprietary right that
may be involved. The Society of Manufacturing Engineers, as well as all contributors and
reviewers of information in this volume, disclaim any and all responsibility for use of the
information contained herein by readers and users of this Handbook.
First edition published 1949 by McGraw-Hill Book Co. in cooperation with SME under
earlier Society name, American Society of Tool Engineers (ASTE), and under title Tool
Engineers Handbook. Second edition published 1959 by McGraw-Hill Book Co. in coop-
eration with SME under earlier society name, American Society of Tool and Manufactur-
ing Engineers (ASTME), and under title Tool Engineers Handbook. Third edition pub-
lished 1976 by McGraw-Hill Book Co. in cooperation with SME under current Society
name and under title Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook.
V
know when the job begins what are allowable tolerances, surface finishes, geometries,
and so on, for a particular process or material that is being used.
Finally, two appendices are included to help the reader get further along in DFM.
Appendix A shows how large and small companies are applying DFM to their products
and organizations. Some of these case studies are familiar and others border on being
proprietary. Appendix B lists various DFM products and services. Neither appendix is
an exhaustive listing of successes or services.
The reference material contained in this volume is the product of incalculable hours
of unselfish contribution by hundreds of individuals and organizations, as listed at the
beginning of each chapter. No written words of appreciation can sufficiently express
the special thanks due these many forward-thinking professionals. Their work is deeply
appreciated by the Society; but more important, their contributions will undoubtedly
serve to advance the understanding of manufacturing management throughout industry
and will certainly help to spur major productivity gains in the years ahead. Industry as
a whole will be the beneficiary of their dedication.
Further recognition is due the members of the SME Reference Publication Commit-
tee for their expert guidance and support as well as the many members of the SME
Technical Activities Board.
The Editors
SME staff who participated in the editorial development and production of this volume
include:
EDITORIAL TYPESETTING GRAPHICS
Thomas J. Drozda Shari L. Smith Judy Munro
Director of Publications Supervisor Art Director
Robert E. King Kathy Allison
Publications Manager Typesetter
Marcia Theisen
Ramon Bakerjian Typesetter
Handbook Editor
Philip Mitchell
Staff Editor
Suzanne Kosacheff
Technical Copy Editor
Frances Kania Gregory J. Ross
Editorial Secretary Ross Services
Dorothy Wylo Donna Hicks
Editorial Secretary Adcomp Services
vi
SME
The Society of Manufacturing Engineers is a professional society dedicated to
advancing manufacturing through the continuing education of manufacturing manag-
ers, engineers, technicians, and other manufacturing professionals. The specific goal of
the Society is to advance scientific knowledge in the field of manufacturing and to
apply its resources to research, writing, publishing, and disseminating information.
The purpose of SME is to serve the professional needs of the many types of
practitioners that make up the manufacturing community.. .The collective goal of the
membership is the sharing and advancement of knowledge in the field of manufacturing
for the good of humanity.
The Society was founded in 1932 as the American Society of Tool Engineers
(ASTE). From 1960 to 1969 it was known as the American Society of Tool and
Manufacturing Engineers (ASTME), and in January 1970 it became the Society of
Manufacturing Engineers. The changes in name reflect the evolution of the manufac-
turing engineering profession and the growth and increasing sophistication of a
technical society that has gained an international reputation for being the most
knowledgeable and progressive voice in the field.
Associations of SME- The Society provides complete technical services and
membership benefits through a number of associations. Each serves a special interest
area. Members may join these associations in addition to SME. The associations are:
Association for Finishing Processes of SME (AFP/SME)
Computer and Automated Systems Association of SME (CASA/SME)
~ Machine Vision Association of SME (MVA/SME)
North American Manufacturing Research Institute of SME
(NAMRUSME)
Robotics International of SME (RVSME)
Composites Manufacturing Association of SME (CMA/SME)
Association for Electronics Manufacturing of SME (EM/SME)
Machining Technology Association of SME (MTA/SME)
Networking and Communications in Manufacturing Group of SME
Members and Chapters-The Society and its associations have 80,000 member in 73
countries, most of whom are affiliated with SMEs 300-plus senior chapters. The
Society also has some 8000 student members and more than 150 student chapters at
colleges and universities.
Publications -The Society is involved in various publication activities encompass-
ing handbooks, textbooks, videotapes, and magazines. Current periodicals include:
Manufacturing Engineering
Manufacturing Insights (a video magazine)
SME Technical Digest
SME News
Journal of Manufacturing Systems
vii
Certification -This SME program formally recognizes manufacturing managers,
engineers , and technologists based on experience and knowledge. The key certification
requirement is successful completion of a two-part written examination covering (1)
engineering fundamentals and (2) an area of manufacturing specialization.
Educational Programs -The Society sponsors a wide range of educational activi-
ties, including conferences, clinics, in-plant courses, expositions, publications and
other educationah-aining media, professional certification, and the SME Manufactur-
ing Engineering Education Foundation.
viii
CONTENTS
VOLUME VI-DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURABILITY
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
ix
SYMBOLS AND
ABBREVIATIONS
The following is a list of symbols and abbreviations in general use throughout this volume. Supplementary ancUor derived units, symbols,
and abbreviations that are peculiar to specific subject matter are listed within chapters.
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
Fig. Figure MRP Material requirements planning
Flip-chip Face-down bonding or controlled-collapse MRP H Manufacturing resources planning
soldering MRTB Manufacturability
FMc Flexible manufacturing cell MSI Medium-scale integration
FMEA Failure mode and effects analysis MTBF Mean time between failures
FMECA Failure mode, effects, and criticality analysis MTP Master training plan
FMS Flexible manufacturing system(s) MTTR Mean time to repair
FPT Fine-pitch technologies MUX Multiplexer
ft or Foot NASA National Aeronautics and Space
GD&T, GDT Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing Administration
GIDEP Government-Industry Data Exchange Program NC Numerical control
GT Group technology NIH Not-invented-here
GTA Group technology assistant N-m Newton-meter
GTC Group-technology code NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and
GUI Graphical user interface Health
Heat-affected zones NLRA National Labor Relations Act
HDT Heat deflection temperature NLRB National Labor Relations Board
HFE Human factors engineering NPRD Nonelectronic Parts Reliability Data handbook
HIP Hot isostatically processed NPw Net present worth
hr Hour NSC National Security Council
HVOF High-velocity oxygen fuel NSF National Science Foundation
Ibid. In the same place NUBS Non-uniform B-splines
IC Integrated circuit(s) NURBS Non-uniform rational B-splines
ID Industrial designer (also, Instructional NVA Non-value adding
designer) ODD Observed design difficulty
IGES Initial Graphic Exchange Specification OEM Original equipment manufacturer
ILS Integrated logistics support OJT On the job training
in. or Inch Op.cit. In the work cited
IPc Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging OSHA Occupational Safety and Health
Electronic Circuits Administration (Act)
IPISD Interservice procedures for instructional
systems development
IRR Internal rate of return
P-Q-R-S-T-W
ISD Instructional systems development PA Producibility assessment
ISO International Standards Organization PAW Producibility assessment worksheet
JIT Just-in-time PCB Printed-circuit board
KBc Knowledge-based computer PCD Polycrystalline diamond
kPa kilopascal PCM Photochemical machining
kpsi, ksi kilopounds per square inch PDES Product Data Exchange Standard
KSA Knowledge, skills, and abilities PDES/STEP Product Data Exchange Standard/Standard for
the Exchange of Product
PDSA Plan Do StudyAct
L-M-N-O
PDT Product development team
LBW Laser beam welding PET Polyethyleneterephthalate
LCD Liquid crystal display PGA Pin-grid array
LCM Liquid composite molding PIM Powder injection molding
LED Light-emitting diode PLCC Plastic-leaded chip carrier
Loc.cit. In the place cited PM Powder metallurgy
LOM Laser object manufacturing POR Power on reset
LSI Large-scale integration PPM Parts per million
m Meter PTH Plated throughhole
MAP Manufacturing automation protocol PWA Printed-wire assembly
MBO Management by objectives PWB Printed-wire board
MCM Multichip module QA Quality assurance
MIM Metal injection molding QC Quality control
Millimeter QFD Quality function deployment
::C Maximum material condition QFP Quad-flat packages
MN MegaNewton R&D Research and development
MPa Megapascal RDBMS Relational database management system
MPIF Metal Powder Industries Federation RIM Reaction injection molding
MR Machinability rating rms Root mean square
MRTIS Manufacturing rating technique-baseline ROI Return on investment
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
RTM Resin transfer molding TPM Totrd productive maintenance
RTV Room temperature vulcanizing TQC Total quality control
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers TQM Total-quality management
Scc Stress corrosion cracking TRST Test reset
SE Simultaneous engineering TRTA Training requirements and task analysis
SGC Solid ground curing TTZ Transformation toughened zirconia
SLA Stereolithography apparatus UCL Upper control limit
SLS Selective laser sintering UUT Unit under test
SM Surface mounted VA Value added
SMC Sheet molding compound VE Value engineering
SMD Surface-mount devices VLSI Very large scale integration
SME Society of Manufacturing Engineers (also, WEDM Wire electric discharge machining
Subject matter expert) WIP Work in process
SMT Surface-mount technology WPF Weighted producibility factor
so Small outline XCON Expert configure
SOIC Small-outline integrated circuits Y-TZP Yttria-stabilized tetragonal zirconia
SPC Statistical process control polycrystals
SPI Society of the Plastics Industry
SQL Structured query language
MUM
SYMBOLS
Structural reaction injection molding
SS1 Small-scale integration Alpha
TAB Tape-automated bonding Approximately equal to
TAP Test access port Beta
TCK Test clock Degree
TCM Test-cost model Greater than
TDI Test-data input Greater than or equal to
TDO Test-data output Less than
TDu Total defects per unit Less than or equal to
THT Throughhole technology Mu
TIR Total indicator rtmout or total indicator Omega
readout Percent
TMS Training management system (also, Test-mode Plus or minus
select) Sigma (summation)
TOP Technical and office protocol
X111
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 1
DESIGN FOR
MANUFACTURABILITY
CHAPTER
Design for manufacturability (DFM) is a proven DEFINITION CONTENTS:
design methodology that works for any size com- Design for manufacturability is the practice of
pany. Early consideration of manufacturing issues designing products with manufacturing in mind, so Introduction 1-1
shortens product development time, minimizes de- they can:
velopment cost, and ensures a smooth transition into
Design
production and reduced time to market. Philosophy 1-4
Be designed in the least time with the least
Quality can be designed in, with optimal part
selection and proper integration of parts, for mini- development cost.
Make the quickest and smoothest transition Implementing
mum interaction problems. Considering the cumula- DFM 1-8
tive effect of part quality on product quality, design- into production.
. Be assembled and tested with the minimum
ers are encouraged to carefully specify part quality. The Benefits
Many costs are reduced, since products can be cost in the minimum amount of time. of DFM 1-13
. Have the desired levels of quality and relia-
quickly assembled from fewer parts. Thus, products
are easier to build and assemble, in less time, with bility.
better quality. Parts are designed for ease of fabrica- . Satisfy customers needs and compete well in
tion and commonality with other designs. DFM the marketplace.
encourages standardization of parts, maximum use of
purchased parts, modular design, and standard de- Design for manufacturability is a methodology
sign features. Designers will save time and money by that simultaneously considers all of the design goals
not having to reinvent the wheel. The result is a and constraints for products that will be manufac-
broader product line that is responsive to cus- tured. DFM is sometimes equated with Design for
tomer needs. Assembly (DFA), but that is only one aspect of
Companies that have applied DFM have realized design for manufacturability. Other aspects include
substantial benefits. Costs and time to market are all the other design fors or - abilities; design
often cut in half, with significant improvements in for testability, quality, reliability, serviceability,
quality, reliabilityy, serviceability, product line style, appearance, shipping, etc. (see Fig. 1-1).
breadth, delivery, customer acceptance, and general These are sometimes referred to as design for X
competitive posture. (DFX).
INTRODUCTION
DFM can help any size company improve profits. good utilization of stable factory processes. Higher
The benefits of DFM range from the obvious cost, reliability is achieved by using proven parts and
quality and delivery improvements to some important proven processes.
subtle benefits. DFM products get to market sooner because they
Lower assembly costs result from easier assembly fit right into existing processes and do not require
motions with fewer parts, leading to the minimum special equipment and procedures. The use of stan-
amount of manual labor. Lower cost of quality dard parts means that most will be on hand or be easy
results from simpler designs and from foolproof to obtain. The result of considering manufacturing
assembly. Less time spent on costly fire fighting issues early is fewer product problems; that will lead
of product introduction problems means smoother to quick and smooth product introductions.
product introductions. Designing for automatic assembly allows for
Higher quality results from fewer parts, foolproof greater use of automation with all its cost and quality
assembly, easy-to-inspect features, the use of more advantages. Easily assembled products need less
standardized parts with known good quality, and a time on assembly machinery.
The Contributor of this chapter is: Dr. David M. Anderson, P.E., President, Competitive Manufacturing
Seminars, Lafayette, CA.
The Reviewers of this chapter are: Michael W. Gozzo, Executive Vice President, Professionals for Technology
Associates, inc. (PRO TECH); Charles W. LaHay, Jr., Sr. Industrial Engineer, Power Products Division, Square D
Company; A. Sandy Munro, President, Munro & Associates, Inc.; Hayward Thomas, Consultant, RetiredPresident,
Jensen Industries.
1-1
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Function
Delivery
~J7-- Reliability
Z-J
Shionina
Testability
Human Foctors
Customers needs
Upgroding
( Customization
limet=market
Future designs
Designing products for less dependence on special equipment Finally, reducing production problems makes the factory more
saves equipment capital and avoids production delays caused by available for other products and enables Manufacturing to spend
waiting for delivery. The use of standardized parts results in less more effort on continuous improvement of operations.
setup than is usually necessary when nonstandard parts are used.
This results in greater machinery utilization. The end result is
COMPETITION AND VULNERABILITY
Many markets are highly competitive, and products may come
lower capital equipment costs.
under intense competition, if they are not already. A products
If the original design satisfies all the goals and constraints, it
vulnerability to competition may be revealed by asking how much
will not have to be redesigned for manufacturability. This can be
better could the product be designed for:
the ultimate drain on engineering resources and can cause the
product to miss its market window of opportunity. . The same function at lower cost.
Having fewer parts to purchase saves purchasing expense, . Better quality and reliability.
especially for standard parts. Fewer parts are ordered from fewer Better delivery.
vendors with stronger vendor/partner relationships. This results in . More responsiveness to customer needs.
less cost and effort to qualify parts and deal with quality problems. . Faster development of new products,
1-2
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
These are exactly the criteria well financed competitors use raises company overhead. The extra effort required for fue
when they target a product for market entry. Of the products fighting problem introductions also increases overhead costs.
formerly made in America that are now made only in the Far East, Delivery problems may cause extra expenses for air freight.
in most cases the function was not substantially improved at least
not at first during the market entry stage. The improvements were Factory Improvements
those listed above, which are all manufacturability issues. The Probably the most subtle effect (but most damaging in the long
solution is to narrow the gap with DFM to compete better and run) is that problem product introductions drain resourcesboth
discourage new market entries. people and moneyaway from continuous improvement efforts
John Young, the President of Hewlett-Packard, once said, It that make the factory more competitive.
does little good to design state-of-the-art products if, within a short Automation. Companies that automate their plants without
time, our foreign competition can manufacture them more DFM find the job is more difficult than anticipated because
cheaply. products have too many parts of the wrong shape that dont go
DFM may make the difference between a competitive product together easily. IBM Corporation wanted to build an automated
line and, in the extreme, products that are not manufacturable at plant to build the Selectric typewriter but, after looklng at the
all. Products fail and go out of production for any of these reasons: complexity of the original product, realized that automation was
Costs are too high. impossible. So the product was redesigned for automation, and a
. Quality is too low. showplace factory at Lexington, Kentucky was built around the
. Introduction was too late. new design.
. Production could not keep up with demand. Just-in-time. Just-in-time (JIT) programs depend on parts
standardization, a key element of DFM. The most obvious result
These are all manufacturability issues and therefore are very of DFM is being able to order parts in large enough quantities to
much affected by DFM. encourage frequent deliveries. A more subtle result is that having
fewer part types greatly simplifies the flow of parts within the
PROBLEMS WITHOUT DFM factory, allowing products to be built with less work-in-process
Designs that do not take manufacturability into account can (WIP) inventory.
cause a number of manufacturing problems. Flexible manufacturing. Flexible manufacturing depends on
parts-commonality programs, which strive to minimize the num-
ber of part types and maximize commonality throughout the
Time to Market product line. In order for a factory to be flexible, each workstation
Because they are not designed to use existing processes,
must be able to work on a variety of products. This is possible only
products designed without regard to manufacturability take longer
if the parts are common enough to be always available where they
to get into production, andspecial arrangements maybe required
are needed. If totally different parts are used on every product, it
to produce them. Further, their nonstandard parts can have longer
may take too much effort and floor space to ensure a steady supply
and less dependable lead times. Even standard parts, when
of parts at the points of use.
required in great numbers, may take a long time to accumulate.
Standardization of design features is also a prerequisite for
flexible manufacturing. Different products will be traveling along
Equipment the same material handling systems and will be built by the same
Products designed without DFM require more specialized tools and equipment.
equipment, which results in additional cost. In addition, delays in Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM). Product design
obtaining special production equipment can be substantial and can simplification and other factory simplifications (like JIT) should
have a major negative impact on product introduction schedules. be completed before large-scale integration is attempted. This is
why DFM is usually the first step in CIM programs, since DFM
greatly simplifies designs, reduces the number of part types and, in
Delivery
turn, streamlines the flow of parts in a factory.
Products designed without DFM will take more time to build
The method of design will determine how well the design fits
and deliver, because they may require extra steps or manual
into a CIM environment. Computer-aided designs flow easily into
operations. This, intum, rcsrdts inpoorquality and more rework.
computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). Once the factory is depen-
Problem product introductions may absorb so much effort that
dent on CAD input, it will not accept manual designs.
production of other stable products may suffer.
CAD and DFM should be implemented early in CIM programs
so that computer-based simplified designs will be prevalent when
Quality the CIM program is implemented.
Products designed without DFM have more quality problems
because they have more parts from more vendors, require more MANUFACTURABILITY
manual assembly, and may not take full advantage of factory The design determines the manufacturability. It is not deter-
quality control procedures which are setup for typical processes. mined by the factory, no matter how sophisticated it may be. In
Further, quality problems will result if parts have not been selected fact, the more advanced the factory is, the more it depends on
for optimal product quality and minimum interaction problems. good DFM designs. Automation places many constraints on the
design which DFM takes into account. Since the bend is toward
cost more advanced factories, good DFM practices will be expected
Quality problems and extra rework translate into higher man- more and more of designers.
ufacturing cost, especially if any defects get out to the customers. Good manufacturability y is being required for more reasons than
Special production machinery needed for nonstandard designs factory compatibility; the competitive environment is putting
1-3
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
intense pressures on cost, quality, time to market, and delivesy. has determined 80% of the lifetime cost of the product! 1 (see Fig.
The most successful manufacturers are making products that were 1-2). The design determines the manufacturability, and that
designed very well for manufacturability. determines a significant part of the introduction and production
cost, the 8070 of the product. Once this cost is locked in, it is very
THE EARLY EFFECTS OF DESIGN hard for manufacturing to remove it. Cost reduction programs
By the time a moduct has been desismed.
.-. onlv. about 8% of the should start with product design, because it has the most influence
total product budget has been spent. But by that point, the design over the designs overall cost.
100
80
20
0
Conception Design Testing Process Production
planning and service
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
The key design principle for DFM is to consider all goals and 3. Social design considerations.
constraints early. In non-DFM designs, function is the primary or . Human factors.
even the only consideration. Sometimes, cost is also considered, . Appemance and style.
but maybe not from the beginning. However, there are many other Safety.
considerations that should be taken into account, including the 4. Marketing design considerations.
following: Customers needs.
. Breadth of product line.
1. Traditional design considerations
. Time to market.
Function.
. Expansion and upgrading.
cost.
Future designs.
2. Factory design considerations.
5. Environmental design considerations.
. Delivery.
. Product pollution.
. Quality and reliability.
Process pollution.
. Ease of assembly.
. Ease of recycling product.
Ability to test.
. Ease of service and repair. Many of these considerations may not seem, at first glance, to
. Shipping. be related to manufacturability. They are related in many ways.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 1
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
TRADITIONAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS TQC philosophy is that, instead of being tested in, quality should
There are two main categories to examine here, function be built in using control of the process. Theoretically, products
and cost. need not be tested if all processes are 1007o in control. However,
few factories are that confident in their processes, so products need
Function at least a go/no-go test. Less advanced factories, with Klgher
Of course the product must work properly, but although fallout (failures) producing complex products, may need tests to
function is the most obvious consideration, it is far from being the aid in diagnostics. Designers of these products are responsible for
only one. A redesign to correct a purely functional problem will devising a way not only to test the product, but also to diagnose it
result in another product introduction, and that can be an unex- if that is needed by the factory. In complex products, test
pected drain on manufacturing resources. development cost can exceed product development costs and can
even take more calendar time.
cost
Cost has been the battleground of competition for two decades, Ease of Service and Repair
but the lowest product cost does not result from cost reduction
Being able to repair a defective product is a manufacturability
measures, per se. As pointed out earlier, the design determines issue because any product failing any test will have to be repaired.
well over three fourths of a products cost. Service and repair in the field is more demanding because field
For example, one high-tech company appointed acostreduc- service centers usually have less sophisticated equipment than
tion manager for a critical ncw product Iinc; the manager managed factories. In extreme cases, field failures may be sent back to the
to reduce the projected cost within the goal by buying the cheapest
factory for repair, thus diluting manufacturing resources. Design-
parts. However, the parts came from 16 different countries and
ers have a lot of control over ease of service and repair, if these are
took 9 months to deliver. This was significant because the product
considered early.
was supposedly leading edge. Furthermore, when production
began, the part quality was so poor that the plant actually ground
to a halt, thus delaying delivery even further. Shipping
Shipping considerations should not be left until the first
FACTORY DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS manufactured product reaches the shipping dock. Every effort
A numberof topics in this area include delivery, quality and should be made to use a standard packaging material that can be
reliability, ease of assembly, ability to test, ease of service and used for many products. There is a trade-off between inherent
repair, and shipping, shock-handling capability of parts and the size and cost of
protective packaging. Returns due to shipping damage may come
Delivery back to the factory, thus depleting more manufacturing resources.
Delivery is greatly affected by the design because the design
determines how difficult the product is to build and assemble. The
SOCIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
choice of the parts determines how much the factory will have to
Social design considerations can be broken down into human
wait for their delivery. Design standardization and commonality
factors, appearance and style, and safety.
will affect the effectiveness of just-in-time programs which are the
key to a fast factory throughput,
Human Factors
Quality and Reliability Human fm.lors or ergonomics are social considerations that
Like cost, quality and reliability are determined more by the should be considered at the very beginning, since ergonomic
design than is commonly realized. Design team members specify changes would be difficult to implement after the design is
the parts and, thus, the quality of the parts. They determine the complete. Good human factors design of the product and process
number of parts and so determine the cumulative effect of part will reduce errors and accidents in manufacture and use. In some
quality on the product, an important consideration on complex industries (like electronics), most service calls are to correct
products (see Fig. l-3). Design team members are responsible for customer setup and operation errors.
the tolerance sensitivity. Some of theprocesses specified by them
affect the inherent quality of the parts. They are responsible for
Appearance and Style
ensuring that parts aredesigned so that they cannot be assembled Appearance and style should be considered as an integral part
wrong. These are very much manufacturability issues since quality of the design, not something that is added later. Sometimes, the
problems must be consistently corrected in the plant before a style is dictated by an early industrial design study; this can really
product can be shipped. hamper incorporating DFM principles, if they were not considered
in the styling design. All factors in a design need to be considered
Ease of Assembly simultaneously throughout the design. Styling in many products is
Because much attention has been focused on design for
a key factor in the customers decision to buy or not to buy, which
assembly (DFA), this is what comes to mind when most people
helps decide the success or failure of the product (and, in turn,
think of DFM. There are many guidelines in this handbook that
influences the morale of the those who continue to be employed).
ensure ease of assembly. Software has been developed to assist
designers in achieving the easiest assembly.
Safety
Ability to Test Product safety must be considered early in the process not
Test strategy is very much affected by the company quality after the first lawsuit. When a major safety issue surfaces,
culture. At companies using total quality control (TQC), quality is production ceases until all products in the factory are corrected and
everyones responsibility (including designers, of course). The all affected parts in inventory and in the field are reworked. This
1-5
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 1
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
100%
90% -
250 DPM
80% -
70% -
60% -
50% -
40% -
30% -
20% -
99.2% =
0% -
0 . *W
can be a major disruption to manufacturing and sales. Designers into design specifications. The resulting products have a much
should make every effort to design safe products as a moral and higher chance of satisfying customers needs, and therefore are
legal obligation. more successful in the marketplace.
1-6
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 1
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
The usual measure of time to market has been fist customer Ease of Recycling Product
shipment. But since the factory can jump through hoops to get Similarly, everyone has a moral obligation to be concerned
the first product out the door, this is not a realistic measure of time about what happens to the product after its useful life is over. Can
to market. A better measurement is time to stable production, it be recycled into new materials? Can it be rebuilt for extended
although this may be hard to define. The latest measurement of life? The company may even be able to profit in some manner
time to market to appear is time to break even (the calendar from the recycling of its products. If the product must be
time until profits have paid off development costs) which accounts disposable, will it degrade quickly and safely without aggravating
for everything: development cost, factory introduction cost, and worsening solid waste disposal problems? These factors, like all
any expenses that have not been planned. the others, must be considered all through the design process.
All these factors should be emphasized in DFM programs,
Expansion and Upgrading because the implementation of redesigns or major design changes
Designers should design products so that they are easily can consume a large share of manufacturing resources. Redesigns
expanded or upgraded by the plant or by the customer. This consume the engineering time and money that were originally
capability may allow the company to increase profits by extending intended for the next product. This leads to one of the most
the life of each product. Finance and marketing representatives important design principles for design in general, not just for
should be involved early to help formttlate the product upgrading DFM:
strategy. The finance people could point out how products have a The farther into a design, the harder it is to start satisfying
high profit potential in the latter stages of their lifetimes after additional needs.
development costs are paid off. Extending a products lifetime
with easy upgrades may be a very worthwhile goal to consider in DFM VERSUS DESIGN FREEDOM
the initial phases of the product design. Designers may be tempted to think that fewer constraints mean
more design freedom, and many may resist DFM on those
Future Designs grounds. But, in reality, too few constraints may lead to the design
Similarly, current products should redesigned so that subse- equivalent of writers block. If every design decision has many
quentproducts can be based hrgelyo nthecurrentdesign. It will open choices, the whole design will represent an overwhelming
save much time in the next design if maximum use can be made of array of choices that can lead to design paralysis. So the designer
current engineering. breaks the impasse by making arbitrary decisions. Every arbitrary
decision will probably make it difficult to incorporate other
considerations later. And the further the design progresses (the
ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN more arbitrary decisions), the harder it will be to satisfy additional
CONSIDERATIONS considerations.
Environmental design considerations, such as product pollu- Not considering all the goals and constraints at the beginning
tion, process pollution, and recyclability are becoming increas- results in arbitrary decisions that eliminate solutions down-
ingly important. stream.
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CHAPTER 1
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
TABLE 1-1 Observe parts manufacture and product assembly often. Ask
Cost of Engineering Changes manufacturing people how products could be designed better
for manufacturability. It would be a rare situation, indeed,
Time of Design Change cost ($) when manufacturing people have nothing to say about
During design: 1 ,Ooo the subject.
During design testing: 10,000
Encourage dialogue with manufacturing people, especially
During process planning: 100,000 those involved with the processes that will be building
During test production: 1,000,000 the design.
During final production: 10,000,000 Special activities used by manufacturing should be under-
stood: for example, clean room procedures, product testing
laboratories, etc.
Vendors processes should be understood. Visit vendors
way they can choose the right process, specify the right tolerance,
plants to understand manufacturability issues on parts that
utilize existing factory processes, minimize setup changes, and
are farmed out.
assure smooth product introductions. All of these will minimize
labor costs. Learning Trades
Designers should learn the trades that build what they are
designing, for instance:
Factory Experience Machining. If they are designing machined parts, they should
Designers should learn about manufacturing by working in the learn how to operate lathes and milling machines.
factory. Between design projects, designers could participate in Numerical control. If they are designing parts to be built on
job rotation and spend time working in the factory. This would N/C machining centers, they should learn N/C programming so
give them valuable first-hand experience of how difficult it is to they know how to optimize their specifications.
build products that were not designed for manufacturability. Welding. One of the greatest potentials for unmanufacturable
In Japan, design engineers work in manufacturing to get an designs involves welding. Designers inexperienced in the trade of
understanding of manufacturability issues before moving on to welding do not understand how difficult it is to weld dissimilar
design. Graduating engineering students should request manufac- cross-sections, how much access the welder needs, and how much
turing experience before design assignments. Company policy weldments warp during welding and cooling.
should place design engineers in manufacturing first. It can be Working designers can learn these skills by taking courses at
argued that it takes any new employee time to learn the company local community colleges on machining, welding, etc. Engineer-
system, and engineers on their first job need to learn even more. ing students should take these courses in their engineering school,
So while they are gaining experience on how the company or, if not available, emoll in community college courses. These
operates, they can be learning about the companys manufacturing shop courses use hands-on instruction to actually teach students
practices. how to machine, weld, etc. Usually one general course in each
skill would be sufficient. Companies should encourage this activ-
ity by paying course fees and giving time off for the classes.
Understanding Company Processes Companies with large shops could hold shop classes for designers
If designers cannot actually work in manufacturing, they on site, taught by teachers from community colleges or even by
should try to understand company processes: factory workers.
IMPLEMENTING DFM
For DFM to work, designers must know how to actually design WHAT DFM PROGRAMS ACCOMPLISH
products that are manufacturable. Experience in manufacturing A good DFM program will accomplish several objectives.
can be a good teacher, especially if it is in the same type of
manufacturing that the designer works in. 1. Experience is documented. The corporate wisdom on
manufacturability is accumulated, analyzed, documented,
Manufacturing experience vividly reveals which designs are and distributed to everyone. This is an effective way to
hard to build. The lessons learned from manufacturing are mostly avoid known manufacturing problems.
how not to design. This needs to be conveyed to Engineering by 2. New DFM knowledge is introduced. New knowledge
some more organized method than noise from the factory floor, about DFM is researched, adapted for the company, and
which in some companies is the only feedback channel. published for all personnel to learn from.
3. Everyone follows the same policy. Everyone in the com-
Individuals can learn DFM independently through books, pany will follow the same policy for designing products for
seminars, and practice. However, the optimal benefit for compa- optimal manufacturability. Without formal DFM pro-
nies can come from building their own DFM programs that not grams, individual designers may seek advice from marru-
only teach DFM but also provide a consistent framework for facturing people they know. The trouble with this system is
applying DFM. that each designer may be getting different advice from
different acquaintances, and the feedback given tends to be
informal without much research backing it up
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CHAPTER 1
IMPLEMENTING DFM
Field Data
Choose Participants Quantitative field data should be collected on any problems in
After ownership has been established, a committee should be the field. Are customers really satisfied with the product? Any
formed that includes at least one individual, who is knowledgeable factor that could lead to design improvements is important. Results
about company manufacturability y issues, from each of the follow- that do not fall under the charter of DFM, can be passed on to the
ing departments: appropriate departments.
. Engineering. Sister Divisions
. Manufacturing. Sister divisions may have already set some precedents for
. Test or Test Development. content, implementation, or, at least, for DFM format.
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CHAPTER
IMPLEMENTING DFM
Machinery Manufacturers The big advantage of checklists is that they reveal, at a glance,
Most manufacturers of production machinery publish manuals how many violations have been made. This can either be corrected
specifying how to design products to be built most efficiently on upon review or, if waived, allow manufacturing to prepare for the
their equipment. This information will specify actual capacities, violation.
limitations, clearances, and product features needed for handling Checklists are written documents (or the software equivalent)
and processing. If the goal is 100% use of automation, then all the so they can become part of the formal procedures that are part of
manufacturers recommendations must be followed exactly. Ad- product development in every company. Examples of checklist
herence to the recommendations is important also to keep the topics are shown in Fig. 1-4.
machines running at maximum utilization.
will give general advice which will have to be tailored to the m Common parts
specific company.
5 Symmetrical shapes
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CHAPTER 1
IMPLEMENTING DFM
guidelines. Introductory sections can describe the benefits of DFM The evaluation process can also reveal if the rules are too strict
and why personnel should do their utmost to ensure the very best or possibly less needed than anticipated. The rules may be
manufacturability. An opening endorsement by the company incomplete y understood because of vague wording or ineffective
president or an appropriate official can motivate users and convey training. These issues can be corrected in subsequent revisions of
official company support for the DFM program. the DFM manual.
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CHAPTER 1
IMPLEMENTING DFM
Voice of the
customer .
Service
Manufociuring
Satisfaction of
customers
needs
Fig. l-5 Squential prtiuct development vs. conmrrent prdnctdeveIopment. (Chi4 Press)
The following are some ways to encourage DFM: rate management can cite competitive trends that might
make DFM necessary for corporate survival. Competitive
1. Management support is not only essential for DFM suc- threats are usually effective in changing the Narus quo, but
cess, but is also an effective motivator. Support from management must point out the seriousness of competitive
Engineering management is especially important. Corpo- challenges. Cost savings, which go straight to the bottom
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CHAPTER 1
IMPLEMENTING DFM
line as profit, benefit employees through profit sharing, 8. Awards. Official recognition can be an incentive, but
bonuses, and a generally healthier and more stable because of the teamwork nature of DFM, the award should
company. be to the design team.
2. Emphasize benefits. Much of this chapter addresses the Awards can be linked to salary review, promotions
benefits of DFM; they can be used to motivate employees. and/or future assignments. Other rewards could emphasize
Quantified benefits will interest management. Employees recognition, status, prestige, and even monetary compen-
should realize that doing DFM early is much easier than all sation. Specifically, rewards could include:
the fire fighting usually involved in introducing a product. Plaques or trophies for individuals and/or teams.
3. Use the team concept as discussed earlier. Providing Personal computer or computer upgrade, or software
manufacturing input to design teams is the backbone of or software upgrade for winning team members.
DFM. Manufacturing people provide useful technical in- Significant monetary award, proportional to the sav-
put, and may help motivate designers to make designs ings perceived in manufacturing; the award could be
more manufacturable. divided among the team equally or proportional to
4. Move theteam closer together. This encourages frequent each team members DFM contribution. The ranking
interaction of the various disciplines, which is the essence of the teams DFM performance could he done by the
of teamwork. team members themselves.
5. Keep the team on the product. The design team follows the Other incentives such as award logo printed on
design through the life of the product. This makes the business card (like the real estate agent million dollar
designers aware that they will have to personally correct club or a corporations length-of-service logo); award
any DFM shortcomings, and they will realize that DFM is pins to wear on badges; an award club with some
much easier to apply at the beginning than through subse- privileges; award mugs, pen holders, T-shirts or sweat
quent fire-fighting and ECOS. Designers will then learn shirts with award logos; award travel to conferences
that the sooner the total design job is finished, the sooner (beyond usual travel).
they can go onto the next design. The winning desirer team could be awarded the next
6, Create a commonality spec book. An effective way to important (~nd pr~stigious) product.
motivate parts commonality observance is to publish the 9. DFM pilot. An example can be set by hand-picking a
specifications of all common parts in one manual. Design design team with the best skills, talents, and attitudes for
would be encouraged to use commonality parts because it doing the best design for manufacturability. This team is
is easier to look up the specs in the common spec book than put in charge of a visible project and the results are
in several manufacturers catalogs. publicly praised.
7 Discount overhead. DFM designs use less overhead due to
faster designs, smoother introductions andeasierpurchas- The advantage of such an approach is that it can be used as a
ing. Therefore, a logical argument can be made for role model in addition to being a methodology pilot. Procedures
discounting the overhead and giving budgetary benefits to developed in the pilot can be formalized and then applied to all
the low overhead projects. This not only is appropriate design teams. Having the documented results (how much sooner to
from an accounting standpoint, but it also can act as an market, how much lower cost, how many fewer ECOS, etc. ) can
incentive, especially when there is pressure to reduce give credibility to implementing new procedures.
the cost.
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CHAPTER 1
THE BENEFITS OF DFM
suppliers than its predecessor. Subsequently, it takes one-quarter greater numbers, the parts can be dispensed at the point of use,
of the time to assemble. The IBM Proprinter has 65 YOfewer parts which eliminates the expense and inventory resulting from kitting
than its predecessor, so assembly time has been slashed by 90%. 4 and kit distribution.
One of the slogans of DFM is that the best engineered part is To calculate the benefits of DFM: determine the amount of
no part at all. Fewer parts can be achieved by an inherently setup time that will be saved by many designs that can be built on
simpler design, and by combining parts whenever adjacent parts: the same setup; then calculate the yearly value of that setup time
savings in direct and indirect labor costs.
1. Do not have to be different materials.
Based on the amount of setup and lot size reduction, calculate
2. Do not move with respect to each other.
the reduction in WIP invento~ and multiply this by the carrying
3. Do not need to come apart for servicing.
cost of the inventory which is usually 20 to 25% (as high as 45Yo)
The combination of parts simplifies assembly, and the
of the value of the inventory per year!
interface between the parts is no longer needed, thus
eliminating two sets of dimensionseach of which had to
MARKET FLEXIBILITY AND DELlVERY
be fabricated to proper tolerances. As setup time goes to zero, lot size goes to one. A lot size of
4. Products designed for manufacturability not only have one really means manufacturing without lots at all. Manufacturing
fewer assembly operations, but also go together easier
without lots is called flexible manufacturing. With setup elimi-
because assembly motions have been optimized as part of
nated or instantly changeable, each product can be different; hence
the product/process design. DFM products will not require
the term, flexible. This flexibility allows production planners to
forge and file to fit for assembly. schedule any mix or quantity of products, and to build the product
5. The cost savings from simpler assembly can be calculated
mix at mass production speed and efficiency.
from labor standards or estimated from part number reduc-
DFM encourages flexible manufacturing with families of
tions. The cost of eliminated interfaces can be estimated products that are designed to be built on the same production lines
from the current cost to fabricate the interfaces.
with common parts. Flexible manufacturing lines can provide
market flexibility by easily adapting to changing market condi-
PART FABRICATION COST SAVINGS tions. The ability to build very low-volume products efficiently
Parts designed for manufacturability cost less because the can yield increased sales through a broader product line. Market
optimal processes and tolerances have been specified. It is flexibility can also allow companies to adapt quickly to changing
important to fully understand the processes being specified to build market conditions. One automaker is building a plant that will be
the parts. The wrong process may result in a difficult weldment able to build seven different automobiles on the same line. As
instead of an easy casting or vice versa. By understanding the market tastes shift from large cars to small cars or vice versa, the
processes, designers will know how to properly specify the factory can instantly adapt. Conventional competitors would be
tolerances. Few designers know the step functions when increas- facing a downturn at the factory producing the less popular model,
ing tolerances force the use of a more expensive process. and would not be able to satisfy the demand for the popular car.
Most engineers err conservatively, and specify tolerances that Company strategic planners should work with Marketing and
are unnecessarily tight and expensive. The block tolerance can Engineering to project the economic value of such flexibility.
automatically require a tight tolerance when none is specified by Delive~ will improve in a factory that operates with smaller
the designer. lots and less WIP inventory. This is because parts and products
To estimate the cost savings, a tolerance review is done of a flow quickly from one workstation to the next without waiting in
typical product or a statistically significant mrnpling of parts. large lots between workstations. The factory throughput time can
After assigning the proper tolerances, the manufacturing cost can actually approach the theoretical minimum: the labor standard, the
be re-estimated. If tolerances have been too loose and caused actual amount of labor-hours needed to build the product with no
quality problems, the cost of increasing the tolerances is added and waiting. Many companies have reduced factory throughput one or
the quality cost that has been incurred is subtracted. What if two orders of magnitude: what used to take 30 days to build can
design analyses will reveal potentially lower cost processes. now he built in one day.
Better delivery can translate to a greater market share with
higher sales, or allow the company to charge a premium for the
WORK-IN-PROCESS INVENTORY SAVINGS product. George Stalk, in his book, Competing Against Time,
Inventory-related savings are the easiest to compute because states that <time-based competitors can ask and obtain price
most companies usually have fairly good financial data on the premiums over their slower competitors. The price premiums
amount of inventory and its carrying cost. generally range from a low of 10% to a high of 100% with 20%
Work-in-process inventory exists whenever parts and products being about average.2
are built in lots or batches. Conventional manufacturing practice
maximizes the size of lots in order to spread the cost of setup over FINISHED GOODS INVENTORY SAVINGS
the most products possible. Setup can be defined as the time it The other benefit of flexible manufacturing is the potential to
takes to change over machines from one part or product to another. reduce or eliminate finished-goods inventory, in which finished
Designers can minimize setup changes by using common design products are stored until they are sold.
features that allow many products to be built in the same setup. DFM can reduce finished goods inventory with modular
Feature commonality can minimize setup changes for different design, which allows products to be assembled from modules.
hole shapes or bend radii and ensure that parts can be built with Thus, only the basic modules need be stocked, not every combi-
tools available in automatic tool changers. nation of modules, which would be necessary for tbe equivalent
Part commonality ensures that common parta are used through- variety of conventional products. Modular design can even permit
out the factory. These common parts do not need to be changed for a broader product line with new products created by new modular
different products. Because fewer commonality parts are used in combinations.
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CHAPTER 1
THE BENEFITS OF DFM
DFM can help eliminate finished goods inventory by encour- FLOOR SPACE SAVINGS
aging a form of flexible manufacturing called build to order. Similarly, floor space may be even harder to increase, consid-
Instead of building products to a forecast and then storing them in ering building costs and land procurement difficulties. DFM can
the warehouse until sold, products can be quickly built to the help save floor space by helping to minimize WIP and finished
customers order and shipped directly to the customer. goods inventories. Designing parts and products in GT product
The finished-goods inventory carrying cost may be higher than families results in a more space-efficient plant layout. Products
the usual 20 to 25% if the product is susceptible to obsolescence or designed around commonality of parts can reduce parts inventory
deterioration in storage. Plus, finished goods inventory has a and eliminate the space needed for kitting parts in the warehouse
higher value than WIP inventory, which is only partially com- and storing the kits on the factory floor.
pleted. Eliminating finished-goods inventory can yield savings in To quantify the benefit: estimate the reduction in inventory,
the millions of dollars. convert that to warehouse space saved, and multiply by the real
Another benefit is that scarce components, like the latest cost or value of that space (the cost to build more for an expanding
hard-to-get microprocessor or memory chip, are only built into company or the value to sublet or sell the warehouse building for
products that are generating revenue, instead of being built into static companies).
products that sit in the warehouse. Build to order ensures that very
expensive components are only consumed on products irnmedl-
QUALITY COST SAVINGS
ately producing revenue.
Many people may be unaware of the enormous expense of the
cost of quality. Some companies enjoy a reputation for quality
MATERIALS OVERHEAD SAVINGS
products, but that does not automatically mean that they have no
A related inventory saving is purchased and manufactured parts
quality problems in the factory. It may be expensive to maintain
(raw parts) inventory. If parts are stored at the point of use, the
cost of the inventory associated with storing andkitting parts will the test screen that many companies use to test in quality. Cost
reduction programs, like DFM, should try to eliminate a certain
be saved.
portion of the cost of quality. For the maximum benefit, DFM
The materials department operating budget can be reduced by
should be combined with quality improvement programs such as
simpler designs with fewer parts and by parts commonality.
total quality control, just-in-time inventory reduction, and auto-
Products designed with parts commonality will require fewer
mation of error-prone manuaI assembly.
purchasing actions, thus saving purchasing department operating
Cost of quality can be estimated, based on revenue. Philip
costs. Further, the commonality parts are ordered in larger
Crosby, in his classic book, Quality is Free, states that the cost of
quantities, thus resulting in better purchasing leverage for quantity
quality can be 15 to 20% of revenue. A company with a well run
dkcounts and better delivery.
quality management program could expect less than 2.5%. There-
A rough rule of thumb is that half of the materials budget is
fore, the potential savings in cost of quality could be 15% of
driven by product volume and half is driven by the parts them-
revenue. In 1983, IBM embarked on an effort to reduce the cost of
selves. It is not uncommon for commonality programs to reduce
quality by 15% of revenue which was $6 billion. This amount of
active part types by one to two orders of magnitude. At one
savings was the justification for simultaneously redesigning prod-
electronics phmt, acommonality list of500part types evolved out
ucts for automation and designing automated factories to
of 20,000 qualified parts. ] Therefore, the part-driven half of the
build them.
materials budget could be substantially reduced.
Another way to calculate the cost of quality is to add up the
MACHINERY UTILIZATION SAVINGS actual budget spent on quality cost activities which do not add
Another benefit of designing products to minimize setup is the value to the product. These nonvalue-added activities include
increase in the utilization of processing machinery. The average setup, moving materials, waiting, test, rework, scrap, field re-
machine tool utilization is about 159Zo.5Thisrepresents the amount pairs, and overhead. The inverse is a simpler and more realistic
of time that the machine is actually making parts. The remaining method of calculation: calculate the cost of value-added activities
85% of the time is spent loading parts, making measurements, (parts fabrication and product assembly) and subtract that from
waiting for parts, and changing the setup. For the automatic total operating expenses.
assembly of printed circuit boards, the machinery is only inserting The expense of engineering change orders and product rede-
components 35% of the time.6 This figure would be even less if signs are costs that can be saved by good design for manufactur-
downtime and maintenance were included. ability. Related expenses are costs of all the fire fighting in
In low-volume production with a high product mix, setup manufacturing that can be saved, if the product is designed for a
changes can make up a majority of nonproductive time. Group smooth transition into production. To estimate this savings,
technology can minimize or eliminate setup by designing families estimate what percentage of manufacturing labor-hours are spent
of parts so that they can be built on the same setup. Similarly, in nonproductive activities due to manufacturability problems,
products can be designed to be assembled in the same assem- Multiplying this by the operations budget will result in the
bly setup. fiie-fighting cost that can be saved by good DFM practices.
If setup reduction programs cart raise the utilization from 15 to
30%, then the capacity of the plant will be doubled. In a static DEVELOPMENT COST SAVINGS
company, half the machinery could be sold off. In a growing Using DFM techniques can lower product development bud-
company, doubled capacity could delay or even eliminate the need gets by doingi trightt hefirstt ime and by avoiding reinvent-
for new equipment. This is a very important benefit because of the ing the wheel. Considering all goals and constraints early will
long lead time needed to order and install production machinery. more quickly converge designers totheoptimal design rmd result
Companies are reluctant to commit funds far in advance based on in fewer engineering change orders and much less risk of a
marketing projections. They usually delay the decision and then redesign. Rapid developments, in turn, have less chance of
are caught with insufficient production capacity. changes being required because of changing market conditions or
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 1
THE BENEFITS OF DFM
obsolescence related to components or the product concept itself. them. Taking the initiative in innovation will require even faster
Further, with fewer product introduction problems, engineers will cycle times. }1
be less likely to become involved in factory fire fighting. Developing products sooner, or not being late, often pays off
Using previously designed details and parts saves not only the even if it means going over budget. An economic model developed
design time, but also the time and cost associated with documen- by a management consulting firm shows that high-tech products
tation, prototyping, and debugging. A survey of 53 companies that that come to market six months late but on budget will earn 339.
were users of group technology found that 20% of design needs less profit over five years. In contrast, coming out on time and
could be satisfied by an existing part; 18~0 required only slight 50% over budget cuts profits only 4~o.
modiilcation of an existing part; and 1270 required extensive If the product is the first to be available in a given market, even
modification, but still represented less effort than starting over. 8 more of a sales bonus can be expected. Being the first, in itself,
IBM can introduce new products with 40% of the parts reused generates good publicity and customer awareness. The product
from previous designs and 40% requiring some modification. and the company will be perceived as market leaders. The first
Thus, only 20% of the parts need to be completely designed for product in its field has the chance of setting standards or even
new products. becoming a de ~aclo standard. The fist product can also lock up
Modular design can reduce development costs, especially if the most attractive distribution channels.
several products are designed around similar modules. Subsequent
designs can use standard modules for common features like the SUPERIOR PRODUCT DESIGN
frame, power supply, fluid power system, etc. Then the designers The underlying principle of DFM is to consider all goals and
can concentrate on the unique aspects of product design. constraints early so the designers can quickly converge on the
Engineers can spend less time selecting and evaluating parts if optimal solution. This not only assures that a quality product can
they use standard commonality parts which have been proved in be introduced quickly and sold at an attractive price, but the design
use and throughout manufacturing. Further, the engineer will not methodology also encourages better satisfaction of customers
have to spend time qualifying suppliers or substituting parts late in needs, the ultimate criterion for success in the marketplace.
the design if supplier problems occur. Designers practicing DFM can actually devote more time to
Maximum use of purchased parts can free designers from functional considerations if they follow all the time-saving steps
designing parts that are already available from and verified by above. They will have more time to devote to product design
suppliers experienced in those parts. If purchased parts are not because they will be using more catalog parts and relying more on
available, then suppliers of similar parts can actually design the vendors to design the parts they build. Using previous engineering
parts and build them. This is a growing trend that can effectively and modules will permit designers to concentrate on the new
expand the size of the product team without any additional aspects of their product design. Designers will be able to spend
personnel expenses. 9 Fifty-one percent of car design engineering less time on test development if quality can be assured by design
in Japan is performed by suppliers. 10Functional specifications are and process controls.
issued so that suppliers can perform both design and manufactur- Products that sail smoothly into production are less likely to be
ing functions. Some suppliers absorb warranty coverage on their compromised by last-minute changes, which are often necessary
parts. when manufacturability is considered too late.
If a product is designed for quality and the factory follows good
quality practices, Engineering may spend less effort on test CONCLUSIONS
development. For some products, the cost of test development can DFM can increase profits by improving sales and decreasing
exceed product development. Test development is one of the many costs. Production costs can be cut by designing less-expensive
quality costs that can be reduced or eliminated by designing and parts that can be assembled with lower total cost. Products
building quality into the product rather than testing it in. designed in group technology families with common parts can be
built with lower inventory, in less factory space, and on fewer
PRODUCTS SOONER TO MARKET machines. Products designed for flexible manufacturing can
DFM can have a significant effect in reducing time to market quickly respond to changing market conditions while eliminating
because products are designed right the first time using time- finished-goods inventory.
saving design techniques. The value of introducing a product Quality and reliability can be assured by design and process
sooner can be enormous, even though the revenue gain may be controls rather than expensive testing, diagnostics, and rework.
dit%cult to estimate. But marketing should establish a ball park Development costs will be lower with maximum use of reusable
estimate of the value. For instance, a marketing manager of one engineering, modular design, catalog parts, and vendor assistance.
computer manufacturer estimated that for leading-edge products, Products will reach the market sooner because they are designed
each week earlier to market was worth $1.2 million per week in right the first time. The result is a timely, quality product that will
additional revenue !] satisfy customer needs at a competitive price.
Reducing product introduction cycles may be necessary for DFM alone may make the difference between being competi-
survival. George Stalk of the Boston Consulting Group, which tive or not succeeding in the marketplace. Most markets are highly
specializes in time-based competitive advantage, states, Unless competitive, and slight competitive advantages or disadvantages
U.S. companies reduce their new product development and can have a significant effect. DFM can have enormous benefits
introduction cycles from 36 to 48 months to 12 to 18 months, to product cost, quality, and time to market with very little
Japanese manufacturers will easily out-innovate and outperform investment.
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CHAPTER 1
THE BENEFITS OF DFM
References
1. Dr. David M. Anderson, Design for Manufacturability; Optimizing 6. S.A. Cooper, Maximizing the Throughput of Automatic Insetilon
Cost, Quality, and Time to Markef (Lafayette, CA: CIM Press, Equipment, Electronic Packaging & Production (August 1986),
1 990). p. 69.
2. George Stalk, Jr. and Thomas M. Hout, Competing Against Time 7. Philip B. Crosby, Qua/ity is free (New York: Mentor Books,
(New York: Free Press, 1990). 1979).
3. Otis Port, Zachary Schdler, and Resa W. King, A Smarter Way 8. Design News (August 22, 1968).
to Manufacture; How Concurrent Engineering Can Reinvigorate 9. Forging Technical Alliances, Design News (July 3, 1989).
American Industry, Business Week (April 30, 1990), p. 110. 10. David Woodruff and Stephen Phillips, Ford Has a Better Idea;
4. Otis Port, The Best Engineered Part is No Part at All, Business Let Someone Else Have the Idea, Business Week (April 30,
Week (May 8, 1989), p. 150. 1990), p. 116.
5. Eric Teicholz and Joel N. Orr, Computer-/ntegrated A4anufactur- 11. George Stalk, Jr., TimeThe Next Source of Competitive
ing Handbook (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987). Advantage, Harvard Business Review (July-August 1988), pp.
41-51.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 2
CONCURRENT ENGINEERING
Product and process technology is rapidly evolv- include test and inspection processes; product service CHAPTER
ing. Competition is becoming more and more glob- and support processes (reliability and maintainabil- CONTENTS:
ally based. Customers are placing an increasing ity); spare parts requirements and logistics; human
emphasis on quality and reliability, but at the same factors, environmental and safety considerations; Design for
time looking for good value. Time to market, or operation and maintenance documentation; Manufacturability
speed to market, is becoming a paradigm of world and disposal. 2-1
Design for
class manufacturing. To respond to this increasingly A starting point for concurrent engineering is Quality 2-5
dynamic and challenging environment, manufactur- developing a better understanding of the customer.
ers are implementing concurrent engineering con- This does not necessarily mean gathering additional Design for the
cepts to reduce design cycle time and improve data on customers and performing more market Life Cycle 2-9
product value. research. It means that the personnel involved in
While design for manufacturability (DFM) is a product development need to understand the custom- Design for
core part of concurrent engineering, its concepts are ers requirements to effectively develop products to cost 2-10
based on an expanded focus of the entire product life meet these requirements. Better relationships must be
cycle from concept development through use and developed with customers as a basis for more intense Enabling
disposal. It can be argued that this is merely a matter communication and a better understanding of cus- Technology 2-12
of semantics, but it is more importantly a balanced tomer needs. Product developers need to be brought
focus on the many aspects that contribute to a into contact with customers, or a representative Concurrent
Engineering
successful product. group of prospective customers, to better understand and the
Concurrent engineering is based on the integrated their needs and to obtain feedback on product de- Organization 2-15
design of products and manufacturing and support signs. Marketing and program management functions
processes. It is not a matter of assessing manufactur- need to be involved in product development to Improving the
ability of the product after it has been designed and provide this type of customer/market input, to assure Development
making appropriate changes to the product design to proper flowdown of specification/contract require- Process 2-17
enhance its producibility. This approach extends the ments, and to provide coordination with customers to
design cycle time, increases product development review and obtain feedback on product concepts Summary 2-18
cost, and may not result in the most optimum way to and designs.
produce the product. Instead, manufacturability must In addition to this understanding of and commu-
be considered from the very start of product devel- nication with customers, concurrent engineering in-
opment and designed into the product. The design of volves many other basic principles and concepts.
the product and the process must be integrated to These essential principles, or the Ten Command-
assure a more optimum approach to the manufacture ments of Concurrent Engineering, are presented in
of the product. Additional considerations that also Fig. 2-1. A framework for the discussion of concur-
need to be integrated with the design of the product rent engineering is presented in Fig. 2-2.
The Contributor of this chapter is: Kenneth A. Crow, President, DRM Associates, Pales Verdes Estates, CA.
Reviewers of this chapter are: Dr. C. Wesley Allen, P.E., Consultant, C WA Engineering; Dr. David M. Anderson,
P,E., President, Competitive Manufacturing Seminars; Bruce A. Harding, Associate Professor, MET/CIMTj Purdue
University; Dr. Ellie High, Coordinator of Manuscript Review, Concurrent Engineering Research Center, West
Virginia University; John R. Spears, Manager, Information Services, Concurrent Engineering Research Center, West
Virginia University; Dr. Henry W. Stoli, Technical Director-Design Technology, Square D Company.
2-1
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 2
DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURABILITY
1. UNDERSTAND YOUR CUSTOMER. Better customer relationships and more frequent communication lead to better understanding the
custamers/users needs. This, along with the active involvement of marketing, pragram management, ar praduct line management, increases
the probability af the praduct meeting thase needs and being successful in the market. Methadalagies such as quality functian deployment [QFD]
aid in defining customer needs and translating those needs into specific praduct, process and quality requirements.
2. USE PRODUCT DEVE1OPMENT TEAMS. Early involvement af marketing/Pragram management, manufacturing, materiel, quality, finance,
and product support personnel in the development process provides the designer with a balanced, multitimctianal understanding of product and
pracess design considerations. This team participation will reduce design iterations, develapmentcycle time, and prablems in transition to
production and will result in a Iawer cast, mare rabust, mare reliable and more supportable praduct thraughaut its life cycle.
3. INTEGRATE PROCESS DESIGN. The design af manufacturing and praduct suppart processes must be integrated with the design of praducts
ta aptimize the performance, crvoilability and life-cycle cost of the praduct. Understand existing and planned pracess capabilities and constraints.
Develop and apply producibility and supportability guidelines and utilize farmal tools such as design far manufacturability/assembly and
maintainability onalysis teals to improve praduct designs. Integrate design and business rule checking into autamated design pracesses.
4. INVOLVE SUPPLIERS AND SUBCONTRACTORS EARLY. Suppliers knaw their product technalagy, praduct application, and pracess
constraints best. Utilize this expertise during praduct development and optimize praduct designs to the capabilities of the virtual factary which
includes these suppliers. Reduce your supplier base to focus more attentian an a Iangtarm relationship and pramate early involvement. Maintain
schedule stability and be apen ta improvement suggestions fram suppliers in create better praducts at lower casts.
5. USE DIGITAL PRODUCT MODELS. Developing and maintaining a digital praduct madel provides mare current and consistent information
to members of the praduct design team and facilitates timely feedback on the product design. A single repasitary of praduct data minimizes data
handling, redundancy and errars as praduct data is used by variaus functians. Feature-based solids modeling, electronic design frameworks and
ultimately standards such as praduct data exchange using the standard for the exchange af product model data (PDES/STEP] facilitate the
downstream interpretation, analysis and use af this praduct data.
6. INTEGRATE CAE, CAD, AND CAM TOOLS. Integrated CAE/CAD tools warking with a comman digital praduct madel facilitate capture,
analysis, and refinement of praduct and pracess design data. Integration af CAM tools facilitates pracess design/definition with fewer errors,
greater accuracy, and a reductian in Ieadtime to praductian. These taolsr when intelligently and cast effectively applied, can lead to a streamlined
development process and pralect arganizatian.
7. SIMUIATE PRODUCT PERFORMANCE AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES ELECTRONICALLY. Salids modelling with variation analysis
and interference checking allows far electianic mock-ups. Analysis and simulation tools such as FEA, circuit analysis and NC verification can be
used to develop and refine bath praductand process design relatively inexpensively. These teals shauld be used as early in thedevelapment process
as passible ta develap a mare mature design and ta reduce the number af tim~cansuming design/build/test iterations for mock-ups and
developmental prototypes.
8. USE QUALITY ENGINEERING AND REUABMTY TECHNIQUES. Quality engineering and structured reliability techniques, such as Taguchi
methads and failure made, effects, and criticality analysis (FMECA], provide an efficient way to understand the rale and interaction af praduct and
pracess parameters with the achievement af a performance, reliability or quality characteristic, thereby leading ks robust designs and enhanced
reliability. Apply Iessans learned to avoid repeating post mistakes, and canduct farmal design reviews to assure all design issues and risks have
been appropriately addressed.
9. CREATE AN EFFICIENT DEVELOPMENT APPROACH. Farm campoct praductdevelapment teams with highly experienced and motivated
members. Minimize the numberaf development teams and the caardinatian required with skillful architecture and a minimum of interfaces. Create
a skunk works environment by minimizing bureaucracy, empowering praduct development teams, and providing technical productivity tools.
10. IMPROVE THE DESIGN PROCESS CONTINUOUSLY, Streamline the design pracess and eliminate nanvalue-added activities, Canstontly
question why things are done and how they cauld be dane better. Make qualify the basis for decisions. Continued integration af technical tools,
design activities and farmal methodologies will improve the design pracess. Use benchmarking os an a~ective basis farcamparing the organization
and its praducts ta other campanies and their products and identifying opportunities for improvement. Invest in training and developing persannel
ta imprave productivity.
Fig. 2-1 The Ten Commandments of Concurrent Engineering. (Courtesy Dl?M Associates)
DFM/A PRINCIPLES sign guidelines. Figure 2-5 illustrates the objective of designing
The first stage is for designers and personnel involved in based on an organizations and its suppliers process capabilities.
product development teams to understand basic DFM/A principles In many cases, a product will be designed based on the organiza-
that are generally applicable to a wide range of products. Figure tions existing process capabilities. However, many parts of the
2-4 provides a summary of these principles. product may be fabricated and subassembled by suppliers and
subcontractors. The process capabilities of these suppliers and
DEVELOPING GUIDELINES subcontractors extend the process capabilities of the organization
While basic training in DFM/A principles is a starting point for and become part of the organizations virtual factory. In some
a DFM/A program, further steps are required for developing cases, the organization will invest in additional facilities, equip-
producible products. An organization must hegin considering its ment, and labor force skills to support manufacture of a new
unique process capabilities and developing company-specific de- product. It is necessary for the product development team to
2-2
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 2
DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURABILITY
Enabling technology
v
Design Far
mOnuFacturabllity/assembly
Concurrent
Continuous pracess improvement
Design lar quality engineering pracess
Organization
and teams
understand the organizations process strategy in the very begin- DFM/A ANALYSIS TOOLS
ning, since this can affect the process capabilities available and the After more formalized organizational steps are taken, such as
potential manufacturability constraints that might be imposed upon forming a product development team, then it becomes appropriate
the design of anew product. to support design for manufacturability/assembleability objectives
Once the organization understands the process capabilities
available to support manufacture of a new product, it must then
develop producibility roles or guidelines to consider during the
design of the product. Larger organizations may develop and
maintain these rtrlesor guidelines inaformal manner, using either
producibility manuals or computerized guidelines in order to Understand basic
standardize practices and take best advantage of capabilities. DFM/A principles
These guidelines need to be maintained as new product and
process technology becomes available, so that an organization can
remain competitive. Training isalsorequired sothat designers can
understand and effectively apply these guidelines. In a smaller Develop company-speciFic
organization, the development of formalized guidelines may not guidelines and train designers
be cost justified. Informal training, informal discussions and close
coordination through the use of a product development team, are
easier and more effective in a small organization and can satisfac-
torily replace formal guidelines. Ultimately, as an organization Get manukmturing and
gets manufacturing effectively involved early in a project, the need suppliers involved early
for formal guidelines is reduced. This is especially true as a
product development team works closely in developing a new
product and process design in an integrated manner.
Utilize DFM/A analysis
SUPPLIERS INVOLVEMENT teals and metrics
This leads to the next stage in a DFM program, the effective
involvement of manufacturing and suppliers at an early point in the
development cycle. Effective early manufacturing involvement
will occur in an informal way with steps such as co-location of Embed design guidelines in
manufacturing and engineering personnel, establishment of formal design automation systems
producibility reviews, and requirements for manufacturing sign-
offs before release to production. Ultimately, early manufacturing
involvement is best accomplished by the formation of product
development teams, with manufacturing personnel represented on Fig. 2-3 Stages of design for manufacturabilityhsssembleability
the team as active participants at anearly stage. (DFIWA). (Courte~ DRhf Associates)
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 2
DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURABILITY
with various analysis tools. A variety of personal computer and . Design for manufacturability/assembleability analysis.
workstation software packages are available to support DFM/A product cost models.
objectives. These tools include the following: Variation simulation/tolerance stack-up analysis.
1. Simplify and reduce the number of parts because far each part, there is an apportuni~ far a defective port and an assembly error. The
probobilityofa perfect product gaesdawn expanentiollyas the number af ports increases. As the number af parts gaes up, the tatal cast of fabricating
and assembling the product goes up. Automation becames more difficult and mare expansive when more parts are handled and processed. Casts
related to purchasing, stacking, and servicing alsa go dawn as the number af park are reduced. Inventory and work-in-pracess levels will go dawn
with fewer parts. As the product structure and required aerations are simplified, fewer fobricatian and assembly steps are required, manufacturing
pracesses can be integrated and Ieadtimes furiher reduced. The designer shauld go through the assembly pracess part by part and evaluate whether
the part can be eliminated, combined with anather part, or the function can be perlbrmed in another way. Ta determine the theoretical minimum
number af parts, ask the follawing: Does the part move relative ta all oi+er maving parts? Must the part absolutely be of a different material from
the other parts? Must the part be different ta allaw possible disassembly?
2. Standardize and use camman parts and materials ta facilitate design activities, to minimize the amaunt of inventory in the system, and to
standardize handling and assembly aperatians. Common parts will result in Iawer inventories, reduced costs and higher quality. Operatar learning
is simplified and there is a greater appartunity for automation as the resultaf higher production valumes and operation standardization. limit exatic
or unique components because suppliers are less likely ta campete an quality ar cost for these campanenk. Group technalagy (GT can be utilized
by designers to facilitate retrieval af similar designs and material catalags or ppraved parts lists can serve as references for cammon purchased
and stocked parts. GTcan also be used IO guide in the development of manufacturing cells for cammon part or product families, thereby minimizing
inventary and praviding improved effectiveness thraugh manufacturing facus.
3. Design far ease of fabrication. Select pracesses compatible with the materials and praductian volumes. Use near net shapes far molded and
forged parts to minimize machining and processing effort. Avoid unnecessarily tight tolerances that are beyond the naturcsl capability of the
manufacturing processes. Otherwise, this will require that parts be inspected arscreened for acceptability. Alsa, avoid tight tolerances on multiple,
connected parts. Tolerances on cannected parts will stack-up making maintenance af averall praduct tolerance difficult. Design in the center af
a camponents parameter range to imprave reliability and limit the range of variance araund the parameter ablective.
4. Mistakepraaf praduct design and assembly (pka-yoke~ so that the assembly pracess is unambiguous. Components should be designed sa
that they can arrly be assembled in ane way; they cannot be reversed. Notches, asymmekical hales and staps can be used ta mistakepraaf the
assembly pracess. Design verifiability inta the product and its components. For mechanical products, verifiability can be achieved with simple go/
n-go taols in the form af notches ar natural stapping paints. Products should be designed ta avoid or simplify ad@n-rents. Electronic products
can be designed ta cantain self-test and/ar diagnostic capabilities. Of caurse, the additional castaf building in diagnostics must be weighed against
the advantages.
5. Design far parts orientation and handling ta minimize nanvalue~dded manual effartand ambiguity in arienting and merging parts. Parts must
be designed ta cansisteniiy orient themselves when fed inta a process. Praduct design must avaid park which can became tangled, wedged or
disoriented. Part design shauld incarparate symmetry, low centers af gravity, easily identifiable features, guide surfaces, and points for pick-up
and handling. This type af design will allaw the use of automation in park handling and assembly such as vibratary bowls, tubes, magazines, pick
and place robots, visian systems. When purchasing componenk, mnsider acquiring materials already oriented in magazines, bands, tape, or strips.
6. Minimize flexible parts and interconnections. Avoid flexible and flimsy parts such as belts, gaskets, tubing, cables and wire harnesses, Their
flexibility makes material handling and assembly mare dit%cult and these ports are mare susceptible ta damage. Use plugin baards and backplanes
ta minimize wire harnesses. Where harnesses are used, cansider mistakeproofing electrical cannectars by using unique connecters to avaid
connectors being miscannected, Intercannectians such os wire harnesses, hydraulic lines, piping, are expensive to fabricate, assemble and service.
Partitian the product to minimize interconnections between modules and ca-locate related madules to minimize routing af interconnections.
7. Design far ease af assembly by utilizing simple patterns of movement and minimizing the axes af assembly. Camplex orientation and assembly
movements in various directions shauld be ovoided. Part features shauld be pravided such os chamfers and tapers. The products design shauld
enable assembly to begin with a base camponent with a large relative mass anda low center of gravity upan which other parts are added. Assembly
shauld praceed vertically with ather park added on tap and pasitianed with the aid of gravity. This will minimize the need ta re-orient the assembly
and reduce fie need far temporary fisstening and more camplex fixturing. A product that is easy ta assemble manually will be easily assembled
with automation. Assembly that is automated will be more unikrm, mare reliable, and af a higher quality.
8. Design for efficient iaining and fastening. Threaded fasteners (screws, bolts., nuts and washers) are time-cansuming ta assemble and difficult
ta autamcste. Where they must be used, standardize ta minimize variety and use fasteners such as self-threading screws and captured washers.
Cansider the use of snaptogether-fit. Evaluate other banding techniques such as adhesives. Match fastening techniques to materials and praduct
requirements,
9. Design madular products to facilitate assembly with building black components and subassemblies. This modular or building-black design
should minimize the number af part or assembly variants early in the manufacturing process while allowing br greater praduct variation late in the
pracess during final assembly. This appraach minimizes the total number af items to be manufactured, thereby reducing inventory and improving
quality. Madules can be manufactured and tested before final assembly. The short final assembly Ieadtime can result in a wide variety af products
being made ta a customers arder in a shart periad of time withaut having to stock a significant level of inventory. Production of standard modules
can be leveled and repetitive schedules established.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 2
DESIGN FOR QUALITY
Process strategy
The final step in a DFIWA program is to embed manufactur-
Wark envelopes
ability guidelines indesign automation tools sothat the guidelines Existing capability
will be applied while the design is being developed. This approach
Vcsriabil~ and process
can reapplied in anumberof ways. For example, in developing Investment in new cantrol
a design with a features-oriented solids modeling system, produc-
facilities, squipment and
ibility guidelines could be associated with each feature. As a 4-)
lines Material handling
designer specified the feature, it would be applied based on the
guidelines and constraints associated with that feature. Another Supplier strategy and labor force skills
approach is with various knowledge engineering design systems capability
on the market. These systems are oriented to develop a design for
a ciass of items based on a series of rules about engineering
relationships for that item. Part of this knowledge base can also
include manufacturability rules. Another approach utilizes expert Fig. 2-5 Product design based on existing or planned process capabil-
systems technology. As a design is being developed, various ity. (Courtesy DRM Associates)
aspects of the design are evaluated against the rules base. If a
design guideline is violated, the system provides feedback to the design as well as at completion, when the guidelines can be
designer related to the issue. This feedback is provided during the checked against the total composite design.
2-5
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 2
DESIGN FOR QUALITY
Ssorch for bsst practices to improve Experiments to understand the relationship between design parameters and product
products and processes performance chorncteristics to oid in developing robust designs
I I
A A
v
1 v I
Quality function deployment I
I Structured approach to uclerstcrnding customer requirements ad trcsnslathg them into product requirements, critical component I
I characteristics, process steps and quality control requirements
I
Business / product planning Product design Process design
Fig. 2-6 Quatity techniques and product development. (Courtesy DRM Associates)
this methodology. The real value is in the approach to QFD. QFD stage typically will add costs to the product through efforts to
is oriented toward organizing a group of people representing the ensure compliance with the tolerances associated with product
various functional organizations that have involvement in product parameters.
development: Marketing, Design Engineering, Quality Assurance, Since an organization cannot cost-effectively inspect quality
Manufacturing/Manufacturing Engineering, Finance, Product into the product, it must focus on minimizing variability in the
Support, etc. The active involvement of these departments can product through product and process design and control of
lead to balanced consideration of the requirements or whats at processes. However, some variability is uncontrollable or very
each stage of this translation process and provide a mechanism to difficult to control. This difficult to control variation is referred to
communicate hidden knowledge knowledge that is known by as noise. Noise is the result of variations in materials, processes,
one individual or department but may not otherwise be commu- the environment and the products use or misuse. Products need to
nicated through the organization, As a result, QFD is an effective be designed so that they are robust their performance is insen-
communications and quality planning tool. sitive to this naturally occurring, difficult to control variation. This
overall framework for Taguchi quality engineering is represented
in Fig. 2-8.
TAGUCHI QUALITY ENGINEERING Taguchi quality engineering techniques provide an approach to
A second technique to support design for quality objectives is efficiently designing industrial experiments to better understand
Taguchi quality engineering. Taguchi quality engineering is based the relationship between product and process parameters and the
on the objective of minimizing variability in critical design desired performance characteristic. This efficient design of exper-
parameters that will affect a product performance characteristic. iments is based on a fractional factorial experiment which allows
Variability in critical design parameters will increase the loss to an experiment to be conducted with only a fraction of all the
society which is an expanded view of the traditional, internally possible experimental combinations of parameter values. Orthog-
oriented cost of quality. This is a quadratic relationship of onal arrays are used to aid in the design of an experiment. The
increasing costs (loss to society) as these critical design parameter orthogonal array will specify the test cases to conduct the
values vary from the desired mean value of the parameter. To experiment. Frequently, two orthogonal arrays are used: a design
consider quality implications during design, the design process can factor matrix and a noise factor matrix, the latter used to conduct
be segmented into three stages. The first stage, system design, the experiment in the presence of difficult to control variation so as
establishes the functionality of the product, the physical product to develop a robust design.
envelope, and general specifications. The second stage, parameter These experimental results can be summarized into a metric
design, establishes specific vahres for design parameters related to called the signal to noise ratio which jointly considers how
physical and functional specifications. It is during these first two effectively the mean value (signal) of the parameter has been
stages that the designer has the greatest opportunity to reduce achieved and the amount of variability that has been experienced.
product costs through effective functional design and parameter As a result, a designer can identify the parameters that will have
specification. The third stage, tolerance design, establishes the the greatest effect on the achievement of a products performance
acceptable tolerances around each parameter or target. The third characteristic. This approach to designing and conducting an
2-6
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 2
DESIGN FOR QUALITY
A Trad-
oh
How
Whats
What Vs. Why
Hews
Haw much
Whats
What w.
Hews
Haw much
Deployment matrix
How
1!
Whats
44
Whet
Praeess
central
How
Vs.
Hews
/ quality
matrix
much
experiment isrepresented in Fig. 2-9. Ameansignal to noise ratio design parameters and tolerances andmade system design trade-
value iscalculated for each design factor level or value. This data offs in an intuitive manner, sometimes supported by limited
is statistically analyzed using analysis of variation (ANOVA) analysis and trial and error experimentation. However, an overall
techniques. Very simply, design factors with alarge difference in framework waslacking tomake these decisions. Taguchi quality
the signal to noise ratio from one factor setting to another indicate engineering techniques offer a framework for developing a more
that the factor or design parameters a significant contributor to rigorous understanding of the relationship between product and
the achievement of the performance characteristic. On the other process parameters and the achievement of a performance, reli-
hand, where there is little difference in the signal to noise ratio ability or quality characteristic, thereby leading to improved
from one factor setting to another, this indicates that the factor is design decisions. These techniques present a comprehensive
insignificant with respect to the performance characteristic. With quality approach to experimental design, analysis, and
the resulting understanding from theexperiments and subsequent decision-making.
analysis, the designer can:
. Identify pameter values which maximize achievement of
BENCHMARKING
A final quality technique related not only to product design but
performance characteristic and minimize the effect of noise,
to general organizational improvement is benchmarking. Many
thereby achieving amore robust design.
companies develop an inward focus (for example, not invented
Identify parameters that have no significant effect on per-
here) that limits their opportunities to improve. Benchmarking is
formance. In these cases, tolerances can be relaxed and
a technique to measure an organization against other organizations
cost reduced.
and identify opportunities and approaches to improve. David
. Identify parameter values which reduce cost without affect-
Kearns, the Chief Executive Officer of the Xerox Corporation,
ing performance or variation.
states, Benchmarking is the continuous process of measuring
These steps take initial effort, but can reduce cost and improve products, services, andpractices against the toughest competitors
theperfonnance of the product. In the past, the designer selected or those recognized as industry leaders.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 2
DESIGN FOR QUALITY
F1
1234
Factars: A-G
Noise Factor motrix E1122 Test Cases: 1-9 and 1-4
[ouier array] F1212
Body OF matrix:
G1221
Factor level settings
r
1 1111 *9* Z1
2 1222 *** Z2
3 1333 . . . . Z3
4 2123 **. Z4
5 2231 **. Z5
6 2312 *** Z6
7 3132 **. Z7
8 3213 *** Z8
9 3321 . . . . Z9
I I
Performance characteristic -
experimental values
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 2
DESIGN FOR THE LIFE CYCLE
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 2
DESIGN FOR THE LIFE CYCLE
. Specification of product parameters and tolerances that are design at an early point, to identify reliability issues and concerns
within the natural capabilities of the manufacturing process and begin assessing reliability implications as the design concept
(process capability indices CP and CP,J. takes shape.
Provision of test points, access to test points and connec- Use of computer-aided engineering (CAE) analysis and simu-
tions, and sufficient real estate to support test points, lation tools at an early stage in the design can improve product
connections, and built-in test capabilities. reliability more inexpensively and in a shorter time than building
. Use of standard connections and interfaces in the product to and testing physical prototypes. Tools such as finite element
facilitate use of standard test equipment and connectors and analysis (FEA), fluid flow, thermal analysis, and integrated
to reduce effort to set up and connect the product during reliability prediction models are becoming more widely used,
testing. more user friendly, and less expensive. Taguchi quality engineer-
Automated test equipment compatibility. ing techniques can provide a structured, pro-active approach to
. Built-in test and diagnostic capability to provide self-test and improving reliability and robustness as compared to unstructured,
diagnosis in the factory and in the field. reactive design/build/test approaches. Further, these techniques
. Physical and electrical partitioning to facilitate test and consider the effects of both product and process parameters on the
isolation of faults. reliability of the product and address the effect of interactions
between parameters. Finally, the company should begin establish-
In addition, test engineering should be involved at an early
ing a mechanism to accumulate and apply lessons learned from
stage to define test requirements and design the test approach. This
reliability problems as well as other producibility and maintain-
will lead to the design or specification of test equipment that better
ability issues. These lessons learned can be very useful in
optimizes test requirements, production volumes, equipment cost,
avoiding making the same mistakes twice.
equipment utilization, and testing effort/cost. Higher production
volumes and standardized test approaches can justify develop-
ment, acquisition, or use of automated test equipment. The design
and acquisition of test equipment and procedures can be done in
parallel with the design of the product which will reduce leadtime. DESIGN FOR MAINTAINABILITY AND
Design of products to use standardized equipment can further SERVICEABILITY
reduce the cost of test equipment and reduce the lead time to Again, consideration of product maintainability/serviceability
acquire, fabricate, and set up test equipment for both qualification tends to be an afterthought in the design of many products.
testing and product acceptance testing. Personnel responsible for maintenance and service need to be
involved early to share their concerns and requirements. The
design of the support processes needs to be developed in parallel
with the design of the product. This can lead to lower overall
DESIGN FOR RELIABILITY life-cycle costs and a product design that is optimized to its support
Reliability consideration has tended to be an afterthought in the processes.
development of many new products. Many companies reliability When designing for maintainability/serviceability, there needs
activities have been performed primarily to satisfy internal proce- to be consideration of the trade-offs involved. In high reliability
dures or customer requirements. Where reliability is actively and low cost products or with consumable products, designing for
considered in product design, it tends to be done relatively late in maintainability/serviceability is not important. In the case of a
the development process. Some companies focus their efforts on durable good with a long life cycle, or a product with parts subject
developing reliability predictions, when this effort instead could to wear, maintainability/serviceability may be more important than
be better utilized developing improved product reliability. Orga- initial product acquisition cost, and the product must be designed
nizations will go through repeated (and planned) designlbuild/test for easy maintenance. In these situations, basic design rules need
iterations to develop products with higher reliability. Overall, this to be considered as shown in Fig. 2-11. Service and support
focus is reactive in nature, and the time pressures to bring a policies and procedures need to be developed, service training
product to market limit tbe reliability improvements that might developed and conducted, maintenance manuals written, and spare
be made. parts levels established. As these tasks are done in parallel with the
In a concurrent engineering environment, the orientation to- design of the product, it reduces the time to market and will result
ward reliability must be changed and a more pro-active approach in a more satisfied customer when inevitable problems arise with
utilized. Reliability engineers need to be involved in product the first delivery of a new product.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 2
DESIGN FOR COST
\ [
need to be allocated to different modules, subsystems, or sub- of different product and process design alternatives. The result will
assemblies to provide a tangible target for each team. A tracking be a projection of product cost which can be compared to cost
system is needed to monitor the achievement of these cost targets. targets and used to monitor the achievement of design-to-cost
In addition, a product cost model is needed to develop these cost objectives.
estimates at a relatively early stage in the design and to assess the In certain customer environments and with certain products,
cost implications of various design alternatives. the manufacturer will be dealing with a more sophisticated
Figure 2-12 shows the relationship of a product cost model to customer who will be looking not only at the product-acquisition
product and process design activities. A product cost model is cost, but at operation and support costs in making a purchasing
based on a set of process capabilities that an organization uses.
These can be existing process capabilities, or future process
capabilities created by investment in new production equipment.
In addition, this model needs to include consideration of suppliers
or subcontractors capabilities and the related costs of their
processes. Early supplier involvement can facilitate obtaining this
TTF
type of cost information, which can be significant; over 50~0 of the
cost of some products consists of material/subcontract costs.
An organization may start with a basic product-cost model a
spreadsheet or bill of material cost roll-up that allows estimated
costs for various material, labor, burden, and tooling cost elements
to be plugged in or summarized.
Beyond this, there are a number of commercially available I Process I
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CHAPTER 2
ENABLING TECHNOLOGY
u
develop projected operation and support costs for various design
alternatives. A starting point in this situation might be to develop
cost
J L
a relationship with key customers that allows for collecting this DFM /A
CAPP and
estimating
data and providing it to the manufacturer. analysis and
standards
cost
(parametric
Figure 2-13 shows the relationship of the various types of cost product cost accounting
and analogy] development
estimating, modeling, and cost accounting tools, and the various models
ENABLING TECHNOLOGY
Technology can play a significant role in enabling the concur- Enabling technology for product and process design, combined
rent engineering process. It can provide a common view of the with information integration through the use of a common digital
product and process design to enable parallel design and integrated product model, represents one dimension of overcoming these
design of products and processes. Design information can be traditional problems. Properly applied, this enabling technology
captured in a manner that more effectively drives downstream will allow manufacturers to cost-effectively improve product and
manufacturing processes. Cycle times can be reduced and designs process design and reduce design cycle time while facilitating the
enhanced through computer-based analysis and simulation rather integration of design activities with the production process.
than physically building and testing prototypes. Product design Product and process design will be greatly enhanced through
information can be used to more readily create process design data the use of a common digital product model to maintain and
and drive downstream production processes. Each of these facets optimize the use of product and process design information.
of enabling technology and how it supports concurrent engineering Product and process design information must be treated more as a
will be explored in more detail. corporate-wide resource. The information must be stored and
maintained in a logical, consistent, nonredundant, and usable
DIGITAL PRODUCT MODELS AND manner. Design knowledge must be accumulated and used repeat-
DATA MANAGEMENT edly, rather than recreated to support each application or func-
In many companies, product and process design are fragmented tional need. As feature-based design approaches and knowledge
and difficult to manage and coordinate. CAD/CAE tools automate engineering applications are used, this design information can
thedesign anddevelopment process but, in many cases, cause the directly chive downstream processes with little or no human
rapid proliferation of designs without regard to the impact on the interpretation and planning.
rest of the organization. While these tools are to varying degrees
integrated, often these systems will be used to create an items Current standards such as the Initial Graphic Exchange Spec-
geometry on paper to communicate with other functional areas of ification (IGES)need to beimproved upon so that this data can be
a company. Experience indicates that a typical company can readily accessed and used without regard to technical constraints.
re-create an items geometry multiple times in such areas as The scope of IGES is limited, and it serves primarily to translate
customer proposals or marketing specifications; conceptual de- and communicate geometric and text data from one type of design
sign; detail design; finite element analysis; other engineering automation system to another. Future standards such as the
analysis; detail drafting; fabrication or assembly sketches; Product Data Exchange using STEP or Standard for the Exchange
computer-aided process planning; part programming; tooling and of Product Model Data (PDES/STEP) will provide a more com-
fixture design; andtraining andservicemanuak. Each time part plete set of product data intended to be directly used as the source
geometry or product design information is independently main- for the digital product model. PDES/STEP is intended to be a
tained in a separate system or independently created on paper, feature-based part model that provides a complete, unambiguous,
another source of redundant design information is created that computer interpretable definition of the physical and functional
needs to be managed. characteristics of a part to support it throughout its life cycle.
Nonintegrated systems also require additional effort to transfer To be effective, digital product model data must be made
data from onesystem to another. This allows emorsto creep into available to personnel or systems throughout the enterprise as
the process, and data can be mishandled or lost. Delays are required for use. Changes to product and process design data must
inherent in this process and extra effort is required to coordinate be managed in accord with the companys data access and
activities. configuration management procedures.
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CHAPTER 2
ENABLING TECHNOLOGY
By focusing on maintaining product and process design infor- tation of each parts boundaries avoids the ambiguities in a 2D or
mation digitally, paper-based representations of this data can be 3D representation of a part. As parts and products become more
minimized. As paper drawings are avoided, there will be reduced and more complex, traditional 2D and 3D representations, even
manual handling and storage of documents, reduced time to access with hidden line removal, become difficult to understand and
the most current design of a part/product, and prevention of errors interpret. Solids modeling enhances visualization and communi-
by avoiding the use of outdated drawing and design information. cation of the design intent, and provides a more useful mechanism
Design and administrative activities can be streamlined. When to represent how parts are put together to form assemblies. Newer
design information is maintained digitally, it can be used quickly solids modeling systems provide a complete definition of part
and inexpensively to analyze and simulate the performance of the geometry, topology, and tolerances. This complete definition,
product, minimizing the need for the time-consuming and expen- coupled with feature-based representation, provides information
sive process of building and testing physical prototypes. Product that can be more readily interpreted and used by downstream
and process designs can be readily analyzed and designs improved automated processes in manufacturing.
so that more mature and producible products are developed more Feature-based representation of design information and para-
quickly. To support this, islands of design automation technology metric design can enhance and augment solids-based representa-
must be 1inked physically, organizationall y, and technically to tion of the design. Specification of features (for example, holes,
effectively use a digital product model. threads, pockets, slots, notches, cut-outs, bosses, fillets, cham-
The digital product model and standards such as PDES/STEP fers, ribs, and flanges) or design primitives can simplify the
will not only maintain geometric part information but also main- creation of the design. Designing based on the geometric abstrac-
tain information about the parts (or assemblys) features, product tions inherent in solid modelings constructive solids geometry
structure, physical properties, functional characteristics, process (CSG) or boundary representation (B-Rep) approaches is more
requirements, cost, and life-cycle requirements. Use of a common artificial and difficult to master than specifying features. With a
digital product model allows an organization to concentrate its feature-based approach, a parts design comprises a basic shape
engineering data management efforts. Administrative and config- and a hierarchy of features and associated attributes. Feature
uration management of this data can be readily imposed on the attributes include dimensions, parameters, and tolerances. Other
various design automation systems in a relatively transparent information can be associated with individual features such as
manner. Access control to each element in the product definition design rules, restrictions, producibility indexes, costs, and process
database can be specified. Read-only access can be given to requirements, to provide design guidance.
personnel not directly involved with the design, development, and Product design data, such as features, dimensions, tolerances,
planning processes. Creation and maintenance access can be given finishes, can be associated with specific manufacturing processes
to the individuals responsible for product and process design. (for example, a hole to a drilling operation) and even a specific
Processes for the creation, linking, review, and approval of piece of equipment. This capability will allow design automation
product and process data can be defined, to control the develop- tools to provide producibility guidance directly to the designer
ment and release of data. while the product or part is being developed. It also reorients the
Engineering changes can be facilitated with this configuration designer from thinking only in terms of part geometry to thinking
management and administrative control embedded within the in terms of manufacturing processes and, therefore, costs and
system. CAE/CAD tools will enable more thorough development quality implications associated with the part design. This feature-
and analysis of engineering changes, to allow better definition of based and rule-based design information will then facilitate gen-
the impact of these changes. Once a design has been created, it can erative process planning and computer-aided manufacturing.
be checked out electronically to a workstation for engineering Parametric design allows a standard geometry to be specified
changes. When the changes have been made, it can be returned to once for an approved group of parts. With one or more dimensions
the central database and placed in a queue for electronic approval or characteristics established as variable parameters, multiple parts
by designated parties. In this manner, a Change Control Board or assemblies can be readily specified by varying these parameters
(CCB) can even convene and provide individual members while maintaining overall geometric relationships. This approach
inputs electronically y. In addition to supporting engineering anal- provides variation with a minimum of design effort and process
ysis, information related to procurement, inventory, manufactur- capability. As a result, it facilitates time to market for product
ing, and cost is available for members of the CCB to evaluate and derivatives.
designate the effectivity of the change and determine the disposi- CAE analysis and simulation tools improve the performance,
tion of existing items. quality and reliability (and thereby the maturity) of a design by
analyzing its effectiveness and simulating its performance, avoid-
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS ing or minimizing the need to build and test prototypes. Finite-
Computer-aided design and engineering (CAD/CAE) systems element analysis and other engineering analysis tools can be used
are the key to developing and maintaining product design infor- for testing loads and stresses, heat transfer, fhrid flow, kinematics,
mation digitally. Two-dimension (2D) systems, oriented to draft- circuit output and timing, and assembly interaction. By simulating
ing, maintain relationships of lines, arcs, and circles digitally. The important characteristics electronically, the design can be de-
output of these systems requires human interpretation to obtain bugged and precious development time reduced. Newer analysis
meaningful information. However, as design automation systems tools go a step further through design optimization capabilities.
move toward feature-based solids, knowledge- or rule-based The designer specifies basic part geometry, functional character-
engineering, and parametric representation of items, this design istics (for example, voltage and resistance), and geometry and
information can be more meaningfully used without the same level function details that an optimization program is allowed to
of human interpretation. manipulate. After stating design parameters and functional re-
One basis for this design approach is to maintain a complete quirements such as weight requirements and required loads, the
three-dimensional (3D) solid model of each finished and in- program will manipulate the part geometry or functional charac-
process part in a product definition database. A rigorous represen- teristics to meet the requirements.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 2
ENABLING TECHNOLOGY
Reliability and maintainability are increasingly important con- Process plans to define how the product will be manufac-
siderations in product design as customers are increasingly con- tured with the given production processes and capabilities.
sidering the life-cycle costs of a product. Tools are emerging to Parts and subassembly programming (for example, NC,
simulate product operating cycles, heat buildup, and wear, all robotic, insertion equipment, coordinate measuring ma-
significant factors in product failure. Solids modeling can be used chines, vision and computer-aided test equipment).
to model the accessibility of components and assemblies in Tool and fixture design.
products and systems for- maintenance purposes, and indicate In a concurrent engineering environment, these process design
better approaches to designing the product for service and main- tasks are inextricably linked to product design and development.
tenance. As these tools are refined and merged with design tools, The result of this integration and parallel design of product and
the designer will be in a better position to consider the life-cycle process is shown in Fig. 2-14. CAD/CAM tools can work with
implications and costs in the design of products and their support part geometry and features to design or specify processes and
processes. workcell envelopes. Graphically oriented production simulation
Artificial intelligence and, in particular, expert systems provide tools can be used to test the resulting production system. Product
the capability to define rules for effective product and process definition, feature specification, and group technology (GT) clas-
design in an integrated manner. Design rules include producibility sification information drive computer-aided process planning
guidance to mesh the product design more effectively with the (CAPP). Part geometry maintained in CAD is also used to develop
companys process capabilities. Expert systems have already been tool paths, other NC programs, electronic component insertion
developed to help configure complex products such as computer programs, and photomasks. This geometry also supports tool and
systems and to assess producibility. This configuration and pro- fixture design. Functional characteristics, geometry, and specifi-
ducibility guidance can be extended to configure products to order cations stored in the digital product model can support test and
from basic, pre-designed product modules, and to design unique inspection by deriving automated test equipment programs and
items from knowledge- or rule-based engineering systems quickly coordinate measuring machine (CMM) programs.
and inexpensively. When moduct desires data is develoued and released. urocess
design da;a must be si~ilarly develope; and released in t~is type
PROCESS DESIGN of integrated environment. This will assure that when anew part
Product design must logically extend beyond part geometric
is introduced or an engineering change is made, the electronic
information, drawings, and parts lists. It must include the design
release for production includes the correct process plans, tool
or specification of manufacturing processes including:
requirements, and parts programs for the latest configuration and
Specification, design and layout of production equipment process capability. Ascomputer-aided manufacturing technology
and processes. is utilized and integrated with the digital product model, part
I
Product design
o
Process
plans
P ~ * ~
Integration of product
v v v
Pracess design
Fig. 2-14 Integration of concurrent engineering design with computer-aided process planning (CAPP) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM).
(Courtesy DRM Associates)
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CHAPTER 2
ENABLING TECHNOLOGY
DATA INTERCHANGE
Digital product data must be communicated and used across the
enterprise. In addition, the need for digital product data extends
beyond the enterprises facilities, to suppliers and customers.
Electronic data interchange (EDI) is a first step in the commercial
world to utilize standards for business-oriented transactions such
as ordering and invoicing material and components. EDI transac-
tion sets are being expanded to encompass the transmission of
Fig. 2-15 Product development team (PDT). (Courtesy DRM Associates)
technical data.
The Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES) is the
current standard for exchanging geometry data, but it does not definition of product information and, thereby, facilitate improved
contain all required digital product data. IGES translations may data interchange, communication and interpretation of
not provide a complete translation of geometric data. More product data.
comprehensive standards will be required to address geometry, These standards will allow paper drawings to be replaced with
topology, tolerances, form features, life-cycle data, and adminis- electronic representations, and thetranslation and communication
trative data to replace engineering drawings and many other inherent in these standards will allow this information to be more
documents that flow between organizations. The PDES/STEP, the readily communicated throughout the enterprise and to external
successor to IGES, will set a standard for a more complete organizations with fewer emors and greater utility.
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CHAPTER 2
CONCURRENT ENGINEERING AND THE ORGANIZATION
By getting people from functions other than just design ment effort, the effort required to plan and manage the project will
engineering involved early, as shown in Fig. 2-15, this approach require the full-time involvement of a project/product/pro-
will result in a more complete understanding of all the require- gram manager.
ments (external customer requirements as well as internal depart- At the initiation of the development project, the project/
mental requirements such as producibility); a broader, more product/program manager or management team would develop a
balanced discussion of issues and alternatives; and a consensus plan that indicated personnel required from each functional de-
approach to designing both the product and its processes. The team partment to support the development effort. This manpower plan
concept is intended to promote open discussion and innovative would be the basis for requesting personnel to be assigned to the
thinking resulting in superior products, more efficient processes project. Personnel assignment could be full-time for the duration
and, ultimately, a more satisfied customer. The focus of the team of the project, full-time for a portion of the project, part-time for
will be to satisfy the external customers product and support the duration of the project, or part-time for a short period of time.
requirements as well as the internal customer (functional depart- If the development effort is significant and a large number of
ment) requirements related to factors such as producibility, cost, people are assigned to the project, the product may be partitioned
supportability, testability, etc. into modules or subsystems with a separate team established for
Although PDTs will require more resources early in the each module or subsystem. This accomplishes two objectives.
development process, the result will not only be superior designs, First, it allows work to proceed in parallel on the product
but reduced resources over the life-cycle of development and development effort, and, second, it allows a reasonable-size team
production through reduced design/build/test iterations and less to be set up for each module or subsystem. With multiple teams,
effort to correct initial design deficiencies through reviews and there is a need to provide technical coordination of the individual
engineering changes. The early involvement of the affected team efforts. With a small number of teams, this coordination can
functional areas will lead to buy-in with the design of products and be provided by the project/product/program manager or manage-
their processes, and result in a smoother transition to production. ment team and meetings among the team leaders. With a larger
A PDT is a team of people responsible for the design of a number of teams, the coordination may be provided by a separate
competitive product and the related processes to manufacture and product or system integration team reporting to the projecti
support that product. The team consists of people from all productiprogram manager or management team.
disciplines who can positively impact the development of the The responsibility and authority of the project/product/program
product and improve competitive factors not just personnel from manager and the functional managers relative to managing the
the various design engineering disciplines. development project and team activities need to be explicitly
Each PDT should be staffed appropriately for the requirements defined, otherwise there will be confusion and misunderstanding
of the project, and the composition of the membership may change that will affect the results of the team. This delineation also is
over time. In addition to formal team members, others in the important as a basis for establishing appropriate performance
organization may be called upon to support the teams efforts. As objectives and preparing performance appraisals for personnel
the organization emphasizes early supplier involvement, key involved in PDTs.
suppliers may also participate in team activities, either as formal
team members or to consult with the team as required.
The ideal team size will be eight to ten core team members TEAM OPERATION
(excluding personnel that support the team efforts for relatively When a team is formed, it is extremely valuable to co-locate
short periods or participate/consult for a smaller percentage of the team into a project area. This physical proximity of the team
their time). As team size increases, there is more inertia in melding members will provide a number of benefits. It will allow interper-
the team into an effective working group. In addition, more effort sonal relationships to develop more quickly, leading to more
is required to coordinate activities and schedule meetings with a effective and timely communication of information. This proxim-
larger group of people. The number of interfaces or points of ity will provide a greater opportunity for feedback and discussion
coordination increases rapidly as the team size increases of the design requirements and design issues. Co-location facili-
( = n (n-1) / 2). Yet it is important to balance this objective of a tates better coordination and results in less demanding infrastruc-
compact team with the need to obtain representation from all the ture requirements (for example, document distribution, meeting
functional areas that can contribute to the design of a product and rooms, local area networks, workstations, and software). Finally,
its processes and improve the products competitive factors. it allows more rapid response to issues and enables processes and
tasks to be streamlined.
A team leader needs to be appointed for each team. The team
ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE leader is not the manager of the team, but can better be described
It is important to define and understand the relationship of the as the chairman, facilitator, or coach. This distinction is important
team and team members to the function organization and the for the team to operate effectively in a balanced, self-directed way.
product/program organization. When a product development effort In addition to organizing itself, one of the first steps for the
is undertaken, company management will assign responsibility for PDT is to obtain a thorough understanding of the task at hand.
this effort to a project manager, product manager, program They need to understand the project objectives, the specifications/
manager, or management team. This individual or group is customer requirements, design targets, cost, and schedule. This
responsible for planning the project (budget and schedule), acquir- information should be provided to the team(s) by the projecti
ing or coordinating necessary project resources, providing critical product/program manager or management team, and the team(s)
technical and business direction to the development effort, and must thoroughly review these requirements and raise any questions
monitoring the performance of the development effort. or issues before they proceed. While the project goals will always
With a small project, the project/product/program manager be aggressive, the team must buy in to these goals.
may be a functional managertypically the engineering or R&D As teams are formed, there is a need to recognize the
manager, a director, or a vice president. With a larger develop- interpersonal dynamics that exist, in an effort to make the team
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CHAPTER 2
CONCURRENT ENGINEERING AND THE ORGANIZATION
process effective. People assigned to the PDT will represent a which disables the concept of empowerment. Empowerment and
variety of personalities and styles. The different perspectives that self-direction lead to greater motivation, ownership, and develop-
the people bring to the team can enhance its vitality and creativity. ment of each individuals capabilities. It is central to the concept
However, team members need to have or develop a basic orien- of total quality management (TQM) and continuous process
tation toward working in a team environment and toward group improvement.
problem solving. PDTs provide an effective mechanism for achieving early
Underlying the PDTs tasks are interpersonal dynamics which involvement of the various functional areas that can positively
can severely affect the teams performance. Most people have contribute to improving the competitive factors of a new product.
spent the majority of their career performing tasks as individuals While the team concept is appealing, it is not without challenges.
with specific assignments outside of a team or group structure. Many organizations are only beginning to develop the experience
Many will never have participated in a team or group other than required to operate teams effectively. Functional managers who
serving on a committee which is a very different concept. It is are accustomed to operating in a hierarchical organization can feel
important to recognize this fact and understand the barriers that threatened by the operation of self-directed teams that appear to
need to be overcome and the stages of growth in moving toward work outside of their control.
effective team operation. PDTs will typically go through four For effective team operation, management must explicitly lay
stages of development in moving toward becoming productive out the organization structure, roles and responsibilities, and
groups: forming, storming, norming, and finally performing. This performance measurement approaches. Effective teams require a
interpersonal development process can take several months to significant investment in training. This inchrdes team-building
transition through. training, cross-functional training, training in various concurrent
Functional department managers should empower the people engineering techniques such as DFM or QFD, and technical
assigned to the PDT to represent the functional departments training to allow the nontechnical members to participate in
interests as the individual serves on the team. This assumes that product and process design.
qualified people will be assigned to the team. Empowerment Performance measurement/appraisal systems and reward and
means that an individual serving on a team has the ability to incentive systems, that is, compensation adjustments, need to be
commit the support of his or her functional organization to a reoriented, away from rewarding individual achievement of de-
design approach or issue decided by the PDT. Functional manag- partment objectives and toward measuring team performance in
ers should avoid second-guessing or having to review every action achieving enterprise objectives. If this is not addressed, it can
taken by their PDT members. However, functional department undermine the effective operation of a team.
managers can and should provide guidance and direction to the A positive culture must be created. This culture must be
PDT members assigned from their department as those team oriented toward continuous improvement and team-oriented ap-
members seek this guidance. proaches. Management must provide leadership and define the
Teams should be self-directed. This will maximize the contri- required culture. Management needs to guide this move toward
bution of the team members. It provides a mechanism for effective product development teams by explicitly defining roles
balanced, consensus decision-making without undue outside in- and responsibilities of team members, functional department
fluence which might bias the result, and without second-guessing managers, and project/product/program managers.
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CHAPTER 2
IMPROVING THE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
development cost is a relatively large portion of product cost) or to streamline the review and approval process by requiring only a
develop a product within a tight development budget, this would minimum number of reviews and approvrds at criticrd points and
imply that development resources be staffed at a minimum level to by requiring a short review and approval cycle.
insure high utilization and little downtime. Look for occurrences of tasks that have to be repeated or
Another alternate approach to solving resource constraints is to require multiple iterations. This can indicate that a task may not
maximize the flexibility of personnel involved in a development have been done right the first time because of a lack of information
project so that they can perform tasks that are not normally their or an oversight. Question what could be done to correct this
responsibility. Create a can-do environment where people situation and reduce the number of iterations. Streamline or
understand the importance of stepping in to perform tasks nor- eliminate complex and trnnecessaty paperwork, particularly as an
mally outside their responsibility. Allow engineers and designers organization moves toward paperless approaches and integrated
to operate equipment in a lab rather than having to wait for a lab systems. Look for tasks being performed redundantly in multiple
technician who is backlogged with work. Provide flexible, easy- departments or by multiple people. This indicates a lack of
to-use design and analytic tools (for example, FEA) that do not communication and coordination, or a lack of an integrated
require a specialist to operate. Emphasize training and personnel system. Redundant data entry and processing should be eliminated
development to create a broadly skilled workforce. as an organization moves toward integrated systems.
Identify activities that take a long time and question how this
STREAMLINING THE DEVELOPMENT time might be reduced by starting earlier, performing portions of
PROCESS the activity in parallel with other activities, eliminating bottlenecks
There are many opportunities to streamline the development or unnecessary activities, or better applying resources to the task.
process and reduce cycle time as an organization implements Look at opportunities to eliminate steps through earlier functional
concurrent engineering concepts. These opportunities can be participation or exchange of information, and at opportunities to
identified through reacting to perceived problems, brainstorming resequence or reorganize activities. Evaluate opportunities to
improvement opportunities, or documenting and analyzing the integrate systems or eliminate steps. The opportunities to stream-
current product development methodology. With any of these line are significant as teams are co-located. Team members can
approaches, personnel should question why something is done the work out issues on the spot, with fewer complex procedures and
way it is done and if there is a better approach. Specific without delays in communication and transmittal of documents.
opportunities to look for include the following: Rapid prototyping can reduce cycle time where there is a need
Streamline the review and approval process by providing clear, to build physical prototypes. Technology such as stereolithogra-
up-front direction to the product development team including phy or tool-less solids modeling can produce parts for evaluation
specifications, cost targets, budgets, schedules, and development quickly and inexpensively (after the initial capital investment).
strategy. This will enable them to make decisions on a proper The integration of CAD and CAM can quickly produce parts
basis. Push down decision making to the lowest competent level, programs to manufacture parts with production equipment. Flex-
that is, the personnel assigned to a PDT. This will provide for ible automation, small lot manufacturing (JIT), dedicated model
balanced, cross-functional decisions. It avoids delays caused by shops, and desktop machining can flexibly respond to require-
elevating a decision to a higher level and prevents having a ments for small lot sizes of prototype parts without impacting daily
decision made with a less complete understanding of all facts production.
known to the PDT. Since competent, knowledgeable personnel on The implementation of concurrent engineering concepts is a
a PDT are basing design approaches on all of the requirements and continuous journey, not a fixed destination. Technology is con-
constraints considering the product life cycle, many of the previ- stantly evolving. Therefore, the effort to improve the development
OUS1 y needed reviews may no longer be necessary. Therefore, process must also be one of continuous improvement.
SUMMARY
While design automation technology has significantly ad- the requirements; a broader, more balanced discussion of issues
vanced, concurrent engineering concepts are not radically new and and alternatives; and a consensus approach to designing both the
different. In many ways, these practices reflect the smaller, less product and its processes. Team size should be limited by using
formal organizations of the past, where people knew each other, highly experienced and motivated personnel while still assuring
communicated effectively between the various functional depart- representation from the contributing functional areas. Team mem-
ments, and coordinated their activities with relatively little effort. bers should be co-located to improve interaction and facilitate
However, since technology has advanced and become more timely discussion and resolution of issues. Of all the elements of
complex, a return to yesteryear is not feasible, particularly in large concurrent engineering, co-located product development teams
organizations with complex products. Concurrent engineering can provide the greatest improvement to the product development
concepts reflect a modem-day approach to addressing the com- process for the smrdlest investment.
plexity and technology associated with todays new product An understanding and application of principles, techniques,
development. and tools related to design for manufacturability, design for
A good customer relationship is required to help the organiza- quality, design for the life cycle, and design for cost will further
tion understand customer requirements. The use of product devel- facilitate the development of high quality, low cost, producible
opment teams will result in a more complete understanding of all designs quickly. Digital product models and integrated design
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CHAPTER 2
SUMMARY
automation tools can streamline the development process, reduce product to better meet customer needs, a quicker and smoother
cycle time, assure a better understanding of the design intent, and transition to manufacturing, and a lower total progran-Jlife-
improve the accuracy of manufacture. The use of analysis and cycle cost.
simulation tools can help in developing better performing and The greatest challenges exist not in implementing new tech-
more reliable designs with fewer design/build/test iterations, niques, business practices or technology, but in overcoming the
thereby reducing cost and cycle time. organizational barriers and the resistance to changing the way
Concurrent engineering may require additional effort early in things are done. As new products and time to market become
the design process. However, the integration of product and crucial in achieving competitive advantage, the use of concurrent
process design through improved business practices, management engineering concepts as a basis for new product development will
philosophies and technology tools will result in a more producible become essential.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 3
MANAGEMENT INVOLVEMENT
IN DFM
This chapter discusses managements interests in framework for CE and DFM from technical, mana- CHAPTER
design for manufacturability (DFM) and concurrent gerial, and business perspectives. It discusses CONTENTS:
engineering (C E). There is considerable confusion managements interests in CE and DFM, including
regarding the many new tools and techniques dis- completeness risk, quality of the technical process, MANAGEMENT
cussed within the manufacturing community. This configuration control, schedule, budgets and FRAMEWORKS 3-1
confusion arises because many of these tools and revenues, relative measures of performance, and
techniques are overlapping, or are elements of vari- implementation concerns. Some examples of man- Architecture 3-3
ous other tools or techniques. Design process inte- agements interests are utilized to illustrate the
gration is a key interest of top management because discussions. Manufacturability
Process 3-4
of its cumulative power. This chapter describes a
Managements
Concerns with
Manufacturability
Perforrnsnce 3-4
Function-focused processes have traditionally di- itive advantage through the leverage created by its Process
vided the manufacturing enterprise. Engineerings implementation. CE has three principal processes, Integration 3-9
processes have been dominated recently by the de- each of which performs business, technical, and
manding technical requirements of executing product managerial functions. These major processes are Management
design while using various functionally-oriented design, manufacturability, and process management. Interests in the
Design 3-14
tools. The CAD technologies represent such demand- Concurrent engineering, like any process, is a
ing functions for engineering. Production has been component of a larger process, in this case the
dominated by business processes and issues such as complex product manufacturing organization. Also,
material ordering, staging, and production planning, like any other process, the CE process has a product.
and the very high discipline requirements of manu- The CE process manufactures information; the prcx-
facturing resource planning (MRP) functions. ucts of CE are information artifacts such as images of
The processes are also different in their dominat- the product or its various components, a structured
ing characteristics. Engineering is concerned with bill of materials used to make tbe product, or the
unstructured work and must focus on work flow processes utilized to make the product.
management. Production needs structure, precision, Each of the major processes of CE is particularly
and certainty as it deals with producing the final concerned with its own product set. Design focuses
physical product to a schedule of customer promises on the conceptualization, visualization, and realiza-
or a sales forecast, while using various flow control tion of the end product which is to be delivered to the
techniques. customer. Process management focuses on providing
Management processes, usually at middle man- the environment in which the various activities asso-
agement and above, have held the organization ciated with CE are accomplished. Manufacturability
together. These management processes were largely is focused on assuring that the products design
devoted to negotiation, reconciliation, and error satisfies such requirements as design for producibil-
detection and correction using an exception ity, design for assembly (DFA), design for disassem-
management-oriented technique. Substantial changes bly (DFD), design for maintenance, and design for
in management activities and interests occur when utility. While there is no standard term for all these
concurrent engineering is introduced into the manu- design for..., the requirements have been
facturing organization. typically summarized under the title: design for
Concurrent engineering is a cross-organization, manufacturability. This implies that manufacturing
integrated process, combining all the engineering and production and other relevant activities are formally
production activities which precede production. It considered during the design and engineering
has become the new enabling process for tkrns with activities.
more complex products who seek to gain a compet-
The Contributor of this chapter is: Landon C.G. Miller, President, Vertical Systems, Inc.
The Reviewers of this chapter are: Robert T. Riley, Ph. D., Riley Associates; Richard Lammerand, Assistant
Professor, Arizona State University, Manufacturing and Industrial Technology Department; Lou Petro, Ph. D.,
Professor, Lawrence Technological University.
3-1
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 3
MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS
Managers should not do work. Their job is to ensure that all design process. Of course, they are not required, by job descrip-
the people, resources, capital, material, and strategy are in place tion or sense of responsibility, to have any interest in or respon-
so that work can be done. Management must, therefore, use sibility for the individual end-product itself. They have thus
observation, information, and inference to make decisions, pro- substituted processes for results. But, they are not uncaring people
vide leadership and direction, and monitor operations. with no interest in their product or the organization. The organi-
Using past organizational elements of design and other design- zational concept within which they work has separated tasks into
dependent attributes seems intuitively obvious to managers. There long, serial processes which have no visible connection with
has been considerable attention to this issue over the past several results.
years. Why is the discovery that these concerns are an important The empowerment concept is part of tbe response to this very
significant event? How did this situation come about? complex problem. Empowerment stresses individual responsibil-
Products have become progressively more complex since the ity, and the linkage between an activity and tbe organizations
beginning of the industrial revolution, as machines have been vision, mission, goals, and objectives. However, individual re-
substituted for labor. Since the introduction of the computer in the sponsibility is not enough if the organizations policies, practices,
1950s, this complexity has been accelerating; computers provide and procedures are still focused on the long, controlled serial
an additional level of process interaction, and thus the ability to process. For design, this serial process can be called stepwise
rapidly magnify human capability and potential. This intellectual refinement.
leverage has created product improvements of many types. The The second trend, designing systems which have physical
results of these improvements have manifested themselves in products instead of products with embedded systems, is a reflec-
man y ways, including such diverse perspectives as computer tion of the continuing evolution and use of the computer. With
circuits, the number of people on Earth, the number of chemical rapidly increasing power in smaller and smaller packages, com-
compounds used, and the amount and number of infrastructures puter systems are increasingly utilized to control various elements
(roads, pipelines, telephone circuits, satellites, etc.). All these of a wide variety of products. Devices are <embedded into other
reflections of increasing complexity are rapidly reaching the point physical products for this control process. They are also being
where no single person or even a small group of people can integrated in new types of products called systems. These are
understand them in detail. The accumulation of knowledge (organ- unique in that they may have little or no physical manifestation
ized and useful information) has become the main competitive (for example, software packages). Sometimes they provide very
weapon in business. elaborate control and management functions for physical products
As manufactured products became more complex in their (on-board computers for automobiles). Sometimes, in combina-
requirements, the discipline required to produce them in reason- tion with physical elements, they provide the capabilities needed
able time, and with good quality, has also increased. This problem to create other new classes of products which could not operate
is especially acute in the areas of complex products. Complex without the systems (cruise missiles). These systems have evolved
products have the characteristics of to the point where newly designed product systems utilize physical
carriers to accomplish system objectives (genetically engineered
. Manufacturing operations with high-change rates of product instructions, monoclinal antibodies, or advanced attack aircraft).
and process definitions. Designers are now designing systems with physical manifestations
. Manufacturing operations with high rates and short cycles and characteristics, instead of physical products with ancillary or
for new product introductions. embedded controls. This trend to systems bas led to a revised
. Manufacturing operations with complex configurations design process, synthesis, which takes a holistic product perspec-
which can vary by customer, and which may be produced in tive, and at the same time shortens the design process and
a single, individual production line. reintroduces design process product ownership.
Manufacturing operations which require multiple teams for a The third trend, complexity, is the result of the impact of the
single product, and typically include business partners with other two trends. Both product and process have become very
design responsibility for product components as well as complex, and this complexity is increasing. Complexity has
suppliers with no design responsibility. become tbe limiting factor in the continuing development of more
capable, flexible, and usefully performing products (systems). The
It is the combined effect of these characteristics that created response to this trend has been to establish architectures of
these significant trends and has created the need for the re- business, technical, and managerial processes, with appropriate
emphasis on manufacturability. Some of the side effects of these automated infrastructure support (AIS). The synthesis design
trends are substituting process for results, designing systems process, and process management processes, are elements of this
instead of physical products, and increased complexity. response, as well as manufacturability. To develop a response to
There has been a typical response to the need for maintaining these and other trends in manufacturing, a variety of efforts within
discipline and configuration control with increasing complexity, the overall manufacturability process have been initiated. These
size, interoperability, environmental interaction, and other re- efforts have addressed improvements in a number of areas of
quirements of these complex products. The response has been to manufacturing.
add many different types of steps to the design process. This was As shown in Fig. 3-1, when the product was relatively simple,
done to maintain quality and control, and each steps completion or when trial and error was an acceptable approach to tbe
was checked carefully. Product changes of even a very simple and manufacture of a product, one could simply proceed. For many
overlapping nature were done serially, and with standards, to products, such as airplanes, automobiles, and medical equipment,
assure process control. the trial and error design and manufacture process is unacceptable.
The result of these responses to complexity has been to create One or two design-induced crashes, and/or the loss of human life,
task specialists. These task specialists (engineers and designers, would kill a program or product, because the success of recent
for example) now perform very small steps in the overall design engineering efforts has created a very high expectation market.
process. They do not have responsibility for the products of the This environment now expects close to 100% product success, and
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 3
MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS
Architecture ~
t4
organize
I
II
t
Design ~
- First principles Increasing
Increme in
levels OF
complexity
response
4 DO ~
intuitive
anyproduct which isperceived ashaving serious problems, and/or ematics, zoology, cosmology), the response to complexity has
lack of complete success from its beginning, can quickly be also been to establish asuperior framework or architecture within
deemed a failure. which to attack the problem. The CE enabling process is itself an
As the situation became more complex, a formal design step architectural framework within which to readdress manufactur-
was added. This step has evolved into the complex and lengthy ings activities prior to production (pre-build), and within which to
process experienced today. During this lengthening design pro- address increased complexity. To demonstrate that this architec-
cess, the individual has had to focus on the process, since ture incorrect, avariety of botbempirical and theoretical reference
responsibility for results has been removed from most individuals frameworks can reutilized. In this case, empirical means real
job descriptions. Thus, the response of the organization has experiences which justify elements of the architecture, and the-
become part of the problem. This change has been recognized, and oretical means applying logical analysis to the structure.
a broad set of initiatives by the manufacturing community has The empirical framework includes the many initiatives begun
begun toaddress the issue. These initiatives include the design by complex product manufacturing organizations, and the body of
for... concepts which force a break in the serial design process experiences built up during these initiatives. The theoretical
by reinvolving manufacturing production in design to focus on framework is developed to reflect analogous theoretical develop-
process results. ments and empirical experiences, and to address certain elements
of the architecture. Examples of the reference framework include
organizational theory, information theory, and general architec-
ARCHITECTURE tural andtaxonomic principles.
Management needs a framework for making decisions. One of For example, as shown in Fig. 3-2, each of these reference
the efforts to respond to these issues isestablishing and applying frameworks goes through a decomposition and layering process
an architectural framework for making decisions. The idea of an which takes ideas and concepts and evolves them into actual,
architectural framework is not new. Indifferent disciplines (math- physical representative instances. The CE architecture of three
+;~nwy~~
sinescoppunfies
Pressures
Information
Mcdels
.
1+ig..+2 Keference frameworks.
3-3
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 3
MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS
tiers of processes, each with its own vertical (managerial) and PERFORMANCE
horizontal (process execution) processes, reflects these reference Managements basic interest is in overall performance. The
frameworks along with the architectural development precess itself. senior executives concern themselves with how the organization
performs relative to customers and competitors. Middle manage-
MANUFACTURABILITY PROCESS ment has relatively broad responsibilities for translating senior
In addition to CE architecture development, the synthesis executive goals and objectives into largely internal operational
design process reflects such reference frameworks as empower- directions. Supervisors and individuals, acting under these direc-
ment of small organizational units with responsibility for results tions, attempt to meet individual group and organizational goals,
and system decomposition specified. One component of CE, which are directly tied to the high-level goals and objectives.
manufacturability, is the focus of this chapter. Another response, Table 3-1 gives a general overview of what each area of an
in addition to the application of architecture described earlier, has organizations management group might consider as goals in the
been to formalize the re-involvement of production personnel in high-impact areas listed across thetopof the table. For example,
the design of the product. This reinvolvement has two principal senior managements basic responsibility is to position the manu-
thrusts. The first of these has various aspects which might be facturing organization so that it can compete unfavorable terms
grouped under the title of continual quality improvement (CQI), with its competition. It communicates these strategies through
and focuses on process improvement. Smaller manufacturers have goals and objectives. These goals usually reflect the maintenance
always had the opportunity to involve doers with those who of existing business, while attempting to maintain or improve
describe how-to-do. CQI gives an individual the ability to quality, schedule, cost, and the human resource, This should lead
affect the manufacturing process, by allowing the origination of to the maintenance or increase of profits, which can be used to
changes and improvements tocome from the person closest to the reward internal performance, fund newproducts andmarkets, and
point of problem discovery or opportunity for change. It is share success with the investors.
empowering because it does not use an analyst from somewhere The subsequent levels of the organization each set their own
else in the organization to do the discovering. goals. Design management might be focused on its contribution to
the profitability goal, for example, by setting specific and mea-
surable object~v& as shown in Fig. -3-4. Ii this example, the
MANAGEMENTS CONCERNS
corporate goal is to improve overall profitability by 1070. The
WITH MANUFACTURABILITY
fictitious division, which manufactures various lifting devices,
The second thrust in manufacturability, and/or design for
decides that a new, middle-of-the-product-line device can make
manufacturing, focuses on the product itself. This chapter dis-
this difference. Among the various improvements necessmy to
cusses managements interests in this reinvolvement.
deliver on this specific objective are reduced part count, faster
While it may not seem relevant to discuss a referential
design and production-cycle times, and improved processes. A
framework for CEinabook ondesign for manufacturability, it
focus on including manufacturability asanelement ofdesign has
is, in fact, vital. Figure 3-3 depicts the relationship of manufac-
been shown to be a very high-leverage item which will help
turability to other major processes. There are two other reasons
achieve the objective. This process integration improvement is
why the frdmework is so important:
adopted, and is shown as it is documented down to the detailed
1. Management interests. activity level. This very tight maintenance of the relationship
2. Process integration. between a detailed process change or improvement and the
Manukturina
Customer
Analysis
r
Sa Ies
w
Predesiqn
Synthesis
design
A
\
Invym;EeE$!!7\>
Analysis Product CQI
3-4
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 3
MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS
high-level corporate goal is termed a single thread. This is Permits substantial freedom for determining how the objec-
because one thread can be drawn from what each individual does tive is to be accomplished in that detailed activity.
to these goals. This single-thread relationship is very powerful Each chief executive would have all of the organizations
because it: individuals do their jobs as the chief executive wouldif it were
possible. This, of course, means each individual would retain the
. Provides a reason for what has to be done. power to choose how the job is done. This power-of-choice is the
essence of the empowerment concept. Thus, managements first
. Provides a referential framework within which to make interest is in creating an environment in which the full power of
individual decisions. each individual is maximized.
TABLE 3-1
Management Manufacturability Goals
Executive Set these Maintain Be number Customer Consistent Lowest cost Trained and
Corporate for the markets lor2 satisfaction with consistent capable
Management organization in each promises to with quality; workforce
market customers attempt a
segment breakthrough
Sales and Meet sales Maintain sales Enough to No customer No customer As low as Trained and
Marketing plans and levels and meet sales complaint; complaint; possible to capable
quotas revenues incentive customer no problems increase workforce
plans praise with manu- margins
factoring
Division Meet and set Maintain Meet or Meet or Reduce cycle Cost reduction Trained and
Management goals while present exceed exceed times of at least capable
harmonizing level of corporate own goals 5% per year workforce
with corp- operation; goals
oration goals continual
quality
improvement
(CQI)
Design Meet, set Maintain Meet or Integrate Employ cost- Employ design Empowerment;
Management goals, set existing exceed into design effective methods to use human
project product project methods; means to reduce prod- resource
cost, and support objectives; meet project maintain Uct cost; concepts
schedule and change set as objectives schedules use good during
objectives management design management projects
criteria to reduce to maximum
engineering extent
cost
Production Meet, set Using tracking Drive down Utilize Consider Continual Trained and
Management goals, costs, systems, stay costs, inven- advanced whatever quality capable
schedules, at least even, tory, work- quality scheduling improvement workforce;
and quality improve by in-process, management approach (CQI) to improve
requirements 5%, more or pre-distri- processes that works improve labor
less bution to deliver process and relations
quality product
cost
Service Meet and set Meet sales Meet own Posh Meet Cost reductions support
Management goals while plans and goals while quality into customer when consis- training
harmonizing quotas supporting organization promises tent with
with other promises
corporate organization
goals goals
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 3
MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS
Corporate GOol
s+
n
increased profit by 10%
I Division Plan
3
a
ROI on New
is 18%,
Mid-lifter;
profit increased by 10%
New lifter
Ihknagement ~
Reporting
Table 3-2 takes these goals down one level, to measurable vide a mechanism to obtain this information. Managements
objectives. It is very important to measure progress toward goals. second interest is to measure the organizations status regarding
Setting realistic objectives enables direct and objective measure- components (2) and(3), andtomake oralter plans to continually
ment of progress. improve all three components.
Generally, the competition has three components: The individuals who will participate in the manufacturability
process during the design cycle, as an element of concurrent
1. Tbeother organizations end products.
engineering, will come to the process with their own sets of
2. Theother organizations will, drive, or focus.
concerns about engineerings impact on production manufactur-
3. Theindividuals contribution to(l) and(2).
ing. Table 3-3 describes some of productions processes, and the
Benchmarking can tell the organization about the other orga- types of techniques and expectations management will have for
nizations end products (component 1). Management should pro- management information on these processes. Thus, when people
3-6
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 3
MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS
TABLE 3-2
Managements Probable Manufacturability Interest Areas, Expressed as Objectives
Techniques to Consider
Which Address these
Area Sample Measurable Objectives Objectives
Requirements . Build what the customer will buy . House of quality (HOQ)
(as measured by last year mid-sales) . Quality function deployment (QFD)
results
begin to participate in manufacturability, they will bring these to notice that management doesnt have an interest in the process
types of expectations with them. Their participation in manufac- itself, only in its results unless process internals need attention.
turability will thus be affected by what is expected of them. In the traditional environment, managements interest has been
Each goal has an associated objective performance manage- focused on management by exception. Management has reacted to
ment area. Table 3-4 illustrates some techniques management may problems as they appear. It has been the responsibility of those
apply to facilitate completion of the objectives. In addition, directly associated with activities to ensure that they are:
management personnel will have a referential framework of
expectation, gained through reading books and articles, prior 1. Designed correctly.
practical experiences, and contacts with peers in their own and 2. Executed appropriately.
other businesses. CE and its components, such as manufacturabil- 3. Objectively monitored and reported against.
ity and design for manufacturing, are examples of managements
expectations now. A new worldwide standards effort (TC84/ It is this standard practice of management by exception which
SC4/WG8) for management information has been started by ISO, has contributed to the problem of process results instead of
the International Standards Organization. It will be called MAN- .. delivery of end product. In addition, the emphasis on
DATE, and will focus on assisting process integration through individual task execution, with management as the only bridge
information while standardizing information elements for manu- between tasks, has created an inherent conflict, with many
facturing management. interfaces and hand-off style function-based flows within
Managers ask for information because they perceive a linkage organizational units.
between the information requested and the indications this infor- It is these perceptions which have caused so many manufac-
mation provides about the performance of the processes. This is turing organizations to focus on process integration. All the
why there is an emphasis on performance metrics in earlier tables. management interest areas must still be served, and information
The basic concept is to have objective, fact-based, unambiguous provided. However, many management groups have now recog-
inforrrmtion about the state and trends of processes. It is important nized that their involvement must move from management by
3-7
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 3
MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS
TABLE 3-3
Sample Management Information Interests in Production
Planning Documented plans Plans with milestone schedules, events, and process activities
Process plans Processes documented with continual process improvement (CQI)
embedded in the processes
Single thread Plans which are tied to business objectives
Personnel evaluation process which ties individual personnel plan,
education, and training to business objectives
Cycle-time reduction Process improvement tied to best practice (BP) vision and transition plans
exception to continuous process monitoring, using an advanced engineering just as in production manufacturing. This focus on
quality system (AQS) approach. This approach emphasizes pro- correctly-designed processes cannot be overemphasized. Once this
cess trends, and focuses management attention on correctly view of processes begins to evolve, significant perceptual changes
designed processes. As shown in Fig. 3-5, the emphasis and occur. Interfaces and hand-offs become problem-generating
leverage is on error prevention, not detection and correction by opportunities and are eliminated, and manufacturability y becomes
exception in later stages. This concept must be applied in intuitive y obvious.
I II Ill Iv
y<f<:::::::::::**yf.:::::.:.:.:...:.:. f::::;-
..............................-.....>.<~<.
++.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:~~.:.:.:...........
.:.:.:.:.:.~.:.:.:.:...:.:.:.:.:.:.j.j......
...................................................... ...................................
-+.+.4:.:.:.:.X-X+:.X.:.:.:.
.
...
...
...
...
...
.....
..
...
...
...
....
...
.. ...
.....
...
...
...
...
...
.....
...
.
Costof correction con be 100
times more expensive to fix in
Stage IV - External foilure
. .............. ................ ..... ..... ..... ..
Pre Post-
Production
Delivery Delivery
3-8
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 3
MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS
3-9
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 3
MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS
TABLE 3-5
Milestone, Schedule, and Process Relationships
Schedule Task status and completion Senior Manager Event monitoring; Provides opportunity to
monitoring (when) early/late budget intervene to provide leadership,
variance by anticipating variation
Activity Task descriptions Supervisor Task completion focus; Provides details on what
(what, who) priorities; steps or activity is to be accomplished
tasks to complete
Work Center Where Supervisor/ Physical version of activity Applies activity detail to a
individual specific work center or other
physical location
customer desires into product features and functions. This proving cycle times (for itself and production manufactur-
is particularly true for new products where the absence of ing), reduced product costs, increased product variety and
a feature or two can make or break the products early complexity, and constant product innovation and
market success. introduction.
2. Cost reductionsThe general assumption by management
The concurrent engineering process, also called synthesis
is that product costs will trend downward as an element of
design, addresses this problem by providing a process framework
tbe experience or learning curve. The risk is in tbe starting
for multiteam design. To adequately perform concurrent engineer-
point of cost, relative to throughput (rate of products
ing within the synthesis design process, however, the process
produced), the quality of the product, and the expected
quality of the technical, managerial, and business processes must
learuing rate. These risks are largely under the control of
be upgraded.
tbe designedengineer once the QFD process is performed
In general, these processes are upgraded in a series of related
and the products pricing/cost ratios are set. The intent of
and building stages. Table 3-6 describes these stages. In summary,
manufacturability is to start these costs as low as possible.
the first step is to capture most of the work done in some
3. Technical process quality Management expects the de-
computer-automated method. This fist stage is termed in-line
signer or engineer to follow generally accepted engineering
process execution. Next, there must bean apparent single view of
principles, and to produce a product design which exhibits
both the captured and needed information (such as specification
excellence in all respects. While academic preparation
and standards manuals, material selection parameters, and the
generally meets the designers need for engineering tools,
like). Finally, the information must be managed and kept under
techniques, and principles, there is little or no preparation
configuration control, to permit apparent concurrency. This stage
for the design process itself. For the purposes of this
permits multiple teams to work in one area of the product design
chapter, the design process can be either serial or concur-
and to simultaneously evolve various elements of design intent.
rent. The serial process, largely based on trial and error,
The definition of processes and their improvement, for product
has been used as the predominant process since the
design, product production, and supporting processes, are increas-
beginning of the industrial revolution. As industry moves
ingly dependent on automated infrastnrcture support. Computers
into an era of second- and third-level products, such as
are increasingly integral to everything; yet, management still has a
complex products which are embedded complex software-
substantial distrust of computing. This distrust is rooted in three
based and/or self-adopting systems, such a design process
key observations:
has come into question. The serial process is in danger of
inadequately addressing product and process quality, while . Usefulness While the contribution of automation based on
maintaining the other design objectives of constantly im- the computer has been great, it is not a very useful tool for
3-1o
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 3
MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS
TABLE 3-6
The Four Stages of Upgrading the CE Design Process
1 CE design tools Testing element 15-25% Ad hoc; depends on Typical starting point
in a serial operation cooperating individuals
a manager who must assimilate a great deal of information, ded processes. Software is still generally handcrafted. As such,
and make decisions using analogy, experience, and infer- each computing problem must be completely treated; it is difficult
ence/intuition. This is also true for the engineer/designer. to assume almost anything. This means that to get a software
Distraction factorThe temptation to focus on the comput- product to market, it must focus on a relatively narrow scope of
ing aspect of the engil~eering/design problem is very strong. work. For software products of type (1), this has meant performing
Many young engineers have come to regard the computer as a limited set of functions. For example, word processors generally
an integral tool of the design process. In fact, it is a useful have not included the ability to produce complex drawings, and
tool for the latter stages of the design process, but may vice versa. Thus, any engineering problem must be divided across
inhibit the innovation required at the beginning stages of the many differing computing interfaces and expectations, and the
process-at least in computings present state. information must be spread and then controlled across all of these
Function-oriented computing structures-Figure 3-6 depicts tools in a constantly changing business and technology-intensive
the present computer environment. Processes are continu- environment.
ous, linked activities, with little or no hand-off between For srrftware type (2), a different issue has arisen. In this case,
activities. application systems, such as a bill of material software package,
For purposes of computer product completeness and historical have the business, technical, and some elements of the managerial
precedent, the computing applications of today reflect two general processes buried in the form of procedures. Changes to processes
approaches: (1) tools with features and functions, and (2) embed- must thus first be done in the computing system. This creates
sketches,
Product
concept
ince@iOn
k MRP/JIT
D Ialacl
nu
released
3-11
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 3
MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS
problems, now termed the legacy system problem, when and its design activities, is work flow management. Since
change is paced by the computer programmings change rate and engineering contains significant unstructured work, how can this
not by the organizations need. be a process, and does this mean engineering must innovate
While these distrust issues have been recognized, the comput- to a schedule?
ing infrastructures necessary changes will require years to com- The concept of engineering and design in a concurrent envi-
plete. For this reason, there has been an increased emphasis on ronment is represented by Fig. 3-8. The process is a management
process definition, integration, and subsequent improvement process, with many subprocesses which vary according to the type
based on the process, and not based on computing technology. In of design activity to be undertaken. Table 3-5 noted that the
general, this has been termed process pull; that is, technology process for CE was at the management level. The structured
is incorporated after the process is improved or redesigned, if process of work flow management is also at the management/
necessary or appropriate. supervisory level. The activities, their tasks, and the specific
Table 3-7 provides a summary view of two different ap- events for each task can thus vary within this structural process.
proaches to process improvement. Best practices (BP) is a <clean Figure 3-9 depicts these various relationships.
piece of paper approach, while CQI is a reverse engineering The process which is to be performed during engineering
approach using the existing process as a starting point. Manage- design is generally known. That is, the design of a complete new
ment uses best practices when substantial change is required; BP product has a known general process, the correction of a detected
represents the big change. design problem from the shop floor has a known general process,
Management has a powerful interest in improvement. Figures and the addition of new features to an existing product also has a
3-7a and 3-7b provide overviews of how to go about determining known general process. These processes all cross traditional
what a process best practice might be. In general, the focus is on organization boundaries.
what changes are needed across the organization but only within The first necessary step is to get agreement that these flows
the process to begin with. Resistance to change will be strong are all processes. Once that is agreed, general model process
unless there is a significant crisis. On a process-by-process basis, flows, using a technique like best practices, can be initially
progress is more likely. The resistance will be especially prevalent established. Models of these flows can be agreed upon. Once these
in engineering and in production management if they are not models are established, they can be used to manage the work flow.
willing participants. If significant change is needed, an outside- As the activities within vary, theorganization can build asetof
the-area group, that can arbitrate the best practices process design activities which are encountered with each variance; these forman
activity, may be helpful. Some groups have become specialized increasingly rich experience base, or library of activities.
agents in this regard. Various future problems or opportunities to be addressed can then
One of the most important changes resulting from the process have their processes customized on the basis of experience, by
orientation, which reintroduces manufacturability into engineering <snapping-in derived sets of activities.
TABLE 3-7
Relationship between Best Practices, Target Process, CQI, and Computing Opportunities
Continual Quality
Perspective Best Practices (BP) Improvement (CQI) Computing Opportunities
Purpose Streamline before automation; Improve present process Identity when computing
may not be possible without incremental y can either improve (CQI) or
computing assistance integrate processes
Focuslscope Greater impact at cross-function Single process All processes, unless focused
and greatest impact at by users and management
cross-process levels
Owner/Manager Cross-functional management Process owner. Makes changes Process owner. Uses computing
as owner. Must determine and enlists outside resources, support as appropriate
strategy including AIS as necessary
Automated Integral element of strategy. Pulled as needed. Reacts Provides support consistent with
Infrastructure Participates in BP design to requests employed approach (CQI or BP)
Support (AIS)
Process operator Represents substantial Represents incremental change (BP) technology pushes or
or executor change largely conceived originated by operator or (CQI) process pulls; may or may
by others other team members not perceive either as good or
bad, or better than the other
3-12
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 3
MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS
w Proeass
improvement
implamentatian
planning and
P ,Ch;,ing
o
Best
practica
!2Ym7 =
Computing
o~
trends
a na Iysss
f ~
*
u
m
quality
impravament
Above theproeess level, these process steps can redisplayed very distorted. They encourage the elimination of workers, when
asaschedule forprogress monitoring. AQScanbe used to monitor the best practice might be to add hours. Concurrent engineering
work flow. Milestones associated with deliverables can be used to mayrequire more hours, buttheleverage can be 100to 1000 times
brief executives on major process completions. Individuals who the cost savings across the organization (Source: System Devel-
are performing the process can have their work queued according opment Research Corporation (SDRC) survey).
to the task or events as required. With ABC, the focus is on activities and their costs. These
Theother significant change, which occurs when anorganiza- activities can include computers, equipment, processes, or tasks
tion moves from an organization/function orientation to one of performed by people. The approach is objective, and provides a
integrated processes, is in accounting. Accounting can be a much more accurate cost picture. Additionally, ABC supports the
significant barrier to processes if departmentifunc tion budgets and performance criteria for cost. Of course, activities are components
burdened labor hours are used to measure financial performance. of processes (not organizational functions), and thus fit into the
In a process-oriented organization, accounting is based on a process approach. Sometimes, there may be no value in determini-
mixture of activity-based costing (ABC) and process center ng the costs of process activities if there are not significant costs
accounting. present in them. Process center accounting accumulates cost at the
The use of burdened labor hours is misleading, because most process level, thus avoiding the accumulation of useless activity
costs arenotdirect labor anymore. These burdened labor hours are detail.
3-13
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 3
MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS
El 1
Initiate process
Review
-
existing
set goals
reasonable
situation
and ob@tives;
management
and establish
ensure
to agree
a vision
single
to goals
thresd or get
or a~ectiws
of the proposed
2
best practices process
El
Devdop detaibdnrss is"ofpresent prccess; use'in-linen models
3 or establish in-linen models to maximum extent possible; use other
modeling or simulation tool if necessary
Develop Iinkqes with all other processes; define interfaces and explore standards far these inMrsces;
4 develop view, detailed concept of operations and to be vision. Use inhen models if possible.
Redesign organizational boundaries around the processes. Danit be deterred.
n
Identify changes necessary b deliver the Best Practices Process [1] no new
El
Define benefik, rests, risks& pfarmance measures (during change&
Fig. 3-7 con?. (b) Best practices analysis and design process.
MANAGEMENT INTERESTS IN THE DESIGN Design-process integration is also a key interest of top man-
agement because of its cumulative power. Figures 3-1 la and
While other chapters discuss the design aspect of concurrent 3-11 b point to a still often-neglected area of productiontooling
engineering from an engineering perspective, management has and facilities. Increasing y, manufacturers are designing products
particular design interests. Figure 3-10 depicts examples of the which the organization has the capability to produce, not designing
first interest categories: cost, utility, and buyer-perceived quality. products and then attempting to discover how to produce them.
Figure 3-10a shows a substantial part count reduction (91 to 3), Integrating tooling, its capability, and limitations into the design
and appeals to buyers with reliability. Figure 3- 10b encapsulates process through manufacturability addresses these proeess-to-tool,
many parts into one more complex cast or injected part, also part-to-tool, tool-to-tool, and tool-to-fixtures and facilities issues.
saving cost and enhancing maintenance. Figures 3- 10c and 3- 10d Management is also interested in product features and functions
are process improvements which lower cost, and in the case of d, which sell. It is fortunate that the design features, such as those
increase the utility of the parts for other products as their fit can depicted in Fig. 3-12, reduce ~ the costs of production while also
be relied upon. enhancing the value and salability of these products.
3-14
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 3
MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . :, . :
. . . . . . . . . . ,: :
. Product Resource management
Implementation Strategies from a This change may be job-threatening, and if not done
Management Perspective correctly may threaten the business itself.
. Different management techniques-The change from a re-
The implementation of CE and its manufacturability process active style of management based on management by excep-
is obviously high priority for any manufacturing organization tion to a proactive style of management based on AQS,
manager at this point. However, this <desire is often offset by: requires managers to break old habits and learn new ones.
. Perceived risk The conversion of the organization, to one . Distrust-Management must still produce for today while
focused on processes and not functions, is a major change. changing for tomorrow. Many organizations, using bur-
3-15
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 3
MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS
4 + mi Iestones b
4 .
ihdurad
scheduled avsnts
uark
I
low
\/
process step
/
work flaw management
. - .- .
snapin activities
/\
U event
ewnt
dened hours accounting for competitive response and for aggressively pursuing this initiative. A strategy for implementa-
other reasons, may have removed any slack (or excess tion would focus on staging the implementation across three
human capacity forchange) from the organization. Change tracks, as shown in Table 3-8.
of this type can put a significant strain on the organization. This is abottom-up approach and requires cooperation anda
Forall these reasons, the general implementation strategy for belief in its correctness from participants for it to succeed. The
CEandmanufacturability has been togo slow. For organizations processes of CE and manufacturability are definitely in manage-
that areconcemed about whether this isjustanother good idea, it ments best interests. The balance of this book focuses on how to
is probably important that manufacturing firms worldwide are execute the details of manufacturability.
3-16
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 3
MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS
Befare ARer
(a] Part
Count
Reduction
-*
91 Parts
...:+.::::,:.:.:.:.
.. ... 3 parts
&
!.:.% x.:...:...
(b) Enmpsulatian
&
15 parts 3 parts
[c] pram~~
Improvement
& m
n
solder bath balder
(d) Cumulative
Toleronce
Analysis
3 of loo 1 Oflo,ooo
not fii
not fit
Tad ta facilHy
m
Part to part
master gage
Part to tml
Tad to teal
fixture
ASRS
AGV
Conveyor @
overhead crane
Environmental controls
Hazardaus substances
(a) [b]
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 3
MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS
m rotate
I!!r
1/2
disassemble
J
tam to
>
TABLE 3-8
Staging the Implementation
3-18
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 4
TEAM BUILDING
AND TRAINING
WHERE TO BEGIN
Any journey must begin with the first step, and as TOOLS TO CONSIDER CHAPTER
William Sprague of NCR has stated, <DFM is a In order to influence designers when they are CONTENTS:
journey, not a destination. The first step to imple- making early design decisions, it is necessary to
menting a DFM strategy is an awareness process. provide tools which quantify manufacturing cost WHERE TO
The DFM journey begins by researching how other penalties associated with various design decisions.3 BEGIN 4-1
manufacturers have applied DFM principles to their Although DFM principles are thought of as common
product development process. A historical perspec- sense, a tool is necessary to consistently apply the DEVELOPING
AN INTERNAL
tive is beneficial, to become familiar with the numer- DFM principles during an analysis. Furthermore, the DFM MANUAL 4-5
ous DFM applications and success stories. analysis results should be presented in such a way
To gain a historical perspective of DFM, a liter- that the designers are guided toward design altern- HUMAN
ature search on the subject of DFM and related atives which reduce the manufacturing and assembly PERFORMANCE
subjects (that is, concurrent engineering, simulta- costs, while considering serviceability, recycleabil- IMPROVEMENT
neous engineering, synchronous engineering, DFA, ity, etc. Figure 4-1 offers guidelines to use when AND TRAINING
IN DFM 4-7
value engineering, cost drivers, and activity based evaluating DFM tools.
costing (ABC)), is recommended. 12 A literature
search should begin at the library of an industry or
discipline-specific professional society. If a profes- START A PILOT PROJECT
sional society library is not locally accessible, the The most beneficial time for application of DFM
library at a college or university that offers an principles and tools is during a products design
engineering curriculum should be sufficient. To get a phase. If there are no products currently in the design
thoroughly exhaustive review of all articles published phase, the next most beneficial time for application is
on the subject of DFM, enlist the assistance of a in manufacturing where significant short-term gains
company that offers literature search services. will be realized. The greatest benefits can be
After becoming familiar with a broad sampling of achieved on products having numerous fasteners,
DFM success stories, it would be valuable to attend labor intensive assembly, or warranty problems.
a DFM conference. Appendix B lists a variety of Choose a product or design that demonstrates an
companies offering courses, clinics, and conferences obvious need for improvement.
yearly. Conference attendees can easily make con- Newcomers to DFM should avoid trying to solve
tacts for a visit to a company currently implementing too many problems at once. Though DFM will
a DFM strategy. To culminate the awareness pro- improve time to market, quality, and cost for virtu-
cess, visit a company that has successfully imple- ally any design problem, build momentum by target-
mented a DFM strategy. Follow up on the contacts ing just one problem at a time.
made at the DFM conference. It is highly unlikely After selecting a pilot product, a team must be
that a competitor would be willing to provide a tour, empowered to apply the DFM principles. The Insti-
so target a noncompetitor who has successfully tute for Competitive Design has identified several
applied the DFM principles for a couple of years on points as crucial to the success of establishing a
a variety of products. productive product development team.
The Contributors of this chapter era: Jerry M. Childs, Ph. D., Manager, GM Programs, Hughes Training
Systems, Inc.; Larry Ford, Manager, PLS Mechanical Engineering, Physio Control; Thomas D. McBride, Manager of
Engineering, Nelmor; Mike Oakes, Systems Engineer, Design For Manufacturability Center of Expertise, Electronic
Data Systems.
The Reviewers of this chapter ere: Jemes Gaeschke, DFM Consultant, Electronic Data Systems; Roik
Hockenberger, Manager of Commercial Training Programs, Hughes Training Systems, Inc.; Peter B. Lothes, V.P.
and General Manager, Nelmor; Michaei Mayer, Systems Engineer, Electronic Data Systems; Peg McBride, Senior
Software Engineer, Epoch Systems, Inc.; Kimberly Micaiief, Systems Engineer, Electronic Data Systems; David
Troy, Systems Engineer Supervisor, Electronic Data Systems; Ken Wiliiams, Ph. D., Manager of Training Research
and Development, Hughes Training Systems, Inc.; Tony Wojcik, Senior Project Engineer, General Motors DFM
Knowledge Center; Kevin Zieiinski, Systems Engineer, Electronic Data Systems.
4-1
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 4
WHERE TO BEGIN
The team must have clearly defined goals; the rules of the design approaches, the switch to teamwork maybe difficult. In the
game must be set for budgets, staffing, scheduling, and traditional approach, each department has a well-defined piece of
responsibilities. the action. Each function adds its value as the project is passed
The new team should begin with a small, manageable from department to department, often with minimal interaction.
problem. Problems naturally arise, often resulting in some level of contro-
The team must have a dynamic balance. This means all of versy. Genuine communication is not likely to occur under these
the appropriate disciplines within the company, as well as conditions. Relationships can become adversarial, which results in
outside consultants and suppliers, will have equal participa- bitterness and contempt. Converting from this familiar, but
tion. The team should not exceed eight members. trouble-laden, approach to an open, interactive, team environment
The team must have good people chemistry. There must requires considerable adjustment by the participants.
be a substantial amount of professional respect for all team Leaders of multifunctional, or cross-functional, teams are
members. faced with the challenge of optimizing team performance. For
Every team member must be a good communicatorno leaders to have a reasonable chance of success, any team project
exceptions. must be preceded by adequate managerial preparation. An under-
The team must develop an atmosphere that is conducive to lying foundation in the concept of teamwork must be developed
free thinking. within the organization prior to commissioning any team. Func-
Most importantly, the team must have strong leadership. tional managers must convince their constituents that team design
Management should select the team leader and set the is a worthy concept.
objectives. The team leader should recruit the team mem-
bers. Lettheteam define design criteria and set goals. Taking in Strangers
For most emuloyees of manufacturing companies, people from
Teams are composed of highly motivated individuals from other departme~ts ~e a bit like strange~. Only rareiy hive they
various areas of the company who have never worked together, but been required to share ideas or interact with each other during the
who are now responsible for carrying out a critically important early phases of a project. In some organizations, interdepartmental
task.4Havin all the right people ontheteam is of paramount tensions can reach such heights that some groups or individuals
?
importance. Team composition should include allthose who are come to be considered the enemy.
involved inthedecision process: release engineers, manufacturing Individuals often mirror the attitudes of their respective depart-
engineers, industrial engineers, quality control personnel, supplier ment managers. Poor management attitudes can cause interdepmt-
engineers, designers, stylists, accountants, technicians, line oper- mental walls to form, severely hampering cross-communica-
ators, plant representatives, etc.6 In addition to the right tions. Unfortunately, such ill feelings can be harbored at
people, each team should have a soup stirrer to instill a healthy subordinate levels, even if department managers support team-
level of discontent in the team. The discontent should be in the work concepts. Individuals can create their own walls, particularly
form of challenges to reach for true innovation, and not settle for if they have previously learned to act defensively or antagonisti-
evolutionary improvements. callyy toward those outside their own departmental boundaries.
Within the DFM pilot project, team members must be empow-
ered to make decisions without many layers of approval. Report- TEAM SELECTION AND TRAINING
ing through the normal management infrastmcture will cause the Next to the selection of the proper project, the single most
DFM strategy to fail. important task is to choose the right players to serve on the team.
As with any type of team, having the right combination of
individual skills, attitudes, and leadership will have a dramatic
Difficulties of Change
impact on the outcome of a project. It is also very important to
Regardless of whether concurrent engineering is used to
have a good understanding of how teams should, and can, work
develop a new product or process, or to modify an existing one,
together in meeting their goals.
some start-up problems must be anticipated. If people in the
various functional departments are comfortable with traditional The Leader
Picking the right team leader is absolutely critical to a projects
success. The leader needs to have a combination of knowledge and
DFM tools: qualities that will bring out the best in the team. Some of the
qualities to look for are listed below.
Provide a common format for communication between
design, manufacturing, and assembly persannel Good people skills.
. Are based on a structured methodology that guides a user
Assertiveness.
through a disciplined design analysls open to change.
Good listener and open to suggestions of others.
. Allow quick trade-off analysls for rapid evaluation of design
alternatives
. Analytical ability including a good understanding of product
costing.
Are applicable to a wide range of products
Determination and persistence.
Pravide credible results Good understanding of the various manufacturing processes
and their relative costs.
Run on a computer platform that is easily accessible
Understanding of the overall organization and the roles of
s Are easy to learn and use various functional groups.
Some knowledge of the specific product, if possible.
Creativity.
Fig. 4-1 Guidelines to use when evaluating DFM tools. (Hecfronic Data
Systems) Good written and oral communications skills.
4-2
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 4
WHERE TO BEGIN
The leader must be a catalyst for the performance of the entire no special training. Some successful teams have not even had an
team. It is recommended that the leader be the first member appointed leader. Special training in team dynamics, cost reduc-
chosen, through the traditional interview process. Candidates tion, or value engineering techniques can only improve the
should be willing and eager to tackle the job. Leaders can come probability and degree of team success.
from any one of the functional departments. While they are often
chosen from design engineering, this is usually not a necessity.
DEFINE CORPORATE OBJECTIVES
Once selected, the leader should be oriented in the art of
Due to the rapid advancement of information technology, and
teambuilding. Several good books and training tapes are available
pressures to improve quality while reducing cost and time to
to help in building the needed skills. An excellent one is Effective
market, many tools and methodologies have come to market
Team Building, available from the American Management Asso-
claiming to solve some or all of the product development teams
ciations (AMA) Extension Institute.
problems. As each new tool or methodology is implemented, and
Team Members fails to fulfill its promises, more new tools and methodologies are
The primary question is, What knowledge and skills are tried. This has created the tool of the month phenomenon. To
needed on the team? The answer to this question will determine avoid having DFM included in the tool of the month club,
which functional departments should be represented. Several quantifiable objectives must be defined to provide a metric for
factors must be considered. One factor is the size and complexity success. Based on the research of other companies implementing
of the project. Another is the particular skills that currently go into DFM, define reasonable, high-level objectives for the DFM
manufacturing the product or performing a particular process. For strategy. The objectives should be in terms of cost savings (part
example, if the goal is to evaluate the cost of a machined metal reductions, assembly time), cost avoidance (investment), quality
part, the team could be relatively small. It may be sufficient to improvements, reduction in competitive gaps, opportunity for
have representatives from design engineering, manufacturing en- greatest returns, and reduction in time to market. 7 Be careful not
gineering, the machine shop, and purchasing. On the other hand, to try to solve all problems with the first implementation of the
a much larger project (aimed at redesigning a large production DFM strategy. Time should also be taken to define the involve-
machine) would require representatives from many other functions. ment of the suppliers, as well as what type of commitment will be
Most of this discussion assumes a high level of vertical necessary.
integration. However, most organizations rely on outside suppliers Also, when defining objectives, remember the numerous ad-
for both commercial and custom components. Major suppliers vantages of designs conceived with manufacturing and assembly
should be invited to serve on any team where their expertise would in mind. Figure 4-2 lists some of these advantages.
be valuable. Vendors who value the companys business will be
very willing to help. EDUCATE
When selecting team members, consider whether knowledge The first step in the education process is to train management
and skills would be helpful from the following functional areas: first, with no exceptions. Management must be completely knowl-
design engineering, manufacturing engineering, purchasing, pro- edgeable in the theories of DFM. It is necessary to train manage-
duction control, sales and marketing, field service, machine shop, ment first because they will be assisting in the training to add
fabrication, assembly, suppliers, cost accounting, quality control, credibility to the activity: management involvement always gets
or other specialty areas involved in manufacturing the product. peoples attention.
Team size should preserve the benefits of small group interactions The second step is to train the cross-functional pilot teams in
and help promote order. An effective team size is seven or eight the DFM principles, and how to use the software tools. This can
members. be done in a two- or three-day training session.8 For the training
Team members should be chosen in a fashion similar to the session, product development teams should be trained in the DFM
selection of their leader. Preferably the selected leader will play a principles by analyzing an assembly for which they are responsi-
major part in interviewing and selecting other members. These ble. It is important to note the distinction between a training
qualities are desirable in team members: session and a workshop. A training session is a two- or three-day
Respected technical specialist in one functional area. introduction to the DFM principles and DFM software tools. A
. Open to change.
. Strong desire to contribute toward positive change.
. Willingness to listen to ideas of others and to evaluate those Reduced number of parts
ideas objectively.
. Less complexity
. Good level of creativity,
. Effective oral communication. Shorter process t(me
. Assertiveness and persistence. Fewer suppllers
. Willingness and desire to work with others in problem
. Fewer fasteners
solving.
Easier record keeping and scheduling
Once members have been recruited, various amounts of team
training should be considered. This, of course, will depend on the Fewer engineering changes
magnitude of the project and the experience of the leader and Improved dimensional Integrity
members in team solutions. Depending on the size and resources
. Fewer and simpler tools and fixtures
of the organization, the selected training could be performed by
the team leader, external consultants, an internal education depart-
ment, or other qualified personnel. However, it must be realized Fig. 4-2 Advantages of designs conceived with manufacturing and
that excellent results have been achieved by teams with absolutely assembly in mind. (Electronic Data Systems)
4-3
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 4
WHERE TO BEGIN
workshop is a focused effort by a product development team to new ideas, placing ideas into one of three categories: low,
analyze an assembly or sub-assembly, by applying the DFM medium, or high risk. 16A110Wtime for at least three iterations of
principles and software tools to identify opportunities for improv- the brainstorming and investigating process. The risk associated
ing their product.9 Workshops are discussed in the section, with each idea should be assessed by the team. The teams
Implementation. The DFM principles and software training should collective knowledge of the current process should provide for
happen no more than a month (just-in-time) before the initial accurate risk assessment. Ideas classified aslowrisk are those that
workshop. During this education process, start laying the seeds for could be implemented with only slight process changes and no
great achievements by encouraging creativity and reinforcing the further validation. High risk ideas usually require investment, and
necessity to break out of paradigms. To grease the wheels of further investigation and validation. Toconchrde the workshop,
the innovation process, propose hybridizing, which is the artful schedule a session for upper management to review the teams
blending of seemingly unrelated technologies into current results. Classify the results into three groups: incremental im-
products. Plan to continue the training sessions for subsequent provements with current technology, improvements requiring
projects until all product development teams are trained and process or material validation, and revolutionary improvements
aPP1ying the DFM principles. requiring concept validation.
At this point, it is important to distinguish the difference
between a consultant and a trainer. It is generally accepted that ASSESSMENT
almost anyone can teach people to use interactive software. A For the assessment process, awordof caution is appropriate.
trainer can do this. On the other hand, a consultant provides Do not expect great results the first time out! This is primarily
expertise based on the experience of leading DFM workshops for attributable to human nature, and traditional paradigms (that is,
a wide variety of products and companies. In addition, outside the way WE do business). The problems associated with
consultants, when compared to internal resources, are better implementing a new analysis technique have been documented by
positioned to help change attitudes, motivate people, and establish many companies. Temper expectations toallow the teams enough
credibility of the DFM principles. Both consultants and trainers time to get the creative juices flowing.
should be used for a successful implementation of DFM. With these facts in mind, it is still important to assess the
progress, or close the loop. Start by soliciting feedback from
workshop participants just prior to the conclusion of each work-
IMPLEMENTATION shop, andthen review the comments with all of the teams in order
After the cross-functional teams have been trained in the DFM to improve the workshop.
principles and software, it is time to conduct aworkshop on the Make each team responsible for capturing the profound
pilot product. The workshop should be off-site, if possible, to knowledge gained during theworkshops activities. Useillustra-
remove the team(s) from daily responsibilities as much as possi- tions of each idea and summaries that describe part count
ble. Allefforts should bemadeto keep theteams focused on the reductions, assembly time reductions, investment costs, perceived
task at hand. Aratioof oneconsultant forevery two teams should quality or warranty improvements, etc., to capture this valuable
be used to maintain team focus and consistent application of the knowledge.
DFM principles. The complexity of the product will dictate the A database should be created to quantitatively capture the
Iength of the workshop. Remember, great ideas are not going to progress of implementing DFM. At a minimum, the database
pop up overnight, so allow for plenty of time for these teams to should be able to catalog the results of each workshop and provide
brainstorm and investigate. 1011 a starting point for future analysis or follow-up workshops.
During the workshops, continuously reinforce the good design The DFM Champions greatest responsibility in the assessment
principles: *213 process is closingt heloop. The DFMChampion must follow
through on the workshops by championing the improvements and
. Minimize the number of parts.
ensuring their implementation. In addition, the DFM Champion
Utilize top-down, layered assembly.
will beresponsible for tracking the actual cost savings to compare
. Consider ease of part handling.
. Design parts that are easy to insert and align. against objectives and report to upper management.
Unfortunately, current cost accounting systems (for example,
Avoid expensive fastening operations.
Make pans symmetrical. If symmetry cant be achieved, product cost = (overhead + material + labor) / quantity of
products) offer an ineffective method of measuring the payback of
exaggerate asymmetrical features.
DFM efforts. Toaccurately measure the payback of a successful
Avoid adjustments.
DFM implementation, a method to account for the cost of each
. Consider design for serviceability.
process contributing to a products cost is necessary. The method
Most importantly, make every effort to foster a creative ofchoice isactivity-based costing (ABC). ABCprovides a system
environment and encourage the team members to stretch the toaccount for the cost of each of the processes of manufacturing
generally accepted boundaries to get truly innovative ideas.14 a product. Attaching a cost to each activity helps identify pro-
Emphasize that total cost is the key. Labor and material cost cesses that drive the cost of a product. 17Providing a designer with
savings must be weighed against any increase in tooling costs, the cost associated with each process is the fundamental principle
process time, and maintenance. The focus must be on the cost of of DFM .
the entire product and process.5 Constantly reinforce that in the
early phases of product design, costs to make changes are the INTERNALLY PUBLICIZE
least, while the reduction of the total product cost is the greatest. ACCOMPLISHMENTS
The workshop format should proceed as follows. First, the To ensure the continued and progressive success of DFM
current product, if one exists, should be benchmarked using a throughout the organization, the benefits gained through DFM
DFM software tool. Second, theteam should evaluate competitive must be publicized internally. Along with benefits, the profound
products. Finally, the teams should brainstorm and investigate knowledge developed should also be communicated.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER
DEVELOPING AN INTERNAL DFM MANUAL
One successful method for proliferating the profound knowl- larger the company, the more difficult the task. Anticipate
edge gained from the DFM workshop activities is to set up herculean resistance to change in the form of egos, sacred
evolutionary displays which document and illustrate DFM success cows , traditional priorities, perceived risks, and the not in-
stories. As teams gain new knowledge, the displays should be vented here syndrome, to name a few. In order to reap the
updated to reflect the continuous learning and improvement that benefits of DFM, a company must shed the old way WE do
have occurred. These displays, when included with the proper business attitude and start to reward creativity, encourage con-
facilities, will evolve into a place were product development teams tinuous improvement, base promotions ontem contribution, and
go to learn about the latest and greatest developments in the make a commitment to destroy the competition. Alter the corpo-
company. The room will act as a launching pad for subsequent rate organization by dissolving departments of disciplines. Make
product development teams to begin their DFM journeys. cross-functional, product-line focused teams the norm so that
When documenting and publicizing DFM success stories, employees will view the team as their regular job, and not just
highlight the cost savings (for example, reductions in part counts another exercise. Product-line teams will cause pride and commit-
and the overhead associated with each part), the quality improve- ment to be focused on the products of the company and not the
ments (for example, assembly complexity reduction, improved departmental disciplines.
maintainability, etc. ), the improvements on time to market (for To institutionalize DFM, strong support basedon undeniable
example, reduction in design time due to consensus of the results must come from thetopand must reactive, be visible, and
cross-functional teams), the retention of jobs because the product show true commitment. Four critical success factors have been
is now more competitive, and last but not least, the individual consistently identified by companies who have been successful
team members who participated in the success. implementing a DFM strategy. First, DFM must be part of the
Ultimately, since product development teams are the best design process. Consider marmfacturability requirements early.ls
publicity agents, create a reward mechanism whereby incentive Second, DFM is best as a catalyst in cross-functional product
exists for teams to use DFM to design a product that beats the development teams. The synergy of multi-disciplined teams is
competition. amazing. 19 Third, a structured methodology must be used to
ensure consistent application of DFM principles. The principles
INSTITUTIONALIZE are simple, but dont assume that the basic ideas can be consis-
Cultural change is required to reap the benefits of implement- tently applied without a structured methodology.zo Finall~i
ing aDFM strategy. Changing the corporate culture is the greatest progress is made by tapping the creativity of each team member.
obstacle and challenge to successfully implementing DFM. The Old paradigms must be broken.
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CHAPTER 4
DEVELOPING AN INTERNAL DFM MANUAL
design decisions which typically do not receive much review until TABLE 4-1
the complete design is finished, when it is often too late for Topics Included in a Recent DFM Manual
correction if the development schedule is to be maintained.
. A philosophical definition of manufacturability.
HOW SHOULD THE DFM MANUAL BE . Product costing guidelines (both direct labor and overhead).
PRESENTED? . Requirements for automated PCB assembly.
The communication of Manufacturings needs to the Develop- . Requirements for the selection of surface mount processes.
Team can be accomplished by ma~y methods: . Cost-effective fastening methods and standardization.
. Standmds for electrical interconnections (including
Verbal direction is good if it can be made timely. The
suppliers).
credibility of the person giving the direction is of paramount
. Documentation methods to ensure clarity to manufacturing.
importance. A verbal direction may be perceived as one
. Supplier manufacturability inputs for flexible circuit design.
persons opinion and unless each direction is also reviewed
. Injection molded parts design standardization.
by management it may not have any authority. Also,
Just-in-time and quality requirements for acceptance of a
different individuals may give slightly different directions,
design.
or emphasize points differently reducing the credibility of
. Explanation of the Manufacturing RATING score of a
all the Manufacturing representatives.
design.
Written communications stating the Manufacturing depart-
. production verification testing requirements.
ments position (such as memos, procedures, forms, and
documented design reviews) provide better consistency and A number of sections are left open for future
reduce the complaint of just an opinion. However, they technologies or needs.
tend to be fragmented and may not cover all situations. This
(Physio Control)
makes them hard to use, and opinions may still be
suspected. The development designer will typically ignore
Manufacturing Engineering, Production, Quality, Development
an incomplete guideline and just ask the Manufacturing
Engineering, Process Engineering, and Sustaining Engineering
representative about it later; this may be after the design has
departments.
progressed past the point of easy revision.
They started with a review of the current methods being used to
Peer or Design reviews are usually very thorough, but tend
convey manufacturings requirements to the development engi-
to occur late in the design cycle. This forces hard stands
neering groups. The previous guidebook consisted of a collection
between Manufacturing and Development, trying to avoid
of all the memos which had been written on manufacturing
making changes or redesigning. These hard stands create
requirements over several years. The memos were organized by
bad feelings and slow down the development schedule.
subject matter; it was not uncommon for some memos to be in
Creative energies should be used to create value to the
conflict with earlier ones. A manufacturing engineer was assigned
customer, and not wasted on frustrating arguments.
to each development effort, to ensure that Manufacturings inter-
Compiling the needs of Manufacturing in a manual which
ests were represented, and that this guidebook was their main
can e-asily-be used by the Development ~eam members is the
toolother than their personal credibility.
optimum solution. The manual is available during the early
concept stages, and gets the design started on the optimum 1. The Manufacturing Engineers selected a group of thought
path without frustrating switchbacks. Even with the manual, leaders to form a task force to develop an effective
a Manufacturing representative is needed to negotiate excep- manufacturability guideline. They selected members from
tions and to provide training in the use and interpretation of Development Engineering, Quality Engineering, Process
the manual. Engineering, Sustaining Engineering, Purchasing, Mate-
rial Planning, Accounting, Tooling, and Management.
WHAT SHOULD BE IN A DFM MANUAL They sold the need for the program to the functional
The DFM Manual should include the design compatibility managers of these groups, and then led the effort.
requirements for all processes, capital tooling, and production 2. The cross-functional team determined what would be
skills. It should include philosophical justifications to help the needed in an effective guidebook. They reviewed the
Design Team members to understand how it should be applied. content of the current guidebook and assessed where
The topics that one medical electronics company included in its inconsistencies existed, both in the written words and in
DFM manual are listed in Table 4-1. The sections covering these the interpretations of the various Manufacturing Engineers
areas are as simple as is feasible, depend heavily on graphics to advising the development teams. Then they questioned
quickly convey general philosophy, and follow a format which is Development Team members to understand their needs and
consistent throughout the guidebook. They are specifically tailored concerns about using a guideline. They also reviewed
to the manufacturing processes which are in use within the current products for their strengths and weaknesses both on
corporation. The guidebook is structured to be easily adapted to the manufacturing floor and in the field.
future design of manufacturing technologies. 3. They consolidated these inputs and organized the informa-
tion to eliminate any inconsistencies. At this time the data
HOW TO CREATE A DFM MANUAL was largely a collection of technical needs specific to areas
On July 14, 1990, Physio Controls Manufacturing Engineer- where problems had been experienced in either design or
ing department formally presented its Design for Manufacturabil- production. There were many holes and almost no written
ity Guidebook to the Development Engineering group. This justification for manufacturing preferences. The style of
guideline represented six months of intense effort by a large the information tended toward a dictatorial format rather
cross-functional group representing opinion leaders from the than an explanation.
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CHAPTER 4
HUMAN PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT AND TRAINING IN DFM
4. The team developed a format plan to make the information uals who had expressed significant interest the first time
more useful, by providing a complete picture of what was both favorable and critical were selected.
needed and by explaining the philosophy of Manufactur- 9. At this point the team initiated action to publish the
ings needs. They agreed upon the following success guidebook. They finalized the appearance format, stan-
factors for their efforts: dardized the typeset, selected the final polished graphics,
. The guidebook was to be maintainable. and selected the quality of materials to be used. The
. The guidebook had to be motivating. graphics design group assisted in giving a professional
. The guidebook had to be clear, consistent, and accurate. appearance to the work, and the book was published.
The guidebook had to provide for future technologies 10. Although Senior Management had approved the project,
and growth. the team now sought their support in presenting the
5. Assignments were made to various team members to guidebook to the company. They asked the vice-presidents
complete their sections of the guidebook. They were to of Quality, Engineering, and Manufacturing to open the
start with the available information and complete any roll-out presentation of the guidebook. The executives
missing portions. Frequent updates of the draft guidebook agreed to state their expectations of how the guidebook was
were made and distributed during the weekly meetings. to be used and the expected level of compliance. Since a
Each week the team would review the sections due for good quality effort had been made in preparing the guide-
completion that week. The review was intense with sug- book, their expectations were quite high.
gestions on additional data, additional graphics, and format 11. The roll-out of the guidebook was presented to all of the
being discussed and agreed upon by the entire team. Product Development Team members including the sup-
6. After the team was satisfied that the draft was complete and port groups. The presentation was opened by the Senior
in an effective format, a distribution list was prepared for Management members and was then continued by the
a widespread review. This review included all of the section authors, presenting the philosophy and structure of
Development Team Managers, the Production Managers, their sections. The guidebook development team then
Quality Managers, Material Managers, and over 50% of fielded questions from the audience. After a healthy
the Development Team members (including an even dis- number of questions, some of which required senior
tribution of engineers, material planners, buyers, manufac- management to answer, the guidebook team formally
turing engineers, quality engineers, agency engineers, and asked the audience for an endorsement of the philosophy.
clinical, marketing, quality control, and production 12. The manufacturability guidebooks were distributed to all
supervisors). interested parties who were willing to agree to maintain
The guidebook development team members conducted them. The guidebooks are serialized to insure the capabil-
personal follow-ups with the individuals reviewing the ity of distributing updates.
draft, to ensure a timely and quality review. 13, Maintenance of the guidebooks is controlled by the Man-
7. Valid feedback was received from many of the reviewers, ufacturing Engineering group. All updates are reviewed by
and their inputs were incorporated by the original authors. a subset of the original guidebook development team. The
These incorporations were then reviewed by the entire updates are formatted to match the current books and are
team and agreement once again reached as to content and published in the original-quality material. Distribution of
format. updates is accomplished by serial number. Controlling the
8. The revised guidebook draft was reviewed by a much placement of the guidebooks has been effective, even
smaller group of people than the original review. Individ- during the turnover of personnel.
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CHAPTER 4
HUMAN PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT AND TRAINING IN DFM
Technology-based
skill raquwernents
low
technology interface. Design for the user via human factors 1. Plant modernization effects on human performance-hu-
engineering (HFE) and implementation of systematic training man performance issues associated with the automated
programs are the principal means for developing and sustaining workplace.
human performance (and thus operational) effectiveness in view of 2. DFM and human factors engineering general guidance
the technology explosion (see Fig. 4-4). Other means for improv- for the design of human-equipment interfaces.
ing human performance in the DFM process are recognized. Some 3. Human learning principleslearning concepts and princi-
of these, including human resource management, organizational ples that should be incorporated into the design of human
development, and career systems, are beyond the scope of training programs.
this section. 4. Systems-based trainingmethods and processes of
Human performance improvement is a continuous process systems-based training ~rograms, and a model that incor-
influenced by workplace design and performance-based training. porates evaluation and feedback.
This section is structured into four major parts:
Manufacturing Technology
( / \
Human Systems
factors based
engineering tralnlng
) < )
.E lg.
. 4-4
. Human performance Improvement as a prereqmslte to lJ1M.
..4r- . . ----- .
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categories of QC include flow times, precision, and accuracy. in the operation of six different machine tools. 33 Management is
However, consistency, attention to detail, and aesthetic effects of also rotated periodically.
the product may also be included. Plant practices of encouraging workers to apply for new jobs on
The same concepts applied to the improvement of DFM a continual basis are a double-edged sword in this regard. Job
management should be applied to the work force. American bidding in U.S. industry familitizes workers with a broader range
management principles so effectively used by the Japanese and of jobs and presumably gives them a generalized base of knowl-
European manufacturing communities have stressed the blurring edge and skills. Unfortunately, during transition the practice may
of functional and organizational lines. Barriers related to job erode the consistency and stability that yield the desired levels of
partitioning and we-they thinking are coming down and being quality. Thus, QC may suffer as a result of job rotation. Since job
replaced by a stronger team orientation. In the National Football bidding seems likely to remain in bargaining agreements, system-
League, the quarterback provides gifts to his linemen to let them atic training is needed to address the complexities of a generalized,
know he appreciates their contribution to the teams success. yet dynamic work force.
Manufacturing management can do the same to demonstrate Doing what one likes and is best suited for produces natural
recognition that manufacturing excellence is truly a team effort. benefits to workers. These benefits are reflected in improved
Further, the type of reward should be linked to individual morale, efficiency, and productivity which, in turn, influence
differences in perception of positive reinforcement. For some, manufacturability. Thus, personnel selection and assignment cri-
public praise and recognition are as personally rewarding as steak teria should include aptitude and job preference as well as factors
dinners or stock. For others, this is not the case. In many cases, linked to job performance. Re-assignments and promotions from
removal of bureaucracy and corporate perks such as executive within the organization should be made with these criteria care-
parking spaces and special travel accommodations can be used to fully considered.
build the desired reward structure. 31
DFM AND HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING
The Socially Sterile Workplace This section discusses several topics relating to DFM and
One consequence of a generalized work force skill base human factors engineering (HFE): how HFE can increase perfor-
resulting from the management of DFM automation will be a mance, the origins and domain of HFE, and function allocation.
dearth of social interaction and resulting feelings of detachment
and isolation among workers, Previously, workers relied on their HFE to Boost Performance
peers for dialogue and support within a relatively confined Human-technology interfaces within DFM are becoming more
workspace. The emerging job setting is characterized by large critical than ever because of the requirements for system monitor-
workspace areas involving only one or two workers managing and ing, communication, data entry, processing, and retrieval. Since
monitoring automated equipment over extended time periods. the work is nonlinear, involving many ill-defined events, the
Such environments can have pronounced adverse effects on human design of the human-equipment interface requires not only knowl-
performance. Some, but not all, of these effects are addressable by edge of manufacturing technology, but knowledge of human
training. Personality, aptitude, and experience should be consid- performance characteristics. Hardware and software should be
ered before assigning people to these settings. Additionally, the designed and arrayed to optimize human performance. This
workplace should be designed to compensate for its expansiveness suggests that technology configurations should be driven by user
by building in social reinforcement mechanisms. capabilities and requirements rather than requiring people to adapt
Rapid feedback mechanisms will be required to realize the to inefficient, awkward, or tedious technology. Of course, training
benefits of these new nonlinear systems .32 Continuous measurable can be used to provide people with the skills and knowledge
improvement in the manufactured product will require data bear- required to use poorly designed technology. Use of training for
ing on both people and equipment performance. Distal feedback such purposes, termed train-arounds, is more prevalent in
should provide information on how immediate performance affects American industry than might be expected. But this clearly
downstream process and product. Feedback should include both represents the <tail wagging the dog, since effective human
the specific aspects of performance that are in need of improve- engineering early and often during system design can obviate or
ment (diagnostics) and the recommended means of improvement minimize post-implementation training requirements.
(remediation). Workers are more willing to strive for perfection Indeed, the whole concept of DFM is embraced by a commit-
when they can observe the results of their effort and its relationship ment to design all human-technology elements and processes with
to the work of others. Training is needed not only for own-job full and deliberate consideration of user performance capabilities.
performance requirements, but, to various degrees, for a working The practice of systematically applying the principles of human
familiarity with the jobs of others. Proficiency in the jobs of others performance (for example, perceptual, learning, motivational, and
may range from a conceptual familiarity through hands-on execu- aptitudinal) to the design of the human-equipment interface is
tion to diagnostics and troubleshooting skills. termed human factors engineering (HFE). More comprehensive
treatments of HFE principles are found in References 34, 35,
Job RotationGood or Bad? and 36.
Stability in the work force generally exerts a positive influence In a team-oriented DFM context, the user may be anyone,
on proficiency. Product consistency improves with the ability to including the engineer who designs the plant equipment, the shop
maintain staff continuity. High turnover generally increases flow floor technician whose performance essentially controls the pace
times, compromises quality, and delays distribution and delivery. and flow of work, the vendor and supplier who provide DFM
Disproportionate internal turnover results from worker dissatisfac- products and services, or the distribution and delivery personnel
tion or perceived need to move internally to more stimulating or who ensure that the product gets to the sales and service network
challenging jobs. A recent technology study reports that job on schedule. Of course, the users also include those who form and
rotation typically occurs about once every 12 months in the operate the network, and ultimately the consumer who purchases
Japanese manufacturing industry, and that workers may be trained and employs the product. Thus, DFM must consider the full range
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HUMAN PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT AND TRAINING IN DFM
of users in determining the fit between design characteristics and HUMAN LEARNING PRINCIPLES
user performance capabilities. This section describes human learning principles based on
Optimal human performance results from controls that are easy instrumental learning, backward chaining, practice effects, back-
to reach and operate, displays that are easy to see and interpret and ground as to why people forget, cue discrimination and generali-
compatible with their counterpart controls, and a comfortable zation, skill transfer and retention, and training fidelity and
work environment. Worker eyestrain and headache can be signif- attitudes.
icantly reduced by attention to human visual and other perceptual
capabilities during the display design phase. If displays are
Instrumental Learning
cluttered with useless data, human response times and errors may
Effective training in DFM begins with a conceptual under-
be expected to increase. Internal HFE activities should be supple-
standing of the human learning process. Learning may be defined
the application of existing HFE standards and
;;::ne;17.39 as a relatively permanent increase in the probability of desired
to the purchase and implementation of off-the-shelf
performance, as a result of practice accompanied by meaningful
hardware and software systems. The controls, displays, and
reward. This is known as instrumental learning, a field pioneered
operational procedures should be examined from the viewpoint of
by the research of E.L. Thomdike in the early 1900s. Instrumental
the workers who will be using them on a daily basis. In fact,
learning stresses the relation between environmental stimuli and
workers should be encouraged to use the systems on a trial basis;
resulting voluntay behavior. (Other forms of learning, such as
their feedback can be integrated with HFE test results and used in
classical conditioning, focus on invohrntary, reflexive behavior
the selection of equipment vendors.
and are not treated here. )
Boredom and fatigue can lead to errors of omission and
Instrumental learning research clearly shows that desired per-
commission, as well as false alarms in tasks requiring operators to
formance can be shaped via the systematic use of reinforcement.
monitor systems attentively over extended periods of time. While
For example, the gradual mastery of the desired performance
these issues are directly related to performance improvement, they
outcome by reinforcing incremental steps leading to the out-
are only marginally related to training. That is, human error due to
come is termed successive approximations. However, this
worker inattention is best alleviated via workspace and display
large body of research fails to adequately account for the many
design, not by training people to be more vigilant.
complexities of human behavior. For example, variations in work
performance attributable to individual differences in thought
HFE Origins and Domain
patterns (cognition) and motivation are not readily explained by
HFE as a discipline got its start a half century ago in the field
instrumental learning concepts which incorporate discrete
of aviation during and shortly after World War 11. The earliest
stimulus-response units of behavior. This suggests that systems of
HFE applications were in the redesign and standardization of
reinforcement vary extensively among people and for any individ-
location of aircraft controls and displays to reduce the alarming
ual, depending on perceived conditions and consequences. Lear-
number of accidents attributable to pilot error. (In many cases
ning must be process-oriented and must account for individual
aircrews were inexperienced and minimally trained). HFE is now
differences which are often very subtle in nature.
routinely and rigorously employed by Boeing, McDonnell Dou-
Despite its shortfalls, instrumental learning research revealed
glas, NASA, the FAA, and others in the aircraft and aviation
that when people are informed of the degree of their proficiency in
system design process. However, with notable exceptions, such as
a timely manner, they more rapidly achieve the desired perfor-
the automakers and John Deere, HFE is only beginning to be
mance. Further, when the desired performance is clearly defined
implemented by the majority of the manufacturing industry.
and understood prior to undertaking the task, it is achieved at a
Effects of HFE on productivity, efficiency, and product quality
faster rate by more trainees. In an increasingly complex opera-
may be significant. Factors affecting human performance include
tional world, it is generally easier to define desired performance
temperature, vibration, noise, warning systems, visual and audi-
after rather than before it has occurred. This should not, however,
tory displays, labeling, anthropometry (design to accommodate
deter attempts to build desired performance descriptions into
human physical characteristics), workspace, and lighting. Many
training program development.
operational shortfalls such as downtime, processing delays, com-
ponent defects, and rework requirements are traceable to human
error induced by some combination of HFE limitations in the Backward Chaining
workplace. Given that desired performance can be clearly stated and
performance prerequisite to its achievement can be specified,
Function Allocation backward chaining can be used to achieve terminal and enabling
The first critical step in optimizing the human-technology objectives. Backward chaining is an instrumental learning princi-
interface is to assign people and technology to execute functions ple that begins with the expected performance outcome (that is, the
that are performed best by each (see Fig. 4-6). Although this terminal objective) and proceeds in a back-to-front fashion by
function allocation process constitutes a logical requirement, it is rewarding each succeeding performance step (that is, enabling
seldom accomplished in the operational world. Workplace design objective) leading to that outcome.
that requires people to mentally store, process, and retrieve As a backward chaining example, a supervisor being trained to
detailed data can be expected to degrade operational effectiveness, diagnose and respond to spot-welding problems might initially be
because it requires people to perform functions that are best shown examples of the consequences of representative welding
accomplished by computer-mediated systems. Moreover, attempts diagnostics responses on product quality and reliability. These
to build artificial intelligence (AI) and expert systems (ES) into responses would be classified according to desired outcomes.
jobs requiring judgments and experience-based decisions are Acceptable, marginal, and unacceptable levels of spot-welding
ill-advised, because software has not yet been developed to quality might then be covered, followed by actual product exam-
accurately emulate the full range of contingency-based human ples. Next, diagnostic cues could be presented for distinguishing
thought and reason. among these welding quality levels. Finally, the stated plant and
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CHAPTER 4
HUMAN PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT AND TRAINING IN DFM
vo MOnuktwing
tystem
spsdicaiion
Sefxmtion
of Iimchons
Ail*on
OF Functions
Automhon
%ltion and
Hardware SOkars
tmining of psrsonncd
dmign deign
operations requirements for maintaining welding quality would be assimilate the subject matter more permanently. Retraining re-
presented. The critical aspect of backward chaining is that prelim- quirements are, therefore, generally decreased if the initial training
inary information is learned in the context of the desired perfor- has incorporated distributed practice. In effect, distributed practice
mance outcomes. This more directly links what is being learned to yields longer-term retention of learned behavior, and is more
itspurpose and consequences. Moreover, thereward for establish- resistant to forgetting over time than is massed practice. However,
ing the linkage is built into the learning process. Backward short-term proficiency is generally higher with massed than with
chaining is one of several instmmental learning concepts that can distributed practice, as exemplified by students who cram
be applied to both work force and management training. for exams.
These concepts of practice and rehearsal at least partially
Practice Effects account for daily behavior which is dominated by short-term, often
Skill acquisition is strongly influenced by practice and habit reactive bursts of study, preparation, planning, and activity rather
patterns. Not only is the amount of practice important, its nature than more purposeful, deliberate, and proactive behavior. Daily
and type affect learning rates and the extent to which information time demands and constraints force reliance on massed practice,
is retained and used once it has been learned. Instrumental learning which produces skills and knowledge that are more situation-
research has identified two primary types of practice, massed and specific and quickly forgotten.
distributed.
Massed practice concentrates rehearsal within a compressed Why People Forget
interval of time. Distributed practice, as the term implies, spreads Any account of the learning process should address the
the rehearsal over longer time periods and enables the learner to problem of forgetting and skill loss. Two theories of forgetting
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have dominated the field of learning for some 30 years. The first One factor underlying this situation is a lack of urgency expressed
of these, termed decay theory, holds that skills and knowledge are by senior management for systematic training programs that
gradually lost over time; that is, they decay as a result of non-use. incorporate job performance anal yses, feedback, and evaluation.
This decay concept stresses that learned behavior is passively
eliminated over time. The forgetting is gradual and relatively Training Fidelity and Attitudes
linear but subject to individual differences. The second theory of The extent to which training media incorporate operational
forgetting, the interference them-y, holds that skills and knowledge cues is termed training fidelity. When the training medium is
that are stored in memory are actively interfered with by newly designed to look and function exactly like the operational equip-
learned material and essentially lost (that is, replaced) as a result ment, a high degree of physicaf fidelity is realized. Advanced
of this intermption. The loss of retention caused by interference is technology military weapons simulation systems, incorporating
more abrupt and erratic (nonlinear) than loss by decay. The stored sophisticated, and generally costly, vision and motion systems,
learned behavior is displaced by the intervening material that typify this type of fidelity. Through many years of experience,
assumes a higher cognitive priority. Interference theory holds that, however, the military and other agencies have come to realize that
depending on intervening events, either knowledge and skills that high physical fidelity is needed only for certain training applica-
are acquired first or those acquired most recently are likely to tions. Functional fidelity can be achieved by incorporating only
be of higher cognitive priority. This is known as the primacy- those cues that contribute most strongly to the transfer of learning
recency effect. to the job setting. Moreover, the incorporation of certain training
cues may be more useful for acquiring designated skills and
knowledge than for their retention.
Cue Discrimination and Generalization An important correlate of fidelity is the attitude of both the
Instrumental learning and other behavioral learning concepts trainee and instructor toward the training media. If such media are
emphasize the observable elements of the learning process. Overt perceived to be a waste of time regardless of content and format,
environmental stimuli and measurable aspects of human behavior benefits are sacrificed prior to commencing the training. In this
are used to explain the learning process, Behavioral learning has case, even the highest levels of physical fidelity are of little or no
been supplemented by cognitive learning, which stresses the roles value. However, if the instructor views the medium as an
of human thought, deliberation, judgment, information process- instructional tool with functions and features to be exploited to
ing, and decision making. Constructs of meaning and value are facilitate experience and expertise, very effective training can be
added to the list of learning variables under study. In this context, achieved regardless of the level of fidelity included. The point is
stimuli that become meaningful to the learner in the skill and that, as with manufacturing technology, the effectiveness of
knowledge acquisition process take on a permanent significance. training media depends more on the human performance in their
These meaningful stimuli are termed cues. The learning process use than with the technology per se.
involves the ability of the learner to discriminate among cues (cue
discrimination) and, as appropriate, to detect commonality among SYSTEMS BASED TRAINING
classes of cues (cue generalization) and to respond accordingly. Systems based training involves instructional systems develop-
Discrimination and generalization explain, at least at a perfunctory ment, which is based on needs assessment, training requirements
level, why people often behave i~ apparently unpredictable and and task analyses, courseware design, courseware development
contradictory ways. and production, program implementation and management, eval-
uation and feedback. Computer-based training and intelligent
Skill Transfer and Retention tutors also are discussed.
Previously learned skills and knowledge form a critical part of The Call for Improved
the learning process. Training in DFM teams must help personnel
Manufacturing Training
acquire the necessary performance skills and retain those skil
According to the American Society for Training and Develop-
over time. Procedural skills are prone to decay if not used.
ment (ASTD), some $30 billion was spent on formal training in
Computer-based training (CBT) is well suited to the training and
1990 by U.S. organizations employing 100 or more people. This
retraining of these skills. Psychomotor skills, those requiring
formal training expenditure represents an increase of some $5
manual dexterity, require hands-on practice and timely feedback.
billion ( 1790)over that for 1989, despite the trend toward work
Training devices can be used effectively to provide and refresh
force downsizing. Further, informal on-the-job training accounted
such skills. Key in this process is the positive transfer to the
for expenditure of an additional $180 billion. Large firms, such as
manufacturing setting of skills learned in a training setting.
IBM, Federal Express, Coming, Procter & Gamble, General
Whatever the training medium, it should include the necessary
Motors, and Ford, are allocating $1 billion and more annually to
operational cues to ensure that the trainee understands the rela-
personnel training. These expenditures demonstrate a commitment
tionship between what is being learned and what is to be applied.
to develop and sustain a proficient work force. At the same time
The concept of linking the various types of training media and
there is a recognition of the urgency of obtaining the highest return
methods to the skills to be learned goes beyond the premise that
on training investment in view of plant modernization and chang-
training should address job requirements. It demands that job and
ing job functions.
task analyses identify the relevant operational cues and incorporate
them into the training. Media that impart these cues through Ineffective training is costing business and industry not only
systematic and guided practice generally produce positive transfer the surface investment made in the training events, but the
from training to operational settings. Media that are employed hidden cost of lost opportunity. Employees who are never
without regard to those cues may produce no transfer, or worse, trained to effectively utilize the technologies of their work or
negative transfer, thereby hampering actual job performance. provide effective customer service add up to a tremendous loss
Unfortunately, much of the training that is being delivered in the in productivity. We can no longer afford to deliver the
manufacturing industry appears to fall in these latter categories. inadequate training that has characterized much of the past. m
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Effective, systems-oriented training that is focused on individ- training approaches with those that are currently emerging. Con-
ual and group job performance (work-based training) and also ventional and systems-based training characteristics are contrasted
addresses corporate performance objectives is essential to achieve in Table 4-2.
corporate profit and production goals. The cost-effectiveness of Many manufacturing firms have abandoned piecemeal, frag-
systematic, proactive training programs becomes easier to verify mented methods of design, production, and delivery. Their means
as work-based training criteria-are developed and integrated into of getting the product to the client incorporate all aspects of the
corporate training programs. To illustrate the evolution training systems engineering process. For example, the DFM concept
support in the manufacturing industry, it is helpful to compare past requires that the needs of the end user be incorporated into the
TABLE 4-2
Conventional and Systems-based Manufacturing Training
General Characteristics Formal training for management only Formal training for entire staff aimed at both
job and corporate performance
Informal training for work force OJT
requirements
emphasis
Proficiency-based
Fixed time
Horizontal orientation
Vertical orientation
Reconfigurable
Fixed equipment
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concept formulation and pre-design phases of the product. Finite Instructional Systems Development
elements modeling and other product design data are used by Only recently have principles of instructional systems devel-
engineering teams as both inputs to and outputs of the production opment (ISD) incorporating adult learning concepts been applied
cycle. Parts flow is controlled via the use of JIT procedures and in the manufacturing sector. The ISD discipline was initially
robotics efficiencies. SPC and CNC are used to track the quantity applied to military training programs during the 1960s. It was
and quality of components throughput in the work flow process. streamlined and applied to hundreds of government-sponsored
Yet, for many of these same firms, training continues to be training development contracts in the 1970s, and by the early
delivered unsystematically. In some cases, no formal training is 1980s was viewed by the Departments of Transportation, Energy,
available, only informal, over-the-shoulder sessions conducted on and Defense as the standard method of developing, implementing,
a time-available basis. In other instances, a training program is and managing large-scale training programs. One of the best
carried out using vendor training packages that accompany newly- known and most used ISD models is one that was developed for
acquired plant systems. Such programs generally consist of a few interservice training programs. Termed the Interservice Proce-
days of lecture or tutorial sessions conducted by a technical dures for Instructional Systems Development (IPISD), the model
representative of the vendor. Since many vendors and suppliers incorporates a structure for specification of inputs, processes,
offer such training, manufacturing firms generally have several outputs, interfaces, and feedback mechanisms. It has been used
different types of training, each type dedicated to the system for extensively since the mid- 1970s by all branches of the military.
which it was developed. While vendor-based training may suffice Simply defined, ISD is the application of the systems engineer-
for a given system, it rarely meets the requirements imposed by ing process and human learning principles to the development,
emerging plant charters to develop skills and knowledge to operate implementation, and management of training programs. It begins
and maintain multiple production and control systems (the goal of by determining the needs of the user, then works in a back-to-front
attaining a generrdist work force). Job and task procedures are manner, starting with a definition of training objectives linked to
different across production systems, robotics systems, and plants. those needs and proceeding through a logical series of subject
Thus, negative training may occur since the desired performance matter expert-defined requirements for achieving those objectives.
for one system may yield malfunctions and other adverse effects Resources (personnel, media, materials, facilities, procedures) are
for another. then selected and systematically applied to that end. ISD carefully
Despite progress in plant manufacturing systems and strategies, tailors all training program elements to the performance require-
rarely is planning devoted to systematic training aimed at the very ments of the operation which the training will support. ISD is a
issue of the modernized plant, that is, personnel proficiencyy. dynamic, closed-loop training process employing analysis, evalu-
Seldom are training requirements carefully defined on the basis of ation, feedback, review, and continuous modification and im-
job demands, training media tailored to the required skills and provement. Conventional instructor-based training delivered by
knowledge, or systematic methods instituted to evaluate trainee technical experts generally incorporates none of the above char-
proficiency and training program assets and shortfalls. Deficien- acteristics. Thus, conventional training offers no traceability of
cies in training media and methods are seldom fed back into training requirements to the user needs and job demands.
courseware and training content revisions. Classroom training Reference 41 presents an excellent treatment of the concepts
developed and delivered by subject-matter experts (SMES) is still and methods involved in ISD. Although there is no universal ISD
the norm. Diagnostics, remediation, and other systems-based model, primary phases of the ISD process are shown in Fig. 4-7.
training principles are seldom employed. Indeed, one senior The processes are briefly described below.
manager within a leading manufacturer of heavy equipment Needs assessment. Training approaches and materials must be
candidly stated that: developed in the context of corporate or organizational needs and
goals. A need can be defined on the basis of a mismatch between
We dont even know the extent to which human and other
actual and desired corporate or organizational performance. Needs
resources used for training are being wasted due to duplication
may or may not be well documented.
of effort across organizations. The reason is that we dont yet
The needs assessment determines the corporate goals and
have an effective system of plant communication/coordination
identifies policy, procedure, and cost benefits strategy associated
in place. We are working to implement and manage such a
with all aspects of the operation. Structured interviews and/or
system.
I Management
Tmining requirements
analysis
Neeck Coursware Training progmm
------ ---- .
awessment development im+ementation
Task and media
anolpk
RAw
I
Feechck Evcduaiion
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surveys are employed in conjunction with observation of work . Skill is the capability to perform job operations with ease and
activities to identify the requirements to be met by all training and precision. Generally, skills refer to the use of psychomotor
nontraining endeavor. During needs assessment, corporate vital capacities to achieve the precision necessary for meeting
signs are evaluated and appropriate interventions are developed. specified job standards.
If corporate needs are not analyzed, training interventions may be . Abilify refers to cognitive (thought-related) capacities to
ill-advised and/or ineffective. perform a job function. Generally, abilities require the
The initial steps in realizing valid training are to understand the application of some existing knowledge base.
operational needs and to develop training on that basis. To
The above framework is often referred to in the instructional
understand the needs, meaningful comparisons must be drawn
design field as Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities or KSA. Useful
between actual and desired operational performance. The follow-
means for determining KSA include structured interviews and
ing corporate elements should be examined to enable these
surveys of SMES. Goals of the these activities might include:
comparisons to be made:
Differentiate successful versus unsuccessful task perfor-
Personnel characteristics. mance.
Policy, Determine ideal or least desired task performance (model
Procedures. definition).
Technology applications. Identify enabling information for task performance.
Business objectives. Identify KSA requirements for personnel selection and
Service/product orientation. assignment.
Job context and relationships.
Job performance aids (tools, equipment, support resources). Performance objectives should be determined for as many of
Job performance requirements and standards. the KSA components as possible. These consist of observable
human and system behavior that is capable of being described,
The assessment process may use any of several techniques and either directly or inferred on the basis of informed observations.
procedures to gather information concerning actual versus desired Where feasible, these observations can be quantified and validated
performance. For example, observations of job performance can by follow-up work observations. The use of performance objec-
be conducted; surveys and structured interviews of key personnel tives facilitates the learning process because such standards
can be carried out; performance records can be maintained by provide a benchmark against which trainee performance can be
selected employees; or SMES can provide technical inputs. The documented at various points along the learning curve. Further,
use of these techniques helps to focus on corporate needs, performance objectives serve to diagnose strengths and weak-
differentiate training and nontraining interventions, reveal avail- nesses in the training program.
able budgets to support interventions, and ascertain perceived Criterion-referenced assessment can be used for the diagnosis
returns-on-investment. Factors influencing the selection of one or of job performance deficiencies, placement and assignment of
more of these techniques include: personnel to exploit their strengths and weaknesses, documenta-
tion of student progress, determining remediation requirements,
. Job location.
providing formative and summative indices of KSA, and indica-
. Job environment.
tion of the need for both training and manufacturing improve-
. Job technical requirements.
ments. Current DFM emphasis on continuous measurable im-
. Job mental processing demands.
provement (CMI) and quality control as a process demands valid
. Employees technical and intellectual capabilities.
job and training performance objectives and measurements.
Increasingly, manufacturing firms are emphasizing the goals of A common error in conducting TRTAs is losing sight of the job
the corporation without compromising individual development performance requirements and context in defining the training
goals. Thus, selection and assignment procedures, self-evaluation, requirements. Such tendencies result in the inclusion of <nice-
skills inventories, coaching/mentoring, incentives, promotions, to-know or even trivial subject matter in the evolving
transfers, management performance appraisals, and other forms of courseware. The training analyst must concentrate on the require-
human resource tools should be assessed. ments aspect of the TRTA. The experience base of the SMES
Training requirements and task analyses. The training typically is not conducive to this focus. In fact, a well-executed
requirements and task analysis (TRTA) identifies and elucidates TRTA will force experienced SMES to think through and articulate
the jobs, tasks, and procedures to be trained; skill/knowledge/ how the tasks are executed and why certain information may
ability requirements for work-based mastery; and sequence, for- facilitate, degrade, or neutralize task execution. The benefits of
mat, and content of tasking and other work activities. Extensive this exercise are not limited to the training development process
use is made of structured inputs by subject-matter experts working they apply to the job as well.
as a team with instructional designers (IDs) and training analysts. Because many manufacturing jobs are still formative in nature
The TRTA ensures that eventual training will address all of, but no with virtually no performance precedents, and other jobs have not
more than, the skill/knowledge/ability requirements deemed nec- even been implemented, effective TRTAs are more challenging
essary to execute the full range of work-related functions. than ever. This should not deter the training analyst from probing,
Reference 42 distinguishes among human capabilities as searching, obtaining, deriving, aggregating, and validating both
follows: existing and projected operational information to yield the most
effective course ware.
. Knowledge is the organized body of factual or procedural The purpose of the TRTA is to determine the requirements for
information which, if applied, makes job performance a achieving (mastering) the training objectives. For example, the
success. Possession of knowledge, however, does not ensure skills involved in computer numerical control (CNC) might
that it will be used. involve not only setting up the system, but initiating a machining
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cycle, performing troubleshooting operations, identifying tape comprised of terminal (bottom line) objectives and enabling
code systems, interpreting program manuscripts using a function objectives. The instructional strategy, format, content, and media
code calculator, and understanding and using control panel instru- are determined by the nature of this hierarchy. Course ware is then
mentation. built to address the objectives, using the activities included in the
The task analysis portion of the TRTA identifies, sequences, master training plan.
and otherwise characterizes the task performance requirements. With the generation of scripts and storyboards, the courseware
Again, the emphasis is upon mandatory, rather than optional, begins to take form. Courseware may consist of audio-visual
behavior. As feasible, task specification is active and direct using material; written material; computer-based, instructor-based, or
present tense. Each task statement should begin with a verb (for video-based training lessons; interactive videodiscs; or scenarios
example, guide, direct, perform, conduct, turn, state) that identi- and exercises to be employed using training devices. As
fies the job function or operation, The training analyst should pose course ware is designed, needs, training requirements, and tasking
the following general queries to the SMES as each task is from the two preceding phases are used to structure lesson volume,
considered: content, format, and pacing. Each courseware item is designed
with the objectives in mind. Further, SME review inputs concer-
. What is to be performed?
ning applicability of courseware to operational requirements are
. To whom or what does the task apply?
incorporated throughout the design phase.
. What is the relevance of the task to the job function?
The design phase also includes the identification and allocation
. Why is the task critical to the job?
of training resources including personnel, equipment, and facili-
How is the task executed?
ties. A product of this activity is frequently a training management
. Where in the job setting is the task executed?
plan which provides guidance for the administration and control of
. When does the task begin and end (start/stop logic)?
all aspects of the training.
Task specificity should enable the analyst to understand what is Training performance metric development may be initiated
to be trained without becoming overly detailed. For example, the during the design phase. These incorporate the desired perfor-
disassembly of a robot wrist component would not require a mance (objectives) and associated measures. SME interviews may
complete specification of the actions required to remove each of be used to generate and validate these metrics throughout the
several screws. Instead Remove four M8 screws would likely design and development of the training materials. An audit trail
suffice since maintenance technicians will have the capability to should be established to document decisions made and actions
recognize the screws, and perform the necessary control move- taken during this phase. That trail should be extended to the
ments with a screwdriver or Allen wrench. The analyst should remaining phases of the ISD process.
avoid breaking down each task into more detailed steps until the Finally, individual and team tryouts are generally conducted on
task domain has been determined and validated by SMES. Detailed prototype courseware using internal and/or external SMES and
steps in the task execution process should not be identified unless other plant personnel. Attempts should be made to assign person-
they are necessary to promote training. nel to the tryouts who have not been involved in the earlier phases
Task characteristics that may be considered within the TRTA of training analysis and preliminary design.
include: Courseware development and production. Courseware de-
Criticality.
velopment is carried out by IDs, media experts, and training
specialists. For large programs, courseware managers and quality
. Types of error and their consequences.
control specialists may be assigned to ensure that quality is
Duration and repeatability.
. concurrency with other tasks. maintained. Hardware and software may be developed internally
or acquired commercially, depending on cost and projected
. Degree of difficulty to learn and execute.
return-on-investment. Conrseware includes not only lesson mate-
. Prerequisite information and skills.
rial, but performance-based self-assessment exercises, job aids,
During the TRTA, it is also useful to determine the specific and other training support material. Again, internal tryouts are
background and experience characteristics of the personnel to be used to identify and correct training shortfalls. Since the emerging
trained. This was addressed at a more general level during the courseware is tailored to earlier defined objectives and require-
needs assessment. Now, specific guidelines and constraints must ments, its commonality, validity, and continuity can be superior to
be identified for the target audience. These include, but are not conventional training efforts.
limited to, job background, basic skill levels, computer experi- The training management plan initiated earlier can be expanded
ence, exposure to plant automation, work team histories, person- during this phase to accommodate media selection criteria and
ality traits, verbal abilities, communication skills, interpersonal rationale, program implementation logistics, and administrative
skills, spatial orientation, and systems monitoring capacities. guidelines.
The product of the TRTA is generally a master training plan A development sequence employed by Hughes Training, Inc.
(MTP) that describes all training program elements, including for interactive videodisc is depicted in Fig. 4-8. The process
objectives, media and courseware, hardware, software, personnel, shown is similar to that used for any computer-based training
procedures, schedules, and facilities. Media analyses, designed to conrseware, except for the emphasis on the production of audio-
link various training media to the types and amounts of skills and visual components and the pressing and mastering of the video-
knowledge to be trained, may also be included in this phase. Cost disc. The process is also adaptable to the development of
effectiveness of the various media for imparting the skills and noncomputer-based media.
knowledge will play an obvious role in the selection process. An instructional designer typically flowcharts the videodisc
Courseware design. The design of the courseware to be segments to include job-relevant scenarios, self-assessments, and
employed begins with structuring the performance objectives to requirements for photos, graphics, animations, and/or video se-
determine an objectives hierarchy. Generally, this hierarchy is quences. The output of that activity is a preliminary design used by
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
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I I
I
v
Rwaw
Rwse = Drdi R-se as Pressfinal FiwmKhlUmxk
+ + Ttyout + + + . .
W * reqaired videodisc qirad reader
disc
-.
Fig. 4-8 Interactive videodkc development. (Hughes Iiairrtng, Inc.)
a training specialist working with a SME to produce a storybowd management of the program depends upon structured feedback
of individual disc frames. The ID, a training analyst, and a media from instructors and trainees concerning needed revisions.
specialist then review the storyboard to verify its readiness for Courseware and other program reviews should be held on a regular
production. The preliminary storyboard may also be reviewed by basis to ensure that these revisions are being made. Timely
the ultimate user of the training services. Based on final feedback modification of courseware has been a persistent problem in
from all reviews, the storyboard is approved for lesson production. government-sponsored ISD programs because of the continual
A media specialist may then identify all required video, photo- changes made in jobs and equipment. This is complicated further
graphic, and graphic components. A plan is generated for the by the diversity of work backgrounds and capabilities among the
integration of all components onto the videodisc. This integration work force.
process is critical to the effective use of space on the videodisc as A training management system (TMS) can serve as a useful
well as to ensuring that access time to the desired disc images management tool for keeping courseware and other program
is minimized. elements current, relevant, and accurate. The TMS can be used to
Video and audio components (including narration) are then track demographic data, trainee throughput rates, problem areas,
produced and images are integrated into a master videotape which scheduling, resource availability, media use rates, training equip-
is pressed into a check disc, a draft video disc used for review ment downtime, and if proficiency-based evahsation is used, time
only. Media specialists review the check disc to confirm its quality or training events required to master the skills and knowledge for
(Hughes employs a set of rigorous quality control procedures for various jobs and tasks. A relational database can be derived to
this and other training component reviews). A log is made of the determine skills and knowledge that are either common or unique
disc locations of all individual frames. This log is used by a to various manufacturing functions. Moreover, the data can be
programmer or systems analyst to establish branching between used to maintain entry-level skills records, effectively assign
frames. Routines are then built to facilitate trainee movement personnel to training content areas, and track trainee progress
throughout the disc and to provide self-assessment response throughout all training courses. TMS files can be used to maintain
templates. The programmed videodisc is then reviewed by the ID records of both individual and team performance and to document
and training specialist to verify the programming accuracy. Based trainee certification for various job functions.
on this review, the disc programming and/or master tape may be For example, data stored in the TMS could, over a period of
revised. Following a tryout of the videodisc, a final master disc is time, suggest that PLC systems overview training should be
pressed, and replicates of the master are produced in the required required for virtually all foremen, or that only electronics repair
quantity. personnel would need to demonstrate proficiency in detailed
Program implementation and management. Upon validation troubleshooting procedures. Such a capability is consistent with
of courseware and all supporting media and materials, the program both the DFM objective of attaining a highly skilled generalist
is installed in an operational setting and training delive~ is work force and the need to focus training on the areas of highest
initiated, using actual instructors and trainees. Training managers operational payoff.
and instructors are responsible for ensuring that the training Evaluation and feedback. The axiom that what gets mea-
program is responsive to trainee instructional needs and that the sured gets accomplished is especially applicable to corporate
program is accomplishing its intended purpose over time. The training programs. Training activities that fail to incorporate
needs of the trainee must drive all training activities. Effective performance-based criteria and measures (indices of desired
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CHAPTER 4
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performance) are generally ineffective and invariably inefficient. American industry to resume competition in the international
Valid and reliable training evaluation begins with accurate descrip- marketplace. Workplace proficiency is largely hypothetical with-
tions of desired performance. These descriptions may or may not out proficiency-based assessment. Many top manufacturers are
involve measurement. If measurement is involved, it may be only moving in this direction in the forms of total quality management,
ordinal (ranked) in nature. Interval measurement allows meaning- continuous measurable improvement ( kaizen in Japan), and
ful statements to be made about trainee proficiency on the basis of manufacturing team excellence.
degree of difference between desired and actual performance. Computer-based training and intelligent tutors. Using the
While certain performance variables are easier to document and computer to deliver, mediate, and manage training in the work-
measure than others, this should not discourage evaluation efforts. place offers several potential advantages over more conventional
For example, during the TRTA, thorough descriptions are pro- classroom settings. Although CBT should never be viewed as a
duced of all KSA constituents of the desired job and training training panacea, these potential advantages should be considered
performance. Depending on the job performance requirements, in view of the trend toward efficiency in the manufacturing
many of these descriptions are quantifiable relative to time or industry. Some of these benefits are:
accuracy.
1. The trainee can control the learning process at a comfort-
Sound training is process-oriented, in that evaluation data from
able rate of learning (and without peer comment and
trainee proficiency progression and program effectiveness are fed
appraisals).
back into the training development, delivery, and management
2. Interactivity with the training being presented can be
process. A regular review of the training program using the criteria
achieved via touch-screens and other peripherals.
ensures that required changes are made in a timely fashion.
3. Operational realism can be built into the courseware by the
Evaluation of training can yield measures that are useful not only
use of video, graphics, schematics, highlighting, and
for training purposes, but to indicate the extent to which corporate
animation.
goals and performance requirements are being met. (Without this
4. Immediate feedback regarding desired performance can be
information produced by needs analysis and TRTA, this corporate
designed into the courseware.
assessment, using training data, is not possible.)
5. Intelligent tutor systems can be designed for many types
At the present time, because of the test stigma, evaluation is
of KSAS (especially those in the technical and skilled
confined largely to anecdotal data used to modify training.
trades areas) to provide the trainee with access to the
Objective performance-based evaluation of trainee proficiency is
amount and type of information necessary to attain profi-
virtually nonexistent in the manufacturing sector. Significant
ciencyy.
manufacturing process improvements could be realized if bargain-
6. Training and job aiding can be undertaken on demand at
ing agreements included provisions for performance-based evalu-
the convenience of the individual trainee.
ations for the entire corporate structure. This level of performance
7. Travel costs can be controlled by alleviating the require-
accountability should be extended to all levels of management
ment to send trainees to vendor facilities.
from the CEO to the first line supervisor. Training measures need
8. Production costs can be conserved as a result of workers
to be incorporated into the training program as well as the TMS.
remaining on the job rather than in the classroom.
As training measures are refined, they can be an invaluable means
9. Training can be confined to must-know job require-
for evaluating the cost-effectiveness of the training program. They
ments, avoiding unproductive in-class discussions.
show what skills are required, where such skills reside, and
10. Practice helps to achieve KSA mastery.
perhaps more important, they suggest how skill gaps can be
11. CBT systems can be networked to provide uniform training
addressed by training and other corporate interventions. Training
across work areas and plant sites.
measures document work force and management proficiency, and
References 43 and 44 are excellent sources for designing and
provide a means for selecting and assigning people based on their
implementing CBT in the manufacturing workplace.
job skills and preferences. Unfortunately, across-the-board work
force streamlining is proceeding in many manufacturing plants
without the benefit of such measures. In many cases, these cuts are
unnecessary since productivity and profits could be improved by SUMMARY
proficiency-based training. This section has stressed human performance improvement in
In his book, Thriving Orr Chaos, Tom Peters indicates that DFM through human factors engineering and systematic training.
American industry should not be fearful of making errors. Indeed, The manufacturing industry will realize its biggest gains by
making thoughtful errors, and learning their nature and how they concentrating on two groups of people. The first group is the
prevent the attainment of goals, is vital and should proceed as manufacturing work force, who will harness and exploit technol-
rapidly as possible. According to Peters, the sooner industry gets ogy to design, produce, deliver, and service the product. The
through its paralysis and apathy into the constructive error process, quality of their performance will, in turn, determine the ability of
the sooner it can correct its mistakes and become successful. The the product to meet the needs of the second group, the customer.
implementation of performance-based assessment in training pro-
grams can help to document the nature of these deficiencies,
References
diagnose their causes and correlates, and recommend remedial
training for their alleviation. 1. K. Ulrich, D, Sartorius, S, Pearson, and M. Jakiela, A Framework
Corporate phobias concerning work-proficiency assessment for Including the Value of Time in Design For Manufacturing
that must be overcome, in order to undertake the process of Decision Making, (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Feb-
ruary 1991),
developing and implementing performance-based measures and
2. K.T. Ulrich, r?e/sting Product Design Decisions to Speed, Cost,
metrics for all personnel. Such measurement capability will and L?ua/ity, (Operations Management Group, MIT Sloan School
increase manufacturing productivity, generate the highest quality of Management, OM Summer Camp, 199o),
levels. and allow
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 4
HUMAN PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT AND TRAINING IN DFM
3. B.L. Miles, rDesign For AssemblyA Key Element within Design 33. U.S. DoD Technology Assessment Team Study, Japanese Man-
for Manufacture, Jouma/ of Autornobi/e Engineering (1989), ufacturing Techno/og (U.S. DoD Final Report June, 1989),
4. V. Barr, The Proper Training for Innovation and f eamwork, 34. J_489$dams, Human $actors Engineering (New York: MacMillan,
Mechanica/ Engineering (January 1989.
5. W.R. Spra ue, Building a DFM-based + r anlzatlon and Break- 35. K.R. Boff and J.E. Lincoln, Engineering Compendium: Human
ing All the % Id Rules, White paper, NCR orporation, Norcross, Perception and Performance (Wright Patterson AFB, OH: Crew
Geor ia. (1990). System Ergonomics Information Analysis Center, 1988).
6. J.W. \ ean Jr. and G.1. Susman, Organizing for Manufacturable 36. P.A. Hancock, Human Factors Psychology (Amsterdam, Hol-
Design, Harvard Business Review (January-February 1989). land, 1987).
7, W. H. Day, Maximizing Small Business Profits with Precision 37. MIL STD 1472D, Human En ineering Design Criteria for Military
Management, (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1978). Systems, Equipment and Facdmes, - -
(Department of Defense,
8. Barr. March. 1989).
9. Ibid. 38, S.L. Smith and J, N, Mosier, Guidelines for Designing User
10, R,G. Bradyhouse, Design For Assembly and Value Engineerin Interface Software, Tech Rep. NTIS No. Al 77-198 (Hancom
Helping You Design Your Product for Easy Assembly, (SAV !!l AFB, MA: USAF Electronic Systems Division, 1986).
Conference Proceedings, 1984). 39. M. Helender, cd., Handbook of Human-Computer Interaction
11. G. Burke, DFA at Ford Motor Company, White paper, (1989). (Amsterdam, Holland, Elsevier Science Publishers, 1988).
12. G. Boothroyd and P, Dewhurst, Product Design For Assembly 40. R.C. Clark, Developing Technical Training (Reading, MA:
Handbook, Wakefield. RI: Boothrovd Dewhurst. Inc.. 1987). Addision-Wesley Publishing Company, 1989),
13. L.K. Keys; Design for Manufactu~e; Design for the Life-cycle; 41. R,M. Gagne, L.J. Bri gs, and W.W. Wager. Principles of /nstruc-
Systems Life-cycle Engineering, (IEEE, 1988). tiona/ Design (Fort fi orth, TX: HoIt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,
14. G. Boothroyd and P. Dewhurst, 1.---,
QRR) ,
15. B.L. Kibel, How to Turn Around a Financia//y Troub/ed Company 42. IL, Goldstein, The Relationship of Training Goals and Training
(New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1982). Systems, G. Salvendy, cd., Handbook of Human Factors (New
16. H. Geschka, G.R. Schaude, and H, Schlicksupp, Modern Tech- York: John Wilev & Sons. 1987).
niques for Solving Problemsl Chemical Engineering (August 6, 43. G. Geary, Maki~g CBT Happen (Boston, MA: Weingarten Pub-
1973), lications, 1987).
17. J.A. Brimson, Bringing Cost Management Up to Date, Manu- 44. G. Kearsley, Computer Based Training: Evaluation, Selection,
facturing Engineering, (June 1988). and /mp/ementation (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing
18. W.G. Ovens and D.L. Dekker, Design For Manufacturing: CO., 1983).
Starling at the Beginning (Terre Haute, IN: Rose-Hulman lnsti-
4-21
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 5
JUSTIFICATION OF DFM
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to put into perspec- tion, the cost of making changes could be prohibitive CHAPTER
tive the justification of design for manufacturability and the benefits of DFM lost. CONTENTS:
(DFM) practices in a manufacturing company. DFM, Because DFM is most effectively done before the
for this chapter, includes both the traditional DFM product design is completed, costs are avoided in INTRODUCTION 5-1
practice of designing parts more effectively and the contrast to being saved. Cost of goods sold during
newer methodology of design for assembly (DFA) production will be lower because of DFM efforts. VIEWPOINTS
for parts. Costs avoided during a recent car development FOR DFM 5-3
Traditional DFM practice has been ingrained in program exceeded several billion dollars. The result
most product design activities for many generations. was a car that had costs that were competitive in the COMPUTER
APPLICATIONS 5-S
It includes selection of designs using materials and marketplace. Without the avoidance of these costs
processes to optimize costs and quality. Proper tol- before production, targeted costs predicted early on
COST
erancing that carefully matches design requirements would not be met, and the marketing of the car would ESTIMATING 5-9
with process capability is also part of it. Top man- not be feasible; but the actual <savings in this case
agement has to be part of the process before the use were nothing.
TRADITIONAL
of DFM is successful. The benefits of DFM will be grossly understated JUSTIFICATION
In reality, the materials and processes used deter- if only expressed in terms of savings, as just 5-10
mine the design for example, selecting sheet metal illustrated. The bigger benefits are largely intangible
for a part instead of a casting. Much progress has in nature and difficult to quantify, but these benefits DEALING WITH
been made in the past decade in this area, particularly can be expressed in meaningful terms. For example, INTANGIBLES 5-11
with the increased input of manufacturing at the if a company is losing competitiveness in a market
preliminary design phase of the product. New tech- segment, DFM could possibly help regain the neces-
niques under development, such as net-shape sary edge to compete again. It may be simply that the
design of parts, promise even greater benefits in alternate choice for the company is to go rrut of
the future. business in the market segment. A big benefit is the
DFA, a branch of DFM methodology, is now improved relationship of working together between
being widely adapted in product design activities of Research and Development and the Manufacturing
manufacturing companies that make assemblies. departments.
Usually, the results of DFA activities also have a With the use of strategic planning in many com-
major influence on the design of the parts going into panies, judging the long-term effect of intangible
an assembly. A major benefit of DFA is the reduction factors on a business is improving. The net benefit
of the number of parts, through combining part should be a lower cost product to the market in less
functions and using better assembly practices. Com- time. However, there are still a substantial number of
panies making assemblies find that DFA efforts must companies that view benefits only in terms of sav-
be closely coordinated with the traditional DFM ings. These companies risk missing the intangible
practices of designing parts. This is particularly benefits of using such things as DFM. Such a
critical when buying ptis from an outside supplier. viewpoint may act to deteriorate the viabiliiy of a
company over the long run.
THE BEST TIME FOR DFM
DFM is best done during the preliminary product COSTS FOR DFM USE
design phase. Needed changes can be handled in this Costs for a DFM approach in a company may also
phase with little or no added cost. Figure 5-1 illus- be difficult to project. Most companies are currently
trates a typical profile of the use of human resources using the traditional approach and in this case may
for DFM in the various product design phases. only be considering adding the DFA aspect. For
Usually at the same time, the design of processes is some companies, adding DFA is viewed strategical] y
being done with close coordination to the design. as a cost of doing business in a progressively more
Changes become progressively more costly as the competitive environment, and knowledge of actual
design gets closer to production. When in produc- costs is not relevant. For other companies, the cost of
The Contributor of this chapter is: William O. Winchell, Visiting Ass@ate Professor and Program Coordinator,
MET Program, Purdue University.
The Reviewers of this chapter are: Caroline Bolton, Qualitv En@?eer, BOC Lansirw, General Motors
Corporation; Dave Napoli, Corpo~ate Manager, Manufacturing Engirreering-7epartment, Lennox industries Inc.; Ron
J. Orcuft, Die Systems Manager, CPC Division, General Motors Corporation; Hal Tuffy, CVS, FSAVE,
Editor/Publisher, Value Engineering and Management Digest, Tufty Communications Co., Washington, DC.
5-1
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 5
INTRODUCTION
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DFA is so intertwined with other approaches, such as thetradi- less total inventory to be carried. Implementation of JIT
tional DFM approach and simultaneous engineering (SE), that concepts should also be easier and the amount of space for
actual costs are impossible to untangle. storage of inventory should be much less.
Clearly a direct investment for DFA is required. Where . Throughput time decreased lead time for processing an
traditional DFM is not adequate, an investment may also be order should occur with the improved quality and effective
necessary. Part of this investment is in human resources. This implementation of JIT concepts. This rmty mean a real
takes the form of training, and providing for attendance at competitive advantage.
conferences and seminars. Training is a key element for a . Production rate the same factors affecting throughput time
successful program. Computers andsoftware mayalso be needed. should increase the rate of production, lowering unit costs
As for SE, resources must be allocated early in the design phase. and increasing units available for sale, thus increasing
For most companies, product design accounts forabout5%of profits.
the cost of the product. However, what takes place in the design . Capacitythe amount of capacity that is available should
activity fixes about 70%ofthe manufacttrring cost. Logically, the increase for the previous reasons. This may reduce the need
greatest impact on the competitiveness of a company maybe in for the purchase of new equipment or facilities.
sharpening the effectiveness of the design function through such . Inspection costs better quality facilitates reduced inspec-
techniques as DFM. tion effort and lower costs.
. Field service-fewer parts should mean improved reliability
and fewer failures in service, improving customer satisfac-
OTHER IMPORTANT FEATURES OF DFM tion and lowering warranty costs. Repairs should also be less
The nature of DFM focuses efforts on the process, optimizing complicated, further reducing costs.
the costs of direct labor and direct material. But DFM also may . TOOIS and equipment tools and equipment required should
dkectly affect other important aspects of the business, reducing
be fewer in number and perhaps simpler because of the
costs related to such things as:
concepts applied.
. Qualityfewer parts means fewer things that could go . Facilitiesfloor space that is required should be less,
wrong and lower scrap and rework cost. Simpler parts because of the fewer parts, lower inventory, better quality,
reduce the chances of error. and simpler processes.
. Setup timesimpler and fewer parts resrrlt in less total time . Systems computer applications, such as materials require-
spent in setting up machines. ment planning systems (MRP), could be easier to operate
Repair parts simpler and fewer parts result in less repair and maintain, reducing the need for staff personnel.
parts needed and lower costs. . Maintenance-cost of maintenance should be less with the
. Inventory fewer parts and lower scrap and rework allow simpler equipment and reduced facilities.
5-2
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 5
VIEWPOINTS FOR DFM
Taxes and insurance should be less because less equipment . Profit added sales due to improved products, and lower
and facilities may be needed. prices because of reduced costs, should increase profits.
Technologyconcepts applied may enhance the implemen- Offsctting the improvements may be added costs for such
tation of ~-ew techn-olog~~ further- improving a companys things as tr~ining, an-d perhaps incre-ased salaries for employees
competitiveness. who have higher technical qualifications.
Computer-mtegrated manufacturing
THE MACRO PERSPECTIVE
. Automation
From a macro, or big-picture viewpoint, DFM can be seen
as one tool among many that can be used in the continuous . Other programs
improvement effort of a company. Figure 5-2 illustrates some of
the other tools, or approaches available, such as total quality
control (TQC), just-in-time (JIT), total productive maintenance fig. 5-2 DFM is par~ of the continuous improvement process.
(TPM), computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM), value engi-
neering (VE), and automation. There are many more tools, and as In a similar context, DFM is composed of many tools as shown
time goes on, even more will appear. History has shown that a in Fig. 5-3. Which specific activities are needed depends upon the
company cannot pick just one tool on which to build a continuous situation facing a company. For example, DFA may not be needed
improvement effort. Rather, many tools must be used in concert, for a company that does not design and produce assemblies. On
picking and choosing where and when to apply each one. tbe other hand, some tools are used in other continuous improve-
Taguchimehad
Robustness
Processdescriptionrules
Group technology
1
kompater-aidedDFM
5-3
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 5
VIEWPOINTS FOR DFM
ment activities as Taguchi is used in TQC efforts. Careful The justification for adopting DFM is really a strategic issue for
coordination in these cases will assure supportive and not wasteful a company. Despite the difficulty in assessing a direct economic
duplicate efforts. benefit, DFM can be judged as to its impact on the critical issues
The most prominent impact of DFA is in reduced parts count in facing a company. Whether it should be used is a natural outcome
assemblies. The difference in labor and material direct costs of the of a strategic planning process. The needs of a company are
parts usedbefore and aftercan be estimated. Reportedly, a addressed in strategic planning, and the use of various tools, like
major computer manufacturer avoided 90% of the first projected DFM, to address these needs identified. A typical strategic
assembly time for a printer. Testimonials like this for DFA are planning process is shown in Fig. 5-4. More information on the
plentiful. process can be found in the Society of Manufacturing Engineers
Since DFM is done before production takes place, the differ- book Continuous Quality Improvement: A Manufacturing Profes-
ences in direct costs are costs that are avoided and not actually sionals Guide. 1 For example, the use of DFM, in conjunction
saved. A company has to first incur the cost in production before with other tools, may be critical for a company facing the
it can be saved. But, even though costs are not actually saved, the following issues:
avoidance of cost is critical to any company. The avoidance of . Product designs lagging behind the competition.
cost, in effect, makes a company more competitive and increases . Cost of products not competitive.
the likelihood of success in the marketplace. . Quality of product needs improvement.
The business systems of a modem manufacturing company are . Inventory is at a high level.
becoming increasingly complex and intertwined. This is especially . Customer satisfaction is a problem.
true as a company progresses toward a computer-integrated . Time to process an order is excessive.
manufacturing (CIM) environment. The complexity and intertwin- Plmt capacity is insufficient.
ing is also evident with the tools required for continuous improve- Adopting DFM may not require many changes for some
ment. Because of this, it is diftlcult to segregate the quantitative companies. Many companies are currently using portions of DFM,
impact for justification of any one tool such as DFM. For example, particularly in designing parts, as can be seen in Fig. 5-3. For
the reduced parts count from a DFA effort can also decrease the these companies, resources may be required to expand the use of
need for inventory, and less inventory reduces the cost in produc- DFM technology into new areas such as DFA concepts and group
tion. But this cannot be achieved through DFA alone; it also may technology. The costs of such expansion may be minimal in
require a co-existing just-in-time (JIT) program that takes full comparis-& to the strategic benefits gained. Fig&e 5-5 illustrates
advantage of the reduced parts count. the payoff for a company that embarks on strategic planning.
sat thestage
DAOp miwon
Find issues
DevelopStrategy
long termCb@ctives
Inkgmte ok+edives
Financialpr+dions
Summarize
and pe5ent
Hl!M!MN
5-4
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 5
VIEWPOINTS FOR DFM
5-5
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 5
VIEWPOINTS FOR DFM
Prah
Productdasign
Indirectcast
sellingpcs
Revenue A
Fixedand misc.
TotalCOSI
Factary Mired
burden malarial
1f Indirscl
Directcast
~ prime CO~
Fixed expense. Fixed or miscellaneous expense is defined as took., the cost is usually amortized over the life of the product and
costs not considered directly related to the manufacturing process is part of the product cost estimate under factory burden.
for a specific product, such as telephone bilk, energy bills, taxes, Product design. The cost of designing the product for the
cost of perishable tools, and depreciation of equipment. This intended application occurs during product design. It could also
category also includes the salaries of industrial engineers, manu- include the cost of building and testing prototypes to verify that the
facturing engineers, production supervision, buyers, and material design meets performance and durability requirements. Suppliers
engineers. Unusual expenses sometimes are absorbed by the to larger companies are sometimes asked to handle the design of a
supplier and charged to this category without an offsetting charge product. This enhances the application of the target cost concept.
to the buying company. Examples include premium freight, Target costs can be defined as those product costs that must not be
overtime costs, depreciation of new facilities, and launch or exceeded for a product to make a profit in the competitive
debugging costs. There is a growing trend among suppliers to marketplace. Suppliers may also provide this projected cost in
recognize these added costs in product cost estimates. product cost estimates for a lump sum reimbursement. In other
Tooling. Tooling includes the cost to design and build new cases, the cost is allocated over the production life of the product
durable tools or revise existing durable tools to process a specific and becomes part of the product cost estimate.
product. Suppliers often provide the projected cost of this in General costs. General (and administrative) costs are those
product cost estimates, for a lump sum reimbursement by the costs necessary to keep the company in operation but not directly
buying company. In this case, the buying company usually owns related to production in the factory. Examples are executive
the tools, and they cannot be used to process similar parts for salaries, research costs, and public relations. Some companies are
another company. Where the supplier retains ownership of the encountering an increasing amount of product warranty cost being
5-6
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 5
VIEWPOINTS FOR DFM
demanded by their customers. This cost is typically charged to this Standard Versus Actual Costs
category. The trend among suppliers is to recognize this added Costs may also be classified as standard or actual. A standard
cost in product cost estimates. cost is an ideal cost or a predetermined cost. Working with
Selling costs. Selling costs are costs directly related to selling manufacturing departments, cost accounting develops figures
products. Examples are the cost of salespeople who call on reflecting what a part or product should cost. When the part or
potential customers, and marketing studies. Some suppliers also product is finished, the accounting department determines the
charge a lump-sum amount for preparing a product cost estimate, actual costs.
which is paid by the customer when the quote is delivered. The variances between actual costs and standard costs provide
management with a tool to evaluate the effectiveness of manufac-
turing departments. Variances below the standard may indicate
that a department supervisor has found ways to reduce scrap, cut
OTHER SIGNIFICANT overtime, or decrease tool breakage and wear. Costs higher than
COST ESTIMATING CONCEPTS the standard may be a sign of poor workmanship, resulting in a
Suppliers to larger companies are seeing a trend toward high part rejection rate, excessive overtime, or inadequate process.
long-term contractual relationships. This is a reversal of past If necessary, the design itself may be questioned.
practices of being assured of the production of a part for a year at On the other hand, variances above standard costs may reflect
a time. For the supplying companies, this means they can plan an uncontrollable cost increase. In this case, variances serve as an
processes that are more specialized and automated. The long-term effective reportings ystem. By readily identifying costs that are out
contract assures that massive investments for automation, the kind of line, management can take appropriate action. One way would
that must be used for several years to justify the expense, can be be to adjust standard costs so that future estimates used for bidding
adopted. The larger companies awarding the contracts expect are more realistic.
lower prices and long-term commitment to quality and productiv-
ity improvement. In fact, many of them are using the target cost
concepts discussed in this chapter to assure competitive product Costs in Relation to Product Volume
prices. Suppliers are asked to compete against each other for these Costs are also categorized according to their behavior in
contracts. For the suppliers, this means cost estimating must take relation to product volume. Fixed, variable, and step-variable cost
a much longer range focus. Specific annual reductions in cost and patterns are shown in Fig. 5-7. The definitions of fixed, variable,
improvement of quality must be predicted over the life of the and step-variable costs assume the existence of upper and lower
contract. The effects of inflation over the term of the contract must limits on production quantities. Only within this relevant range do
also be understood, and offsetting improvements planned. This costs behave according to their definitions. Note the cost behavior
must be done with a commitment from the entire organization. patterns below 50 units and above 250 units in Fig. 5-7. Fixed
costs remain the same regardless of volume. Specific examples
include executive salaries, secretarial services, facilities, durable
tooling, and security services. Durable tooling is classified as a
Target Cost fixed cost, because a certain level of tooling is required to produce
Target cost recognizes that there is a fundamental difference one unit or many units. Adequate plant security probably demands
between traditional product cost and selling price. Except for some at least one night watchman, regardless of production levels.
government cost-plus contracts, selling price is determined Variable costs rise in direct proportion to the number of units
largely by the competition in the marketplace. On the other hand, produced. Direct costs such as material and labor generally follow
product costs are traditionally determined internally in the com- a variable curve such as the one depicted in Fig. 5-7. Note that this
pany and relate to product design, procedures, wage rates, and curve climbs less steeply outside the relevant range. As larger
manufacturing processes. In most companies, there is no direct volumes are produced, lower material costs are possible and costs
relationship between the selling price and product cost. But selling per unit are lowered.
prices must be greater than costs or the company will not survive. A step-variable cost is one that remains the same over a given
There will be no profit to sustain the business. number of production units but jumps sharply to new plateaus at
Target costs can be defined as those product costs that must not certain incremental changes in volume. The cost of a machine
be exceeded for a product to make a profit in the competitive capable of producing 50 units, for example, would be the same
marketplace, Development of a target cost starts with analyzing whether one or 50 units were actual] y produced. Perhaps, at 51
the competitive selling price, perceived quality, and desired units, however, a new machine would need to be purchased,
attributes for the product in the marketplace. Marketing studies doubling the cost of machinery.
benchmarking products made by other companies could help
determine this. The next step is finding out what the maximum
product cost would be to make a profit at the competitive selling Costs in Relation to
price. This cost is the target cost. A comparison between the Length of Production Run
traditional estimated cost and the target cost provides insight into Itis logical to most people that it will take more time to build
improvements required. These improvements are likely gained the first unit than the last unit of a production run. This is because
through enhanced product designs and manufacturing processes. If learning is taking place as the units are being built. The learning is
the target cost can be achieved or improved upon, then the detailed by the production operator and persons in the manufacturing
product cost estimate is finished. If it cannot, future plans for the environment lending support to the operator. This results in each
product are stopped. The concept of target cost illustrates the successive unit being built more efficiently. This is demonstrated
importance of a supplier having strong product design capabilities. dramatically in labor-intensive operations. Understanding the
For many products there is a strong relationship between the concept, called a learning curve (covered later in this chapter), is
product design and manufacturability, critical in preparation of product cost estimates for the production
5-7
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 5
COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
32
E
1
1 R&ant ranga ~
30 1 1
I 1
28 1 I
1 i
I I
26 1 1
I I Varkkde
24
I
: 1
22 1 1
1 1
I
I
1
I
12
I
10
t
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t
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1 I
4 1
I
I
2 1
I I
I I 1 I 1 1 1 I I 1 I I I 1
50 100 150 200 2s0 3oi) 350 400
hits of produdion
of batches of relatively small quantities. It is also useful for each time that the quantity produced doubles. If that fixed
determining launch or debugging costs for the initial units of a percentage is 5%, then the second unit will need only 95% of the
long production run. direct labor hours taken for the first unit. The same relationship
Studies of labor-intensive operations have shown that the direct exists between the fourth unit and the second unit, the eighth-unit
labor hours used to make a product decrease by a fixed percentage and the fourth unit, etc.
COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
It is commonly agreed that product design, material, and the cost. The machine required is selected automaticallyy. If it is not in
manufacturing process are interrelated. Often, the product engi- the knowledge base, a specification for the required machine
neer needs help from the materials engineer and the manufacturing is provided,
engineer regarding how to proceed with the concept for a new The mold cost is calculated based upon the part size, tolerance,
product. A significant factor is the identification of the cost of the appearance factors, and geometric complexity. Cost sensitivity to
various alternatives. Estimating the ball-park cost of various many variables, such as production volume and number of mold
alternatives for a product at this stage proceeds without much cavities, can be readily seen using the software.
knowledge of the details. Software allowing preliminary cost estimates using only min-
Recently, cost estimating software has become commercially imal information has great promise in helping guide developing
available on injection molding and machining processes; it appears products and processes from concepts to detailed designs.
to be of help in this situation. Other similar software for sheet
metal parts, forging, powdered metal applications, die cast parts,
and others may also be available.
A summary screen is shown in Flg. 5-8 for a preliminary OTHER SIGNIFICANT COST
estimate of the cost of producing a thermoplastic part. It includes ESTIMATING CONCEPTS
the mold cost, the processing cost, and the material cost. Data Companies are starting to view decisions as strongly influenced
required to make this estimate, not in the knowledge base, is by intangible factors such as perceived customer satisfaction,
minimal and includes such things as batch size, general configur- product performance, and serviceability. Often, for the long-term
ation, overall dimensions, tolerance, color, and alternate materials. viability of a company, intangible factors are more important than
The knowledge base can be revised to reflect, for example, short-term profits. Dealing with intangible factors in a comparison
current equipment availability, wage rates, and material purchased is vital in todays marketplace.
5-8
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 5
COST ESTIMATING
Cast/part,
~ 1: %#!?J~ylr ~
It i Ne (cmo)
ino ~; ~~k) 1i $~~j~g) ~ ~r ~I
; 61 Exit 1
I
I : 0.59 [9.60] : 0.4 (1 1.52) : 2.09 (4.60] : 5.30 :
1 i
I Total part cast, cents = 13.0 I
COST ESTIMATING
Recognizing trade-offs among various costs is a critical part of TECHNICAL ESTIMATES
DFM justification. Doing this requires application of cost estimat- As the term implies, this is an estimate provided by a
ing techniques, as detailed in SMEs book Realistic Guide to Cost persontechnically qualified to recognize the various phases of the
Estimating. work to be accomplished. The job is broken down into phases, and
More expensive material with better machinability may reduce cost is estimated for each phase. The person providing this insight
the cost, or a low-cost material maybe functional for the extended is normally the manufacturing engineer.
product. To develop the best alternative design, the designer and
manufacturing engineer must have a way of estimating relevant
costs needed for a DFM justification, and a system (VE for
HISTORICAL DATA
This data relies on a statistical standard and has been developed
example) to generate alternatives. Estimating material costs is
to a high degree. This standard establishes a statistical relationship
reasonably straightforward. It is necessary to consider the cost of
between gross work units such as tons handled and labor-hours
the raw material minus the value of the scrap. Volume buying may
expended. Data is required on the past performance of individual
influence the cost per piece.
jobs producing similar products. Data is expressed in labor-hours
Estimating labor requirements such as manpower per produc-
expended and units produced.
tion line or per machine is less straightforward. Given the
operations that must be performed, one must estimate the time
required to perform those operations and the skill level required. It PREDETERMINED TIME STANDARDS
is also important to estimate the tooling cost and to determine by These standards, often called microdata, are derived from
a break-even analysis if the tooling cost can be reducedor if tables of time values for fundamental types of motions. The
higher cost tooling is more economical to use (product volume will method for performing the job must first be described in terms of
influence the decision). elements. The elements are then broken down into basic motions
There is a variety of methods for estimating time requirements pertinent to the particular predetermined time systems. Widely
in advance of production. The methods to be used will be different used systems include methods-time measurement (MTM), work
during different stages of the design process. Coarser estimates are factors, and basic motion/time studies. The result provided by
adequate during the earlier stages, while more precise estimates these synthetic standards is an estimate of normal time for the task.
are needed at the later stages. Four basic methods are described: With MTM for each type of motion element, the standard time
technical estimates, historical data, predetermined time standards, is dependent on certain physical variables, such as distance, and
and elemental standard data. on classifications of the sensory control required. For example, for
5-9
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 5
COST ESTIMATING
the element r-each, the major variable is distance. But there are METHODS FOR DETERMINING
five classifications of reach that specify the condition of the object RELEVANT COSTS
to which one is reaching, such as an object in a fixed location or For DFM justifications in milling operations, as in any other
an object jumbled with others in a group. This process can be machining operation, surface quality conditions are called out on
time consuming. the drawing that must be met first. These conditions include
In developing the motion analysis for the task, the appropriate dimensional accuracy, surface roughness, and freedom from
reaches, grasps, and moves are matched to fit the general situation damage inthestrrface layer. Theproper macbine tool, fixtures for
of required sensory control. For example, to obtain a part from a accuracy, fast loading and unloading, and machine conditions
supply bin and place it in a fixture, one would fkst reach to an which inchrde speed, feed, cutting tool and fluid combinations are
object jumbled with others in the bin. For grasping the object, the all important factors in determining cost and production rates.
tables indicate that the grasp times will depend on the part size. A simple equation may be used to determine the relevant
Moving the part to the fixture requires close control because the milling cost. The following is suggested:
fixture is placed in an exact location. The time required to position Total cost to mill one piece = Milling cost + Initial cost of
the part in the fixture depends on the closeness of the fit between cutter per piece + Cutter reconditioning cost.
the part and fixture, the symmetry (how much orientation is The milling cost must include the following:
required to align the mating parts), and the ease of handling
Labor on the milling machine, in dollars per minute.
(characteristics of the material, its size, and flexibility). Once
. Total time in minutes to mill one piece; this equals feeding
positioned in the fixture, the part must be released.
time, plus rapid traverse time, plus loading and unloading
time.
Setup time per piece per minute.
TRADITIONAL JUSTIFICATION
Traditional justification approaches, known as engineering Decision tools such as economic analysis, used for assigning
economics, have been and still are being applied by many priorities to alternative designs, are changing a great deal. New
companies to make these comparisons. Today, there is a growing techniques adopt an approach that evaluates many factors which
awareness that the traditional approaches used solely for decisions are not financially based. These factors are difficult to quantify in
are responsible for wrong choices being made. Influencing this is financial terms, but they do suggest the degree of support for the
the fact that direct labor is often less than 10% of the cost of a strategic plans of a company. The use of these broad-based tools
product for many companies. Yet differences in direct labor for assigning priorities is being emphasized in many forward-
remain a major part of an analysis using engineering economics. looking companies. About half of the companies in a recent survey
Compounding the problem is that burden or indirect cost is often are using subjective evaluations to supplement financial tech-
allocated to the product as a percentage of the direct labor. This niques. About 10% of these companies currently are using
further distorts the analysis. broader-based methods as the primary way of assigning priorities.
Companies are recognizing that allocated overhead, or indirect Despite this trend, financial tools are still widely used by
costs, should not play a part in an analysis. Much of the indirect companies as the sole definers of priorities among alternative
cost would be the same regardless of what choice is made. Only approaches, A recent survey showed that about half of the
those indirect costs that would be affected by the choice should be companies used only financial techniques for assigning priorities.
included in an analysis. Activity-based costing (ABC), currently These include the payback method and traditional engineering
under development by the financial community, is addressing this economic techniques such as internal rate of return (IRR) and net
problem. present worth (NPW).
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 5
DEALING WITH INTANGIBLES
The payback method estimates the time required for the savings lifetime of the project.
or profhs to offset the cost of the investment. Many companies 2. Finding the savings and incremental revenue over the
insist that an investment be offset within 24 to 36 months. The lifetime of the project attributable to the investment.
period often varies with economic conditions; when conditions are 3. Analyzing the financial benefit to the company using
bleak and money is short, the period may be less than 24 months. techniques such as payback, return on investment (ROI),
When several projects are being considered, the project having the or NPW.
shortest payback time usually has priority. Critics of this approach Details of these techniques and others, such as <defender-
point out that it does not properly allow for cash flows at different challenger for comparing alternatives, can be found in any
times. Probably its simplicity accounts for it being used by one engineering economics book.
third of the companies in a recent survey. The traditional engineering economics tools were developed
Internal rate of return (IRR) is the interest rate that would need some years ago. They were meant for decisions concerning the
to be realized for the value of the expected future cash flow to replacement or retirement of obsolete equipment in factories. They
equal the initial investment. As a minimum, the IRR must be are mainly concerned with cost avoidance and replacement of
greater than the interest rate that is needed to get the capital for somewhat inexpensive capital assets. Past uses emphasized the
investment. For several investments, the one with the higher IRR expense part of the profit equation rather than revenue creation.
is usually given priority. This approach was being used by over Whether they are appropriate for assigning priorities for broader-
half of the companies in a recent survey. based and extensive investments affecting both cost and revenue is
Net present worth (NPW) is the net value of the savings and debatable. The ability of engineering economics tools to deal with
expenses in terms of todays money. Future cash flow is dis- multiple objectives, and environmental uncertainties, is question-
counted to todays value, using a threshold rate of interest. The able. The ability to deal with inaccurate estimates of cost is also an
threshold rate reflects the minimum expected from an investment. important concern.
Positive future cash flow offsets the initial investment. The net The use of financial techniques alone for determining priorities
value is called NPW. The NPW must be positive to provide a good is currently being questioned by both Fhancial and manufacturing
investment. Normally, the project with the higher NPW is given professionals. There is a feeling that decisions based only on
priority when comparing several investments. In a recent survey, financial tools are in part responsible for a downturn in produc-
14% of the companies used this technique. tivity gains during the past decade. In other words, wrong
In general, the financial evaluation techniques have the follow- decisions may have been caused by not considering more factors in
ing steps: assigning priorities. Needed investments in ncw technology during
the past decade may have been postponed. This happened when
1. Finding the initial investment and other costs during the short-term financial targets could not be met.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 5
DEALING WITH INTANGIBLES
Strong
I
I
rules which create an atmosphere of freedom. The rides are:
. Dont allow criticism or evaluation of ideas; defer this until
later.
. Encourage wild ideas.
Build on the ideas of others (hitchhiking).
I -5 -3 0 +3 +5
I
Strive for quantity of ideas (hundreds). Fig. 5-9 A rating system shows how improvement affects a company.
The group leader presents the problem for which ideas are
sought. The wording should encourage specific, tangible ideas, the assessments. One rating system is shown in Fig. 5-9. It
not abstract ideas or opinions. The leader must make sure that all attempts to place in perspective the relative impact of both positive
the members understand the objective. There are three methods of and negative outcomes. Higher scores are given when the impact
brainstorming. The most familiar is ji-ee-wheelirzg. This is where on a factor is greater. Those improvements having a negative
team members call out their ideas spontaneously and the leader impact are given minus scores. Where there is no impact on a
records the ideas. Another method is round-robin brainstorming. factor, a score of zero is assigned. Positive scores are given where
The leader asks each member, in turn, for an idea. A member may impacts are good. The point scale is subjective and should be
pass on any round. The session continues until all members have meaningful to those that make the decisions on priorities.
passed during the round. Ideas are recorded as with free-wheeling.
The third method is the slip method which differs markedly from
the other two approaches. The leader asks each team member to STEP 4-DEVELOP WEIGHTS FOR EACH
write down ideas on small slips of paper or index cards. The ideas FACTOR THAT WILL BE USED IN
are then collected and organized. DECIDING PRIORITIES
Various factors have different levels of importance for deci-
Analysis Phase sions made by a company. The weight for each factor should
Each approach has its advantages and disadvantages. Regard- reflect its level of importance. This difference in importance is
less of the approach used, the output of the brainstorming session reflected in the ranking of factors discussed in Step 2. The
must be reviewed and evaluated. consolidated score for each of the factors should be a help in
assigning a relative weight. For example, a factor receiving a
STEP 2-RANK THE FACTORS higher score should have a higher weight. The following illustrates
ACCORDING TO IMPORTANCE this:
The factors important to the company found in Step 1 are edited FACTOR WEIGHT
so members of the group can vote on the ranking. Initially, each Customer Satisfaction 10
member works independently of the team. Competitiveness 5
Each member is asked to select, for example, what are the five In this example, the factor of customer satisfaction is consid-
most important factors. Scores are assigned by each member to the ered by the company to be twice as important as competitiveness
five factors selected, The top-ranked factor could be assigned a for assigning priorities. This is a judgment call based upon the
score of 5 and the lowest a score of 1. Then, those factors between conditions within each company. For another company, facing
would receive scores of 4, 3, and 2. The factors selected and the different conditions, thereverse maybe true.
scores assigned will likely differ for each individual.
After the scores are assigned by each member, they are
consolidated. The consolidated scores provide the basis for the STEP 5DEVELOP A CONSISTENT
ranking by the team. Factors having a higher consolidated score APPROACH TO DECIDE
are likely more important in decisions concerning priorities. The PRIORITY OFIMPROVEMENTS
list of factors is again edited, placing each factor in order of the Agreement should be reached on a consistent approach for
consolidated scores. Typically, many factors have low scores and summarizing improvement proposals. The approach must be
can be removed from consideration by the team. The remaining meaningful to those persons making the decision. For most
factors are discussed and the ranking adjusted accordingly. companies, the approach will be looking at both financial and
nonfinancial factors. Figure 5-10 illustrates aformtohelp do this.
STEP 3SELECT A RATING SYSTEM Financial impact is described in terms of both payback and
FOR HOW IMPROVEMENTS WILL engineering economic techniques. For this company, an improve-
AFFECT EACH FACTOR ment proposal must support the strategy of the company. This
An improvement effort could have either a positive or negative support is shown on the form. Exceptions may be made if the
effect on factors that are important to a compan y. For example, the proposal is required to meet government regulations or for safety
impact of a specific automation project may be a two-edged reasons. This isalsonoted on the form. Other nonfinancial factors
sword. It could improve profits, but if not properly done, the are listed to help evaluate the proposal. The other factors have
reduced flexibility in reacting to orders could decrease customer weights reflecting the relative importance of each to the company
satisfaction. in deciding priorities. Each particular design is rated on how it will
There is no rating system that is best for all companies. Rather, affect each factor. Therating ismultiplied by the weight for each
arating system must redeveloped to meet the particular needs of factor to provide the full impact. Total points for the nonfinancial
each company. Primarily, it must be meaningful to those making factors are calculated for comparison to other alternative designs.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 5
DEALING WITH INTANGIBLES
PRIORITY ASSESSMENT
Design Alternatives
Other Factors
Customer Sahsfaction
Product Performance
Technology
COmpetltweness
Revenue
TOTAL POINTS
WEIGHT X RATING
5-13
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 6
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 6
BASIC CONCEPTS
BASIC CONCEPTS
A clear understanding of some basic concepts is central to Process Management
effective application of the quality tools in a complex process such Process management is the systematic application of qualitative
as DFM. This section provides definitions of key terms and an and quantitative methods in work processes, to continuously
explanation of the Deming Process Management Cycle. monitor, evaluate, analyze, and improve their performance. The
goal of process management methods is healthy, competitive
DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS processes. There are five factors that determine the health and
Process, and proces$ management are the key terms
quality competitiveness of a process. A good process is:
that will be used throughout the following sections. Defined.
. Controlled.
Process Effective.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 6
BASIC CONCEPTS
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 6
BASIC CONCEPTS
production
Design Transition
Outputs/inputs Outputshputs Op~afiOns
stage stage
Inputs
Plan. The purpose of the Plan step is to identify and completely Do. This step iswhere theactual design is created. Tasks are
understand all customer requiremen~s so the design activities will accomplished according to the plans created in the previous step.
be conducted effectively and yield a design that meets the Tasks performed during this step are:
requirements. Mechanisms also are put in place to ensure that
. Translating customer requirements into product
the resources of the organization are used efficiently during the
characteristics.
design stage. Some of thetasks performed during this step are:
Creating product definition data (drawings, specifications,
and so on).
Defining the scope and direction of the design activities.
. Building models, mock-ups, anchor prototypes,
Identifying the required resources.
Forming the design team. Study. During this step, the outputs from the Do step are
Creating an action plan for the design team. evaluated against customer requirements to determine if there are
Identifying and understanding internal and external customer any gaps between the expected product and the designed product.
requirements. The purpose of the studying tasks is to identify and describe these
Evaluating competing or similar products. deficiencies in the design, so they can be rectified at the most
Considering different design alternatives. cost-effective point in the process. Some tasks that are performed
Developing test and evaluation plans. during the Study step are:
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 6
BASIC CONCEPTS
. Conducting design reviews. Study. Tasks at this step are focused on identifying deficien-
. Performing tests and product evaluations according to the cies in the processes that will produce the product. They also
test and evaluation plans. provide an opportunity to evaluate the design requirements once
. Gathering and analyzing consumer response data. more before full-scale production begins. This step often includes
tasks such as:
Act. Studying tasks identify needed changes or improvements
to the design. The Act step is the point where action is taken to Inspecting and testing production tooling.
resolve any problems with the design, and/or implement any Evahrating results of pilot production runs.
improvements. Tasks typically performed at this step are: Performing first-article inspections.
Testing new or improved processes.
. Evaluating and interpreting information from studying
Running simulations of full-scale production.
activities. Reviewing manufacturing, process management, and prod-
Resolving design problems.
uct integrity plans with design personnel.
Making improvements to the design,
Reviewing constraints, requirements, and plans with mar-
Outputs from the design stage are the inputs to the transition keting and finance personnel.
stage. Some outputs from a typical design stage are: Evaluating training materials.
Performing supplier surveys.
Product definition data in electronic and/or paper form.
prototypes, models, and/or mock-ups actual physical ex- Act. Actions are taken at this step to correct any problems
amples of the product and any additional information from and/or implement any improvements that were identified during
external customers that may be appropriate, the studying tasks. Typical tasks may be:
Marketing information such as projected sales,
Revising manufacturing, process management, and product
recommended price range, and packaging or distribution
integrity plans.
considerations.
Reworking, repairing, or remanufacturing production
Financial information such as profit requirements or cost
tooling.
constraints.
Streamlining facilities layout.
The Transition Stage Training production personnel.
This stage includes the activities required to deploy the Communicating revised requirements to suppliers.
customers requirements into the processes that will actually As described previously, the outputs from the transition stage
produce the product. Other names for the activities in this stage are are the inputs to the production operations stage. Some typical
process integration, process planning, process development, or outputs are:
manufacturing development. Systematic transition of a product
design into full-scale production is a stage that is often completely Detailed manufacturing, process management, and product
neglected or given only cursory attention, despite the damaging integrity plans.
results of such a course of action high costs, missed schedules, Production tooling.
and dissatisfied internal and external customers. Many benefits Trained production personnel.
can be derived from adopting a systematic approach to the Completed facilities rearrangements.
transition activities, List of qualified suppliers.
Plan. This step makes and documents decisions about how the
product (as designed) will be transitioned into full-scale produc-
The Production Operations Stage
tion. Some typical tasks are:
Full-scale production of the as-designed product, using the
Evaluating internal constraints. processes developed during the transition activities, is accom-
Considering production alternatives. plished at this stage. It is an important part of the DFM process
Generating make or buy decisions. because it closes the Ioop, providing feedback to the designers and
Identifying and selecting qualified suppliers. the transition team. Systematic methods for providing this feed-
Developing a formal transition (action) plan. back are critical to the success of future initiatives.
Plan. The purpose of this step is to translate process require-
Do. During this step, actions are taken to actually translate
ments into detailed operating instructions. Tasks that might be
product characteristics (as specified in the design) into specific
performed at this step are:
process requirements. Tasks performed at this step may include:
. Creating detailed work instructions.
Studying process stability and capability.
Developing production schedules.
Developing new or improved processes.
Specifying operational objectives.
Conducting laboratory studies of new and existing
processes. Do. Products are actually produced during this step. Typical
Creating production tooling. tasks may take the form of any manufacturing process. In carefully
Making pilot production runs. planned manufacturing processes, each operation contains a PDSA
Defining the facilities layout. micro-cycle the production operator plans the work, performs
Developing detailed manufacturing, process management, the tasks according to work instructions, studies the process and/or
and product integrity plans. output, and makes corrections and/or improvements as required.
Involving suppliers in manufacturing planning. Study. Studying tasks are performed to verify that products
Specifying training requirements. meet specified requirements and that processes are performing
Developing training materials. effectively and efficiently. Some typical studying tasks are:
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 6
QUALITY TOOLS
. Inspecting or testing products. at this point, based on information received from marketing and
. Monitoring and evaluating process performance. sales personnel. Process improvements also are implemented at
. Reviewing progress against operational objectives. this step, and suggestions for design changes that may enhance
. Evaluating feedback from internal and external customers. product producibility are passed along to the design team,
. Reviewing supplier performance indicators. This feedback to the designers and transition personnel consti-
tutes the major output from- this stage of the DFM processit
Act. Actions are taken at this step to correct process and/or
becomes an input to the next product design initiative, as well as
product problems that may have been identified during the Study
to ongoing manufacturing development efforts.
step. Changes to rate, schedule, and/or product mix may be made
QUALITY TOOLS
The following descriptions of several prominent quality tools interchangeably. This looseness of definitions can be eliminated
are not meant to be a tutorial on the application of the tools, but to by adopting a structured planning method, A clean vocabulary for
briefly describe the tools and how they can be used in the the elements of a plan is needed. The actual definitions used for
DFM process. goal and objective, for example, are not as important as the
development of a clear set of common definitions. One commonly
STRUCTURED PLANNING METHODS used set of definitions for these planning elements is shown
This section contains a discussion of three elements of struc- in Fig. 6-3.
tured planning methods: Plan structure. With common definitions for the plan ele-
ments in place, it is important to understand the structure that the
. A general discussion of planning. elements fit within. Each element has its own unique role or
. Problem-solving and decision making. purpose. The elements fit together to form a structure, The
. Risk assessment and management. elements (as defined) form the structure as shown in the tree
The tie between these methods is a reliance on using structured, diagram in Fig. 6-4.
or systematic, approaches. Details of each plan element. Notice, by studying the defini-
tions and tree diagram, the differences in level of detail in each of
the plan elements. First, the mission, while specific enough to
General Discussion
define only one group of people, is the most general. It does not
As already discussed in the section introducing the PDSA
really explain what the organization is going to do, how it is going
cycle, everything begins with planning. The purpose of this
to accomplish anything, or what schedule will be followed. Each
section is to provide an introduction to structured planning
subsequent level (from goal through objective) is more detailed
methods, including the benefits of using a structured approach,
than the previous one.
and a set of definitions of planning terms.
Goals describe a desired future condition. With an understand-
Purpose. The primary purpose of using a structured planning
method is to effectively develop, document, and communicate a ing of the mission assigned, the next step is to describe the
conditions that the organization would like to achieve at some
plan. A plan should answer these questions:
point in the future. It may be helpful to answer questions like the
What is the organizations purpose? How does the organi- following in developing goals:
zation fh into the overall picture? What unique role does the
. What does the organization intend to be?
organization fill?
What does the organization envision its reputation being?
What is the organizations direction? Where will the orga-
. What products and/or services does the organization intend
nization be at some point in the future? What will have been
accomplished once the organization gets there? to offer?
. What approaches could the organization take to reach the . What improvements would the organization like to see
goal? What specific actions will be taken to get there? accomplished?
. How can the organizations progress toward its goals be
monitored? When will the various tasks be complete? What
schedule will be adhered to?
Mission: A statement of the bus(ness the team is in; the unique
The plan should be developed by everyone who will be contribution that is txowded.
responsible for carrying out the plan. This means that everyone
who is a part of the design process should be a part of this Goal: A desired future condition or expected result
development. The employees who actually do the job are the ones
with the best understanding of how things work, the problems that Strategy: A basic approach adopted to reach a goal
need to be resolved, and how to set the course. This allows
everyone to be involved, and helps them achieve buy-in to what s Objective: A specific, time-phased, measurable activity that
they are working on. monitors the progress of a strategy towards a goal
Common definitions. It is important to begin the planning
process with a commonly understood set of definitions. In general
conversation, many people use the words goal and objective Fig. 6-3 Definitions of plan elements.
6-6
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 6
QUALITY TOOLS
: kkat.y
+25
C+tive
These questions are just thought-starters; they can be used to Problem Solving and Decision Making
help get started in developing goals. The structure that g~es along with using a systema~c approach
.!kzfegies are basic approaches adopted to reach a goal. is especially beneficial in the processes of solving problems and
Developing strategies begins with identifying as many approaches making decisions. The nonsystematic approach taken by many
as possible, Each of the approaches being considered must have at companies to solve problems or make decisions often resuhs in
least one viable alternative; an approach with no alternative is a short-sighted, temporary problem patches. The processes of solv-
statement of the obvious rdther than a strategy. Next, each of these ing problems and making decisions are often performed by teams;
approaches must be considered, to determine which one the these teams may be cross-functional, or made up entirely of
organization thinks will best accomplish the goal when imple- personnel from one functional area. A systematic approach is one
mented. This approach will then be adopted to reach the goal. that ,movides a wav. to:
Objectives ~e specific, time-phased, measurable activi~es that
Address the right problem. It can be easy sometimes to work
monitor the progress of the strategies toward the goal. The
toward solving what is thought to be the problem, while
objectives must be specific, so it will be possible to clearly
actually off the track.
determine if they are being accomplished; one of the purposes of
Find and address the root cause to make sure that the
objectives is to monitor progress. Vague statements of objectives
problem does not occur again.
do not help. Objectives are time-phased to provide a means of
Select the best alternative when a choice between ahema-
determining whether the organization is progressing on the
tives is called for.
planned schedule. They serve as immediate milestones toward
Write a plan for implementation of the solution that antici-
accomplishing the goals. Measurable objectives provide a clear-
patesand includes preventive actions forpotential prob-
cut way to monitor progress. If an objective is measurable, it is
lems.
easy to determine whether it has been accomplished as planned.
Evahrate progress toward resolving the problem.
Documentation recommendations. Documenting a plan is
critical. It is not enough to go through a one-tire-e exercise, There are five activities within the problem resolution process.
verbally discussing a plan; the decisions of the organization must Each of the activities has a unique purpose. The activities and their
be recorded somehow. This way, the plan can be reviewed by any purposes are shown in Table 6-1.
interested parties, and the organizations progress monitored Evaluate the situation. The first activity in the problem
against its objectives. resolution process is to evahrate the situation to get a better
6-7
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 6
QUALITY TOOLS
r..-e. ,.W.. I.
lg. 0-3 a cmmwerrecr alagram.
I
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 6
QUALITY TOOLS
( cause
Cou$s
)
Foctor
=LI= @ . .SIrongrelotiomhip
Factor
0. t&4iurrlK7101i0mhip
A - Weokrelo,icmhip
Foctor o A . NOrelotiemhip
Focbr A A @
Make the decision. Many times, the result of the Analyze the are the traits, characteristics, or requirements that the alternatives
Problem activity will require a choice between alternatives. This will be measured against?
selection process also can benefit from a systematic, structured Since not all of these criteria are equally important in the
approach. This systematic approach hegins with the identification selection of the best alternative, they need to be weighted. Then,
of the criteria that will be used to select the best alternative. What each alternative is scored against the weighted criteria. prior to
6-9
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 6
QUALITY TOOLS
selecting an alternative based on these scores, areas of high risk, There are two types of actions that could be taken: preventive
that may affect the selection, can be anticipated. The alternative and contingent. Preventive actions are those that could be taken to
that offers the best combination of performance and acceptable preclude the likely causes from occurring in the first place. To
risk is the one that should be selected for implementation. discover these preventive actions, review the list of risks and likely
Plan the resolution. The first three activities have laid the causes to decide what can be done now to prevent them from
foundation for using a systematic approach to problem resolution. happening later. Draw from the experience of the team members to
With the information available from these activities, the next step find some possible preventive actions.
is to develop a plan for implementing the resolution. This There are some problems that cannot be prevented. For these
implementation plan should be structured like any other plan that cases, contingent actions need to be identified in case the problem
is written; it should contain the same elements using the same does occur. The purpose of these actions is to minimize the impact
definitions. of the problem if it does, in fact, occur.
Another critical section of this plan is identifying high risk Finally, review the resulting degree of risk. Now, with actions
areas and developing preventive and contingent actions to deal in place, what are the likelihood and impact of the risk occurring?
with these areas of risk before they happen. Is this a level of risk that can be comfortably accepted? If not,
Implement and verify the problem resolution. With the repeat this process to develop further actions that can be taken to
previous activities complete, the final activity is to implement the reduce the elements of risk. The reader can find supplemental
plan that has been developed and verify that it is resolving the material about risk assessment in Chapter 3, Volume 5, A4anu~ac-
problem. The last part of this activity is critical; verify that the turing A4anagement.
solution is doing what it was designed to do. There is no other
way of knowing whether the problem being addressed has
been resolved. QUALITY FUNCTION DEPLOYMENT
Quality function deployment can be defined as a system for
translating consumer requirements into appropriate company re-
Risk Assessment and Management quirements at each stagefrom research and product develop-
There are risks associated with doing anything. The purpose of ment, through engineering and manufacturing, to marketing,
this section is to provide a structured method for assessing the risk sales, and distribution.
associated with implementing an alternative. What are the poten- QFD is a technique of listening to the voice of the customer. It
tial obstacles to what is to be accomplished? Prior to selecting a allows the customers requirements, desires, and preferences to be
solution or other type of alternative to implement, the potential taken into account throughout all processes, beginning with the
risks must be analyzed. That means considering the risks associ- design development activities and continuing through the produc-
ated with implementing an alternative before it is implemented. tion operations on the factory floor.
This is proactive, rather than reactive, thinking. QFD uses a series of relationship matrices to document and
High risk events will center around the activities that are analyze the relationships between factors. This discussion of QFD
critical. To help identify these show-stoppers, look for activi- emphasizes the method employed at each stage, what data is
ties that: analyzed, and the application of QFD to the DFM process.
Have a tight schedule. The cost of fixing a product design flaw increases as the
. Involve a new or complex situation. product proceeds through the design, transition, and production
. Require coordination of several functions] organizations, operations stages. A potential problem discovered in the design
. Are on the critical path. stage is far easier and less expensive to fix or remove than one
found during full-scale production. Stated another way, it is better
There are two elements of risk: likelihood and impact. The to have a proactive (or preventive) approach to potential problems
likelihood of the risk represents the probability that the risk may than to be reactive and wait for the problems to actually occur
occur. Is it very likely, or highly probable, that the risk event will before spending time to solve them. QFD provides a structured,
happen? It is helpful to know this so time can be spent on the proactive method for successful transition from customer require-
events that are, in fact, likely to happen. Impact represents the ments to production requirements. This transition is accomplished
severity of the damage resulting if the risk event does happen. in four stages: product planning to transform customer require-
Some events have a much larger impact (are more severe) than ments to design requirements; product deployment to transform
others. It is important for these to be identified, even if they are not design requirements to actual product characteristics; process
very likely to happen, because of their high impact. planning to link product characteristics to process requirements;
The overall risk for any one event can be mathematically and production planning to create detailed operating instructions.
represented by multiplying the likelihood by the impact. This The relationship between these stages, and the information passed
result can be helpful in prioritizing efforts to reduce or eliminate from stage to stage, is shown in Fig. 6-8.
the effects of these risks. One caution goes along with this: dont The basic structure and elements of the matrices are shown in
lose the two independent numbers, likelihood and impact, that Fig. 6-9. While the details of the matrices vary from stage to stage
result in this risk product. An event that may have serious or even within the QFD process, the basics are the same. The key steps in
catastrophic consequences (or impact) deserves attention even if completing the matrix are:
its likelihood is small.
Anticipating and identifying the potential risks is obviously not 1. List the customer requirements (the whats to be satis-
enough; action must be taken. To determine these actions, start by fied) down the left side of the matrix.
identifying the like] y cause of the risk event. Then, develop a list 2. Record the importance of each customer requirement using
of actions that may be taken to address the cause. Use everyone on a scale of 1 (very unimportant) to 10 (very important).
the team (or involved with implementation in any way) to develop These ratings are recorded in the column just to the right of
this list. the whats.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 6
QUALITY TOOLS
customer
requirements Product
* planning
stage
Product
+ %&#
Dwgn requirements
process
* planning
Product specifications stage
pmductiin
* phsning
Processrequirements stage
\
Cpwcrting instructs
3. List how the requirements will be satisfied. These hews next. The following discussion focuses on the four stages of QFD
are recorded across the top of the matrix. and how they can be applied to the DFM process.
4. Determine the relationship between each what and
how and document, using symbols denoting the Product Planning
strength of the relationships. These symbols are placed in The purpose of the product planning stage is to identify
the matrix location corresponding to the intersection of the customer requirements and translate them into design
what and how being analyzed. requirements.
5. For each chow, identify the level that best satisfies the Determine and organize customer wants. Products are de-
customer and record it in the how much section of the signed and produced with the obvious purpose of selling them to
matrix. the public (potential customers). Those products providing cus-
tomer satisfaction enjoy the benefits of repeat business. A com-
Recommendations on how these steps should be incorporated pany that listens to its customers early in the design and develop-
in the DFM process follow in the discussion of the four phases ment of its product, and is able to effectively translate these
of QFD. requirements into product features, has an increased chance for the
Figure 6-10 is a simplified version of the four matrices that sale of the product. Listening to the voice of the customer entails
might be used in the design and production of a computer hearing the wants, desires, and requirements the potential custom-
keyboard. The matrices are obviously not complete, since all of ers have for the product. Tools such as surveys, focus groups, and
the outputs from one stage should serve as inputs to the next. The interviews will help gather a list of customer requirements.
example demonstrates the type of information that is contained in This list of customer wants, since they will come from many
each stage and what specifically is carried from onc matrix to the different sources, will require sorting to organize them into
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t-low
t+aw much
meaningful categories. This will help in later analyses of the data. them into meaningful categories. Design requirements are the
The customer wants should then be recorded in the what hews that address the customer requirements ( whats ). This
sections of the matrix. step, done completely and accurately, will result in the voice of the
Determine technical and regulatory requirements. In many customer being integrated into the product design.
cases, requirements exist for the product in addition to those An example may help explain the activities described so far.
identified by the customers. These requirements are established by Assume the product being designed is a computer keyboard, and
technical and regulatory sources. They must be understood, and one of the customer wants is that the keys have the right touch.
incorporated into the initial design as whats on the matrix. This This want should have been recorded using the actual words that
way they will be addressed along with the customer requirements, the customers used in describing what characteristics they want in
Determine customer importance ratings. The purpose of this a keyboard. This want may then be translated into several design
task is to get an understanding of how important each of the requirements, including key push pressure, key spring-back time,
requirements is to the customers. This activity requires talking to and key top curvature.
the customers, directly if possible, to get their input. A numerical Determine the relationships between customer wants and
scale ( 1 to 10) is typically used to record the level of importance design requirements. Since it is the purpose of designers to
of the individual requirements. design products that completely satisfy customer wants, the
Conduct surveys of the competition. Competition surveys relationships between the wants and the design requirements must
determine how existing, similar products compare in satisfying be reviewed to ensure that each customer want is represented by at
customer wants. least one design requirement. Some of the design requirements
Establish design requirementa. Up to this point, the require- will be related to many of the customer wants, but more strongly
ments have been discussed and recorded using the actual words of to some than to others. For this reason, the factors are typically
the customers. Now, the customers wants must be translated into designated as having strong, medium, or weak relationships.
specific design requirements that are meaningful to designers. It is Establish design targets. Once the design requirements are
the responsibility of the team establishing these design require- determined, and their relationship with the customer wants docu-
ments 10 ensure that they completely satisfy the customer wants mented, the target values for the requirements should be estab-
and the technical and regulatory requirements. The design require- lished. A target value is the one that best satisfies the customer. In
ments, like the customer wants, should then be sorted to organize most cases, the customers will not know the actual value they
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Fig. 6-10 QFD matrices used in the design and production of a computer keyboard.
prefer, but they will be able to identify a prototype or model that Product Deployment
is set at the target value. Continuing with the computer keyboard Product Deployment is the second stage of the QFD process.
example, the customers may not bc able to express the optimal Its purpose is to translate the previously developed design require-
target value for the key spring-back time, but given samples of the ments into product specifications.
keyboards they can explain whether the keys spring back too fast Record the design requirements. The first step is to record
or too slow and select the most satisfactory sample. the design requirements developed in the Product Planning stage.
Determine the relationships between design requirements- These requirements, the hews in the previous stage, are
The relationships between the various design requirements them- recorded as the whats in this stage.
selves also should be reviewed. It is helpful for the design team to Include functional requirements. Some of the requirements
know whether the individual design requirements complement one for a product are the actual functions that it is expected to perform.
another, are not related, or adverse] y affect other requirements. These are often obvious and therefore not explicitly stated by the
These relationships are plotted on the roof of the matrix (the customers, but they need to be included because they are critical
entire matrix is sometimes called the house of quality). product characteristics. This list of functional requirements should
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be compiled by the design team, relying on their collective instruction documentation. The result of this step is always the
experience and understanding of the products purpose. actual work instruction documents used to communicate the
The next several tasks are directly analogous to the final steps specific actions that will be taken to produce the product.
of the Product Planning stage. Their purposes are similar, with the
aim of developing actual product characteristics with their associ-
ated target values, rather than design requirements.
PROCESS DOCUMENTATION AND
Determine product characteristics. This task determines the ANALYSIS
characteristics that are essential to accomplishing the purpose of Process documentation is a critical task in continual process
the product. The team should list all of the characteristics required improvement. It provides an opportunity to fully understand the
to satisfy the design and functional requirements previously current conditions in the processes so that improvement efforts can
identified. be focused.
Determine the relationship between design requirements
and product characteristics. The relationships between the two General Discussion
factors, design requirements and product characteristics, need to The first task in process documentation is to identify the
be understood to ensure that product characteristics identified by processes performed by the organization. Processes are activities
the team address all of the design requirements. that transform inputs to outputs. The working unit performs a
Establish product characteristic target values. The design process for every type of product or service it is responsible for
team should next establish the values of the product characteristics producing. Comprehensive documentation requires a complete list
that will best satisfy the design and functional requirements. These of the outputs from the unit. At this point, it is not necessary to be
values are the actual product specifications. concerned with who the customer is or what the requirements for
the output are; but all the outputs must be included in the listing.
Process Planning Next, the outputs should be grouped according to similarities in
Process planning is the third stage of the QFD process. Its the tasks and activities performed to produce them, An a@rity
purpose is to determine the manufacturing processes that will diagram is a useful tool which uses the collective judgement of the
actually produce the product, by relating the product characteris- team to group seemingly unrelated data and information. This
tics to specific manufacturing operations. procedure uses nonverbal reasoning and organizing skills. The
Record the critical product characteristics. The initial action steps involved in creating an affinity diagram are:
in process planning is to record the critical product characteristics 1. Selecting a topic to be discussed. Deciding on a topic
developed in the Product Deployment stage.
before beginning ensures that all the collected data is
Determine process constraints. Any existing process con- related. Input and output data should not be mixed, for
straints need to be identified at this point. These constraints may example; or customers and suppliers. It is important that all
include the prior selection of a specific vendor, manufacturing
team members understand the topic and the purpose of the
plant, or even a particular manufacturing technology (robotics,
activity. This pre-discussion gets everyone thinking the
automated inspection cells, etc. ). The design team must know same way.
about these constraints prior to the actual development of the 2, Collecting data or information about the topic. During this
manufacturing processes to be used to produce the product.
step, the team might use brainstorming to gather informa-
The design team also needs to know if the manufacturing tion, or they might study whatever documentation they
processes by which the product will be produced have previously
have available. The idea is to access as many sources of
been determined. If they have not, the team proceeds to identify
data as possible on the topic chosen for discussion.
and select the best processes.
3. Transfeming the data to cards or notes. One idea or piece of
Construct a master flow diagram. The major process ele- data is listed on each card. Putting separate pieces of
ments should be organized into a master flow diagram.
information on single cards or notes makes it very easy to
Determine the critical process parameters. The critical
sort the information. Of course, the actual documentation
parameters of each operation should be documented by listing the
can be used, rather than transferring the information onto
process parameters required to produce the product as designed.
cards or notes, but it may contain information that is not
These process parameters become the hews for this stage.
relevant to the topic being discussed. This extra informa-
Document the relationships between the product character-
tion may confuse the groupings.
istics and process parameters. The techniques for documenting
4, Sorting the cards into logical categories. Spread the cards
th~se relationships are exactly the same as those followed in the
or notes out on a table (or stick the notes up on a wall or
previous two stages. This step ensures that process parameters are
board) in no particular order. Have all team members
identified for each of the product characteristics.
gather around and move the cards into groups that seem
Establish process parameter target values. The target values
logical to them, Do not discuss the activity during the
are how much of each of the process parameters will most
grouping step. This grouping step is a kind of brainstorm-
effectively create the critical product characteristics.
ing, so comments and discussion could limit creativity.
Continue to look over the groupings and move cards until
Production Planning everyone reaches consensus. This activity can take quite a
Production planning is the culmination of the work done in the while with a large number of cards, but often the groupings
three previous steps. The results of the previous steps must now be are readily apparent to everyone. In the latter case, it
translated into detailed production instructions specific actions should take on] y a few minutes.
that allow everyone involved to understand what must be done to 5 Labeling the categories. Look at each group of cards and
meet the customers wants. The format of the production planning discuss what they have in common. Give each group a
output varies; each company uses a different form of work name that expresses the feature or features that are com-
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working unit can proceed to develop valid measurements of They are simple and understandable. A simple measurement
process performance and analyze the pr~ess to correct problems is one that is easy to use; it doesn t require complex
and effect improvements. calculations, for instance. An understandable measurement
is one that clearly means the same thing to everyone who
Process Performance Indicators uses it; everyone must agree with and understand what is
Processes should be measured to answer two important meant by percent defective, errors per document,
questions: first pass yield, or whatever measurements are used.
They are few in number. Measurements that do not provide
. IS the process doing its job? information are nonvalue-added. To avoid nonvalue-added
. IS the process improving? activities, organizations should use the minimum number of
There are a number of reasons for process measurement hidden measurements that provide the required information.
in these two simple questions. They are: They are visible to the users. Data and information should be
readily accessible to all users.
To find out if the processes are satisfying customer require- They are designed to show whether processes are improving.
ments. This reason is associated with the first question; the If the purpo~e of measurements is to detect and corre~t
one that asks whether the process is doing its job. Products process problems and improve process performance, process
and services are produced to meet customer requirements characteristics must be measured. This concept is very
this is the job of processes. Processes are managed so they important. There are many performance measurements in
will be successful, and measured to determine the level of place that do a very good job of measuring things other than
success. process characteristics -measurements like profit, reali-
Toidentify problems andareas for improvement. The goal zation, overtime premiums paid, and so forth. These mea-
for all processes is continual improvement. Process manag- surements do not provide detailed information about the
ers need to know if the processes are improving, getting performance of particular process characteristics, so they
worse, orstaying the same, andwhat the problems maybe. cant help correct process problems or improve process
Measurements provide information to help answer these performance.
questions. This function is an important part of process
management. These six criteria should be used as guidelines when develop-
To help focus on the mission and direct efforts toward ing measurements for processes. Process performance indicators
achieving goals and objectives. This reason is behind both should be developed and baseline data collected before process
questions. Iftheorganization isaccomplishing its mission, improvement activities proceed. Effective process analysis and
the most important part of which is to satisfy customers improvement require an understanding of the baseline perfor-
requirements, then the process is doing its job. Ifthe unit is mance levels of critical process characteristics.
achieving its goals and objectives, the most important of
which is continual improvement, then the process is obvi- Process Analysis
ously getting better. There is almost always a better way to perform any process.
To evaluate progress objectively, with facts, rather than Once the process is completely documented and measurements
subjectively. Every process manager needs objective facts to and process monitoring mechanisms have been installed, the
make good decisions about any process. Processes must be working unit can look at ways to make the processes more
adjusted on signals, not noise; changes or corrections must effective, efficient, and adaptable. Process analysis tools are
be made for a real reason and not because of a hunch. structured methods of analyzing processes and identifying im-
Measurements provide factual information for process eval- provements. Regardless of the type of application, process anal-
uation, correction, and improvement. ysis methods focus on the following areas:
To be meaningful, measurement should clearly answer both . Identifying possible failure points and developing preventive
questions. The following criteria describe meaningful mechanisms.
measurements: . Identifying and minimizing tasks that do not add value to the
products or services produced.
They are related to customer requirements. One of the
. Identifying and modifying tasks that could be eliminated,
reasons for measuring is to see if the process is doing its job;
simplified, reduced, or changed.
that is, satisfying the requirements of the internal and/or
external customers for whom the organization produces Three major process analysis methods are poke yoke (mistake-
products and services. Relating satisfaction of customer proofing), work flow analysis, and cost of quality (COQ) calcu-
requirements to process performance is the cornerstone of lations. Each method is briefly discussed in the paragraphs
establishing meaningful process measurements. that follow.
. They are developed by the people who will use them. The Poke yoke (mistake-proofing). Poke yoke is an analysis
measurements of a working units processes should be method that is primarily focused on the effectiveness of processes.
developed by the people who know the most about those Its aim is to maximize the probability that customer requirements
processes. The people in the unit know best how the will be satisfied each time the process is performed. Of course,
performance of the processes is related to success in satis- mistake-proofing processes generally leads to improved efficien-
fying customer requirements. They also know best what cies as well; total costs are reduced because of the marked
kind of information they need to make decisions about the reduction in costs of failure. Process documentation and historical
processes. One of the most important functions in process performance data are analyzed to determine points in the process
management is making decisions to correct and improve the where failures have occurred in the past or where they may occur
processes, and getting the right information is critical. in the future. For each point, the possible modes of failure are
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described in detail, along with the effects of each mode. Some Convene a team of process experts, ensuring representation
estimate of the probability of occurrence of each mode is generally from all affected functional organizations.
also a part of the initial analysis. The purpose of these steps is to . set goals for process improvements (for example, Reduce
gain an understanding of the criticality of the failure modes, so that cycle time in the engineering release process by 25?Z0).
installation of preventive mechanisms can be prioritized. . Gather and analyze documentation of the as-is process,
Analysis of the mechanisms (causes) for each mode is focused or completely document the process if documentation has
on determining tbe actual root cause(s) so tbe preventive mecha- not yet been accomplished.
nisms can be tailored effectively. Root cause analysis employs streamline the flows of material and information through the
many of the same qualitative and quantitative methods described process by: minimizing the number of moves and tbe
elsewhere in this chapter: cause-effect diagrams, relationship distance required; minimizing the number and duration of
diagrams, relationship matrices, and enumerative and analytic holds, storages, and/or queues; or eliminating all unneces-
statistical methods, Once root causes have been determined, the sary approvals and/or signatures.
process tasks are revisited. The team designs and installs a positive . Evaluate the necessity of all tasks that do not directly
mechanism to prevent each root cause from occurring. contribute to the transformation of inputs to outputs, espe-
Classical poke-yoke preventive mechanisms are generally cially evaluations, inspections, studies, and/or measure-
simple twe-step processes: a defect (or potential defect) is detected ments; eliminate all tasks that are deemed unnecessary and
and the system reacts to prevent the defect from continuing in, or minimize the time spent on those that remain part of the
entering, the process flow. The detection function is typically process.
accomplished with mechanical and/or electronic devices that . Scrutinize all value-adding tasks for opportunities to com-
Facilitate rapid 100% checking of the in-process product. Some bine operations, reduce the number of operations, eliminate
examples of poke-yoke detection devices are photoelectric tasks completely, or simplify operations.
switches, microswitches, proximity switches, positioning sensors, . Document new processes and implement improvements.
displacement sensors, metal detectors, guide pins, sized chutes Compare new process performance to improvement goals.
and/or slots, and mounting jigs with gages incorporated. Process analysis and improvement teams often use structured
The reaction function has three forms: brainstorming sessions to focus attention on successive tasks (or
Shutdown, wherein normal function of the process is sus- types of tasks, such as moves) as they systematically work through
pended when a defect is detected or predicted. For the process. Asking process-focused questions about each task
example, a conveyor belt that stops if plate stock of incorrect facilitates the identification of improvements. Some appropriate
thickness is detected by photoelectric switches, or a drill questions are:
press that will not allow the drill to be lowered into the . Does this task add value to any product or service?
workpiece if the limit switches are not all engaged, signal- . Can this task be eliminated completely?
ing correct placement of the materials in the jig. . HOW could this task be done in less time?
. Control mechanisms, which limit the ways a particular task . How could this task be done for less cost?
can be accomplished and/or do not permit defective items to could another unit or operator perform this task better?
continue in the process; examples are asymmetrical mount- Cost of quality calculations. In almost every work process,
ing holes which do not permit a faceplate to be mounted in there are two types of taskscalled vahre-adding and non-
an inverted position, or sized slots which cause fasteners of value-adding tasks. The majority of the process consists of
incorrect dimensions to fall into bins rather than entering the value-adding tasks those regular operations that actually help
loading chute of an automatic riveting machine. transform the inputs into outputs. Tasks like studying work,
. Warning devices, which sound audible alarms or tlash lights monitoring the process, or fixing errors may be very important
when defects occur or are about to occur. Combinations of parts of tbe process, but they dont directly help transform the
these forms are often used an alarm that sounds when a inputs to outputs; these tasks are nonvalue-adding (NVA) tasks.
machine shuts off, for instance. Figure 6-12 depicts the Process managers find it useful to understand the costs of the
relationships among the detection and reaction functions in NVA tasks performed as part of the process. Cost of Quality
poke-yoke mechanisms. (COQ) is a way of measuring these costsit is a process
Work flow analysis. These analysis methods are directed at management tool. Tbe name implies that it costs something extra
improving the efficiency of work processes, reducing the amount (over and above regular process costs, such as materials and labor
of resources consumed while performing the tasks and activities hours) to produce a quality product or service. COQ measurements
required to produce products or services. Analysts generally help process managers make better decisions about the way
concentrate first on the actual flows of material and information process resources are managed.
through the process (hence the name of the method) and attempt to The regular tasks that are performed cost something vahte-
minimize the number and distance of moves and the number and adding labor hours required to perform the task; materials ex-
duration of storage events and/or queues. Attention is then focused pended; power for heat and lights and to run the machines and
on the nonvalue-adding (NVA) tasks in the process, and every there is generally a good understanding of these costs. Most
effort is made to eliminate all NVA tasks or minimize the amounl functional departments have cost-tracking systetns that monitor
of time expended performing them. The final analysis steps are regular (value-adding) process costs and provide reports that
directed toward improving the value-adding tasks. The classical contain the required information. The costs of the NVA tasks and
improvement efforts in work flow analysis lead to combination, materials are often monitored by the same cost-tracking systems,
c Iim ination, simplification, and/or reduction of tasks. but they are rarely identified as NVA costs. Total process cost is
Process tasks should bc evaluated in a systematic way to ensure made up of these two types of costs and it is important to
that all possible improvements are identified and considered. A understand each piece of the total. Process managers need to be
commonly used approach is: able to make decisions based on facts about process costs.
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Reaction functions
+ shutdown
A dafect is shut to accur. The prucess can onty proceed the correctway -
This funcliin often invofves even inlenbxd errors are not PassMe.
detecting processconditions
r
thot are out of statisticalcontrol.
b Warning
> Deted
EZl
The defed has occurred. Defective itemsare screened out of the
This function utilizes a wide process flow.
variety of eleclricof and
mechanical &ices.
b Warning
Fig. 6-12 Relationships among the detection and reaction functions in poke-yoke mechanisms.
The process manager often has much more influence on the ing the total cost of all work processes will make any company
NVA costs than on the regular costs. He or she may be able to more profitable.
make some improvements to the process to reduce regular costs, The three COQ categories are shown in Fig. 6-13. The
but the largest area of opportunity is generally the cost of quality. following paragraphs briefly describe each category:
This category is where the waste in processes is most often
found finding and fixing things that have gone wrong; doing . Appraisal costs are costs of tasks performed to study work.
tasks over again; studying and re-studying work; or replacing Any kind of studying, inspecting, evaluating, or auditing
defective products that customers find and return. If the cost of task falls into this category. On process flow diagrams, an
quality can be reduced by changing the way processes are appraisal task is generally followed by a decision point (a
performed, the total process cost is automatically reduced. Reduc- diamond). Operators (or inspectors) often study the product
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Audits
Proofreading.
2. Failure costs are the costs performed to fix things that have
gone wrong.
Planning,
Pracess monitarmg,
Training.
Design reviews.
STATISTICAL METHODS
The primary application of statistical methods in industry is to
better understand the characteristics of a population or process.
This improved understanding can then serve as a basis for
decision-making and action. Fig. 6-15 COQ after process improvements.
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All populations and processes vary. Some amount of variation Proportions. A confidence interval estimate of a proportion
is inherent in everything. The train, for example, is never exactly should be used to evaluate a binomial population parameter. A
on time it may be ten seconds early or ten seconds late. To many classic example of this type of statistic is the estimation of the
people, this variation confuses and clouds issues, causing oppor- proportion of defective items in a total population from a sample
tunities for improvement to be missed or over-adjustments to be of items drawn at random from that population. Since proportion
made. In fact, there is information in variation which can be useful data is binomial (that is, it generally depends on a two-sided
in all improvement activities. Perfect constancy does not exist in decision, such as pass/fail), there is a different formula used for
this life; however, constant-cause systems do exist. Some basic calculating the interval; however, the basic principles are identi-
statistical techniques, interpretation skills, and common sense are cal. The proportion of favorable (or unfavorable) events in a
all that is required to determine whether a population or process randomly selected sample is calculated. The interval width is
belongs to such a constant, or common-cause system; they can determined based on sample size, sample variability, and the level
also be used to determine if something special or assignable from of confidence desired.
outside the system is disturbing the population or the underlying Standard Deviations. Although the standard deviation is an
processes. Utilizing these techniques, design engineers who are extremely useful measure of variability, it is nevertheless only a
also statistical thinkers can understand far more about the pro- point estimate. It is frequently useful to have an interval estimate
cesses for which they are designing parts. Process matching, as of the population standard deviation for a critical characteristic.
well as parameter and tolerance design, could be accomplished far Again, only the sample standard deviation, the sample size, and
more effectively. significance/confidence level desired are needed to estimate this
There are basically two types of statistical applications: enu- statistic.
merative and analytic. Hypothesis testing. Is the new material really of greater
hardness than the old? Do the drills from one supplier really last
longer than those from another? Is the cheaper paint more viscous
Enumerative Applications than the expensive brand? These are examples of the kinds of
Enumerative applications are designed to help make decisions questions that can be answered quite definitively with hypothesis
and/or take action on static populations. Static populations exist in testing. As with confidence intervals, testing a hypothesis depends
a given time period and location, and no reference is made to past upon drawing random samples from populations. Samples are then
performance or predictions of future performance. compared, leading to a conclusion or decision about the popula-
Enumerative studies are used to determine such things as tions being tested.
market share for a particular product in certain income classifica- Formulation of the hypothesis is the first step of hypothesis
tions, or estimation of the number of people in a certain area (such testing. Usually the initial statement of a hypothesis takes the
as a census). These types of studies depend on evaluations of following form:
random samples drawn from static populations. Although they
have analytic applications as well, confidence interval determinat- ~: The old method/process/material is the same as the
ions and hypothesis testing are two major tools that are usually new one.
used to support enumerative studies.
~ is common notation signifying the null hypothesis, the position
Confidence intervals. If one needed to know a particular or statement that is assumed to be correct unless evidence to the
parameter (such as the average or standard deviation) of a contrary is demonstrated by the test.
population and it is not practical to measure every member of the One or more alternative hypotheses can then be formulated.
population, a confidence interval estimate is the appropriate tool.
Using the notation H,, an alternative hypothesis is generally of the
Confidence intervals provide a point of estimate of the true form:
population parameter to a certain level of confidence (signifi-
cance). A confidence interval is usually shown as a point estimate Hl: The new method/process/material is different from the
plus or minus an interval. The interval takes into account the old one.
sample size, variation in the sample, and the level of confidence
desired. To calculate a confidence interval for a mean/average, If significant differences are found, then there is enough evidence
randomly select a sample from the population, calculate the to reject HO.
average and standard deviation, then read a significance factor Because hypothesis testing almost always involves the analysis
from the appropriate distribution table. of sample data, there is a chance of reaching an incorrect
The Student-t distribution is generally used for confidence conclusion, called decision error. The chances of this occurring
interval determination for averages and proportions, but if sample can be minimized by ensuring that samples are drawn at random
sizes are above thirty or so and the population is approximately and choosing an appropriate level of confidence (significance).
normal, the standard normal distribution and t distribution are very The two kinds of error that can be made are Type I ((Y.)error and
close; either may be used. When the calculations are complete, the Type II (~) error. The probability of rejecting HO (the null
concluding statement can be made. An example of such a hypothesis) if HO is actually true is ct. On the other hand, ~ error
statement, for an average of 25.67, confidence interval of f 1.33, is the probability of failing to reject Ho, when Ho is actually false.
and significance level of 95~0 is: Significance is usually expressed in terms of a error. For most
tests, confidence levels in the 90% to 99% range are needed.
We are 95% certain that the true average of the population is
Next, collect the sample data and calculate the appropriate test
less than 27 (that is, 25.67 + 1.33) and greater than 24.34 (that
statistic. The student-t distribution is generally used when dealing
is, 25.67 1.33).
with sample data, especially if sample means or sample propor-
Confidence intervals will widen as variation in the sample in- tions are being compared.
creases. The interval also tends to widen if greater confidence is Finally, the decision can be made as to whether to reject or fail
required, or if the sample size must be decreased. to reject the null hypothesis. This is done by comparing the
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QUALITY TOOLS
calculated test statistic to the critical value, read from the appro- nonmanagement). This type of information would also be of
priate distribution table. A calculated test statistic larger than the significant benefit to a design engineer; armed with the natural
critical value should be rejected. If the test statistic is smaller than bounds of the process, tolerance and parameter design would be
the critical value, then there is not enough evidence to reject the far easier.
null hypothesis. Any apparent differences could have happened Data types. There are two different types or categories of data:
by chance. attributes and variables data.
Many traditional quality control functions in U.S. industry are Attributes data. Often it is necessary to classify data by
basic enumerative applications. For example, suppose that a category, to make some judgement about a critical characteristic
manufacturing operation at an aerospace company has just finished (pass/fail, go/no-go) prior to plotting, to count the number of
processing a large panel for an airplane. Traditional practice occurrences, or to track the proportion of items in a given
indicates that it is now the responsibility of the quality control category. Processes being evaluated in this way tend to generate
inspector to evaluate the condition of the panel. Since it is too attributes data. Attributes data is most appropriate when direct
time-consuming and costly to 100% inspect every characteristic, measurement of critical characteristics is not possible or not
an enumerative-style evaluation would be used. A certain number meaningful. Occurrences of certain types of errors, requests for
of rivets (or whatever characteristic is being inspected) would be emergency maintenance service, or the proportion of items that
randomly sampled and evaluated to certain criteria. Using standard fail to meet a particular standard over time are examples of
tables based on a level of consumers risk (that is, the amount attributes data applications.
of risk the customer is willing to accept of receiving some Variables dara. When direct measurements provide informa-
unsatisfactory product), a decision is made about the condition of tion on critical process characteristics, the data is recorded as a
this specific panel: Is it acceptable? Does it fail inspection? Is variable. Variables data typically provides more information than
rework required? attributes data because the characteristic is measured directly,
In the example, no thought is given to the underlying process without categorization or judgement being applied. Lengths,
that produced the part; this is no basis for predicting future thicknesses, diameters, weights, volumes, temperatures, and du-
performance of the processes of panel fabrication or assembly rations are a few examples of variables data characteristics that
(even though in practice such inferences are often made, to the could be measured to provide information about processes.
detriment of the processes under consideration). Process stability. What are the critical areas of the product?
All enumerative studies are subject to a certain amount of What process characteristics are critical in creating these critical
sampling error (the difference between the sample and what would product characteristics? Is the process stable and consistent? Is the
have been found by 100% inspection). This sampling error can be process capable of doing what is wanted of it? The answers to
reduced by increasing the number of samples taken, provided they these questions are as critical to the design engineer and process
are selected as randomly as possible to minimize bias. Unfortu- engineer as they are to the operator on the shop floor. All need the
nately, cost invariably increases with sample size. In an enumer- information provided by elementiuy statistical analysis, performed
ative application, a major challenge is to tlnd the balance between on data collected and charted on a control chart.
allowable sampling error and acceptable cost. Before actually discussing the types of control charts specifi-
cally, a general understanding of process stability and capability is
Analytic Applications needed. A stable process is one in which only random variation is
If the aim is to make decisions and take action on a dynamic present; that is, only the natural variation of the process is
process, the application is analytic. A dynamic process is a process operating. Such a process is said to be in a state of statistical
that has a past, a present, and a future. In the previous example, control, or in-control. A process that exhibits instability illus-
proper disposition of a panel based on an enumerative study was trates that something outside the process (something special or
discussed. If the intent is to control and adjust the process, analytic assignable) is at work. When process matching, or during
techniques must be utilized. Critical process characteristics must tolerance or parameter design, only processes that have been
be determined. Samples must be taken as close to creation of the brought into statistical control should be used. Processes that are
characteristic in question as possible, and in production (rather in-control are the only ones that provide some basis by which
than random) order. A statistical tool called the control chart is the future performance can be predicted.
best method for evaluating such a dynamic process. Control charts. The control chart is the primary analytic tool
The control chart, plotted in production order, can help decide used to describe a process and determine whether or not it is in a
whether or not a process is in statistical control (that is, stable). A state of statistical control. When a control chart is properly
process that is in statistical control is exhibiting only normal, designed and interpreted, the presence of special or assignable
natural variation. There is no indication of a special or assignable cause variation will be revealed. The source of the problem can
cause disturbing the process. Its near term behavior is predictable. then be diagnosed and solved, and the process returned to a state
Its performance may not be acceptable, but it is possible to have a of statistical control. The control chart is also useful in describing
very good idea of what is going to happen in that process in the the inherent capability of a process. If a process is in statistical
short term. When something other than the natural variation of the control, it is capable of performing consistently within a certain
system of causes is acting on the process, the control chart should range. This is called the natural variation inherent in the process,
show an out-of-control condition. and bounds the natural limits of a processs capability; that is, it
The control chart can be used as a cornerstone for almost any enables the prediction of the natural operating range of the process
process improvement activity. As a routine monitoring tool, the over time, when only common cause variation is present.
control chart can provide information to the process operator, Rational subgrouping. Previous reference has been made to
telling when to take action locally by making an adjustment to properly designed control charts. Generally, this refers to the
eliminate a special cause. If a process is in statistical control practice of rational subgrouping: selecting subgroups (samples) in
(stable) but not capable of doing what is needed, a signal is sent to such a way that if special causes are present, the chance for
management to improve the system (usually with the help of differences between subgroups will be maximized, and the
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QUALITY TOOLS
chances for differences within subgroups will be minimized. The the occurrence of recognizable patterns in the data line. Processes
most commonly used technique for rational subgrouping is to plot should be predictable within the control limits, but if it is possible
data in production order, or in order of occurrence. This provides to predict exactly where the next point will plot, there is probably
the best opportunity to detect the presence of special causes that a detectable pattern indicating an out-of-control condition. Refer
occur over time. to Chapter 2 of Volume 4, Quality Control and Assembly, for
Data that was collected from products that were produced close examples.
together in time should be grouped in the same subgroup when the Western Electric rules. In addition to the nonrandom patterns,
primary purpose of the chart is to detect changes to the process. there are some additional indicators of out-of-control conditions
This minimizes the chances of variability within a sample and called the Western Electric Rules (so called because they were first
maximizes the chances of variation between samples. codified as such by the Western Electric Company in 1956).
Control chart components. All control charts, whether based Control limits are designed to show to a high degree of confidence
on variables or attributes data, have the same basic components. that when data points are plotted in a certain configuration, there
The run line, or data line, is a line of individual points, counts, or is something other than random variation present, indicating the
averages over time. The average line is based on the process high probability of the presence of a special cause. Refer to
average or grand average of the data being considered. Finally, the Chapter 2 of Volume 4 for examples.
control limits define the boundaries of the natural or normal Once out-of-control conditions have been identified and re-
variation that is a routine part of the operation of that process. solved, the process is said to be in statistical control. Only random
The control limits set the control chart apart from other variation is present; there are no special causes indicated. The
seemingly similar monitoring tools. They are based on estimates process is behaving naturally. A design engineer may now rely on
of three standard deviations from the process average, and have no the future behavior of the process, assuming, of course, that
relationship to specification limits, desires of management, or any monitoring continues routinely and special causes do not creep
other goal or arbitrarily imposed guideline. They are based solely into the process. The next logical question: Is the process doing
on the action of the process under consideration, and some basic what is needed? This question goes beyond statistical control or
probability theory. Appropriate interpretation of the control chart, stability; it can only be answered by evaluating the process
primarily consisting of the application of certain rules to the capability.
interaction between the run line, the process average, and the Process capability. If a process is performing consistently and
control limits, can determine if a process is behaving in the same is meeting the minimum requirements of its internal and external
way that it always has, or if something different (a special cause) customers, it can be described as a capable process. In this section,
has disturbed the process. specification limits are used to describe the boundaries of mini-
Process inlout of control. A process really has only two states: mum acceptable customer standards for critical process character-
in statistical control or out of statistical control. Because of the istics, but it should be understood that the customer requirements
desire to avoid Type 1 decision error (that is, to avoid over- are not restricted to specification limits. Any characteristic or
adjustment of processes), the process is generally assumed to be in process parameter can be used, whether or not there is a corre-
statistical control (stable) unless there is an identifiable out- sponding specification requirement.
of-control condition present. There are a number of out-of-control Process capability may be described as the relationship be-
conditions, some of which are described in this section. tween the centering and natural variability of a process and its
When a process is out of statistical control, it does not specifications or requirements. The more the variation of this
necessarily mean that anything is wrong with the process. It critical characteristic is reduced, the greater the capability of the
simply means that something has changed or is different from the process. The Capability Index, or CP index, describes numerically
routine way the process has been operating in the past. An the relationship between the specification limits width and the
out-of-control condition should be investigated, to be sure; but natural variabilityy present in the process. The higher the C ~ index,
corrective action is not always automatic. For instance, if an the greater the capability of the process. Most industries in the
operator made a process change that helped, it may show up as an U.S. and Japan define a capable process as one that has a CP index
out-of-control condition. This would be an indicator that the of 1,3 or greater (reference Chapter 2, Volume 4).
change had an effect. The possibility of applying the improvement Improving the capability of a process is very different in
to other similar processes should be investigated. If a process is approach from resolving a special cause of nonrandom variation
out of statistical control, it should not be used to guide process due to an out-of-control condition. Special causes can generally be
matching, parameter design, or tolerance design until the special resolved by someone on the job locally; capability improvement
causes have been identified and eliminated. In general, special generally requires the intervention of management, because the
causes can be identified, and often removed, by the actions of system itself must be improved. Reduction of variation by improv-
someone on the job locally, such as an operator. Using some ing the system may require re-thinking of some fundamental
elementary statistical theory by applying a few basic rules for company habits or ways of doing business. For example, is there
identification of out-of-control conditions, operators can fully excessive variation in the machine shop because tools and raw
utilize their job knowledge by attacking the special causes of materials are bought based on purchase price alone? Are operators
abnormal variability. properly trained? Is there a reasonable preventive maintenance
Out-of-control conditions. Although others exist, the most program? These kinds of issues cannot be addressed without the
commonly occurring out-of-control conditions are nonrandom intervention of management. What operators, for example, could
patterns and the Western Electric Rules. create and schedule a class for themselves without management
Nonrandom patterns. Natural processes are expected to behave providing the resources and time?
randomly (stochastically). When they do not, it should be assumed It is absolutely essential that design engineers understand the
that something other than the normal process variation is at work capability of the processes for which they are designing parts. This
and that special causes of this unnatural variation should be sought helps the engineer resist the temptation to ask for tolerances that
out and eliminated. One way of identifying nonrandom behavior is are twice as tight as what is actually needed in the hope that, when
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CHAPTER 6
QUALITY TOOLS
they are not held, rework will be possible. With a clearer separate important factors from unimportant ones; that is, to
understanding of the processes, process matching to achieve separate those factors that have a significant effect on the creation
lowest total cost and design intent can be accomplished much more of one or more critical characteristics from those which have little
effectively. effect within a wide range. Once important factors have been
separated, further iterative experimentation should be conducted to
DFM and Experimental Design optimize the factors and their interactions. Implementation of the
To understand the applications of industrial experimentation, experimental results often improves the processes, utilizing exist-
an understanding must be reached regarding a preconception that ing equipment to the point that new capital infusions are not
pervades manufacturing management in the United States: higher needed. Conscientious parameter design helps to optimize existing
quality costs more money. While it is certainly true that a equipment, while systems design simply assumes that nothing can
Mercedes-Benz automobile costs more than a Ford Escort, it be accomplished without buying new equipment.
should certainly not be concluded from this example that higher The broad strategy for process/product design and improvement
quality has to cost more. These two products are designed to meet should be to start with parameter design. If this proves ineffective,
different customer needs. In similar product lines, price and tolerance design may be attempted. If neither technique is effec-
quality are often directly (not inversely) proportional. tive, the system design approach (new equipment, facility, etc. )
Different companies have chosen different definitions for should be employed.
quality, depending on their customers, corporate philosophy, etc.
Conformance to requirements, fitness for use, and contin- Planning and Conducting a Designed
uous variability reduction are three excellent definitions of Experiment for Parameter Design.
quality. To fully appreciate the potential for gains from experi- A successful experiment is one which reveals the truth; that is,
mental design, an enhancement of these views of quality should be one which explains the actual effect certain factors have on the
considered: Dr. Genichi Taguchis Loss to Society concept. critical feature being evaluated. In order to maximize the chance of
Essentially, the loss to society concept states that loss occurs completing a successful experiment by this criterion, several
independently of who pays for the loss. A product under warranty prerequisites must be in place:
that fails after the warranty has expired is paid for by the customer;
Teamwork is essential. The team should include process
the loss, obviously, is to the customer. Not so apparent is the loss
operators as well as supervision or management representa-
incurred by the manufacturer if the product fails while under
tion. All cognizant personnel, regardless of function or
warranty, This type of loss may show up in futare price increases
department, should be involved on this team and have input,
by the manufacturer and affect that manufacturers ability
especially in the initial design phases. This helps ensure that
to compete.
no critical process factors are overlooked.
Taguchi attempts to quantify the loss to society incurred by
All team members must thoroughly understand internal
poor quality with his loss function, a parabolic function based on
customersupplier relationships as they apply to the pro-
the second term of the Taylor expansion (power) series. It suggests
cesses that are being investigated. This helps ensure that the
that as a critical product feature or characteristic deviates from its
experiment has the appropriate goals: improvement of qual-
target or nominal, it runs not only a greater risk of failure, but also
ity and the achievement of lowest total cost. Without this
causes loss in terms of imperfect customer satisfaction. Reduction
strong customersupplier orientation, there is often a bias
of variation about these critical characteristics through lowest total
toward optimizing individual areas or departments, often at
cost parameter design is the primary purpose for using experimen-
the expense of downstream processes.
tal design as a DFM tool.
Management must understand the basics of experimental
System design, tolerance design, and parameter design are
design. Managers are far more likely to invest money in
the three approaches that can be taken when designing for
experimentation if they understand and believe in the effi-
manufacturability.
cacy of what is being done. Additionally, they are more
System design. System design has been briefly described
likely to implement the results of experimentation if they
above: better quality will mean new machines/equipment, retool-
understand and are involved in the experimental design
ing, more expensive materials, more inspection operations in
planning and development.
other words, getting better quality will cost more. (Unfortunately,
The involvement of a fully qualified industrial engineer or a
many companies begin with system design considerations, leading
mathematical statistician ~often both) is essential; to design
to very expensive proposals for capital equipment or other high-
the experimental array and guide the team on a path that will
cost options before the true process needs are understood).
ensure statistical validity and minimize the chance that an
Tolerance design. Tolerance design, an alternative to system
expensive experiment is conducted but provides no real
design, involves tightening tolerances to achieve variability reduc-
information. Additionally, the chances for proper analysis
tion. Even if 100% inspection were 100~0 effective (which it is
and interpretation of results will be ensured.
not), this is an extremely expensive approach. Tolerance adjust-
ment does not change the process, which continues to create Basic design of experiment (DOE) procedures. Once these
critical features under the same system of causes, hence the same prerequisites have been met, the stage is set for effective and
distribution. Tightening tolerances without taking steps to improve successful experimentation.
the process has the effect of increasing costs by generating more The first task of the DOE team is to revisit the critical
inspection costs, scrap, and rework. characteristics that are being analyzed. Once the team is satisfied
Parameter design. Parameter design should be the first step in that the chosen characteristics are appropriate, a way to evaluate
designing for manufacturability, since it is the most effective and the interaction of the factors with respect to lhe characteristic(s)
efficient way to improve processes and reduce the variation of must be chosen. This technique, often called response measure-
critical product features. The initial broad aim of parameter design ment or response evaluation, is a key part of experimental design.
involves studying the process through experimental means to Repeatable and accurate techniques for measuring the response
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QUALITY TOOLS
must be devised to provide reliable, valid data for post- of samples or trials does reduce confidence and increase the
experimental analysis. For example, if an automatic rivet process experimental error or noise), a design can generally be selected
were being analyzed using DOE, one response might be the that will cause information loss only in the relatively rare three-and
number of holes drilled without chatter marks. four-way interactions between factors. Virtually the same infor-
The team must now consider factors which may have an effect mation about two-way interactions and, of course, about main
on the response that has been chosen. There are two basic kinds of effects is available as when using the full factorial design. In a
factors which should be considered: controllable factors and sense, the fractional factorial designs can be said to spread the
uncontrollable factors. To carry on with the previous example, effect of the eliminated trials throughout the design to preserve
some controllable factors might be drill supplier (A or B), feed rate orthogonality (balance).
(high or low), and spindle speed (high or low). Some factors that Another effect-spreading technique that should be considered
the team might consider uncontrollable are ambient temperature, at this point in the process is called blocking. Blocking is used to
humidity levels, etc. In reality, of course, all factors are control- increase the precision of an experiment when information is
lable if an unlimited amount of money is spent to control or alter already known about one or more of the factors. For example, if
them; however, using parameter design, the attempt is to build a information about a particular tool suppliers product is already
product that is relatively insensitive (robust) to effects from well understood with respect to its impact on the product, it should
uncontrollable factors. This allows some reduction in the generally be evenly distributed throughout the runs so that it does not cloud
large expense of trying to control the uncontrollable factors, the analysis of other factors.
without degrading the product. Once the design matrix has been finalized, the test run order
Factor levels must then be selected for incorporation into the should be randomized. This ensures high confidence that the
design array. This can only be accomplished effectively by the experimental observations are independently distributed random
process experts on the team. Levels should be chosen at the variables. A properly randomized experiment can help average out
rational extremes of the process; that is, far enough apart that the the effects of extraneous factors that may be present, so that they
effect can be distinguished from the other extreme, but not so far are more or less evenly distributed throughout the experiment and
apart that they are out of the meaningful operating range of the do not mask or weight a main effect.
process. If the factor is approximately linear, two levels are Actual conduct of the experiment can now begin. Ideally, one
generally sufficient. If the team suspects some parabolic behavior or more of the team members should conduct the experiment;
(that is, a significant change in the response between the two however, this is not absolutely necessary provided the personnel
extreme factors), three levels may be needed to ensure that the conducting the trials are informed as to the nature of the experi-
experiment detects this effect. ment and have enough background to understand its purpose.
The experimental array can now be designed. It has heen Once the experiment is complete, measurements should be taken
common practice in U.S. industry to evaluate the chosen factors of the response (dependent variable) and recorded.
one at a time. Often this is done informally: <Here, operator Replication, or a repetition of the basic experiment, should be
Smith, take this drill and run it for a while and tell me what you considered at this point. Replication allows the experimentation
think. If you dont like it, we wont buy from those people any team to obtain an estimate of experimental error (or the amount of
more... This technique is not only extremely expensive, but also noise) in the experiment. The purpose of this technique is to
yields results that are very unreliable and often completely enhance the confidence that the results of the experiment will
misleading. A well designed experiment should allow the chang- approximate what is observed following implementation. This
ing of levels and interaction of factors simultaneously on each estimate of error becomes a basic unit of measurement for
experimental trial or run. determining whether observed differences in experimental data are
The number of trials needed should be determined, based on significant differences.
the amount of money available for experimentation; the level of Data analysis should be accomplished at this point by an
confidence, precision, and accuracy required of the results; and the industrial engineer familiar with experimental design, or a math-
number of factors which must be evaluated. To get complete ematical statistician using standard statistical techniques such as
interplay between all factors and levels, a full factorial experiment analysis of variance (ANOVA) including the t test, the F test, etc.
should be conducted. To compute the number of trials necessary to Once the analysis results are obtained, inferences and conclu-
try all possible treatment combinations, the level of each factor sions can be drawn. At this point, the team should have an
should be multiplied by the number of factors with that level. For excellent idea as to which factors are important and which can vary
example, when planning an experiment with four two-level widely without having much effect on the characteristics under
factors, the number of runs necessary to try all possible treatment observation. It is advisable to conduct a confirmation run at this
combinations is 2] X 21 X 21 X 21 = 24 = 16 total runs. If there point using the results obtained from the experiment. This is useful
were 2 factors at two levels and one factor at three levels, it would in verifying the conclusions reached prior to full implementation
require2] X 2] X 3] = 22 X 31 = 12 total runs necessary to try of the process.
all possible treatment combinations. Implementation and follow-up. Although the actual experi-
If there are more than four factors that must be explored, full ment is now complete, no benefit has yet been derived. Benefits
factorial experimentation can quickly become far too expensive are obtained not from effective experimentation alone, but in the
and time-consuming to conduct. The fractional factorial method is implementation of the results of such experimentation. Good
an excellent way to deal with this situation. Basically, this teamwork up front should continue to pay dividends during
technique involves a randomized reduction in the number of implementation activities. If the personnel performing the process
experimental trials, statistically designed to destroy only minimal have been involved from the beginning, they will feel ownership
amounts of information and to produce high confidence that main of experimental results (instead of feeling that it was just some-
effects and two-way interactions between factors that have signif- thing done in the lab) and will be more eager to implement the
icance will be indicated by the experimental results. While there is results on their processes. This helps ensure that improvements
no such thing as a statistical free lunch (reduction in the number become permanent, established parts of the process.
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CHAPTER 6
QUALITY TOOLS
Particularly for the benefit of the design engineer, it should be is inherent in every factorial design; however, using a few
noted that despite the best efforts of the experimentation team, and additional experimental trials can ensure that only three- and
no matter how striking the results obtained from the experiment, four-way interactions are confounded with main effects. Since
there is always a chance that the full benefit potential will never be these types of interactions are rarely significant, the amount of lost
realized on the shop floor. Personnel or management changes can information is minimized. Additionally, Taguchi recommends
affect the permanence of the changes over the long term. Addi- using inner and outer experimental arrays to evaluate the effect of
tionally, the statistical techniques utilized in experimental design main factors and noise (uncontrollable) factors. Classical random-
are generally considered to be enumerative in nature. Technically, ized, fractional-factorial designs can often provide the same
therefore, the results do not necessarily represent process behavior information as this type of Taguchi design with fewer experimen-
over time. The best way to monitor process behavior and avoid the tal trials.
problems associated with these concerns is to use the control chart, Taguchi methods are often explained from a more practical
an analytic tool, to monitor the critical characteristics as described perspective than classical methods, and for that reason have
earlier in the statistical methods section. This technique provides become very popular at many companies. Indeed, many impres-
excellent information to the concerned design engineer, and helps sive improvements have been made using all of Dr. Taguchis
to determine if design intent is being met over a long period techniques. The intent of this section has been to alert the design
of time. engineer to the differences between the classical and pure Taguchi
Taguchi methodology. Certainly U.S. industry is deeply in approaches, so that the trade-offs inherent in the decisions to be
debt to Dr. Genichi Taguchi, who is primarily responsible for a made can be appropriately assessed.
rebirth of interest in experimental design in this country during the
past 10 to 15 years. There are, however, many misconceptions
Measurement System Evaluation
about the Taguchi methodology that should be addressed. Several
Prior to making final decisions concerning process matching or
of Taguchis concepts have been discussed earlier in this section,
tolerancing, it is important to consider the potential contribution of
and some of his experimental design suggestions have been
the measurement system to the variability of the process being
incorporated into the procedures described above. The balance of
considered. Poor measurement systems reduce the ability to
this section will therefore be devoted to highlighting differences
demonstrate control or capability, and make investigation into the
advantages and disadvantages between the Taguchi philosophy
sources of variation difficult. Constant-cause system variability
and classical methods.
consists of process variability plus measurement variability. Mea-
Many people in the U.S. today use Taguchi methods and DOE
surement variability consists of operator variability, gage (instm-
interchangeably. This is a mistake. Taguchi did not invent
ment) variability, and environmental variability (such as the part
orthogonality, or full or fractional factorial designs. Most of the
contour, conditions, or position). This effect can be expressed
techniques he recommends would be s~dndard practice for con-
symbolically:
ducting a classically designed experiment as well, His statistical
work is excellent, though similar to the efforts of classical Is, = up + Um (1)
statisticians such as Fisher, Plackett, Burman, and Rau. There are,
and u~ =Uo+ug+ue (2)
however, several practical differences between Taguchi and clas-
sical experiments that directly affect the conduct of the experiment where u = the amount of variation in the process
and could potential y impact the response(s) obtained.
s = system variability
In any enumerative statistical study, randomization is perhaps
p = process
the single most important consideration. A randomized run order
m = measurement system
in a designed experiment provides the best protection against the
o = operator variation
confounding of main effects with blocking effects, and other
g = gage variation
similar maladies that may destroy information. In spite of this,
e = environmentally induced variation
Taguchis methods place little emphasis on the randomization of
the order of experimental trials. In fact, they even provide the The following case study will be used to illustrate proper
option of purposely not randomizing factors that are difficult or evaluation of a measurement system:
expensive to vary in order to minimize the cost of the experiment. To evaluate the precision and accuracy of an automatic hole
While this certainly simplifies the conduct of the experiment, drilling operation, two engineers, Rushing and Hartwell, took
failing to randomize may make it impossible to separate the main measurements of countersink hole diameters. Each engineer took
effects from blocking effects. This can lead to incorrect conclu- three measurements of each hole and plotted the data on X-bar and
sions being drawn from the results, or the possibility of performing R charts. The data was grouped according to hole; that is, all
an entire experiment without gaining any reliable information. measurements of each hole were grouped together. Thirty holes
Taguchi designs generally call for smaller sample sizes than were chosen (although one person measured 31). The data
classical methods. This characteristic is viewed by many to be a subgroup size was three.
significant advantage of the Taguchi approach. Unfortunately, Designed in this manner, both R charts show precision, the
however, basic statistical principles demand a trade-off reduction magnitude of the measurement error (see Figs. 6-16 and 6-17).
of samples (trials) causes a loss of information. Taguchis This is true because the R values represent differences between
reduced-run arrays seem similar in nature to the saturated designs successive measurements made by the same instrument on the
developed by Plackett and Burman in the 1940s and 1950s. They same piece of product. When the R chart shows instability, it
also have the same drawbacks as these Plackett-Burrrtan designs: probably means that the operator is having difficulty in taking the
main effects are biased with two-factor interactions. Interactions measurements consistently. A study conducted in this manner
between two main effects are quite common in many processes, might indicate a need for system improvement of the operator,
and often a significant amount of information is lost when these gage, or environment, or some combination of the three. In
interactions cannot be separated from main effects. Some biasing general, a good measurement system should have a low centerline
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CHAPTER 6
QUALITY TOOLS
+0.s093
+0.A703
7 10 30
+0.0070
LICL
+0.0014 CL
+0.0000 LCL
+0.5090
UCL
+0.4976 CL
LCL
+0.4780
1 10 30
+0.01 50
UCL
+0.0029 CL
LCL
and low upper control limit on the R chart, and there should be few only out-of-control condition on this particular part was traced
indications of instability. If the R chart is stable, the measurement to extreme contour on one hole. Both operators noticed this
system is repeatable; that is, only the natural variation inherent in effect. This is indicative of measurement system repeatability
the measurement system is present. (In the current example, the statistical control.)
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The X-bar chart, on the other hand, shows the discriminating out-of-control conditions that do not exist on the production
power of the instrument. Note that the X-bar chart is out-of-control control charts.
throughout the data. This type of chart requires a special interpre- . R chart out-of-control Cannot trust out-of-control condi-
tation which is very different from the interpretation given to the tions on the production control charts, because they may
ordinary shop chart or process capability study. The plotted points reflect the measurement system rather than the process.
represent different holes. The control limits, being derived from Measurement system capability It is generally recom-
the measurement error chart, represent the inability of the mea- mended that the measurement system consume no more than
surement system to tell one piece from another that is, the area 10% of the key characteristics engineering tolerance.
over which this instrument is not capable of discriminating. If the Correction or improvement of the measurement system may be
X-bar points stayed in-control, it would mean that the measuring accomplished by changes in the methods or equipment used to
system could detect no difference between the pieces of product. measure the key characteristic, such as:
In the example, the X-bar chart reveals that the measurement
Training of operators/inspectors.
system is capable of telling the difference between two holes that
really are different. . Changing operating procedures.
A good measuring instrument, suitable for measuring this . Upgrading measurement devices.
product, should have such narrow control limits that all or most of Simplified versions of this study may be conducted to leamr
the X-bar points will be thrown out-of-control. more about differences in operator, gage, etc. For example, to
Several conclusions concerning the measurement system make a judgment about a measurement instrument, a standard
should be reached based on evaluation of the control charts in block should be used, and only one operator, This helps dampen
Figs. 6-16 and 6-17: the noise from the environment and operator differences.
The measurement system is generally repeatable. The only BENCHMARKING
out-of-control condition was shown to be related to a hole Benchmarking is an analytical process for measuring a com-
that was awkwardly positioned on the part with respect to the panys operations against the best companies both inside and
parts holding fixture. outside its industry.
The measurement system is generally capable of detecting
differences between holes that are actually different. General Discussion
The measurement system is not capable of meeting the needs There are two types of benchmarking: strategic and opera-
of the process. It; variation is- too wide. M~asurement tional. Strategic benchmarking focuses on the entire operation of a
system capability is the total spread or range of multiple company and compares its performance in key areas with other
measurements of the same feature, which corresponds companies, usually in the same (or very similar) industry. As its
roughly to the upper control limit (UCL) of the range chart. name implies, strategic benchmarking analysis helps a company
The capability of a measurement system can also be ex- develop strategic plans, by identifying performance gaps that
pressed as a percentage of the engineering tolerance con- should be closed and competitive discriminators that could be
sumed by the measurement system. exploited. Operational benchmarking, on the other hand, focuses
on the performance of discrete processes within a companys
measurement system capability
70 of tolerance = x 100 (3) operations. This type of analysis usually ranges far afield, as
USL LSL analysts identify and study best-in-class processes, regardless of
where USL = upper specification limit the industry or type of company they are found in. Operational
LSL = lower specification limit benchmarking analysis usually focuses on both efficiency and
effectiveness of processes. The goal of operational benchmarking
In the example study, operator Hartwell had a range UCL of is to achieve superior cost and performance levels in critical
0.00756 (O. 1920 mm). Dividing this by the specification width of company processes, to differentiate the company from its direct
0.010 (0.25 mm) and multiplying by 100, the measurement competition. It is the most common type of benchmarking and has
system consumes about 75% of the engineering tolerance. Oper- the most applicability to the DFM process.
ator Rushings system consumed approximately 38~o. Regardless of the focus of the benchmarking effort (operational
The measurement system in this example, while not capable, is or strategic), the analysis generally includes these steps:
not as bad as it could be. Statistical stability of the range chart
indicates that out-of-control conditions seen on the process control 1. Selecting the processes or functional areas within the
charts really belong to the process and are not induced by the company that are to be benchmarked (those that will
measurement system. However, due to the large amount of benefit most from the benchmarking process or are most
variation in the range chart (which shows variation in the same critical to the competitive success of the company), and
hole measured three times) it may actually mask some out- identifying key performance indicators to measure the
of-control conditions that may indicate process changes. These processes.
indicators would be lost in the noise of the measurement system. 2. Identifying the best-in-class companies for each process to
Some general rules for measurement system evaluation are be benchmarked. Best-in-class companies are those that
listed below: perform each process at the lowest cost, with the highest
degree of customer satisfaction. They can be direct com-
X-bar chart Indicates discriminatory power of measure- petitors (domestic or foreign) or from a different industry.
ment instrument, addressed by standard calibration activity For instance, a manufacturing company seeking to improve
(an accuracy measurement). the effectiveness of its customer service process might
. R chart Indicates repeatability, which standard calibration analyze how a successful mail-order clothing company
practices often do not address (a measure of precision). achieves consistently superior service ratings from its
. R chart in-control The measurement system will not induce customers.
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CHAPTER 6
QUALITY TOOLS
3. Comparing the best-in-class processes with the in-house operations. Those processes which are widely regarded as
processes using the performance indicators. The purpose of needing substantial improvements represent high benchmark
this comparison is to identify gaps in performance between priorities.
the in-house processes and the best-in-class processes.
Each of these criteria should be considered when selecting
4. Specifying programs and actions to meet and surpass the
processes to ensure effective and efficient benchmarking. It is
competition, then implementing these programs by setting
important to remember that benchmarking is not an end in itself,
specific improvement targets and deadlines, and reviewing
but rather a means to an end. The criteria should be used to select
and updating the analysis over time.
processes that are important to the competitive position of the
The analysis activities involved in benchmarking are not company and where potential improvements are likely to be large.
completely new or revolutionary. In fact, many companies already There is little to be gained from benchmarking processes where the
practice informal benchmarking. Experience has shown, however, likely improvements are either very small or of negligible impor-
that companies that develop a systematic approach to benchmark- tance to the overall operation.
ing and create an organizational infrastructure to support the Benchmarking analysis measures a process in terms of specific
process are likely to achieve significantly greater improvement performance indicatorsfor example, measurements that reflect
than companies which rely on their informal process. Each of the performance levels of important process variables: the number of
four steps in benchmarking is covered in more detail in the accounts handled by each customer service representative, labor
paragraphs that follow. productivity, first-pass yield in a manufacturing process, cycle
time in the engineering release process. The type of performance
indicators used depends on the focus of the benchmarking activity.
Step 1 Selecting Processes and Identifying In operational benchmarking, two broad categories of perfor-
Key Performance Indicators mance indicators are generally benchmarked:
A company can almost guarantee that its benchmarking process
will fail if it tries to benchmmk every process at once. Bench- . Cost indicators, such as labor productivity, compensation
marking anal ysis requires time, effort, and management attention levels, overhead costs, and so forth.
and involvement. The heavy resource requirements mean that Differentiation indicators, or indicators that measure the
processes must be prioritized for benchmarking, so the resources degree of customer satisfaction with the companys prod-
can be deployed effective] y. There are some key criteria which can ucts/services and image in the marketplace. Differentiation
be applied within any organization to determine priorities: indicators include such factors as product line breadth,
product quality, service levels and service quality, and
Which processes represent the highest percentage of cost? overall customer satisfaction.
Resources expended in benchmarking should reap a high
rate of return. One way to estimate the return on investment Strategic benchmarking usually involves measurement of the
is to calculate (at least roughly) the potential cost reduction best-in-class companies in terms of
that could be achieved through benchmarking. For example, Financial performance, including market share, sales
if the cost of the processes in the engineering function is growth, and profitability (measured in a number of different
found to be 30% higher (on average) than that of the ways).
competition, and if the product definition data creation Company strategy, including the defined market niche and
process represents a large portion of the cost content of the specific strategies in important functional areas such as
products and services sold to external customers (say, 20% manufacturing and marketing.
of the total cost), then the potential reduction is 30V0 x
20%0,or 6% of the total cost. On the other hand, that same By correlating the different strategies with financial perfor-
30~o savings, if applied to the prototyping process which mance, the strategic benchmarking effort identifies those strategies
makes up 3% of the total cost, will have an impact of only which are the most successful in achieving desirable finan-
30V0 X 3%, or O.9% of total cost. By focusing on those cial results.
processes that represent the greatest portion of cost, compa- Performance indicators for benchmarking should be selected
nies can realize substantial improvements in their overall (or developed) in the same fashion as those for general process
operations. analysis and improvement efforts (they should actually be the
Which functions play the greatest role in differentiating same, if possible). The Process Documentation and Analysis
competitors in the marketplace? Some processes may repre- section of this chapter provides some guidelines for developing
sent a small portion of cost, but be absolutely critical in meaningful process performance indicators.
determining who wins and who loses customers in a partic-
ular market. Processes in functions like advertising, research
and development, sales, and manufacturing (especially new
Step 2identifying the Best-in-class
and/or difficult technologies) may have competitive rele-
vance apparently out of proportion to their percentage of
Companies
An important objective of the benchmarking analysis is to
total cost. Such processes should be high priorities for
identify companies which are superior performers, so their supe-
benchmarkhtg, since a gain in competitive position in those
rior performance levels can be used as targets.
processes could have a major impact on success in the
Best-in-class companies can be selected from four different
marketplace.
categories:
Which processes need the most improvement? It is highly
likely that senior managers and e~ecutives in a com~an~ . Direct competitors: For example, Ford has benchmarked
have a good idea of the areas that need improvement, based itself against Honda, BMW, General Motors, Chrysler, and
on considerable experience analyzing and managing their other automobile manufacturers.
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CHAPTER 6
QUALITY TOOLS
Parallel competitors: This category includes companies that Step 3Comparing the Best-in-class
are in the same business, but do not compete directly. For Processes with the In-house Processes
example, a private hospital in Florida might successfully Once the process has been selected and performance indicators
benchmark various processes against private hospitals in have been developed, data for the best-in-class processes can be
other parts of the country. By looking beyond direct com- gathered. Data for benchmarking analyses usually comes from
petitors, more creative improvement approaches can often published sources, data sharing, and/or interviews. Each source is
be identified. briefly described below.
Latent competitors: Latent competitors are those with which Published sources. There is an abundance of published infor-
a company does not yet compete, but which may be mation that can provide a starting point for benchmarking analysis.
competitors in the future. They can be very critical to future While published sources are typically more valuable in strategic
success, as seen in the case of the automobile industry. For benchmarking, they are also helpful in gathering high-level
decades, American automobile manufacturers effectively information in operational benchmarking. Benchmarking efforts
benchmarked their operations against each other. Only when should start with a complete review of all potential sources of
the Japanese and the Europeans had already succeeded in published data. Some sources inchrde:
taking large amounts of market share did the Americans start
benchmarking themselves against those competitors. When . securities and Exchange Commission filings must be sub-
latent competitors enter the market, they often redefine the mitted by all public companies.
. Company-published documents include annual reports,
accepted levels of performance, either by lowering costs or
by offering a higher quality product or service. For this product brochures, periodic news releases, recruiting bro-
reason, benchmarking against latent competitors long before chures, and other documents.
. General business and trade articles are valuable sources of
they become actual competitors can be the most valuable
form of benchmarking. general information.
. Local newspaper articles are often overlooked as a source of
Out-of-industry companies: A particularly creative type of
benchmarking involves measuring performance against competitive benchmarking information.
Anayst reports are docum-ents produced by investment firms
companies in completely different industries. For example,
when Xerox wanted to improve the effectiveness and effi- when evaluating investment opportunities for their clients.
. Credit reports available from companies like Dun & Brad-
ciency of its warehouse and order processing operation, they
benchmarked against a highly successful warehouse and street are sources for information on private companies.
order processing operation. A company often finds that it These reports provide both financial and management data,
can learn much more by going outside its industry for a and can often provide some critical pieces of information.
. Multi-client market reports typically focus on a particular
particular benchmarking effort, especially if no one in the
industry is particularly good at the process being bench- market and its major competitors.
marked. Benchmarking against out-of-industry companies . Trade associations often provide companies within a partic-
can be a key way to move ahead of existing competition. If ular industry with surveys of overall industry trends and
a company can bring in new techniques and processes from industry average cost and performance benchmarks.
outside the industry, it bas a greater opportunity to get . Government agencies responsible for regulating industries
ahead. generate a number of published documents.
Once a list of potential companies bas been generated, the Data sharing. Many firms have been very successful in
following guidelines can be used to narrow the list to an appro- developing data-sharing relationships with other companies to
priate size. enhance their benchmarking efforts. Some types of data sharing
In general, use only four to six companies. Less than four are legal and others are not; it is crucial that corporate attorneys be
does not provide enough variety, and more than six yields contacted to determine the legality of any data-sharing methods
diminishing returns. Companies that benchmark against ten contemplated. Opportunities for data sharing include:
competitors often find they learn almost everything from the . Professional associations and consortiums.
first six, particularly if the first six were chosen carefully. . public databases.
Try to use as diverse a set of companies as possible. For . Benchmwking clearinghouses.
example, if a company has six Far Eastern competitors and . Informal sharing through associates at targeted companies.
six competitors in the United States, it should use some of
each. If six similar competitors are chosen, the data on the External interviews. Depending upon the level of detail
last few will provide little new information. The more sought, published sources and data sharing will generally provide
diverse the set of competitors, the greater the insights that 30% to 100% of the required information. When these sources are
can be gained. not sufficient, external interviews can often provide the remaining
Companies with good financial performance should be information. Sonrces for interviews include customers, distribu-
selected over companies with poor financial indicators. The tors, suppliers, industry experts, regulators, and government
companies with the best performance are often the ones that officials. Each company will have rules and guidelines for
have the most to offer in terms of improvements and contacting competitors and regulators, and they should always be
innovations. In particular, the one or two competitors in the followed to the letter. Regardless of the type of interview and the
same market that really stand out as the most successful restrictions imposed, a structured format should be used to ensure
should be included in the benchmarking effort. that all the required information is elicited.
Fkmlly, any companies that have a Particularly creative or The previous discussion should clearly demonstrate that suffi-
effective st~ategy inthe functional aria of inter~st should be cient data can usually be obtained about best-in-class companies.
selected. Most companies already collect voluminous data on their pro-
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CHAPTER 6
QUALITY TOOLS IN THE DESIGN STAGE
cesses. Often, however, the two sets of data (internal and external) These objectives can be stated in terms of interim performance
are not consistent. For example, cost data may come from levels. For example: a defense manufacturing company takes 134
different accounting systems or be spread over different time days to publish a proposal, from the time it receives the request
periods. Every effort should be made to understand the sources of until the bound copies are mailed to the requesting agency. The
benchmark data and the assumptions that govern equating internal company has a goal for the proposal process: 21 days to publish a
and external data. proposal, from the day the request is received until the volumes are
Benchmarking is a field in which the ability and willingness to shipped. The process managers must reduce the cycle time by 113
estimate are crucial. It is an area where it is better to be days, and they will develop a series of strategies to accomplish
approximately correct than exactly wrong. In other words, the their goal. Progress can be monitored against a series of objec-
focus is not absolute precision (to the third decimal place), but tives, or interim performance levels; for example, cycle time is
precision enough to identify areas where improvement is needed 100 days by March of 1992, 75 days by June, 50 days by
and how that improvement might be achieved. A good way to September, and 21 days by the end of the year.
make decisions about the precision required is to ask the analysts Benchmarking analyses are often crecalibrated approxi-
if another level of precision would yield a different decision. Often mately a year later. At that point, any of a number of things may
the final level of precision provides relatively little additional have changed:
information at substantial additional cost. For example, a good
. The market may have changed in such a way that key
cost-benchmarking analysis usually identifies areas where a com-
success factors have been altered.
panys costs exceed those of its competitors by 5% or 10%.
. New competitors may have entered the market.
Knowing whether it exceeded its competitors by 5.2% or 5.8%
. Competitors may have progressed at a greater rate than
would have little bearing on future actions elected by executive
originally predicted, so that their costs or other aspects of
management.
their performance are better than expected.
Step 4Specifying Programs and Actions Conducting benchmarking analyses on an ongoing and regular
The performance levels of the best-in-class processes constitute basis ensures avoidance of a common pitfall. Companies often
performance goals for in-house processes. Plans to close the gap forget that while they are improving their operations, competitors
between the in-house and the best-in-class performance levels can are improving as well. It is easy to forget that the real focus is a
be developed using the approach described in the Structured moving target. Improvement plans, especially goals and objec-
Planning Methods section of this chapter. Of course, the plans tives, should be updated with new information at the completion of
should contain specific, measurable, time-phased objectives. each benchmarking analysis cycle.
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CHAPTER 6
QUALITY TOOLS IN THE DESIGN STAGE
team concept allowed all of the relevant disciplines to interact and . problem solving and decision making tools (brainstorming
contribute from the beginning. The task force also solicited the and other creativity-enhancing techniques), to identify poten-
input of the workers who actually assemble the cars, on ways to tiaf new markets and new technology solutions and concep-
improve product quality and producibilityy. tualize design options.
. Decision making tools to select the team members.
. General planning tools to develop strategies and objectives
Creating an Action Plan to achieve the goals.
This task enables Lhe team leader to articulate and document Quality function deployment (product planning stage) to
what will be done, when it will be done, and who will be identify and understand customer wants and develop design
responsible for accomplishing each assignment. Having a written requirements, and develop criteria for the test/evahration
document for the design team ensures that everyone understands plans.
the planned course of action. Statistical methods (enumerative techniques) to study and
evahrate marketing and consumer data.
Identifying and Understanding Internal and . strategic knchmarking to evaluate successful products of-
External Customer Requirements fered by competing firms.
The design process must begin with a clear understanding of
what the customer needs and/or expects from the product that is to
be designed. It should not be assumed that those designing the
DO
This step of the design stage is the point where the design is
product already know the customers requirements. The designers
must know what is expected in all areas of the product, including actually created. The tasks in this step should be performed in
its role, physical characteristics, and performance specifications. accordance with tbe plan developed in the previous step.
Customer requirements identified in this step are later translated
into product characteristics.
Translating Customer Requirements into
Not all of the characteristics are equally important to the
customer. The key to understanding is acknowledging that the
Product Characteristics
customers view of what is important is in fact the correct view. The purpose of this task is to convert the customer require-
Realizing the relative importance of each requirement is critical. ments communicated in the previous step into the actual charac-
The design team should receive support from any group that teristics of the product. For example, if tbe customers of a
has direct interface with the potential customers. Traditionally this telephone manufacturer say that one of their requirements is that
support comes from the marketing department in the form of the buttons are easy to push, the designers must be able to convert
customer survey results and demographic information. this requirement (information) into specific product characteristics
such as key pad size, individual key size and shape, and spring
stiffness. It is important to remember that the list of customer
Evaluating Competing or Similar Products
requirements resulting from direct customer input (surveys, inter-
The purpose of this task is to determine what products already
views, etc. ) may not contain all the requirements which must be
exist within the same or similar markets. Marketing data can be
considered in the development of the product. Stated a little
used to determine which products currently best satisfy the
differently, not all customer requirements are explicitly stated.
customers requirements. This research will result in identifying
The design team must ensure that all the requirements (stated or
the best in class,
not) are translated into product characteristics.
The designers then must determine the critical part char-
Considering Different Design Alternatives acteristics and the level which best satisfies the corresponding
During this task, the team will explore the conceptual options requirements.
that exist for the product. They should consider all of the possible
options that the design team can formulate. Some of the most
successful products of the last decade have been different from the Creating Product Definition Data
generations of designs that preceded them; Walkman radios and This task is the actual creation of the detailed conceptual
DustbusterT vacuums are excellent examples. representation of the product the drawings and specifications.
The design team uses the product characteristics from the previous
Developing Test/Evaluation Plans task to develop this information.
Later in the design process, models and/or mock-ups of tbe
preduct will be produced. As the last task in the Planning step, a
plan should be developed describing how the product will be Building Models, Mock-ups and/or
tested. It should specifically state the types and quantity of tests Prototypes
that will be performed, and describe the correlation between the This task produces the actual physical representations (or
type of tests and specific customer requirements. The design team specimens) of the product. Quality tools to be used here include
should also decide (and document in a plan) how potential quality function deployment (product deployment stage) to convert
consumers of the product will participate in evaluating the models. design requirements into actual part characteristics and set
For example, the type and number of consumer surveys should be quality levels.
planned at this point.
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CHAPTER 6
QUALITY TOOLS IN THE TRANSITION STAGE
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CHAPTER 6
QUALITY TOOLS IN THE TRANSITION STAGE
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CHAPTER 6
QUALITY TOOLS IN THE TRANSITION STAGE
Evaluating Results of the Information from suppliers on the lessons they learned from the
Pilot Production Runs pilot runs will reveal their readiness to proceed with full-scale
The results of the pilot production runs should be evahrated to production.
discover any lessons that can be learned prior to full-scale Quality tools to be used here include:
production. This evaluation is an opportunity to make minor, Statistical methods (enumerative and analytic techniques) to
last-minute changes to fine-tune production. analyze data generated during pilot runs, simulations, and
testing of new or improved processes.
Performing First-article Inspections . Problem solving tools to identify and describe deficiencies in
The purpose of first-article inspection is to verify that the the detailed plans.
products (or articles) produced in the pilot production runs
conform to the product specifications. ACT
As a result of the transition Study step, the detailed plans may
Testing New or Improved Processes need to be revised to make improvements or solve problems that
This task is the first chance to test the new methods identified were discovered.
and developed in the previous step. The purpose is to verify that
the new or improved processes perform as planned. This study Revising the Plans
should include research into the ability of the processes to meet
The detailed plans should be revised to include all lessons
and hold tolerances and perform at the desired rate. learned in the Study activities.
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CHAPTER 6
QUALITY TOOLS IN THE PRODUCTION OPERATIONS STAGE
The only way to ensure acceptable process performance is to . STUDY the results.
continually monitor and evaluate the processes. ACT to make improvements and resolve problems.
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CHAPTER 6
QUALITY TOOLS IN THE PRODUCTION OPERATIONS STAGE
The cycle is completed when the plan is updated to reflect the Table 6-2 summarizes the quality tools used throughout the DFM
actions taken in the ACT step. process. Systematic application of these quantitative and qualita-
A wide variety of quantitive and qualitive analysis methods tive methods in a multifunctional team context will result in
called quality tools can be applied at each stage of the DFM products that meet the needs and expectations of internal and
process, within the context of the PDSA cycle. external customers.
TABLE 6-2
Quality Tools in DFM
DO DO DO
. QFD product deployment stage . Process documentation and analysis
QFD process planning stage
Statistical methods
Bibliography Kaoru, Ishikawa. What is Tots/ Qua/ity Contro/? The Japanese Way.
American Supplier Institute, Inc. C?ua/ify Function Dep/oyrnerrt, lm- Old Tappan, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1985.
p/ementatiorr Manua/. Version 3,4. Dearborn, MI: American Sup- Mizuno, Shigeru. Management for Quality Improvement. The Seven
plier Institute, Inc., 1989. New QC Tools. Cambridge, MA: Productivity Press, 1979.
Brassard, Michael. The Memory Jogger Plus +. Methuen, MA: Montgomery, Douglas C. Design and Analysis of Experiments, 3rd
Goal/QPC, 1989. ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1991.
Deming, W. Edwards. Out of the Crisis. Massachusetts Institute of Montgomery, Douglas C. Statistic/ Qua/ity Contro/, New York: John
Technology, Center for Advanced Engineering Study, 1982. Wiley and Sons, 1985.
Gitlow, Howard; Gitlow, Shelly; Oppenheim, Alan; and Oppenheim, Mosteller, Frederick; Rourke, Roberf E. K.; Thomas, George B. Jr.,
Rosa. TOOLS and Methods for the Improvement of Quality. Probability with Statistic/ Applications, 2nd edition. Redding,
Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1989. MA: Addison-Wesley, 1970.
Beating the Competition: A Practical Guide to Benchmarking.
Vienna, VA: Kaiser Associates, Inc., 1988.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
COMPUTER-AIDED
TECHNOLOGY
CHAPTER
CONTENTS:
INTRODUCTION The Use of
Computer-Aided
Engineering,
Over the past 25 years, the computer-aided software packages, finite element analysis, numeri- Design snd
engineering/computer-aided desigrdcomputer-aided cal control, solid modeling, and rapid prototyping. Manufacturing
Tools in DFM 7-1
manufacturing (CAE/CAD/CAM) industry has de- Each of these technologies plays a significant role
veloped technological advances that have provided in industry today. Many of the electronics and
Rapid
industrial users the ability to increase productivity defense industries currently use these technologies in Prototyping 7-9
and decrease the cycle time necessary for product the mechanical design engineering process. The use
development. These technologies include basic wire- of rapid prototype parts within the solid-mold invest- Group Technology
frame and surface design, specialized-application ment casting process also is discussed. and DFM 7-26
Computer-
Integratsd
THE USE OF COMPUTER-AIDED Manufacturing
and DFM 7-34
The Contributors of this chapter are: Owen Baumgardner, FPE Manager, Texas Instruments; Paui Biake,
MCAE Systems Engineer, Texas Instrun,rents; Terence Feeiey, President, Laser Fare, Ltd.; Dr. Efrem V. Fucfim,
President, Light Scuipting; Leon J. Grant, Product ManagerTooling, Hobart Tafa Technologies; Jerome A. Hahn,
Managing Associate, Coopers & Lybrand; Oabra Hakimian, Intellectual Property Coordinator, Cubits/, Ltd; Cart M.
Jacobson, President and Principal Consultant, Stargate, Inc., Scottsdale, AZ; James Noien, President, James No/en
and Company, Coventry, R/; Kent L. Nutt, Marketing Manager, DTM Corp.; Jim Paravantes, Regional Applications
Manager, 3D Systems, inc.; Kendrick E. Richardson, Perception Systemsr Inc.; Vern Schmidt, P. E., Manager,
Design Aids and Packaging Development, Preprogram Engineering, Jeep and Truck EngineeringChrysier Motors;
Laurie Thompson, Public Relations Specialist, Roland D/gitai Group; Michaei J. Tsenfer, Marketing Sales Manager,
He/isys, hrc.; Cindy Wheat/ey, Markefing Consultant, Stratasys, inc.
7-1
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
THE USE OF CAE/CAD/CAM TOOLS IN DFM
strained by human and economic factors and a general lack of USING STANDARD PARTS AND
understanding of the DFM process. COMPONENTS
Today, a highly computerized DFM environment is not only A major advantage provided by most three-dimensional
desirable in terms of quality, productivity, and reduced time to computer-aided design systems is the ability to rapidly evaluate a
market; it is a reachable goal in any company, limited in its number of alternatives, in terms of form, fit, and function, early in
breadth and implementation only by the willingness or ability of the design process before committing to a final design.
management to invest in the tools, training, and methods neces- Most CAWCAM systems support the use of part libraries
sary to make it a reality. Management, however, is often con- which allow the user to find and retrieve standard or frequently
strained in its actions or implementation strategies for computer- used parts. Variations in the ability to retrieve data from these
ized DFM by the lack of a qualified source of information about libraries, however, can render them a useful tool or an unreachable
how to implement DFM and its associated computer tools and mass of on-line computer data. To be an effective DFM tool,
methodologies. A high-quality dealer or vendor of CAD/CAM library parts must be retrievable by one or all of the following
technology can often provide this expertise; however, there may conventions:
be doubts as to whether the vendor is selling a product or providing
expert advice. Another often used source for this expertise is the . Standard, company, or vendor part number.
. Generally accepted part name or description.
outside consultant or industry expert. These experts become
Form, fit, and/or function (Group Technology).
advocates of the implementing company, aiding in the selection of
the best possible tools from among a variety of vendors, ensuring The greater the number of ways to locate parts in the library,
that the tools from multiple vendors can be fully and properly the more frequently previously used or standard parts will be
integrated, and maximizing the companys investment in current included in a new design.
computer-aided tools and technology. In the absence of a skilled In addition to naming conventions, the ability to insert and
and trusted vendor or a qualified consultant, the role of achieving evaluate selected library parts in a given design can range from
computerized DFM thus falls to a companys available in-house highly intelligent and automated processes to very simple and
experts and their knowledge of DFM and DFM-related computer highly tedious processes. Access to parts and part libraries can
tools and applications. vw, from retrieval by name or function to availability of common
This section is intended to help manufacturing, engineering, computer graphical user interfaces. On more intelligent CAD/
and management personnel, interested in implementing an opti- CAM systems, alternate or library parts can be included in any
mum DFM environment, in understanding the technologies avail- active design on a temporary basis, allowing for comparison with
able today to support the DFM process. Tools and methods are other parts or design options, evaluation of clearances and manu-
discussed, as well as the efforts required to achieve the ultimate facturability, and actual measuring of fit and interferences prior to
objective. An attempt is made to help understand the complexity insertion in the actual design database. These intelligent systems
of the issues and why reaching the ultimate objective requires also allow for the automated update of designs should a library part
expert help and technology from multiple sources or vendors. It be modified after insertion or an alternative part be selected later
must be remembered that designing with manufacturing in mind is in the design process (see Fig. 7-1). On simpler systems, library
the basic essence of the DFM process. Obtaining and utilizing part geometry must be inserted directly into a design before any
expert input, advice, and comments from throughout the company evaluation can occur, and removal and/or substitution of other
in the early and continuing stages of the design process, and parts often becomes a tedious manual drawing or design mainte-
adhering to basic DFM guidelines, are therefore essential. This nance issue.
integration of multiple organizations into the design process A key element in the successful implementation and use of
requires top-down management commitment and a strong internal library parts (beyond basic concepts and methodologies) is the
champion within a company if it is to be fully effective. availability of library parts for a given system compatible with the
The implementation of a full and robust computer-aided DFM design and implementation requirements of a given company. In
environment is almost exclusively dependent on three-dimensional the early days of computer-aided technology the only source a
CAD/CAM modeling, design, and manufacturing techniques. The company had for library parts was its own staff. Today, more and
remainder of this discussion will therefore focus on three- more software companies are attempting to develop and market
dimensional systems, although subjects such as engineering re- library parts. Their efforts have been buoyed by the emergence of
view and markup, group technology, and others are equally improved CAD/CAM data exchange standards such as PDES and
applicable to two dimensions. However, most two-dimensional IGES, and standards for storing and shipping large volumes of
approaches lacking true three-dimensional part and model defi- digital data in CD-ROM or other high-density formats.
nition still rely heavily on individuals and not automation for However, purchased library parts can present problems both in
success. The following is thus a discussion of CAD/CAM/CAE concept and content. An ideal library part, today, might best be
and other computer applications as they might be applied to a described as a digital geometric solid model (or a parametric
general set of DFM guidelines. definition of a solid model) capable of being stored on any system
The Reviewers for this chapter are: Vince Bobrowicz, President, Manufacturing Technology Service, Inc., Farmington Hills, Ml; Adam f..
Cohen, EditorlPublisher, Rapid Prototyping Report; William B. Krag, P. E., Senior Manager, Ernst & Voung; Dr. Robert Lange, Managing
Associate, Coopers & Lybrand; Jimm Meloy, Vice President, CADKEY \nc.; Lee Phillips, Supervisor, Wood, Plastic, and Stereolithography,
Jeep and Truck EngineeringChrysler Motors; Vern Schmidt, P. E., Manager, Design Aids and Packaging Development, Preprogram
Engineering, Jeep and Truck EngineeringChrysler Motors: Warren L. Shrensker, Manager, Information Technology Planning and Resource
Management, GE Appliances, General Electric Co.; David Tait, Managing Partner, Laserform, Inc.
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CHAPTER 7
THE USE OF CAE/CAD/CAM TOOLS IN DFM
.-P
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THE USE OF CAE/CAD/CAM TOOLS IN DFM
and retrieved as a constructive solids geometry (CSG) or boundary is accomplished by removing the lines depicting the separation
representation (BREP) solid; a three-dimensional wireframe or between the parts on one or more engineering drawings. Likewise,
surfaced model; or a two-dimensional image in any viewing plane. separating a single part into two parts is a matter of adding lines.
Geometry would be retrieved in the format of the receiving In the three-dimensional wireframe CAIYCAM world, the amount
system, whether primitives are stored as primitives, strings, of work to be done to modify a part and its drawing requires the
b-splines, or non-uniform rotational b-splines (NURBS). The part definition or modification of all bounding geometry in the model,
would contain all information pertinent to itself, including: dimen- and the modification of this geometry in all related drawing views
sional, tolerance and usage information; surface finish and man- for visibility or appearance usually requiring additional time,
ufacturing information; process instructions; material types, con- thought, and effort. With solids and parametric design tools
ditions and treatments; and physical properties. The list goes on available today, the process has become easier than ever. The key
and on, and can best be understood through a thorough review of now is training the user in the observation and management of the
the emerging Product Data Exchange Standard (PDES) as it designs. The ability to combine and split solid objects contained in
evolves. Needless to say, few part libraries meet these lofty goals; a design, and to obtain from an engineering library solid objects
therefore, for some time to come whether libraries are built or representing parts or features which can be added to or subtracted
purchased, they will likely change as new technologies emerge. from a solid in a given design, encourages the use of standmd
As in other areas of DFM expert assistance should be used in features and the combining of parts or components when neces-
evaluating and implementing part libraries. sary .
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CHAPTER 7
THE USE OF CAE/CAD/CAM TOOLS IN DFM
systems, applications, and hardware platforms with quality cmss- Test design concepts.
platform and cross-network engineering data management . Provide templates to support manufactur-ing processes.
capabilities. The costs of mockups are generally high, and the decision to
An extension of this concept is in the area of manufacturing, use them is usually deliberated for long periods of time.
where the model of a given mechanical component to be machined Todays CAD/CAM solid modeling and assembly environ-
and assembled is the same model used by the NC programmer to ments can be coupled with visualization tools which allow
generate machine instructions and coordinate measurement data, photo-realistic rendering of the precise geometry to be used in
and by the industrial and manufacturing engineers to develop and manufacturing, and automated manufacturing tools (such as ste-
put in place manufacturing tools and processes. Many major reolithography) to reduce or eliminate the need for models and
CAD/CAM systems also provide for direct access to and use of mockups in the DFM equation. The key to mockup elimination
original design geometry for the design of fixtures and program- today is not in the availability of tools, but in the customers ability
ming of tools and robots using computer-aided tools. to afford the implementation of advanced CAD/CAM systems
capable of supporting electronic mockups and visualization on a
AVOIDING SEPARATE FASTENERS full-scale basis.
Whether assembled manually or using automated tools, each
additional fastener in a given assembly represents more work in DEALING WITH FLEXIBLE COMPONENTS
putting the finished product together. A reduction of the number of Flexible components can be readily bent, formed, or fitted in
fasteners in a design can reduce assembly costs as long as the the assembly process; but this flexible nature can cause delays in
resulting design and manufacturing costs associated with fastener manual or automated assembly. While flexible components can
reduction are kept within reason. include hoses, tubes, springs, belts, chains, and the like, this
Here again the use of CAD/CAM solid modeling tools allows discussion deals with electrical wires and cables. Comparison of
mating parts to be designed concurrently for form, fit, and todays electrical, electronic, or electromechanical products and
function; atapered boss ononemating part becomes a precisely components with those of previous decades reveals that single
matching tapered hole in its mate through a single boolean wires have been replaced with multiple stranded wires and cables;
operation. Theuseofthee such matching bosses and holes, in lieu connectors for separate wires have been replaced with plugs and
of three bolts in a six-bolt mounting pattern, can simultaneously connectors for multiple wires; and groups of wires and cables have
reduce fasteners, increase shear carrying capacity, and serve as been combined and wrapped into product-specific wire harnesses.
alignment and fixturing features during the manufacturing and These changes, overtime, have become aninherent part of the
assembly process. With theuseof solids modeling, thecost of this DFM evolution.
design is reduced; with advanced CAD/CAM techniques the As in previous examples of applied CAD/CAM, automated
generated solid model can be further used to drive the actual tools arecurrently inplaceand in use for routing, designing, and
manufacturing and machining processes. manufacturing flexible components, such as electrical harnesses.
These systems not only provide for design and placement of
DEVELOPING MODULAR DESIGNS harnesses but for integration, interference, and interface checking
A major element that canhave highpayback inthe DFMarea with active design components. Tbe key to success in this area is
is that of modular design: developing parts, components, and in finding and selecting well integrated CAD/CAM tools and
major assemblies to serve specific or multiple functions in various applications.
product lines. Akeyelement inemploying theresultingcompo-
nentsis the ability to rapidly evaluate and integrate these modular
units into the design of a given product.
MINIMIZING NEW PROCEDURES
CAD/CAM tools that can support this type of operation
AND PROCESSES
Minimizing manufacturing procedures, processes, tooling, and
inchrde such functions as part libraries and group technology
previously discussed; however, form, fit, and function can play an operations is an inherent part of producing any product at the
even more important role in using modular components. minimum possible cost. Introducing anynew processor operation
in order to produce a given product line can have an adverse effect
Advanced CAD/CAM assembly modeling tools provide users
on both time-to-market and overall product cost. In general, the
with the ability to perform physical design work while simulta-
companies who do the best job ofcommunicating manufacturing
neously performing interface management and design integration
functions. The simultaneous merging of active design parts, capabilities and requirements to their design engineers produce the
library parts, and other engineers in-work parts into an active most cost-effective products.
Recently, emerging concepts in CAD/CAM such as paramet-
assembly or integration model allows for the rapid evaluation of
any and all modular, vendor, or unique components for form, fit, ric and feature-based modeling have opened new doors to process
and function. Alternative components can also be readily evahr- management. Coupled with the concepts of part libraries and solid
modeling techniques it is now possible to drive designs toward and
ated and incorporated into currently active designs.
from a manufacturing viewpoint.
The key to the use of this technology is in reducing the concept
MINIMIZING MODELS AND MOCKUPS
of CAD/CAM part libraries to that of parametrically driven feature
Extending the concepts of integration just discussed to the need
libraries. These libraries with features such askeysand keyways,
forreducing time-to-market andoverall product costs, models or
gears and gear systems, O-rings and O-ring grooves, etc., would
mockups become a critical path inthe DFM equation. In general,
then redeveloped andcataloged based unavailability, desirabil-
models and mockups are used to:
ity, and cost to produce on the factory floor. The difference
. Evaluate designs for accessibility and manufacturability. between feature libraries and part libraries is that features are
Avoid potential downstream interference or assembly based on and include information pertinent to production tools and
problems. methods. These features, unlike standard parts, areusedto modify
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
THE USE OF CAE/CAD/CAM TOOLS IN DFM
or design functional portions of three-dimensional CAD/CAM This cost-reporting approach, however, would be limited
models. Features such as tool clearance could also be made an primarily to the costs of producing discrete features, parts, and
inherent part of the library content. products, and not the final overall costs of producing the
The use of feature libraries results in the design of parts based finished product.
on machine capabilities, rather than parts requiring the creation of
new processes. The need to modify designs to suit manufacturing
requirements-after their initial releasecan also be reduced. DESIGNING-IN COMPLIANCE FEATURES
Compliance features, in the context of DFM, deal with the use
of tapers, chamfers, leads, and fixturing aids and can often rapidly
PRODUCING PROCESS-DRIVEN DESIGNS reduce problems in the manufacturing and assembly of parts or
A critical element of DFM is letting the process drive the components. In many cases this design-in of compliance features
design of parts and components without excessively restricting the must be performed on a case basis, based on the known design of
freedom or requirements of good functional design. Factors a product or known methods to be used in assembly. In other cases
driving a design might include methods of manufacture (casting, compliance features can be designed into feature libraries knowing
forging, injection molding, etc.) or facilities-specific requirements the nature of mating parts. In the first case, three-dimensional
based on the known capabilities of manufacturing (handling CAD/CAM systems with solid modeling and parametric applica-
fixtures and robots, flexible work cells, etc.). Typical sources for tions provide solid modelers with the tools needed to add compli-
this type of information are the manufacturing engineers, produc- ance features to existing designs. In the latter case, as customers
tion planners, machinists, and other production personnel. The grow in technological strength it is possible to build into feature
key to applying CAD/CAM applications to process-driven design libraries the tools necessary to:
is communication with these key personnel, and inclusion of their . Generate a precise geometric representation of a solid of a
knowledge into parametric, solid modeling, and highly integrated bolt or screw of a given size.
design and manufacturing applications. Generate a precise geometric representation of a proper
Integrated parametric and solid modeling methods can assist through hole in another CAD model or part for the selected
in placing proper draft angles, cope, drag, ctc., on a nominal solid fastener.
model, following the precepts of the patternmaker. Likewise, the . Generate a representation of a tapped hole in another CAD
solid model, when released by the design engineer, can be used for model.
the design of molds, definition of parting lines, etc., through . Generate required compliance geometry or tolerances in all
boolean operations performed using solids of the designed part and components to suit typical or required assembly practices
the mold itself. Molds can then be machined from a solid model based on historical information in the libraries.
produced directly from the design model, guaranteeing overall The growth and strength of these advanced libraries will
design compliance. provide an added plus in the DFM process. Current technology for
In the areas of assembly and handling, part libraries contain- these types of tools is limited to only the more powerful CAD/
ing tools for robotics or machine simulation, tool clearances, and CAM solid and parametric modeling systems.
fixturing-can be made available to designers early in the process
or can be designed concurrently with parts or components on a
highly integrated and interactive basis. MINIMIZING COMPONENT HANDLING
How many parts are handled in the product manufacturing
process, and how many times they are handled, is a direct and
MINIMIZING MANUFACTURING COSTS inherent element of manufacturing times, costs, and process-
Once the concepts of part libraries, feature-based solid model- es. While the optimization of designs to minimize handling and
ing, parametric, and process-driven design have been put in assembly is and will remain a designers obligation and concern,
place, much can be done to introduce the concepts of reduced there are tools which can facilitate good design practices. Included
manufacturing costs into the CAD design process. To help in in these tools are visualization, inspection, simulation, and assem-
understanding this process, Figs. 7-1 and 7-2 provide a hypothet- bly design tools.
ical comparison of typical process flow charts: a traditional design The effective use of these tools in ensuring quality designs is,
process (with CAD) and a DFM process (via CAD). like many DFM guidelines and principles, dependent on the
The introduction of cost concepts should begin early in the companys acquisition, implementation, and use of them in the
introduction of part and feature libraries, by imbedding process earl y phases of the design process.
cost and manufacturing constraint data into the CAD/CAM models
using nongraphic properties or attributes of the CAD/CAM sys-
tem. Macros or tools can then be written to provide approximate EFFECTIVE MODEL CONSTRUCTION
cost estimates for various known or implied manufacturing oper- METHODS
ations, dictated by features used in the design of the part. Where Effective DFM practices begin with methodology. Prior to the
needed to support this process, many of todays CADICAM introduction of three-dimensional CAD systems, design and man-
systems also provide for the imbedding or linkage of graphics, ufacturing information was produced, documented, and delivered
text, or even verbal information pertinent to process instructions, in a two-dimensional engineering drawing format. The drawing
test information, manufacturing, inspection, etc. in CAD/CAM and its views, dimensions, and notes -were laid out in a fashion
databases. In addition to providing early manufacturing and cost which best communicated the designers intent to the manufactur-
data to engineers and designers, libraries, features, and other ing personnel. In this environment, designers may have considered
CAD/CAM DFM tools can be used to evaluate or report on cost manufacturing requirements and methods, but these requirements
differences between alternative processes, designs, and material did not directly affect the methods by which the designer produced
selections early in the design of a given part or product. the drawings.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
THE USE OF CAE/CAD/CAM TOOLS IN DFM
With the advent of three-dimensional CAD systems with solid 7. Include manufacturing andcost data in libraries.
modeling capability, it is now possible for a designer to drive or 8. Conduct training of personnel ingood DFM practices.
improve the manufacturing of a part, simply through the use of 9. Implement those systems which provide the tightest pos-
solid modeling and solid modeling constructs to produce a given sible CAD/CAM integration, preferably through a com-
design. mon database, to avoid problems of engineering data and
A simple analogy exists in the design of a simple solid model configuration management often associated with electronic
of an engineered part. Given the fact that most engineers and data exchange.
designers are used to designing parts by creating geometry in a 10. Implement assembly design and integration tools and
vacuum, an untrained designer might produce such a component practices which ensure quality designs and control the
by producing separate and discrete solid models representing introduction of engineering and manufacturing changes.
various portions of any finished part the only method available 11. Investigate adimplement integrated robotics andsimula-
on some primitive constructive solids geometry (CSG) solid tion tools appropriate to current and future operations.
modeling systems. More advanced systems allow the user to join 12. Implement a simultaneous engineering program using
the individual solids together to produce the final single solid CAD/CAM data sharing and electronic review, markup,
model definition of the product. and approval processes for in-work and completed designs.
The resulting model would be the result of numerous modeling 13. Implement afull-scale engineering data management tool
and boolean operations, each with a chance of introducing its own with both design revision and manufacturing version
errors or manufacturing problems. If the operation were given to tracking.
an individual more accustomed to thinking in manufacturing 14. Investigate the potential paybacks and cost savings of
terms, the same design might be produced by creating a single reverse engineering, engineering data captnre, or migration
solid block and then a series of profiles, representing typical of current product designs to an automated DFM environ-
manufacturing methods, which would be sculpted or subtracted men~ implement new tools and processes where
from the original solid. The result would be a part produced with appropriate.
fewer individual design components and boolean operations,
requiring fewer machining or manufacturing steps due to the way
the original solid was designed. In the above instance each
approach had its merits, but the second approach carries with it the PUITING IT ALL TOGETHER
inherent concepts of DFM. 1sall of this truly possible? Todays CAD/CAM tools have
evolved to such a degree that major advances in automating the
DFM process can be achieved.
There are some vendors who provide sufficient CAD/CAM
DESIGNING FOR MANUFACTURE, technology and integration from a single source to support a total
DFM solution. However, in most cases a total DFM solution will
FABRICATION AND ASSEMBLY
require the purchase and integration of products and tools from
The proper application of DFM guidelines and practices
various vendors. The important factor to remember is that the
throughout the design process will produce the best possible
required tools are available today. The issue of automating DFM
product in the shortest possible time-frame and at the least possible
is truly no different from that of implementing good manual DFM
cost. Todays CAD/CAM tools, including primarily parametric;
practices; the computer is simply an available tool. In the manual
solid modeling; advanced assembly design and integration tools;
world, the teaming of expertise and sharing of knowledge produce
simulation and visualization tools; and electronic review, markup
the best DFM process. In the world of automation it is the teaming
and approval tools, have opened newdoors toimprovements in the
or integrating of hardware and software solutions, the implement-
DFM process. Unfortunately, tools are only a portion of the
ing of company- or user-specific tools, and the training of
answer to producing quality products using DFM principles. The
personnel which produce the best DFM results. The key is in
real key is in training and implementation.
putting the required tools and personnel together in either case.
All the libraries and tools available to improve the design tor
Many large companies have staffs trained in and supporting
manufacturing process will only be viable if the processes and
CAD/CAM tools and applications as well as the integration efforts
practices are clearly defined and personnel are trained and encour-
required to support DFM. The only restrictions on improvements
aged to use them in their daily jobs.
in the DFM process are those of priority, budget and a top-down
In general, a quality automated DFM environment can best be
commitment to making DFM work. Small to mid-size companies,
produced through the following actions:
however, often lack sufficient in-house expertise to implement the
1. Find an in-house DFM champion who understands and best possible DFM environment. These fiis must rely on
believes in the concepts of automated DFM. vendors, partners, and suppliers for the definition of the tools,
2. Obtain expert andtrusted counsel intheform of consult- methods, and processes which represent a quality DFM environ-
ants, vendors, or in-house staff who can maximize the ment. The bottom line is that expertise as well as tools and
return on investment in automated DFM. resources are required to produce a quality DFM process.
3. Thoroughly review corrcnt in-house methods and practices The key to quality automated DFM is quality knowledge.
with the aim of capturing information and implementing There are numerous small and large engineering, consulting,
automated DFM tools and processes. CAD/CAM and computer integration firms, as well as CAD/CAM
4. Adopt precision 3D solid modeling practices torfrive the dealers and vendors, who can help with the planning and imple-
DFM process. mentation of an automated DFM process. These firms can help in
5. Extend solid modeling practice through parametric and the design and budgeting process and the implementation of a
features. quality DFM environment. The problem is in finding a qualified
6. Invest inpart and feature library development. technical resource.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
Design connecting brackei Ths uss of dded geomstry allows ecsch creating a single block that suitsboth platform and
to attach structural strut to componenl to be dssignecl simply bnsad on strut producse slightly avsrsize part when using o
existing platform, mating pcrrts,but produced patsntiolly saveral single boolean qmration, but also reduces potential
manufacturing operations. manufacturing opsralions and cost.
a ., .~a
r a
o
0 o!
o o
~ Through holes (4] ! Ger.11
~ block ~
hsight and width sizsd
( Base block design hosed on to suit platform and strut
Me plcxernerrt
~ Profile loyecl out on
Fillets added all around by single CAD systemwith fillets and swept
command in arschpod through black to produce solid
Fig. 7-2 Simplified comparison of designing solids with booleans. (Stargate, Inc.)
While many engineering, manufacturing, and computer-system software than in recommending the most cost-effective solution.
consulting firms speak to the issues of computer-integrated design Solving the DFM problem requires answers, not gifts; the goal
and manufacturing, few have the technical experts to address a is to improve the DFM process fist and automation second. The
companys needs without expensive and time-consuming team fact is, automated DFM can be achieved with todays tools and
studies. The selection of outside help to solve integration or DFM technology. The real issues are commitment, time, training, and
issues shouldn t be based on resumes or company names and the proper investments in tools and technology. Perhaps as time
positions; there are few true experts. Any potential candidate goes on an emphasis on engineering, manufacturing, and automa-
should spend time with key managers and personnel in the tion standards, open systems, and possible national initiatives
company. The selected candidate must truly understand the driven by professional and educational institutions will reduce
company, the problems, and the issues. Unfortunate y, many the reliance on individuals and experts in driving the future of the
firms may be more interested in selling their services, hardware, or DFM process.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
RAPID PROTOTYPING
RAPID PROTOTYPING
Traditional methods of producing models have often involved The first benefit of these two technologies, and perhaps the
labor-intensive hand work and complicated machining. Models most obvious one, is the designers enhanced visualization capa-
commonly required leadtimes of several weeks to several months bility. Engineers, designers, technicians, and managers can now
to be produced, depending on the complexity and materials used. discuss designs by looking at three-dimensional shaded images
During the 1970s and 1980s, the use of CAD and computer- and full-scale plastic prototype parts, not two-dimensional draw-
numerically controlled (CNC) multi-axis machining centers re- ings (see Fig. 7-3). Prototype parts and assemblies are also used
sulted in substantial labor savings in producing prototypes. The for fit check verification (where tolerances permit), assembly
use of these techniques greatly reduced the amount of time methods and tooling planning, cable routing, weight reduction
required to produce a part to several days or weeks in many cases. studies, customer communication models, airflow and fluid flow
However, recent advances in the area of rapid prototyping have analysis, and vendor quoting tools. Figure 7-4 shows the various
reduced the cycle time even further to a matter of hours or days. uses and applications of the rapid prototyping model. Table 7-1
This section discusses various rapid prototyping technologies contrasts the conventional and the rapid prototyping methods of
and how they work. They include stereolithography, solid ground the concept model production process.
curing (SGC), selective laser sintering (SLS), ballistic particle Another benefit derived from the use of rapid protot yping is the
manufacturing (BPM), fused deposition modeling (FDM), lami- decrease of cycle time required to produce prototype parts. The
nated object modeling (LOM), simultaneous irradiation of con- current SLA (stereolithography apparatus) prototype turnaround
strained polymers (or design-controlled automated fabrication cycle, defined as the time difference between database receipt and
DesCAF), and desktop NC/CNC machining. part fabrication completion, is between two and 10 days, depend-
ing on engineering requirements. Table 7-2 shows estimated times
BENEFITS OF SOLID MODELING AND for the current production methods and rapid prototyping (stereo-
RAPID PROTOTYPING lithography in particular) in various industries. There is a dramatic
The use of solid modeling and rapid-prototyping processes decrease over conventional machining and fabrication methods.
(stereolithography et al.) has resulted in numerous benefits for the Therefore, the engineering team may visually, dimensionally, and
entire design engineering community. Benefits include increased functionally inspect and review critical and high-risk parts and
visualization capability, decreases in cost and cycle time associ- assemblies much earlier in the design cycle. This benefit also
ated with fabrication of prototype parts, increased ability to results in the increased ability of the design engineer to explore,
calculate mass properties and detect design flaws before hardware accept or reject, and integrate new design ideas into the existing
fabrication, and increased part optimization/development prior to design. Another cycle-time benefit is the increased time available
prototyping. to explore the potential use of less expensive casting processes for
part fabrication instead of traditionally more expensive machine
processes.
Companies have experienced typical cycle time reductions of
two weeks for simple parts and 20 weeks for complex machined or
cast parts in the fabrication of prototype parts. Also, customer
concept communication models have been fabricated for half the
cost and in half the time of conventional methods. Specific
examples of cycle-time and cost reductions are found in Figs. 7-5
through 7-7. The entries in each figure for Time required are
for SLA rapid-prototyping touch labor only, not machine run time.
The third benefit of solid modeling and rapid prototyping is the
cost reduction and avoidance associated with eliminating design
flaws early in the design cycle. The product development and
fabrication cycle is constantly at the mercy of continuous require-
ments and design changes. These continuous changes, coupled
with the inability to easily verify overall part layout configura-
tions, have contributed to part assembly problems, such as
interferences and misaligned hole patterns. Often, these problems
were not found until piece parts were fabricated and assembled.
Costs rose as parts were scrapped or modified, and the amount of
required touch labor increased to assemble and disassemble the
piece parts. Engineering change notices had to be incorporated
into the design, significantly adding to the overall cost.
Solid modeling permits engineers to visually inspect the
designed piece parts and assemblies for mating hole patterns and
part clearances. As the design is completed and verified, the
engineer may use the rapid prototyping process to build a
Fig. 7-3 Assembly of solid-model parts. (Texas Instruments, Inc.) three-dimensional model as a final review before committing the
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
RAPID PROTOTYPING
Fig. 7-4 Various uses and applications of a rapid prototyping model. (3D Systems, Inc.)
design to fabrication. These capabilities serve as cost-avoidance currently the industry de facto standard and is a method used to
steps that help meet proper fabrication and assembly requirements. convert CAD databases into a form usable by rapid proto-
The fourth benefit, specifically attributed to solid modeling, is typing systems.
an increased ability to calculate mechanical properties of the parts
and assemblies throughout the design process. For example, STEREOLITHOGRAPHY
weight is a critical design requirement. Solid-modeling mass- A stereolithography apparatus (SLA) is a rapid-prototyping
property calculations assist the engineer by calculating part and device used to create three-dimensional plastic parts from CAE/
assembly weights. This information allows the engineer to opti- CAD data (see Fig. 7-9). SLA rapid prototyping combines four
mize the design for weight requirements before part fabrication. different technologies: lasers, optical scanning, photopolymer chem-
Solid-model databases serve as direct input to rapid prototyping istry, and computer software. Figure 7-10 shows the SLA process.
systems. (It should be noted that surfaced-part databases may also The overall SLA rapid prototyping build process may be
be used as inputs.) The input is in the form of a tessellation, or divided into three steps: preparation, build, and cleanup. The
tile file, that is generated from the solid model or surface preparation of a part begins with the design of supports, required
database. The tessellation file consists of triangular facets of the to attach the part to a platform and stabilize the structure while it
surfaces of the solid model (see Fig. 7-8). is building. The part and supports STL files are sliced into a
Design models created in CAD, CAE, or CAM software are series of two-dimensional cross-sectional layers varying in thick-
typically entered into rapid prototyping systems through a com- ness from 0.005 to 0.020 (0.13 mm to 0.51 mm). Tbe layer data
patible interface known as the . STL file. This file format is are used as inputs to the build process.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
RAPID PROTOTYPING
TABLE 7-1
Comparison Between Conventional and
Rapid Prototyping Methods of the
Concept Model Production Process
Engineering Engineering
1. Idea (design) 1. Idea (design)
2. Detail drafting (part) 2. 3D model
3. Fixture design 3. Support structure (design)
4. Detail drafting (fixture)
5. Checker
6. Process engineering
Manufacture part
1. NC tool path generation
2. Order and secure tooling
3. Setup and prove out Material: 6061 -T6
NC program Time required: 104 hours
Cycle Time: 4 months
4. Inspect (QC)
5. Bench part Fig. 7-5 Machhwrt part (motor housing). (Texas Instruments, Inc.)
6. Evaluate the concept model
TABLE 7-2
Estimated Times for Cument Production Methods and
Rapid Prototyping (Stereolithography)
Rapid
Industry Current prototyping
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CHAPTER 7
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--u
Elevator z has been four weeks. This is a four-month decrease in fabrica-
X - Y movatie tion time.
w light source
\l ~ W curable liquid 11 Spray Metal Tooling
Rapid pmtotyping with the aid of computer-generated model-
making techniques and spray metal tooling has become a cost-
effective and quick means to develop prototype plastic parts. The
spray metal tooling process lends itself to most plastic moldlng
processes such as blowmolding, reaction injection molding (RIM),
thermoforming, prototype injection molds, various polyurethane
foam processes, and compression molding processes such as sheet
molding compound (SMC) or pressure molding of glass-filled
resin like Azdel .
Spray metal tooling is not a new concept; however, the process
has been improved with better designed spray guns that spray high
velocity, fine, dense coatings and by improving the physical
properties of the sprayed coating itself. Furthermore, new quick-
Fig. 7-10 The stereotithography process. (3D Systems, Inc.)
setting, high-conductive backup resins, with expansion character-
istics closely matched to that of the sprayed Kkksite shell, enhance
Stereolithography and Investment Casting the turnaround time, quality, and life of the tools.
A significant-and-immediate impact on the cost and CYC1=time Figure 7-13 shows how the spray metal process works. The
associated with the investment-casting process has been achieved process is quite simple and can be taught in several days time. The
by incorporating the SLA part into the process. The ability to use process begins with the pattern or model of the part to be molded.
the SLA-modeled part as a wax substitute is the key to supplying The model must be mounted at the parting line on a parting
castings for low production runs without the high cost of foundry surface. Often this is a metal plate or a finished wooden mounting
pattern tooling. In addition, providing machine shops with a near board. Models of any material can be used, such as plastic, wood,
net-shaped part reduces the number of required machining steps to clay, wax, metal, and other materials.
produce a completed part. Once the model is properly mounted, a sealer and a release
The two types of investment casting processes are solid mold agent are sprayed onto the model; this permits the metal sprayed
and shell. They differ only in the method used to form the ceramic coating to stick to the model, and also provides release when the
mold. Both processes require a pattern, gating to a central sprue, tool is finished.
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CHAPTER 7
RAPID PROTOTYPING
Fig. 7-11 Cwting (left) produced from SLA part (right). (Texas hwruments, Inc.)
Fig. 7-12 SLA part (left) with casting (right). (Texas Insfrumentf, Inc.)
After the release agent has thoroughly dried, the spray metal coating. A high volume of air, 70 cfm (2 cmm), is utilized, which
process begins. A kirksite-type alloy is the choice of materials for cools the particles immediately as they contact the surface.
most prototyping applications. The coating is sprayed with the aid Spraying is done much like paint spraying, and the coating is built
of electric arc spraying equipment. The nature of the arc spray up anywhere from 0.060 to 0.100 (1.52 mm to 2.54 mm). In
equipment allows the coating to be sprayed onto the model without some applications, 1/4 (6. 35 mm) thick, free-standing sprayed
building up excessive heat, which can cause distortion of the shells are utilized as the molds. The metal sprayed particles stick
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CHAPTER 7
RAPID PROTOTYPING
Poltwn:
can be made from woad, plaster,
leather, wax, or resin
Pattern
r ~rcsp;;prayedshell
(c)
shell
(d]
[e)
Completed mold
n n
VI
[91
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CHAPTER 7
RAPID PROTONPING
to the model, building up a homogeneous coating. The particles may be corrected by using a fiberglass filler or by sanding and
mechanically bond to one another in their molten state and solidify painting. The surface finish of the SLA model is comparable to a
on contact. milled surface finish. On a sculptured surface model being milled
The spraying process is complete when the coating is sprayed with a ball-nose end mill, scallops or steps would be generated on
to the desired thickness. The sprayed shell is then reinforced with the model by the stepover of the tool. Both SLA and milled parts
a castable resin system such as a highly metal-filled methyl- would require the same hand tlnishing or benching.
methacrylate resin system, or in some cases aluminum-filled Tolerance. Typical part dimensions can be held to t 0.005 in.
epoxy resins are used. Fabricated frames of aluminum or steel are per in. (mm per mm). Tighter tolerances can be controlled with
used for support in certain applications. The type of backing and experimentation. Note that part accuracy is controlled by part
framework utilized is a function of the type of molding process to configuration.
be used. Cooling lines can be cast in place and ejection pins are Wall thickness. As a general rule, 0.05 (1.3 mm) is the
added in postfinishing processes. Once the first half of the tool is minimum wall thickness that can be repetitively produced. Thin-
complete, the parting board is removed and the model remains in ner sections may suffer distortion during the posturing cycle.
the first half of the tool. The second half is then prepared, metal Feature configuration. Part position and orientation should be
sprayed, and backed up the same as the first side. aligned with the important engineering design features for the best
Now with both halves complete, the two halves are separated, possible surface finish and accuracy. Part orientation with respect
removing the model. The mold is an exact duplicate of the model. to the plane of the layers must also be considered. The layering, or
Spray metal molds can be polished, plated, or chemically staircase, effect dictates that critical part features and smooth
etched much the same as production tools are. contours be built in the X and Y plane of the SLA machine.
The spray metal tooling process is very quick, and simple
molds can be made in a days time. It is not uncommon, with the CRITERIA FOR STEREOLITHOGRAPHY
new CAD generated modelmaking processes, to shorten the
RESIN SELECTION
prototype development program to several days after the initial
In order for rapid prototyping systems 1 to live up to expecta-
CAD design is completed. Some customers are reporting that,
tions, they must provide more than a crude representation of an
with the aid of the stereolithography process and a metal spray
idea or concept. The primary objective is to produce an accurate
moldmaking unit, turnaround time is now five days to obtain
model, usual] y with tolerances of & 5 roils ( t 0.13 mm) or less.
molded parts, as opposed to 10 weeks for conventional-type
Of nearly equal importance are the fabrication speed (throughput)
modelmaking and toolmaking processes.
and functional properties of the finished model. Resin is one of the
variables in the stereolithography process that can impact these
Guidelines and Practical Limitations requirements.
Five practical guidelines can be applied to assist in the
implementation of solid modeling and SLA rapid prototyping in Processing Constraints
the industrial environment. First, there is no substitute for good To compare stereolithography resins, it is essentiaf that the
engineering. CAE/CAD/CAM, computers, and rapid prototyping resin-related processing constraints are understood. Laser and
assist engineers in performing their tasks. These design tools liquid resin rapid prototyping systems currently share the follow-
cannot replace engineering judgment, discipline, design creativity, ing conditions:
and practical design applications. Solid modeling and SLA rapid
. Inability to achieve complete cure in the vat.
prototyping are not panaceas, but are excellent tools to assist
. Limited workable viscosity range.
engineers in accomplishing their tasks.
. Operator exposure to the liquid resin and associated vapors.
Second, as with all CAE/CAD tools, there is a learning curve
Cure, or resin solidification, occurs only at the surface of the
associated with solid modeling. To receive maximum benefit,
liquid, with each exposure of the beam generating a bullet-shaped
sufficient time should be allowed for the user to become ac-
solid. The depth of cure is dependent on the applied dosage, the
quainted with the capabilities and intricacies of the software.
units of which are mJ/cmz (Kw-hr/in2). The longer the focused
Third, designing with a solid-modeling system is the most
beam shines on a specific area, the deeper the bullet-shaped solid
effective way to take advantage of rapid prototyping. If designs are
becomes without increasing the overall cure percentage. Rather
maintained in wireframe mode and an SLA rapid-prototype part is
than being a uniform solid mass, there is a spatial variation in the
desired, the parts must be remodeled or converted into an
degree of cure with the air/solid interface being the most thor-
acceptable database format. This adds to the cost and cycle time
oughly cured. 2 The cure at the liquid/solid surface is so low that
required to produce a rapid-prototype part.
these surfaces are basically a soft gel.
Fourth, the solid-mold casting process will eventually be
To produce a three-dimensional model, these partially cured
supplanted by the current traditional shell-mold investment casting
layers are slightly overlapped to provide cohesion. As an example,
process. As the chemical, casting, and rapid prototyping industries
to create a model with 10-mil (0.25-mm) thick layers, each layer
are successful in the development of an acceptable rapid-prototype
is cured 12 to 16 roils (0.30 to 0.41 mm) deep to provide a 2- to
part for the shell-mold investment process, the requirements of the
6-roil (0.05- to O.15-mm) overlap. The degree of overlap can be
solid-mold process will diminish.
precisely set by the operator.
Final] y, the stereolithography does have limitations which need
As might be expected, the physical properties of partially cured
to be balanced against the part requirements. These limitations
(green) models can be dramatically different from those of full
include: surface finish, tolerances, wall thickness, and feature
cure. This is important because a green model must:
configurations.
Surface finish. The general finish is acceptable for engineering Resist the distorting force of shrhkage due to crosslinking.
evaluation requirements. However, for a display model, surface Sustain its own weight upon removal tlom the buoyant y of
finish flaws are noticeable at five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 m), but the liquid resin.
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CHAPTER 7
RAPID PROTOTYPING
. Remain unaffected by handling during rinsing and any Recently it was discovered that some resins have a higher
support removal in preparation for final postcure. sensitivity to in-vat swelling of the green model. These resins may
Since models are made by combining layers, and thinner layers have been avoided, except that they offered significantly improved
provide smoother, more accurate reproduction, accurate recoating durability. Further investigation revealed that the swelling was
is critical. It is quite common for stereolithographers to produce dependent on composition,3 but could also be prevented by
models with 5-roil (O.13-mm) layers, and even thinner layers have utilizing solid-wall construction techniques. Solid-wall construc-
been utilized for more critical shapes. To prepare the next working tion cannot, however, always prevent swelling and possible
surface, the process relies on a dipping step to fully wet the distortion of thin-walled, less than 20 roils (0.51 mm) wide
surface, a wiping bar to remove some of the excess resin, and a features and supports.
delay to allow the resin surface to finish levelling. Solid-wall construction describes a draw technique in which
The third major constraint, operator safety, is mainly an issue essentially the entire slice of the model is cured, as opposed to a
of minimizing exposure to the uncured resin and rinse solvents. honeycomb pattern. A honeycomb pattern of cure leaves pockets
Even if full cure could somehow be achieved in the vat, upon of resin unreacted until the postcure step. Solid-wall construction
removal the model is coated with liquid resin. Stereolithography is generally more accurate in terms of shrinkage prediction but, all
resins, usually multifunctional acrylates, are considered potential parameters being equal, requires longer processing due to the
skin sensitizers and, as a result, exposure should be minimized by substantially greater amount of vectors. The ideal resin can be
utilizing protective equipment like disposable gloves, a lab coat, used with either draw technique, without measurable swelling.
and safety glasses prior to postcure. Fully postcured models can be
safely handled without protective gear. Functional Properties
By selecting appropriate resins, the stereolithographer can The method of cure and processing constraints hinder duplica-
safely achieve the desired objectives of accuracy, increased tion of engineered plastics. However, the durability and flexibility
throughput, and improved durability. The key resin features that of stereolithography resins have improved dramatically, and fur-
enhance the process are discussed in the foIlowing paragraphs. ther improvements are expected.
Many stereolithographers have demonstrated that combining
this technology with room temperature vulcanizing (RTV) and
Green Strength
spray metal tooling can also provide multiple copies with a wider
Green strength refers to the rigidity of the partially cured resin,
variety of functional properties. 4 When using stereolithography
and can dramatically impact model accuracy. It has been demon-
models as patterns for secondmy tooling, durability of the pattern
strated that higher green strength resins are less susceptible to
is still a concern. Durable patterns are less likely to be broken or
distortion from the shrinkage that is generated by in-vat and
cracked prior to completion of the secondary tool.
postcure crosslinking. High green strength is also beneficial since
One application for stereolithography patterns that has yet to be
models must be handled during rinsing and support removal, prior
fully exploited is their use as direct investment casting patterns.
to postcure. It should be noted that higher green strength does not
Feasibility has been demonstrated5 using both flash and shell
necessarily correlate with increased brittleness after postcure.
casting techniques. Further formula modlficationsd are expected to
enhance the process by shortening the burnout cycle.
Viscosity
Low viscosity, especially <500 cps at 77 F (25 C), improves Safety
machine throughput and model accuracy. In a recent comparison, Generally, the resins utilized in the stereolithography process
a 300 cps resin decreased the SLA-250 recoat time by as much as are considered potential skin sensitizers. They can, however, be
75%, as compared to a common 1600 cps resin. The thicker resin safely handled on a day-to-day basis if proper precautions are
required 60 seconds of combined wiping and dwell delay, as taken. This includes the use of proper eye protection, lab coats,
compared to 15 seconds for the low-viscosity sample. and disposable gloves.
That 45-second per layer time savings translates to a five-hour In 1990, a common resin component, 1-viny l-2-pyrollidinone
shorter production run on a two-inch (51-mm) tall model (400, (V-pyrol), was linked to the occurrence of benign and malignant
5-roil (0. 13 mm) layers). nasal tumors in an inhalation study using rats. As a result, steps
Thorough Ievelling is especially critical for the fabrication of should be taken to minimize inhalation exposure to this comp-
thin layers or large surfaces. As an example, if a model is nent. For those concerned about exposure, resin suppliers provide
constructed with 5-roil (O. 13 mm) layers, a levelling inaccuracy of products that do not contain l-vinyl-2-pyrollidinone.
one mil is a 2070 error. This deviation on a single layer may appear An often overlooked aspect of process safety is the rinsing of
insignificant, but the cumulative effect over multiple layers can excess uncured resin from the green models. Preferred resins can
exceed tolerances. be cleaned with isopropyl alcohol rather than other more abrasive
Added benefits of low viscosity are expedited, more thorough or toxic solvents. To minimize exposure to wash solvents,
draining of high aspect ratio features, and generally easier rinsing. low-viscosity resins are recommended since they generally pro-
Fast, easy removal of excess resin prior to postcure improves the vide faster and easier rinsing.
accuracy of models and shortens processing.
Summary
Resin selection makes a difference. To achieve the best
Draw Parameters
possible results for a variety of modeling needs, the stereolithog-
Draw speed, a dkect function of photosensitivity, represents a
rapher should look for the following resin features:
substantial portion of the fabrication time for large models.
Therefore, the faster a specified thickness can be cured, the . Low viscosity (< 500 cps @ 77 F (25 C)).
quicker the production. Fast cure speed.
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CHAPTER 7
RAPID PROTOTYPING
High green strength. ing unit consists of a magnetic brush covered with toner. When the
. No l-vinyl-2-pyrollidinone (V-pyrol). toner on the brush is brought into close proximity to the charged
. Isopropyl alcohol cleanup. substrate, the electrostatic charge causes the toner to adhere to the
. Durability. charged portions of the substrate, creating a visible image.
. Investment castability. Exposing. Once the latent image is fully developed into a
visible image, the transparent plate is aligned directly beneath a
SOLID GROUND CURING UV lamp of 1500 watts. The workpiece carriage (detailed below)
The solid ground curing (SGC) process (Cubital, Ltd. ) is a is then moved into place in the exposure cell, precisely aligned
rapid prototyping process which builds three-dimensional objects, beneath the mask-carrying transparent plate. A shutter is opened,
layer by layer, in a solid environment. An SGC machine is shown allowing the UV light through the mask to fully expose the resin
in Fig. 7-14. layer and polymerize it to a solid.
Designed so as not to be dependent on or restricted by the Following exposure, the transparent plate is wiped clean by a
complexity of a models geometry, the system provides building roller, and the toner collected for reuse. The graphics workstation
of the most difficult and tricky models models with deep provides a subsequent layer and a new image is prepared on the
undercuts, thin walls, and large sizeand the simplest models. now-clean substrate. The workpiece carriage proceeds to the other
Figure 7-15 shows how the SGC process works. stations for execution of the subsequent steps.
Model-growing system. A workpiece carriage moves auto-
System Details matically (at a speed of up to 11. 8/sec or 300 mm/see) between
The SGC system comprises a graphics workstation and mask-
the five stations which make up the model-building subsystem.
generating and model-growing subsystems which function in
Movement of the carriage is controlled by a host processor through
tandem to create models. Using specialized software, the graphics
which different system parameters can be adjusted.
workstation generates cross-sections of the object or objects to be
Spreading. A photocurable resin is spread across the work area
built. The mask-generating subsystem comprises a transparent
of the workpiece carriage by an applicator consisting of a resin
substrate to which a charged image is applied and then developed
reservoir connected to a slot-nozzle which has the same width as
with toner before exposure of the resin through the mask. The
the work area of the workpiece carriage ( 14/360 mm). Resins
model-growing subsystem consists of a workpiece carriage con-
with viscosities of up to 6000 cps at room temperature, 77 F (25
taining a work area upon which the following steps are performed:
C), are suitable for the SGC process.
spreading, exposing, wiping, wax filling, cooling, and milling.
The thickness of the resin layer spread by the applicator is
The graphic workstation. The graphic workstation supplies
ordkmrily 8 roils (200 microns). The precise tilckness of the
color on-screen representation of the three-dimensional object or
spread layer can be adjusted by altering the temperature of the
objects to be built. Special software allows a wide variety of object
resin, the distance from the applicator to the work area, or the
editing functions, including scaling, rotation, mirroring, copying,
speed of spreading.
and many other featores. Data files describing three-dimensional
objects can be read in from most popular CAD systems and other For layers thicker than 4 mil (100 microns), mechanical
sources of 3D data. adjustment of the applicator parameters is required. If layers
The user utilizes the software to create and edit a part grouping thinner than 2 mil (50 microns) are desired, they can be achieved
containing any number of objects. The graphic workstation then by spreading and curing a layer of 4 mil (100 microns) and then
uses a slicing algorithm to logically slice the composition into reducing the layer by milling. Using the combination of milling
very thin, horizontal, cross-sectional slices. The slicing algorithm and spreading a very thin layer, layer tilcknesses as low as 1 mil
works by finding all the facets of any object in the composition (25 microns) can be achieved.
that occur at a given height. The intersection between a cutting Wiping. Any unsolidified liquid resin is carefully drawn away
plane and each facet is then determined. Subsequently, a polygo- from the work area by an aerodynamic wiper and collected in a
nal representation of the intersection is created. The polygon container. The action of the wiper is sufficiently strong to collect
representation is then converted to a raster picture and coded to all the uncured resin, while avoiding damage to any delicate cured
facilitate transfer to the mask system. parts. The collected resin, in principle, can be reused for subse-
Preparation time, the time from input file to fiist layer built, is quent layers.
approximately 15-20 minutes per object. Wax jilling. A water-soluble wax, serving as a support mate-
Mask system. Figure 7-15 illustrates the mask system which rial, is spread over all the polymer-free areas that were formed
comprises the following steps: when the liquid resin was removed. The hot (approximately 158
Charging. A specially developed ionographic technique, based F/70 C) wax is spread through an applicator which functions
on technology developed by Delphax Systems, Canada, is used to similarly to the resin applicator. The adjustable thickness of the
create the charged image on a substrate. The substrate consists of wax layer is typically equivalent to the thickness of the resin layer
a transparent dielectric plate, with a work area of 20 X 14 X 20 that was spread.
(51O mm X 360 mm X 51O mm). Approximately 6000 X 4000 The liquid form of the wax allows all the crevices to be filled
pixels can be addressed on the substrate giving a resolution of and a continuous layer, containing both wax and cured photopoly-
better than 4 mil (100 microns). An ion source creates an mer, is created. Subsequent hardening provides a solid environ-
electrostatic image by depositing ions on the bottom side of the ment for model growth.
transparent substrate, thereby charging certain pixels. At a speed Cooling. Following spreading of the wax, a flat cooling plate is
of 8.8 inch/see (225 mm/see), the substrate passes across the ion brought into contact with the entire surface layer to cool and
cartridge enabling charging of any point on the work area, harden the liquid wax. The cooling plate, with an average
Developing. Following the creation of the charged image on temperature of 410 F (5 C) (achieved by cold water flowing
the substrate, the substrate moves into contact with a toner through the plate), remains in contact with the work surface for
developing device which develops the latent image. The develop- approximately 10 seconds. This quickly and evenly hardens the
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CHAPTER 7
RAPID PROTOTYPING
I
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RAPID PROTOTYPING
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
RAPID PROTOTYPING
entire layer of wax, without affecting the cured plastic that is in The laser beam intensity is modulated to sinter the powder only
the layer. in areas defined by the objects design geometry. In areas not
Milling. Further accuracy in the Z-direction is provided by sintered, powder remains loose and serves as a natural support for
carefully milling each layer to an exact thickness. The milling also the next layer of powder and the object under fabrication.
serves to clean any polymer that may have been covered by wax. The SLS process requires the use of CAD and CAE software,
The milling is carried out by a multiple-blade fly cutter. An with designs created preferably in three-dimensional surface or
advantage of using a fly cutter is that at any given time the net solid form. Designs created in 2D CAD or CAE will require
force applied to the surface is almost negligible and therefore does modification prior to SLS acceptance and processing.
not interfere with the construction of delicate parts. Stress induced The additive layer nature of the SLS process allows for the
by milling is negligible. creation of very complex parts without the need for external
Removal of models from wax. Following completion of a support structures, clamping, or repositioning of specific portions
building run, the models are removed from the wax support of the design geometry. The process also allows the creation of
material by using heat to melt the wax or by solubilizing the wax complex parts, including objects with internal cavities, overhangs,
in an acidic solution+r by a combination of the two methods. notches within notches, and other diftlcult geometries.
Moreover, an inherent, unsintered powder surrounding the
Advantages of the SGC Process fabricated part during the SLS process provides a support structure
Many benefits of the SGC process result from the use of a that is easily removed upon part completion.
support material during the model-building process and from the
full curing of models.
Speed
Solid support for models being grown. During the build-
TheSLS process can produce a model or prototype at the mte
ing, which involves the chemical process of polymerization,
of O.5 to 1 (13 mm to 25 mm) per hour, depending on the
certain stresses are created. Keeping the model fiimly in place
complexity of the geometry. Moreover, no postproduction curing
substantially counters the distorting effects that accompany such
is necessary, except when ceramic materials are used.
stresses. This is of particular importance during early stages when
the model itself cannot hold any stresses. Preventing distortions in
the early stages decreases the possibility of accumulated deforma- Multiple Materials
tions. Powder or liquid environments cannot offer as fm a base The SLS process can use a variety of materials. In fact,
for stress prevention. virtually any material that softens and has decreased viscosity
The solid environment also provides for an <erase last layer upon heating can potentially be used. Current SLS materials
function that lets building mistakes be corrected without starting include PVC, polycarbonate, nylon, and investment casting wax.
from scratch. This function allows removal by milling of any Cast metal parts can be created rapidly using investment
number of layers. Furthermore, the solid support environment casting wax with the SLS process for pattern creation, and then
enables efficient building of complex models without user- using lost-wax casting as a seconday process.
designed support structures. Many geometries, including objects Work is under way to allow ceramic parts to be fabricated by
with very thin walls, very deep undercuts, or objects with closed the SLS process using polymer-coated ceramic powder, with
cavities, can best be built in a solid environment. curing as the secondary process.
FuU curing. All unsolidified photopolymer is replaced with
wax in each layer. Therefore, each layer can be fully cured during
BALLISTIC PARTICLE MANUFACTURING
building to a maximum depth of the intended layer thickness, but Theballistic particle manufacturing (BPM) systcm (Perception
no thicker. The use of a high-power lamp allows the full curing to
Systems, Inc.) deposits material in an organized pattern to build a
take place in a relatively short time. The primary advantage
part. The material delivery system is attached to a robotics system
provided by full curing is that no final curing step is necessary and is driven by data generated from a CAD model. Interpretation
that is, models emerge from the process fully cured. The advan-
of drawings by a model maker can often be eliminated.
tages are numerous: final curing distortions, generated due to The operation of a system for prototyping models in an office
stress in the model, are avoided; and users do not handle partially
environment is described. Wax is used as the construction material
polymerized resin.
and polyethylene glycol is used for the support material. The
System speed. The mask writing system provides for speed of system operates in the following manner:
production and the quantity of models which can be built in one
run. An average run contains between 50-150 models. 1. A part is designed on a three-dimensional solid modeling
CAD system (see Fig. 7-17a). Any overhanging structures
SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING on the part will be supported by a volume of support
Theselective laser sintering (SLS) process (DTM Corporation) material (see Fig. 7- 17b).
offers a multiple-materials approach to rapid prototyping technol- 2. The part and the support solid are broken into slices; the
ogy in a typical CAD and laser stand-alone configuration. As the slices are represented in the BPM format as two-
SLS process begins, a very thin layer of heat-fusible powder is dimensional images (see Fig. 7-17c).
deposited into a work space container and heated to just below its 3. The slices are <printed by the ink jet mechanisms.
melting point. An initial cross-section of the object under fabrica- 4. After all the layers are deposited, the object is placed in a
tion is traced on the layer of powder by a laser. The temperature warm water bath that dls~olves the sup&xt material (see
of the powder impacted by the laser beam is raised to the point of Fig. 7- 17d) and leaves the finished part intact (see Fig.
sistering, forming a solid mass. As the process is repeated, 7-17e).
each layer fuses to the underlying layer, and successive layers of The system described can be operated in an office environ-
powder are deposited and sintered until the object is complete (see ment. Droplets of wax are delivered by an ink jet mechanism.
Fig. 7-16). Robotic movement is provided by a combination of servo and
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CHAPTER 7
RAPID PROTOTYPING
stepper motors. The unit can opemte quietly and efficiently Features and Advantages
requiring little more power than a s~andard inkjet printer, and does Ballistic particle manufact&-ng has several advantages over
not produce hazardous or annoying gases. other rapid prototyping technologies when applied to an office
Models produced by this process are constructed of wax and environment. The system can operate in an office environment
have the advantage of being easily investment cast. Sprues and without special power considerations. System and operating cost
vents can be designed into the parts. Complex geometries that are can be reduced. Operation does not create an explosive environ-
subject to warpage and shrinkage in investment casting can be ment or hazardous gases.
tested prior to the construction of expensive molds for forming the The use of ink jet mechanisms allows ballistic particle manu-
wax patterns. Limited-run parts and experimental designs can be facturing to utilize waxes to produce models directly from CAD
constructed, investment cast, and tested for fit and function prior data. Reliable ink jet mechanisms can bc obtained from commer-
to construction of a mold. cial sources. The primary advantage of using these mechanisms is
that they are comparatively economical to purchase and operate.
Stage of Development
Efforts to date have been focused on the development of a
wax-based rapid protot ypings ystem to serve as a peripheral output FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING
device in a CAD office environment and as a prototyping device Thefused deposition modeling (FDM) system (Stratasys, Inc.)
for investment casting. uses nontoxic, biodegradable thermoplastic wire-like filaments
Several prototype systems have been developed. Most re- instead of liquid polymers, powders, or lasers.
cently, a system using a drop-on-demand ink jet mechanism has In this process, a conceptual geometric model is created on a
been assembled. The ink jet mechanism ejects droplets of molten CAD workstation. It is then imported into the modeler portion of
wax through a small orifice as a result of impulses from a the workstation where it is sliced into horizontal layers that are
piezoelectric ceramic device, It is positioned by a three-axis robot downloaded to the 3D modeler.
using prototype software that was developed in-house. A commerc- Liquid thermoplastic material is extruded and then deposited
ially available ink jet mechanism is used for this prototype system into ultrathin layers from the lightweight FDM head one layer at a
because of availability, use of a suitable wax, controllability, and time. This builds the model upward off a fixtureless base. The
economics. Production of wax preforms directly from CAD data plastic or wax material then solidifies in 1/10 of a second as it is
has provided the capacity to manufacture completed prototype directed into place with an X-Y controlled extrusion head orifice
parts that have been cast through the investment casting process. that creates a precision laminate.
Tolerances of 4 roils (100 microns) have been achieved. Figure 7-18 shows how the FDM process works.
7-22
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
RAPID PROTOTYPING
z
t
4 Construction material
Support material
[b)
b
(c)
[d] [e]
Fig. 7-17 The baltistic particle mudeling process. (Perception .Systerns, Inc. )
A spool of 0.050 (1.27 mm) diameter modeling filament feeds Successive laminations, within the 0.001 to 0.050 (0.03 mm
the FDM head and can be changed to a different material in to 1.27 mm) thickness range and a wall thickness of 0.010 to
one minute. 0.250 (0.25 mm to 6.35 mm) range, adhere to one another
Maintaining the liquid material just above the solidification through thermal fusion to form the model. The stated overall
point is fundamental to the FDM process. The thermoplastic melt tolerance is * 0.005 ( &O. 13 mm) in the X, Y, and Z axes over a
temperature is controlled to 1 F (0.6 C) above solidification. The 12 X 12 X 12 (305 mm X 305 mm X 305 mm) working
material is solidified as it is directed into place. envelope. A typical part is built in one to two hours.
7-23
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
RAPID PROTOTYPING
I
1
Filament
111,, Heated
FDM head
;1
BP
z Plastic model
I
, Fixtureless foundation
3D modeler
7-24
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
RAPID PROTOTYPING
Suction fan
Mirror Laser
X-Y table
Hot roller
..
Screen
-
. .. -
I...
.
..
.
.
..
.
.,!1
+
i
Waste basket
/
laminated object
i
Platform
cross-section .4010
for plotting masks
L
CAD
7-25
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
GROUP TECHNOLOGY AND DFM
7-26
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
GROUP TECHNOLOGY AND DFM
7
Sealing Sealing Fillet CBore sbt Fin. Fbn
DrulmV&g Dia. Dia. Rod. Dia. Dim. Slc4 All wit K width
Tel. Fin. Dim. Fin. Td. Fin. Ger Tel. Tel.
Stondard *0.001 [0.03) 32 0.010 R. Max 32 +4.005 250 125 +0.030/0.005 H,C05 (0.13)
[0.30) (0.13) [o.000/o.l 3]
30751 / / / / / / 63 / /
58%30 d / 0.005/0.020 63 d 125 / Mt.oo5 (0.13) /
(o.13/o.51 )
38787 4 4 4 d t 63 63 d +o.000/-o.oo5
(o.000/o.l 3)
58404 4 / 0.005/0.020 63 4 125 / +0.005/-0.010 4
[0.1 3/0.51 ) (0.13/0.30)
58398 / 4 0.005/0.020 63 / 125 d +o.000/-o.ol o +0030/-0.005
[0.1 3/0.51 1 (o.000/o.30) mxxvo.131
Consider the seventh column, Slot Finish. Note that the Aggravated by Uncontrolled CAD
Engineering Standard is 250 rms. This coarse surface finish Proliferation may be aggravated by CAD. On one hand, CAD
applies only to the bottom of the slot in Fig. 7-23. Parts in this systems are two to four times more productive than manual
family are prevented from rotating by a pin through this slot. The drafting. On the other hand, the ease with which parts may be
sides of the slot are flat, hard, and closely tolerance to the pin. copied and edited to create new ones causes an avalanche for
The bottom of this slot simply provides clearance for the pin, and departments downstream. Two examples illustrate this point.
an inexpensive (coarse) surface finish is specified. Yet a more In the first example, a manufacturer of aircraft hydraulic
costly 125 rms is found on five entries in the Attribute Matrix and systems uses ports for hydraulic fittings shown in Fig. 7-25. These
a very cost] y 63 rms in another, ports have a primary O-ring seal adjacent to the passage and a
secondary O-ring seal on the surface.
Ports are ma~hined using five tools on numerically controlled
Fear Tolerances machining centers. Proliferation of the port cordlguration in-
Design carelessness undoubtedly creates proliferation, but fear
creased until machine center tool magazines were full, An inge-
or ignorance also contribute. The components in Fig. 7-23 are
nious tool engineer developed a brazed carbide form tool ground
crucial to the jet engines performance. According to the mam-
facturer, if one fails: a fire in the engine starts within 11 seconds.
Under these conditions, inexperienced engineers do not take
chances. Fear tolerances, a term coined by Edward Roth, past
President of SME, are the result. They are usually the most precise
attainable, and are the default condition when engineers are
uncertain. Unfortunately, they are too often applied to noncritical
features.
Effect on Cost
The cost of proliferation and fear tolerances is enormous.
Figure 7-24 reveals that a 125 rrns finish is 30% more costly than
the 250 rms specified in Fig. 7-22. The 63 rms finish is more than
twice the cost of the standard.
The shape of the cost curve in Fig. 7-24 is characteristic.
Similar curves 4 for dimensional tolerances, raw materials, and
other features have the same exponential shape. Fig. 7-23 Fear tolerances. (James Nolen & Company)
7-27
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
GROUP TECHNOLOGY AND DFM
1
Ma&ii: steel
380
360
340 /
323
300
280 [
260
240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100 --------------------------- . . . . . . . . ----------
80
60
40
20 I
finish I
micro- I 2OOOI1OOOIWI I 250 I 125 I 63 I 32 I 16
inches} Mnchiningoperations neceswy : 1 , t
/
, , 1
sani- m
raugh turn ,
finish ~ :
raugh turn tum , 1 1
4 4 P # ,
9ami- hnish ! ,
1
rough turn Finithturn turn 1 I
, 4
1 -
mrni- Iinish , ,
rough turn finish turn km 1
% 4 1
3 $m- Iinish :
raughiurn Finishtum turn
to each port configuration. Port tool requirements became one To illustrate proliferations cost, simple ring tongue terminals,
form tool and one tap. as seen in Fig. 7-26, were singled out from parts selected at
Although nodesign wassuperior to any other, the number of random. On the basis of a 1.5% sample of 250,000 parts, 44
ports once again began to increase. Although the plant produced configurations were identified. They contained six duplications,
less than 500housings having such ports, atool room inventory one triplication, and three functional duplications (the nominal
counted over 30,000 form tool configurations! dimensions of one part lie within the tolerance band of another).
In the second example, a manufacturer of electrical contacts In a competitive market for products costing fractions of a cent
and connectors sought to reduce proliferation to control tooling apiece, over $lOmillion waswasted ontooling alone for duplicate
costs and inventory investment. Electrical contacts require expen- or functional y duplicate parts. Tooling costs are easily quantified.
sive progressive dies (about $100,000) and mold ~ools (about The human costs-to manage engineering documents, processes,
$60,000). schedules, and inventories are much greater.
Nominal
1
-1 Diam.
t--
7-28
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
GROUP TECHNOLOGY AND DFM
Processes also proliferate. Figure 7-27 diagrams the first two The Inventory/Lead Time Cycle
operations for the family of parts described in the Attribute Matrix, Consider theirnplications prolifera~on and a functional shop
Fig. 7-22. It is worthwhile to note that these parts require six to layout have for production scheduling. If necessity is the mother of
eight operations to complete, but diagraming each one makes the invention, proliferation and functional layout are the parents of
figure illegible. Standardizing manufacturing methods to eliminate material requirements planning (MRP). A multitude of process
proliferation resulted in the creation of the manufacturing cell routings andaneven greater number ofpossible paths through the
illustrated in Fig. 7-28. job shop create conditions in which setup commonality is pure
Although operating in a high-technology, batch environment happenstance.
without design authority or the ability to level production sched- Lengthy setups are the root cause of the inventory/lead time
ules, the cells speed and responsiveness made possible a make cycle. Large lot sizes are a consequence of lengthy setups.
what you need when you need it order policy. On automated Without large lots, capacity expended on setup is too great a
equipment, workers standardized tooling, tool station assign- proportion of the total. Inventory, a lesser evil, is the result of
ments, and storage locations. On conventional equipment, multi- large lot size.
skilled workers using quick-change, composite fixtures outpro- But inventory has capacity implications too. Because manufac-
duced sophisticated programmable automation. The worst case turingis done in large lots, more than what isneededis made and
setup between families was three tools, approximately 20 minutes. the balance is stocked. Meanwhile, inassembly, requirements for
Previously, every setup had been 1.5 to 4.5 hours. Statistically parts that were not made (with the capacity expended on large lots)
capable processes eliminated inspection. As employee involve- are being filled from inventory. Enough inventory must be carried,
ment increased so did the qualit of working life. Within six then, to meet Assemblys needs for any particular component until
,?
months, output increased 15070. Manufacturing produces that component again.
+iik77
.-Y KKrw
/MmrualN //\
324 ports using 22 machine look
krimtd
mill
Z //(Vertical) \
/?
f [ Vettical ) I
Y /
---&
7-29
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
GROUP TECHNOLOGY AND DFM
In this scenario, large amounts of inventory are required to Burbidge in the UK, Schilperoort later included both
cover long setups and production throughput time. Because process flow and machine tool capacity analysis in his
everything is made in large lots, leadtimes extend far into the system.
future. And the farther into the future Ieadtimes go, the more
umeliable forecasts of future requirements become. Inaccurate MZCLASS. Known as MICLASS for Metaalinstituut Classifi-
forecasts also drain capacity. Not only are the wrong items made; cation, the system became a commercial success throughout
they are likely to be made in large lots. Europe and North America. Applications included design re-
Standardized processes reduce setup and break the root cause trieval, celhdarmanufacturing, and process planning.
of the inventory leadtime cycle. Sequencing by families of parts In spite of Schilperoorts contributions. successful applications
often eliminates setup ahogether. Under these conditions, there is on both continents numbered only a few hundred. While compa-
no need to forecast far into the future. There may not be a need to nies like John Deere made enormous returns on their classification
forecast at all; incoming orders may be built as they arrive. investment, most balked. And while valid taxonomies may be
devised for any product, MICLASS applications remained limited
DESIGNING FOR MANUFACTURABILITY almost exchrsively to the metalworking arena.
The capabilities of modern CAD systems, advances in com-
The modern computing environment. With the advent of
puting technology, andan old idea, group technology, are com-
relational database management systems (RDBMS) and the accep-
bining to make design for manufacturability easier than
tance of structured query language (SQL) by the international
ever before.
standards organization (1S0), group technologys horizons ex-
panded. Character strings may be replaced with words and
Group Technology dimensions. Using accepted terminology from industry hand-
Group technology (GT) seeks to exploit the similarities be- books, definitions and conventions may be simplified. Because
tween parts or products for efficiencies in design and manufactur- industry terminology isaccepted and understood, precise retrieval
ing. Pitfalls that limited group technology 'supplication in tie past with little or no training is within the reach of thousands of
have bcenrcmovedby advances in computer science. personnel indesign aswellas onthe shop floor. SQL gives users
Manual systems. Significant part numbers or manual classifi- access to data distributed throughout the organization and makes
cation and retrieval have been used for many years with limited communication between hardware from different manufacturers
success. Because humans have trouble with strings longer than transparent. Lastly, relational databases are easily expanded.
eight ornine charactersin length, manual classitlcation is limited Adding an electronic components taxonomy, for example, to a
toafcwfcaturcs. In addition, manual retrieval is time-consuming metalworking database is as simple as adding or enlarging tables
andtoocumbersome toenjoy widespread acceptance. Few manual within the database.
systems pass the path-of-least-resistance test; is it easier to look up Softwares ability to reason based on data is also improved. For
a new part than to design a new one? example, thedistinction between metal-cutting andmetal-foning
Computer systems. The first group technology system to is often blurred. Parts formed from sheet or coil at Caterpillar are
enjoy commercial success in both Europe and North America was considered structural steel by personnel at Whirlpool. Traditional
developed byB. A. Schilperoortof The Metaalinstituut, TNO, classification systems require separate categories for metal-cutting
Apeldoom, The Netherlands. With the help of Europes most parts, metal-forming parts, and parts that have features of both.
experienced GT pioneers, Schilperoort]6 achieved success by No such categories are required in a system with the ability to
avoiding the pitfalls that claimed previous attempts (Schilperoort reason. For the sink in Fig. 7-29, for example, the presence of a
combined ideas from Germanys Professor Dr. Opitz (round cavity with dimensions greater than the thickness of the raw
parts), Dieter Zimmerman (stamped sheet metal), Koloc, a Czech- material categorize the part.
oslovakian who previously classified tens of thousands of parts PDES. The reluctance to invest in classification is well known
with a four-digit scheme of his own design, and Massberg, who to Mark Dunn of United Technologies Research Center, Hartford,
provided a classification system into which features were placed.) Connecticut. Dunn is the Chairman of the PDES Form Features
Committee. He previously developed computer-managed process
Specifically: planning (CMPP) for the United States Army. For cylindrical
1. The universe of features was determined by classifying parts, CMPP totally automated manufacturing instructions, toler-
every feature on parts produced by those companies where ance stack up, inspection instructions, and machine tool instruc-
technical school students under Schilperoorts supervision tions, and created two-dimensional graphics of part geometry,
were interned. A code 150 digits long was required .17 stock, and cutter location paths. Although CMPP automated 70~o
2. Avalidtaxonomy 12digits inlength wasdistilled fromthe of the process planning effort at United Technologies divisions
initial 150 digits by frequency analysis. such as Sikorski, its use was limited by the input problem, a
3. To insure consistent classification, students learned: term coined by Dunn. CMPP simply required more information
. Definitions which governed classification into various than users were willing to provide. Some abandoned it to return to
categories and (much less specific) manual methods.
. Conventions, or default conditions, for those cases The PDES Form Features Committee, in conjunction with
when the engineering drawing was silent with regard to other committees, is defining a data exchange standard for feature
feature data. information. 18 The standard will make possible the transfer of
4. Computers automated classification and retrieval. Interac- information between applications CAD to GT, for example. This
tive menu-driven classification was quick and accurate. capability will eliminate the input problem, providing a GT
Retrieval time was no longer an issue. database from CAD models. CAD systems compliant with PDES
5. Alefied to Process Flow Analysis (identifying similmities Form Feature and Tolerance Data Models are expected to reach the
in process routings) through the publications of John L. marketplace in the mid-to-late 1990s (see Fig. 7-30).
7-30
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHA PTER 7
GROUP TECHNOLOGY AND DFM
(9) 75
324 palis using 7 machins teols
+!
Engine lathe a
259
(306)
13
3010 81
2 7 9
A
v v v v
324 NC lathe Verticalmill Drill &I* Horizanlal mill Tracer mill
(307) (331] + (341 ] +- (230) + (335)
0310 8 4530 2 3514 2 4520 4560
A A 4
1 1
Y
17 Precisian lathe 5
40 4
> [419] 4
0135 19 4
64
2 14
D&. bench
104
(186)
9010 40
d
Fig. 7-28 Manufacturing cell which eliminates process proliferation. (James Nokn & Company)
7-31
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CHAPTER 7
GROUP TECHNOLOGY AND DFM
c1 o
.
if
Clawficoticmrule
El o
Thsn Eke
2, Standardize on producible tolerances known to meet design Consistent datum selection is essential. 19 Inconsistent datum
specifications over the products intended life. selection guarantees that acceptable parts will be discarded as
3. Measure critical features of parts in stock or in process. scrap. Routings must utilize statistically capable processes.
Why measure? Because it is not certain parts can be Where assemblies are concerned, engineers, manufacturing
manufactured to specification. Tolerances must be set personnel, and suppliers must collaborate on design.
about vahres to which parts are actually manufactured. Parametric design. Capturing design and process standards in
Gather data from sources such as research and develop- parametric design (CAD) and process planning (CAPP) systems
ment test results, prototype dimensions and performance can improve productivity while controlling proliferation. For
data, or parts returned from the field for overhaul. example, when the cell in Fig. 7-28 was established, parametric
4. Last, make sure consistent tolerances are accompanied by
consistent datum selection. Conformance to dimensional
specifications must be measured from those surfaces on
which parts were located during manufacturing.
Manufacturability efforts can be leveraged effectively with
statistical samples and group technology. Direct attention to
critical features of the largest part families. Rigorous sampling
techniques ensure that inferences drawn from the sample popula-
tion can be made with confidence. By this method it is possible to
develop manufacturability guidelines without reviewing the entire
part population. The proliferation within hydraulic ports (see Fig.
7-25) and electrical connectors (see Fig. 7-26) were identified and
controlled from a sample of the part population.
The same methodology may be applied to the process prolif-
eration in Fig. 7-27.
Concurrent engineering. Concurrent engineering of datums,
tolerances, surface finishes, and raw materials are particularly
important. A respected paint and fluid systems equipment manu-
facturer reduced both setup and Ieadtime by 90% for 373 screw
machine parts by standardizing tolerances, surface finishes, tool-
ing, tool positions, and bar stock size. Fig. 7-30 PDES. (James Nolen & Company)
7-32
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
GROUP TECHNOLOGY AND DFM
If Thsn Elsa
Dedgn rula
matarial - shad thicknassT
or
motarial = coil thickmsssT
and
bend rodius Rs 2T
or
distance D s 2T alarm
Proms rule
diamatar LX.< 2T drill
c punch
Fig. 7-31 Design and process advice. (James Nolen & Company)
drawings, process instmctions, and NC programs were issued by On another occasion, the companys. . German subsidiary de-
one technician using a GT-based CAPP system. Previously, five vised a simple, inexpensive way to produce the bore diameter (see
full-time manufacturing engineers and two clerks were required. Fig. 7-32). In spur gears, the bore and pitch diameter are critical
Likewise, the hydraulic ports, as seen in Fig. 7-25, are now features. These features and their relationship to one another must
available in a handful of varieties from an icon on a parametric be manufactured within specifications. Otherwise, noise, vibra-
CAD system. Moreover, when an engineer selects the icon he or tion, and stress result in premature failure. While the German
she automaticallyy selects not only geometry, tolerances, and innovation promised to reduce the cost of thousands of gears, no
surface finish, but also predefine machine tool cycles and tools automated means existed to identify them.
from a standard library, improving CAD productivity and virtually Parametric CAD addresses both problems. First, the CAD
eliminating proliferation. model is created automatically from parametric. Not only geom-
Establishing parametric design standards has other benefits. etry, but also other aspects of the design process may be
Although copying and editing one CAD drawing to make another automated. The spur gear bore diameter tolerance in the first
quickly creates a new design, once saved the copy takes on an example is addressed by including the formula for an IT-7
identity of its own. Traceability to the parent is lost. tolerance in the parameter-driven model creation routines. Proper
A manufacturer of gears decided parametric drawings took tolerances for any size bore are obtained automatically without
too much time and used the copy and edit method to improve further engineering investment.
productivity in the drafting room. The shortsightedness of this In addition, where-used links between the parametric model
decision returned to haunt them more than once. On one occasion, and parts created from it are maintained. Parametric models
a spur gear 0.3 m (O.98 ft) in diameter was enlarged to a diameter quickly identify all potential applications. Design innovations such
of 10 m (32 ft). Unfortunately, the engineer neglected to change as the German bore diameter are quickly adopted because engi-
the tolerance of the gears bore diameter. The oversight became a neering documentation is automated. Engineering changes and the
public embarrassment known to both customers and suppliers. creation of revised CAD models are accomplished automatically.
7-33
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
COMPUTER-INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING AND DFM
ically to ensure that the notation correlates well with recent market
B
performance. Expert systems carr provide this mechanism. Each
enterprise must develop its own technically correct databases and
expressions of logic to be able to periodically regenerate relevant
definitions of popularity.
The Pareto approach has long been used to identify the precious
few (20%) items that have the greatest impact (80%). The
difficulty with this approach in discrete manufacturing is the very
large number of trivial items (C) normally found. Hence, a
mechanism is needed to provide further item preference resolu-
tion. Additionally, designs cannot rely on pure popularity, but
must also be economical, producible, repairable, maintainable,
Fig. 7-32 Spur gear. (James Nolen & Company) and even disposable. The expert logic to promote mass customi-
zation needs to combine all these barometers of item preference
With electronic media replacing paper, the CAD model be- into a single Desirability Index and rely upon information
comes the foundation upon which all other manufacturing docu- systems to periodically regenerate the resulting barometers. This
mentation is built. The engineering drawing is the basis on which information must be available in a wide variety of formats,
not only process and quality instructions are written, but also processes, and functions.
catalogs, service manuak, user manuals, and sales brochures. Thus, to implement mass customization, a dynamic item
Desirability Index must be created using expert, company-
DYNAMIC STANDARDIZATION specific logic. This computer-generated popularity approach adds
Mass customization is becoming a recognized marketing and an important dimension to traditional database information, and
manufacturing strategy needed to satisfy niche sizes of one. zo provides a valuable new information tool to facilitate both dy-
Providing this level of customization economically isachallengc namic standardization and mass customization.
which requires the best people, processes, and technology working
together from sales through the engineering design process, and SUMMARY
finally to the manufacturing and distribution processes. Today, world class organizations control proliferation, design
To assure that mass customization promotes products and for manufacturability, and may leverage engineering productivity
processes that an organization can easily provide, information through GT. Inafewyears, the benefits of GTand AI will require
systems must provide both item visibility and item popularity for almost no additional effort for those engineers who construct CAD
all product offerings. Accomplishing this requires both technically models on PDES-compliant systems.
COMPUTER-INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING
AND DFM
Originally focused on the integration of design and manufac- must be simultaneously supported. This new vision acts as a
turing on tbe factory floor, computer-integrated manufacturing catalyst in manufacturing firms, expanding their creative approach
(CIM) was viewed as the integration of computer-aided design and to the integration of computer systems. This effort extends directly
computer-aided manufacturing. It was soon realized that CIM was to tbe DFM environment, through improved cross-functional
the integration of all systems witbin the manufacturing enterprise, communication, better response to change, higher white- and
including the way the enterprise is managed, Today CIM is also blue-collar productivity, and reduced discrepancies resulting from
called the computer-integrated manufacturing enterprise (CIME), errors and data redundancy.
computer-integrated enterprise (CIE), or computer-integrated
business (CIB). From a design for manufacturability (DFM)
perspective, this <enterprise view has significance, since these DFM/CIM SUPPORT TEAM ORGANIZATION
descriptions have altered managements vision of CIM to cover A functional structure established along departmental lines is
integration of office, engineering, and factory floor environments. typical of the existing organizational structure in a firm that is
The enterprise view is changing the way successful firms will transitioning to a DFM/CIM team philosophy. To be successful,
conduct business in the future. company leaders must first champion the total quality management
CIM is defined as a way of doing business. CIM is an (TQM) principles of continuous improvement empowering the
objective, a goal, and a philosophy of running a manufacturing organization to define and develop new concepts. Armed with the
enterprise. It improves the flow and use of information within an ability to change and improve processes, a combined DFM/CIM
enterprise and its activities. Communications with suppliers and environment can create a major competitive advantage. The
customers are also provided. To develop such a CIM environment, working relationship among individuals supported by CIM pro-
the shared information needs of management, engineering, pro- ductivity tools can provide substantial improvements in commu-
duction, marketing, various support groups, and trading partners nications, productivityy, and operational responsiveness.
7-34
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
COMPUTER-INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING AND DFM
7-35
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
COMPUTER-INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING AND DFM
7-36
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 7
COMPUTER-INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING AND DFM
DFM process team organization Skills, education needs, roles and responsibilities, work plan
+
CIM team organization Technology and communications skills, planning and project experience
*
DFM process definition Process analysis, constraints, project identification/plan, change management plan
+
CIM plan development CIM planning, project definition/organization, consistency with DFM
* manufacturing strategy
DFM process implementation Refine pilots, review bottlenecks, determine appropriate projects and priorities of
+ technology options
CIM project implementation Install projects on priority basis, support continuous improvement
..
Hig. 7-33 Integrating a DFM/CIM development process. (Jerome Hahn, copyright 1990)
. Poorly defined responsibilities among the DFM and CIM invest caDital with little or no master ulan. will lose anv. comDet-
.
team members. itive advantage they may have had. Improved communications,
Inability to put whats best for the company first. responsiveness, and information accuracy will result in increased
Failure to revisit the original project justification. market share and profitability for fiis who successfully organize
and implement aDFM/CIM environment.
Traditionally, most companies try to stabilize their business.
The rationale for a stable operation is to allow the company to
determine its product build costs. By addlrrg the expected margin, References
a firm is able to establish standard pricing. Once this is done, the
organization will also stabilize how it does business, and a 1. Steven Ashley, Rapid Prototyping Systems, Mechanical Errgi-
tendency to resist change will often prevail. In organized labor rreering (April, 1991), pp. 34-43.
2. R.P. Chartoff and L. Flach, An Analysis of Laser Photopolymer-
environments, changes to these standards can create conflict. ization, RadTech 90 North America Conference Proceedings,
Since these standards do not involve continuous monitoring, Vol. 2, pp. 52-61.
they become apart of theinfrastructnre of the company. Incorpo- 3. E.J. Murphy, M,G. Sullivan, and M.J. Bezdicek, Swelling Dis-
rating a CIM environment that is able to determine costs by tortion in Stereolithography, The Second International Confer-
ence On Rapid Prototyping Proceedings, June, 1991.
activity rather than by departmental budget enables the firm to 4.F. Prioleau, Beyond Prototypes: Using Stereolithography For
analyze the effects of a change throughout an organization. In an Production-Quality Parts, National Conference On Rapid Pro-
environment managed by activity costing, changes can no longer totyping, June, 1990.
be departmentally suboptimized. Since costs are collected and 5.S. Kennerknecht and D. Sifford, New Dimensions In Rapid
Prototyping Explored For Aluminum Investment Castings,
immediately available, shifts from one activity to another are
/NCAST, March, 1991, pp. 5-10.
immediately recognizable. This ability to provide cost change 6.E. Murphy et al., Stereolithographic Vat Compositions For
information also aids the manufacturing engineers efforts to Investment Casting Patterns, U.S. Patent Number 4,844,144.
uncover opportunities for process improvement. 7. What Makes Yoshio Invent?, The Ecorrorr?ist (January 12,
1991), p. 61.
8. ;~he Arrival of Haute Carture, The Economist (July 29, 1989), p.
SUMMARY 9. Less is More, The Economist (May 25, 1991), pp. 75-76.
10. At Toyotas Knee, The Economist (December 2, 1989), p. 78.
It is important to realize that many firms still retain aproduc- 11. How to Build Quality, The .Ecorrornisf (September 23, 1989),
tivity improvement philosophy for reducing costs, failing to pp. 91-92.
realize that this is not the only technique forimproving profitabil- 12. Roger A. Samuel, Productivity: The Japanese Experience, The
ity. Leaders in many industries have successfully distinguished MIT Reporl, Volume X, No, 5 (May 1982), pp. 1-2.
13. David Russell, The Truth about Big Business in Japan, f3usi-
themselves by looking at a broader context where cost, quality, ness Tokyo (April 1990), pp. 22-28.
and time are all factors. Companies which continue to operate with 14. Daniel B. Dallas, cd., Too/ and Manufacturing Engirreers Hand-
a 1970s cost-reduction mindset, and have not empowered their book, 3rd ed. (Dearborn, Ml, Society of Manufacturing Engi-
organization to seek out and implement improvements, will neers, 1976), p. 35-13.
15. EG & G Sealol (A), Harvard Business School, 9-686-045
continue to see market erosion resulting from their inability to (March, 1987), pp 1-18.
deliver a quality product or to respond to competitive pressures. 16. James Nolen and B.A. Schilperoort, interview, March 16, 1991,
Companies which understand theimportance ofcost control, and Beekbaghen, Netherlands.
have established amark of quality, will do better. However, the 17. James Nolen and John Keus, interview, March 17, 1991, Apel-
doorn, Netherlands.
future leaders will he innovators, not only in controlling costs and
18. Mark Dunn, STEP form Features krforrrration Mode/ (Working)
quality but also in their ability to respond swiftly to competition. (August 24, 1990) pp. 195-223.
Companies which are able to assemble the proper DFM and 19. Oliver Wade, Tolerance Control, Thomas J. Drozda and
CIM team resources, and have a stmctured approach to their Charles Wick, eds., Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Hand-
planning efforts, will be best positioned to become or continue to book, Chapter 4, Volume 4 (Dearborn, Ml: Society of Manufac-
turing Engineers, 1983).
be industry leaders. In contrast, those who continue to develop 20. W. B. Krag, Dynamic Standardization Using Expert Systems,
new products in highly segmented functional environments, and SME Technical Paper MS89-389 (1989).
7-37
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
The Contributors of this chapter are: Helen Connelly, Senior Design Engineer, Video, Image, and Printer
Systems Group, Digital Equipment Inc.; Gordon Lewis, Consultant, Concurrent Engineering Resource Center,
Digital Equipment Inc.; Dan McCarthy, Senior DFM Facilitator, Munro and Associates.
The Reviewer of this chapter is: Geoffrey Boothroyd, Founding Principal, Boothroyd-Dawhurst, Inc., Wake-
fie/d, R/.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
RELATING DFA TO DFM
. The capability of a product to be built. guidelines available commercially that address design consider-
Not everyone considers manufacturability to be a quality found ations for most manufacturing processes. Examples are injection
only in good designs. DFM, however, specifically infers that molding, sheet metal forming, and machining.
interpretation. DFA cannot be forced and should not be taken for granted in an
Since design for assembly was first introduced, it has found a organization. Instead it needs to be approached and embraced by
home as an integral part of the DFM process. Most often, the term the individuals who are directly responsible for the design. Often,
DFM is used to describe a streamlined design process that uses the companies have devised their own set of guidelines or rules for
skills of a multifunctional team to influence the design concept as producing various goods: a checklist of dos and donts that
it emerges into a final design and a product. In this sense, DFM is determine whether a part is manufacturable or not. These pro-
not a manufacturing process; it is a product delivery process (see ducibility guidelines are the bare minimum requirements that
Fig. 8-1). By soliciting input from members of the different establish the baseline for the innovation which is DFA.
disciplines early in the product design process, designers can Another type of design process is value engineering. Value
meet requirements rather than waiting to incorporate changes or added (VA) or value engineering (VE) is redesigning an existing
fix mistakes later. Naturally, DFA is an excellent means of product or idea to improve it, either late in the design cycle or as
communicating the Manufacturing Plants point of view to the rest a separate undertaking. VE is a more difficult task than designing
of the team. In some cases, the assembly process should be correctly the first time. When value engineering a product, the
analyzed and planned as well. team is in a reactive rather than a proactive mode. Another
The term DFM also is used to describe the producibility of a drawback: it is likely that the VA/VE team will alienate the
part and to ensure that it has been designed optimally for its chosen original design team; it is difficult to make suggestions on
method of manufacture. This type of DFM is discussed in other improving anothers design without causing hurt feelings and
chapters of this handbook. defensiveness.
It is also much easier to generate creative ideas from a clean
DFA ANALYSIS slate than from an existing design. Seeing how someone else has
DFA analysis might fit into the design process as shown in Fig. solved a problem creates a mental block to individually solving it.
8-2, which illustrates the growth of a product from concept to These feelings usually originate in childhood. The team inevitably
complete design. The process begins with a general concept, then will be limited by the existing design, as their approach changes
adds detail: each parts physical characteristics, how it will be held from trying to improve the design as a whole by starting anew, to
to other parts in the assembly, fasteners that will be required, etc. eventually considering each part discretely and making minor
If the design is more complex, it can be divided into subassemblies changes to a few in the interest of cost savings. Experience shows
for analysis. At this point, selection of materials has already that VE is an arduous and far less rewarding task, not only for the
begun, since the manufacturing process is often intrinsic to the individuals involved, but from the standpoint of improved product
material and part design. A DFA analysis and evaluation may design and cost. If possible, introduce an entirely new product
encourage changes to the design and influence materials selection. offering instead of re-engineering one that is in the field. This step
When the design is satisfactory, each part or subassembly is allows the team a chance to make substantial improvements to the
considered individually to ensure that its design is optimized for design, use new techniques and technology, and be enthusiastic
the tmocess bv which it will be manufactured (an examtie of this about a new undertaking. Individual and team morale must be the
is given in Fig. 8-3). There are a number of software tools and prime consideration, -
Preliminary Build/test
design process Documentation
Tradlt,onal
process 5% 25% 50% 20%
. . --
1 -.. . --- ----
-. . .- ---
1 --- . --- ..-
. ----
d < 45%
Time savings
DFMA/A
process 20?4 15% 15% 5% 4 E
.!
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
RELATING DFA TO DFM
Design
concept
r General
I design
II layout
Ii
II +--
Ii
II Provides the designer
II Design with a theoretical
I materials
and processes
I
c
I
I
i
I Design for Design each port to be
I manufacture by economically produced
L chosen process by the selected
(producibility) manufacturing process.
+
Final
design
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
GETTING STARTED: DEVELOP THE TEAM
Assembly Cost
Assembly time
Parts handllng
levels of assembly Part cost
Labor rate
Volume Material
Design finishing
Standardization Design
Manufacturing = Part + Assembly +Tooling
cost cost cost cost dlmensians ond tolerances
Taaling type
Tooling Cost
Pracess
Volume volume
Process Standardization of
Design packaging
Tool material
Dimensions and tolerace~
standard ]zotmn
Fig. 8-4 Typical breakdown of manufacturing cost, without overbead. The factors influencing the relative cost of each component are listed design
If the designer can remove a single part from the product by real cost savings achieved with DFA, secondary to the direct
incorporating its function into another part in the assembly, that improvements in the assembly process.
part does not need to be designed, or tooled, or assembled. The part Another benefit to reducing parts count is a shortened product
also does not need to be supported, kept in the warehouse, development cycle, because there are fewer parts to design. The
inspected, purchased, corrected, or maintained; thus the cost of philosophy encourages simplifying the design and using standard,
these overhead functions can be drastically affected. This is the off-the-shelf parts whenever possible.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
GETTING STARTED: DEVELOP THE TEAM
Next, management must recognize that to implement DFM in Unfortunately, once an idea has fallen victim to anothers
their organization, they must be prepared to change the way they scmtiny andnegative feedback, itisdifficult torecover it. Further,
do things. Managements reluctance to accept the need for change once agroupis stifled by seeing apattemof negative feedback, it
is one reason DFM has been slow to succeed in many companies. is difficult to get any further thinking from them. Ideally, an
Training is one way of bringing DFA knowledge to an organiza- environment should be created where people feel comfortable with
tion, but it alone cannot influence the change. DFA needs to be a one another, and are encouraged to suggest abundant, silly,
primary objective in the next new product. carefree solutions to problems, From some of these silly ideas,
innovative solutions to challenging problems may ultimately
ENCOURAGE A CREATIVE CLIMATE evolve. Perhaps the best way to encourage a creative climate is to
It is of utmost importance to assemble a design team that has avoid negative behavior altogether. Treat all ideas in a supportive
the talent to make the right decisions, the ability to carry them out, way, worthy of serious consideration before rejection. Another
and the persistence and dedication to bring the product to a way to encourage a creative climate is to create a forum for
successful finish. Although these qualities are invaluable, it is of generating ideas: a brainstorming session (see Chapter 9).
equal importance that these individuals be allowed as much
freedom aspossible to germinate creative solutions to the design
problem as early as possible in the product design cycle. They SELECT A MANUFACTURING SITE AND
should feel completely free and, in fact, encouraged to think of DECIDE ON THE PROCESS
new and different solutions to meet the challenge at hand. It is Every product must be designed with a thorough understanding
managements responsibility to establish this creative environment of the capabilities of the manufacturing site; it is of paramount
and to listen carefully to new ideas. importance to choose the manufacturing site at the start of product
Many people in the assembly area will insist that they are not design. This is a subtle point that is frequently overlooked at the
creative. This simply is not true. Many somehow believe that start of a program, but it is of great importance. Also, manufac-
creative people are those who can draw well, are artistic in some turing facilities have vastly different processes, capabilities,
way, or perhaps even those who dress unusually, In fact, most strengths and weaknesses which affect and in some cases, dictate
people are creative beings, with a wealth of knowledge and ideas design decisions. When selecting a manufacturing site, the process
which are typically kept hidden. Many potential ideas are suffo- by which the product will be built also is being decided.
catedby negative thoughts orKiller Statements such as those in High overhead rates plague U.S. factories and make offshore
Fig. 8-6, manufacturing options (where a fully burdened labor rate is
But our customers want it this way. We cant change that, Industrial Design wont allaw it.
Process mastery has not been proven. The cast daesnt matter, its hme ta market thats important.
That was ruled out a long time aga. 1 dont like It.
This isnt the right time far it. We cant risk that.
They are not on our qualified suppliers list. Our business is different.
We are already using design far assembly! its not a praven design.
Its a goad idea, but I dont like it. The schedule want allaw it.
Sure it casts more, but well have o better product. We cant affard it.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
GETTING STARTED: DEVELOP THE TEAM
sometimes 75~o less) look very attractive. Is the plant set up of four diverse categories: Controlling/Taking, Supporting/Giv-
primarily for high-volume manual assembly or automated assem- ing, Adaptive/Dealing, and Conserving/Holding. 2 Most peoples
bly? It would not make financial sense to fully automate a factory personalities will fall primarily into one of the categories, and will
where the goal had been to employ an abundant work force, or if dictate their behavior.
the plant has a low overhead rate, as long as an acceptable quality The success of the product will ultimately depend on how well
level is maintained. Is the candidate plant equipped to perform people can work together, and how well they can communicate their
high-pin-count surface mount component placement? Does the differences, feel ownership of the product, maintain the common
design require this technology to be competitive? Should the goal, and make the best decision for the benefit of the product,
manufacturing site procure the equipment and learn the process? rather than the benefit of a single discipline. It is important for the
These types of decisions need to be resolved early so the product manager or group mediator to keep the group focused on the
manufacturer can purchase, set up, and train the manufacturing common goal of doing what is best for the product.
personnel on the new equipment in time for production. Trying to
introduce a new process, or to perform research and development SELECT AND APPLY DFA TOOLS
as part of product development, will significantly extend the One of the most important ideas to implement when applying
product introduction. DFA and DFM is a sophisticated CAD modeler that is equipped
When possible, make the selection of a manufacturing site an with or compatible with the necessary simulation tools.
objective one. Unfortunately, it is not always that straightforward. The most important thing that a manager can equip engineers
If there is only one site in the selection process, work closely to with is CAD tools which enable the creation of a robust design. A
ensure that the process capabilities match the product number of software packages serve specific purposes that are
requirements. useful, and even necessary, to stay competitive. For example,
mechanical designers often will use a wire-frame or solid modeler
THE TEAM OWNS THE PRODUCT
to create part geometries. Some engineers prefer a solid modeler to
The DFA process is most successful when implemented by a
a 2D or wire-frame modeler, particularly for designing injection
multifunctional team. In this team, each person brings to the
molded parts, because it requires that the user think like the tool
product design process a specific area of expertise. The team
designer. The designer can begin with a solid form, such as a
should embrace group dynamics and the group decision making
block, cone, or cylinder, and by joining other simple shapes to it
process for DFA to be most effective.
and cutting, hollowing, chamfering, and addhg radii, can create a
Emphasis traditionally has been placed on the design team as
solid representation of the part. Constant consideration of the
thepeople whodrive andowntheprcduct. Designers need to be
parts manufacturing process is a must.
receptive to team input andshare the burden of the design process
Presumably, a solid can be saved as a computer file and used
with other team members. By involving a multifunctional group,
by other CAD tools that the designer has access to. A typical
the product itself can benefit. For example, once the product has
analysis on an injection molded part would be mold-filling
been completed and the design group has moved on to its next
analysis to optimize tool design and to locate inherent stresses in
endeavor, a service or support organization typically assumes
the completed part. Parameters such as coding times, gate
ownership of the product. The design groups involvement has
location, and size can be optimized using simulation before the
been for a comparatively short period of time, yet the decisions
tool has been cut. The designer also may require a finite element
they made affect theproduct fortheremainder of its life.
modeler for mechanical stress simulation such as loads on snaps
There can be drawbacks to multidisciplinary teams. Managing
and clips. Naturally, these packages also are excellent for What
too many opinions, or the difficulty in making decisions, are
if? analysis. 3
general factors that could lengthen the product development cycle.
Another consideration for tool selection is portability between
However, once a team has worked together and understands its
CAD software and various prototyping methods. Rapid prototyp-
responsibilities, there is much to gain by adopting the team
ing has become increasingly popular as an alternative to creating
approach. Groups working together can pool their individual
drawings for tooling, ergonomic models, and 3-D representation
talents, skills, and insight so more resources are brought to bear on
of concepts.
a problem. Group discussion leads to a more thorough understand-
The market for these types of tools is growing fast as the
ing of problems, ideas, and potential solutions, from a variety of
interest in implementing DFM has become more heightened, and
standpoints. Group decision making results in a greater commit-
as development cycle and time-to-market pressures increase. The
ment to decisions, since people are more motivated to support and
challenge for companies developing these tools is to ensure
carry out a decision that they helped make. Groups allow individ-
compatibility among the many simulation products. Much time is
uals to improve existing skills and learn new ones. Also, groups
wasted recreating databases of the same part design so that various
provide a reciprocative environmentpeople help each other.
types of analysis can be performed. On an electromechanical
Having the team located physically togetherin one facility
assembly, for example, the following types of analysis would
makes the process work more successfully. This co-location
probably be necessary on mechanical parts only.
improves the teams morale and makes communication easier,
Benefits may seem trivial, but the difference in co-location is . DFA analysis on the completed assembly or concept to drive
significant. the designer to the simplest solution.
Once a team has been established, members should be encour- . DFM analysis of each part to ensure that it was designed for
aged to spend time together in classes or team building workshops its manufacturing process.
before embarking on the product design process together, to . Mechanical CAE analysis to ensure that parts meet their
become familiar with one anothers needs and styles. All teams are strength goals.
unique, yet they share some common characteristics in the . Tolerance analysis to verify assembly repeatability and
relationships that develop within the group. For example, an ensure that assembled parts fit together as the design
individuals style or motivation can be classified as a combination intended.
8-6
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
APPLYING THE DFA PROCESS
CAD tools required in those electrical designs containing some tests, but reliance on advanced CAE analysis, to cut down on
printed circuit boards should be included. Now that the product is development time and anticipate problems (including assembly
assembled, thermal analysis of the system, and possibly EMI problems), is growing.
simulation, ensure that conducted and radiated emissions limits are Simulation greatly reduces risk and increases the teams chance
not exceeded. In the past, much of this work was done by building of getting it right the fkst time. The fuel for this effort comes from
models and running experiments. This is still a valid approach for companies that want to lead the competition.
8-7
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
APPLYING THE DFA PROCESS
Leaf spring
Fig. 8-7 End carriage from the IBM Proprinter exhibits the complexity of a multifunctional part. A leaf spring was molded into this part.
,3welded@t
m
+ pressed insert
Fig. 8-8 Mold in, laser etch, or stamp information directly onto parts
rather than using a label.
Use the elastic properties of plastic to take up tolerances Fig. 8-9 Avoid unnecessary additions to sheet metal parts.
within an assembly. There is a growing variety of plastics
available for new applications (see Fig. 8-10). . Make improvements to an existing design. Instead of four
. Use the spring characteristics of plastic to eliminate parts, fasteners, would two be sufficient if a sheet metal tab were
like the leaf spring in Fig. 8-11. added for strength?
8-8
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
APPLYING THE DFA PROCESS
.,.,..
/.
..,.
,
-- .* .
.
~~, , (l
,,,, ,,, ,
,,,,,,,,,.,,, ,,,
,,,,!!,,
,,,,,
,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,
-:e=
,,,! ,, ,,!,!,,!,,,,,!
,,,1,,!,,,,1,
,,!
,, ,,,!,,, ,,,, ,, ,,!,,,!,,, ,,!,
! ,,,
!
Spring
,. ,, , ,..
Lever
>
Integral snaps
Fig. 8-12 Design snap-tits into plastic parts to eliminate d~rete fasteners.
8-9
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
APPLYING THE DFA PROCESS
Use Standard Parts include features on previously assembled parts to locate subse-
As hard as the team tries, discrete fasteners often remain in the quent parts. This promotes fixtureless assembly, simplifies orien-
design. If this is the case, they should be standard fasteners tation, and helps prevent the need for post-assembly adjustment.
a single type of fastener used throughout the product to eliminate When using stackable assembly, subassemblies must be easily
any variety in the tools and torques needed to assemble located for servicing, or customer installability if required.
the product.
In a way, the use of standard parts goes against trying to Design Parts With Self-Locating Features
minimize parts count. The advantages and disadvantages of each Self-locating features on parts enable the assembly and subse-
approach should be evaluated. Sometimes using an available quent parts to be placed into a precise location without adjustment.
standard part across a famil y of products is better than introducing This reduces assembly operator training and simplifies the assem-
more complex solutions to each particular product in the family. bly process.
Economics of scale will be a factor. Other measures to consider:
. Create a chamfer on one or preferably both mating surfaces
Stack Assemblies (see Fig. 8-13).
By designing a product so that subsequent parts or modules are . Use fasteners with pilots for self-centering.
located on previously assembled parts, or by building from the In restricted areas, use design features to positively locate
bottom up, the design enables automatic assembly, reduces the part before it is released (see Fig. 8-14).
reorientations of the work uiece, and improves aualitv,
. . . because it Create a dimule or recess to align blind features
is difficult for the operator to skip oper~tions. A better step is to (see Fig. 8-15) .-
,,
,,,
,,
Original design cylinder does
,,,,, not locate easily, can catch on
,,,, ledge.
,,
,,
,,,
,8( Improved design: cylinder IS
,,( guided into appropriate position
,,!, by chamfers.
,,,,
,,,
,,
,,
,,,!,
Improve design more by
chamfering both matmg
surfaces.
,,,
,,,,
,,!
Fig. 8-13 Create chamfers on mating surfaces. (Adapted from Product Design for Assembly, Boothroyd and Dewhurst)
8-10
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
APPLYING THE DFA PROCESS
I I
m, ,,
,,,,,,,
,,,
!
,$
Part
before
,,,,
,,,!!
,,,,
,,,
is positwely
$$,,
,
,!,
,,$,
,,#
,,,,
,,,,,
located
{t IS released
!
! ,,,,
,,,,,!
Fig. 8-15 Create a dimple or recess to facilitate alignment. (Adapted
from Product Design for Assembly, Boothroyd and Dewhurst)
,,,,,
,,
,,$$
,,,,
Fig. 8-16 When possible, make parts symmetricrd to facilitate handting and orientation.
8-11
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
APPLYING THE DFA PROCESS
Eliminate Cables
This principle falls into both mechanical and electrical catego-
ries. Whenever possible, use a direct connection between printed
circuit board assemblies (PCBS) and other electrical assemblies.
Thisreduces costmdgreatly facilitates automatic assembly. Some
alternatives to conventional cables or wire harnesses:
Interconnect functionality with existing plastic parts in the
design, using molded oretched circuit technology, or decal
circuit technology.
Use a larger PCB than necessary for the electronics, to act as
a backplane.
o Uses single connector and header and directly solder one
board to another, or use daughter boards.
,,,
Combine module functionality onto fewer modules if usirw
* similar technologies (surfac~ mount versus through-hole;
multi-layer, fine line technology versus single or double-
0 sided etch, analog versus digital functionality, signal speeds,
etc.).
@
,! ,,, ,, USE DFA METRICS
!
The assembly process is comprised of two distinct operations:
,, ,,, ,,
,,
,!. handling and insertion, 4 Handling is that part of the assembly
sequence that involves selecting the part from a feeder, bin, or
,,,,
tray, and orienting it to the correct position for insertion. Insertion
,.,,,,,, is adding the oriented part to the partially completed assembly.
!, ,,~
These are each affected by different part characteristics, such as
size, weight, and symmetry. The DFA handbook enables the
I [!,,
,,!, ,, ,,
1
designer to see how part characteristics affect handling and
insertion operations adversely or beneficially and to design
part features to facilitate these processes.
Fig. 8-17 Make parts symmetrical to facilitate handling and
orientation.
Number of Parts
The total number of parts in an assembly is an excellent and
Minimize Levels of Assembly wide] y used metric. It is a key point in DFA. Limiting parts count
Reducing thelevels of assembly, orthe number of subassem- is rewarding because when parts are reduced, considerable over-
blies and suboperations in a process, simplifies specifications and head costs and activities that burden that part also disappear. When
paperwork, facilitates the assembly process, and simplifies the parts are reduced, quality of the end product is increased since
factory layout. Assembling modules or parts with no adjustments each part that is added to an assembly is an opportunity to
reduces the final assembly and test procedure, reduces handling, introduce a defect into the process.
reduces tools and fixtures, and improves quality. Todo away with
adjustments, a statistical tolerance analysis of the product will be
required, so that tolerances are held tightly only where needed. Assembly Time
Consider the distribution of tolerances which will be seen in the Total assembly time will almost always be lowered by reducing
product, and the probabilities that end-of-tolerance parts will the quantity of parts. Some of the most time-consuming assembly
appear together in a single assembly. operations are fastening operations, and discrete fasteners always
u u
o
Fig. 8-18 If symmetry is not possible, create features to facilitate orientation and ensure proper insertion.
or
o
8-12
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
IMPROVING PRODUCT SERVICEABILITY
Screw_
R Round hole
$$) Long hole
t I 1
~appedo,e
Frame
Fig. S-19 Use a long positioning hole on one side to reduce adjustments.
are candidates for elimination from a product. By examining the . Does the part need to be made from a different material or be
assembly time of each part in the assembly relative to the total, the isolated from all other parts already assembled?
designer can target specific areas for improvement. Must the part be separate from all other parts already
assembled because of necessary assembly or disassembly of
Design Efficiency other parts?
One of the most powerful ideas put forth in DFA is Boothroyd
and Dewhursts design efficiency rating. Many users prefer not to Once the necessity of a part has been established, the design
tout design efficiency because at timesthe numbers can be efficiency of the entire assembly can be calculated using the
misleading. This is a mistake. Design efficiency is another way to theoretical minimum art quantity and an optimal assembly time
$
understand where to concentrate on improvement, as established per part as the basis.
by a strict evaluation of each parts necessity of separateness A piston in an engine is an example of a part that moves during
within the assembly. In summary, if the answer to the following operation. An example of a part that must be of a different material
three questions is No, then theoretically the part in question is from those already assembled is an engine head gasket, or a plastic
not required to be separate from all other parts that have been washer that isolates a heatsink from a grounded chassis. If there
assembled and is, therefore, a candidate for combination with were three of these plastic washers, however, only the fkst would
other parts in the assembly or elimination from the design. The be necessary. The last two could theoretically be combined with
questions are asked of each part as it is added to the partially the first, since they do not need to be made from a different
completed assembly. material or isolated from all parts already assembled. An example
of a part that needs to be separate because of assembly or
. During product operation, does the part move relative to all disassembly is a gear box cover.
other parts already assembled?
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
IMPROVING PRODUCT SERVICEABILITY
If twenty minutes are spent searching for the snap-tabs that replace a one-dollar part? This is not the only additional consid-
must be disengaged, and half of them break off in the disassembly eration in DFS.
process, the design is still unsatisfactory. Consider how the
assembly is to be serviced. This does not exclude the use of
snap-fit designs when serviceability is required, only the use of DFS CONSIDERATIONS
non serviceable snap-fit designs. While products can often be designed to be serviceable without
DFA facilitated the creation of many innovative snap t% adding any additional cost to the product, this is not always the
designs to ease assembly. DFM took this creativity a step further case. Therefore, decide how much additional cost may be allotted
by modifying these designs to minimize the impact on tooling, by to making the product more serviceable. It certaird y would not be
eliminating side pulls and collapsible cores. The recent emphasis a good decision to add two cents to a one-dollar part if only ten
on serviceability has added a new element: design the joint to be units in a million are expected to fail. This must be a purely
easy to disassemble. Designs incorporating this philosophy have economic decision, but it must include all economic aspects,
become increasingly prevalent (see Fig. 8-20). Since this emphasis including the cost of permanently losing a dissatisfied customer, as
is just beginning to take hold in many companies, there will no well as all of those people that customer warns not to buy
doubt be many more variations of serviceable designs surfacing. the product.
There are a host of considerations which must be made:
Is the part reliable?
INCLUDE FIELD SERVICE ADVICE Can the failed part be readily accessed?
To perform this assessment properly, it is imperative that field Are any parts subject to breakage during the service proce-
service personnel be included on the product development team. dure?
Since the field service activity is typically far removed from the Can O-rings or foam-in-place gaskets be used to eliminate
engineering department, both geographically and organizationally,
the need to replace flat gaskets?
it is easy to lose sight of what service actually encompasses. Will any press-fit parts need to be removed?
Design for service (DFS) must be approached differently than Are any special tools required?
DFA is currently used in many companies. For fluid systems, has a drain plug or valve been provided in
an easily accessible location and is there room below the
drain for a container of appropriate size?
DFA REDESIGN APPROACHES Have serviceability advantages been included in the trade-
DFA redesign efforts take on one of two forms: either using
off analysis of quick connects?
DFA only for individual assemblies with isolated teams, or in a Have sockets been provided for high-mortality electronic
global format. The global format has a number of distinct
components, or will the entire board need to be replaced?
advantages. In a global format many teams work on individual Will the customer be required to solder parts?
areas, but these activities are coordinated, so that these individual Has everything possible been done to minimize the amount
teams share one goal optimizing the entire product. Optimizing
of time the product is out of service?
a single area may lead to sub-optimizing the total product. With Can the part be serviced in the field or, better yet, without
large products this is the only way to ensure that all of the
removing it from the parent assembly?
interfaces and trade-offs are adequately addressed. Links between
Can the customer service the unit without degrading the
these teams must be established and updates are required to ensure
safety of the product leaving the company exposed to a
that everyone is operating in step with one anotherall are
lawsuit? Are any adjustments required?
designing the same product.
A company which manufactures smaller isolated assemblies A case in point can help illustrate the effect of taking the time
would naturally and rightly redesign products with independent to walk through the field service procedure.
teams. But companies responsible for designing products consist- One DFM product redesign led to a significant improvement
ing of tens, hundreds, or even thousands of individual subassem- over the original design, but posed a serious problem in service. A
blies will gain the most benefit from a global format. The printed circuit board was secured by sandwiching it between two
advantages in assembly are obvious. The most serious problems in parts in the assembly; electrical connections from the board to
large products invariably lie in the interfaces. As for service, it is other components within the assembly were made via wires. This
not just desirable to operate in this format, but absolutely was acceptable when the product was being assembled horizon-
mandatory. tally gravity retained the board; but in the end product it was
oriented vertically.
The service procedure would have begun by removing one of
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DFA AND DFS the two parts sandwiching the PCB. Since in this board was
There is one striking difference between designing for assem- connected only by wires, it would immediately have fallen out of
bly (DFA) and designing for serviceability (DFS). When design- the assembly and slapped up against the faceplate of the parent
ing for assembly, it is not important what else is added to the assembly. A simple redesign improved not only serviceability, but
product once it is completed. In service, this is extremely assembleabilit y as well, by positively securing the board and
important; what goes into the design must often be serviced later. eliminating the wires. The first redesign was obviously totally
Serviceability of a subassembly cannot be determined by unacceptable, but would have gone unnoticed had serviceability of
looking only at that subassembly. It must be evaluated by looking the unit in the field not been evaluated.
at that subassembly in the end product, It may be easy to service Seldom can serviceability be assessed properly without walk-
a product once it is removed from the parent assembly, but ing through the field service procedure once the DFM design is
virtually impossible to remove it. How many current designs completed. Of course, design iterations can be minimized by
require two hundred dollars worth of labor to remove and establishing serviceability guidelines up front.
8-14
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
RECYCLABILITY
4I / To
disengaga hem
2=Jf Simpled
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SectionA-A
RECYCLABILITY
The responsibility of product designers is constantly expand- If ethics alone is not enough to enforce that responsibility the
ing. In todays world, those responsibilities even extend beyond marketplace soon will. This new attribute of products will no
the life of the product. Recyclability has added a new twist to doubt come to be expected in the marketplace. The trend has
product design. Engineers have a responsibility to the already begun.
environment. Two products have already come to market with advertising
emphasizing their ecological advantagesso-called green products.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 8
RECYCLABILITY
WHO IS DOING IT parts. In some cases, combining parts does not make sense. If the
Interestingly, these products are at the opposite ends of the proposed plastic washers in the previous example are located on
spectrum and both are from Europe. One is the U-kettle, an opposite sides of the assembly, combining them might be imprac-
electric tea kettle from the United Kingdom (See Appendix A). tical. Consider other solutions. Also, the designer will have many
The other is a BMW with plastic body side panels that can be more restrictions imposed than simply the three questions listed
completely removed in less than twenty minutes. previously. There are agency approvals whose guidelines need to
The U.S. is obviously already behind in this area but can catch be met, the multidisciplinary teams preferences to be addressed,
up quickly. Those companies that have already started to provide mechanical stability, etc. The goal is to create the most robust
for serviceability will have a head start on their competition in design possible, given the constraints placed on the designe~ to
providing this product feature to their customers. DFS is, in fact, understand why the product must look as it does, and ask why
the starting point of a design for disassembly analysis. not try...?; and to ensure that the final design sohrtion is the
simplest solution possible.
References
CONSIDERATIONS
For a product to be easy to service, it must be easy to 1. Geoff ry Boothroyd and Peter Dewhurst, Product Design for
disassemble. This is a half of the battle. The other half lies in Assemb/y (Amherst, MA: Department of Mechanical Engineer-
material selection. To be economically viable, reclamation facil- ing, University of Massachusetts, 1983).
2, Ed GalIi, Designing for Manufacturability: The Story Behind
ities will require that those parts which cannot be reprocessed IBMs Proprinter , P/astics Design Forum (March/April 1987)
together can be separated easily. This will determine by what pp. 27-29.
means parts within an assembly can be secured together. 3. James L. Adams, The Care and Feeding of Ideas: A Guide to
Metal fasteners (screws and rivets) will be unacceptable. Heat Encouraging Cresrfivity(Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publish-
ing).
staking will be acceptable for joining similar materials but unac- 4. St;art Atkins, Life Orientations Trainina: Discoverv and lnterDer-
ceptable for dissimilar materials. Much remains to be done to sons/ Corn~unications Workbooks ~Beverly Hi~ls, CA: S~Uart
provide design tools to identify which materials can be reprocessed Alkins, Inc., 1978).
together and which cannot. Work within these lines is progressing, 5. Steve Venditti, Rapid Prototyping: Design Engineers Perspec-
tive, Solid to Solid Modeling. Proceedings 2nd /international
along with technological advances in the reclamation process and Conference on Desktop Manufacturing (Minneapolis, MN; May
equipment and organizational advances in the collection systems. 6-7, 1991).
The time is rapidly approaching when recyclability will no
longer be a marketing advantage, but a marketing necessity. The
success of many companies will depend upon how quickly Bibliography
engineering can respond to thk new challenge.
Veilleux, R., and Petro, L., eds. Tool and Manufacturing Engineers
If the conclusion is that a part is not necessmy, consider Handbook Vol. 5 (Dearborn, Ml: Society of Manufacturing Engi-
alternatives such as combining parts or creating multifunctional neers, 1988) pp. 13-9 to 13-22.
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 9
All design for manufidcturability and assemb- bines and rccomb]nes his past experience, pos-
CREATIVE
leability (DFM/A) methodologies strive to direct the sibly with some distortion, in such a way that THINKING IN
engineers thinking toward a redesign that is more he arrives at new patterns, new configurations, DFMIA s-1
manufacturable than the initial product concept and arrangements that better solve some need
sketch. The DFM/A methodologies are like a com- of mankind. 3 ROADBLOCKS
pass pointing toward improved manufacturability. . . Thinking is the operating skill with which TO CREATIVE
intelligence acts upon experience (for a THINKING 9-3
a point out on the horizon. Many people fail in their
application of DFM/A methodologies because they purpose).
Creativity has sometimes been called the com- DEVELOPING
think the compass direction that they are sighting is
CREATIVE
the only possible direction to go from poor prod- bining of seemingly disparate parts into a THINKING 9-5
uct to improved manufacturability. functioning and useful whole. 5
The journey from product concept to improved A creative act is the combination of previously
CREATIVE
manufacturability can only be traveled safely by unrelated structures in such a way that more is PROBLEM
following a mind map, as an orienteer follows a gotten out of the emergent whole than has been SOLVING
put in.6 TECHNIQUES 9-8
topographical map. Blindly following the manufac-
turability compass leads to the swamp of product Creativity requires the manipulation and re-
combination of experience. 7 APPLYING
recall. The mind map is produced by employing
CREATIVE
creative idea-generating techniques to bridge the The creative process is a mental process in
PROBLEM
chasms of design and manufacturing problems. which past experience is combined and recom- SOLVING
DFM/A points the way; creative problem solving is bined (frequently with some distortion) to form TO DFM/A 9-15
the vehicle. a new combination which will satisfy some
need. (Anonymous) CONCEPTUAL
DESIGN 9-16
Although there is no single accepted definition of
WHAT IS CREATIVE THINKING?
Many people think of creativity and creative creative thinking, there appear to be some common FUNCTIONAL
threads among these collected definitions. Creative EFFICIENCY
thinking as some genius skill possessed only by
Einstein, Edison, Kettering, Bendix, and Whitney. It thinking involves: TECHNIQUES FOR
ASSURING
is important to first recognize that creative thinking is 1. The human mind. ECONOMICAL
a type of thinking that all can implement. Creative 2. Manipulating past experiences. DFM 9-21
thinking is not reserved for geniuses. 3. Unusual combinations of concepts to produce
Creativity and creative thinking are difficult terms new images. A CONCEPTUAL
to define and difficult potentials to measure. Focus- DESIGN
The creative type of thinking is performed by the SYSTEM 9-30
ing on some of the accepted definitions may reveal an
right-brain functions that are sensory, visualizing,
image of creativity. Some accepted definitions are:
intuitive, wholeness, imagining, and synthesizing. APPLICATIONS
creativity is aprocess that results in novelty The right brain draws upon all past human experi- OF ARTIFICIAL
which is accepted as useful, tenable, or satis- INTELLIGENCE S-45
ences, technical and nontechnical, to find the blocks
fying by a significant group of others at some used to build a new concept. The mechanism the
point in time. 1 mind uses to perform this manipulation is not known.
Creative thinking, broadly defined, means To date, creative thinking has not been achieved by
coming up with something new. 2 computers.
The Contributors of this chapter are: Gordon S. Kalley, Associate Professor of Engineering Technology, New
Jersey Institute of Technology; Dr. Andrew Kusiak, Professor and Chairman, Industrial Engineering, University of
Iowa; William G. Ovens, Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology; Edward
Szczerbicfri, Visiting Professor, University of Iowa; Dr. B. be Tuttle, Professor of Mechanical Engineering, GMI
Engineering & Management Institute; Zhentao Zhang, Senior Software Engineer, Control Automation, Inc.
The Reviewersof this chapter are: Dr. Royce Beckett, Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, Auburn
University; Dr. Sridhar Kote, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Michigan;
David Liu, Ph. D., Associate Professor, Department of Computer Information Systems, University of California, Los
Angeles; Sidney J. Parries, Professor Emeritus, Creative Studies, Buffalo State University College and Trustee,
Creative Education Foundation.
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CHAPTER 9
CREATIVE THINKING IN DFM/A
Creative thinking is the generation of many new ideas, that problem solving, a large number of possible solutions are gener-
may possibly become solutions to problems. It does not involve ated some logical, some silly, and some dumb. In this stage
analysis of the ideas; therefore, creative thinking alone will not there is no effort to analyze the ideas. There are many different
solve a problem. When creative thinking is integrated into creative creative thinking techniques (idea generating methods) that may be
problem solving, then a novel, workable solution to a problem employed to stimulate the generation of potential solutions. This
may result. divergent stage is what sets creative problem solving apart from
other solving techniques.
WHAT IS CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING? In Step Five, idea selection, the logical, critical, judgmental
Most engineers are familiar with the analytical problem solving thinking of the engineer is employed, unemotionally, to select the
style developed in their engineering courses. The problem state- better, more feasible solutions to the problem. The more feasible
ment is broadened. The problem is modeled mathematically. A solutions are subjected to technical and economic tests to establish
solution technique is proposed. An analysis of the problem is made the most feasible. The second part of this stage, analysis of the
to see if the solution is correct. If the solution technique is correct, solution, is the same as employed in Step Four of the analytical
then the proper steps are taken to implement the problem solution problem solving technique.
into the problem environment. If the solution is not correct, then In Step Six, the problem solving team attempts to insure
the engineer returns to the problem statement, refines the model success of the proposed solution by testing its acceptance into the
and investigates another solution. Once a satisfactory solution is clients community. In the acceptance phase, modifications of the
found, the process stops. This style of problem solving relies solution can make it better fit the problem environment. The
heavily on the analytical and convergent thinking of the engineer. divergent thinking here makes the problem solution interface
Creative problem solving draws upon not only the convergent better with the problem environment, even before the solution is
thinking skills of the engineer but the divergent thinking skills of fully designed and implemented. The philosophy of this step is
the inventor. Table 9-1 contrasts the five steps in the analytical consistent with the earl y design/manufacturing considerations
thinking process with the seven steps in the creative problem supported by DFIWA techniques.
solving process. The C or D after each step indicates whether The last step is the implementation of the solution. This step
convergent thinking (C) or divergent thinking (D) is employed in first incorporates the modifications (proposed in the acceptance
that step. stage) into the solution design, and then defines a plan of attack to
put the solution into action. This implementation stage differs
from that of analytical problem solving in that it refocuses the
TABLE 9-1
divergent thinking performed in the acceptance stage.
Problem Solving Methodologies
The heart of the creative problem solving process is idea
generation. Step Four is often called creativity, creative thinking,
Analytical Creative
idea generation, idea finding, or solution searching. Whatever
Problem Solving Problem Solving
name is applied to this process, it is definitely a process of creating
1. Problem statement (C) 1. Problem statement (C) ideasnot necessarily solutions. Since this is the most difficult
2. Problem model (C) 2. Background data gathering (D) step in the process to implement, this chapter will be devoted to
3. A solution proposal (C) 3. Problem definition (C) expanding the engineers ability to be a creative thinker.
4. Analysis of solution (C) 4. Idea generation (D)
5. Implementation (C) 5. Idea selection (C)
6. Acceptance (D)
7. Implementation (C)
WHY ARENT ENGINEERS CREATIVE?
Just as the quality of consumer products is influenced by the
manufacturing process from raw material to final assembly, so the
The first step is a restatement of the problem presented by the quality of engineers is influenced by the educational process from
client. The result of this step is a concise problem statement that is infancy to college. Although most people may be born highly
mutually understood by the problem solver and the client. creative, they lose their active creative skills rapidly when they
The creative problem solver then explores the background (the enter school. Schools are largely geared to the there is only one
environment) around the problem. In this stage the solver is right answer syndrome. The subjects stressed in primary schools,
deliberately broadening the problem statement to see if it might be such as reading, spelling, grammw, and arithmetic, are topics for
artificially confined by its environment. Too often, the problem which there is one answer if the problem is stated accurately.
statement is so limited, so narrowly defined, that only one solution Other subjects, such as art, music, and creative writing, are
will work. The result of this stage is a broader picture of both the usually downplayed since it is difficult to grade these activities.
problem and the environment. The latter subjects are ambiguous, and permit multiple answers to
Step Three is a redefinition of the problem, to include the a single problem statement. These subjects exercise the creative
details of the original problem statement and the important details thinking brain muscles. As a student follows the path into high
of the environment. In creative problem solving the original school and then into an engineering or scientific college, the drive
problem is expanded into its environment to better understand the to get the right answer becomes stronger and stronger. In fact, the
problem definition. This cyclic convergent thinking~ivergent engineers brain becomes left-brain dominant, and consciously
thinking mode is the key to creative problem solving. and unconsciously suppresses the right-brain thinking skills.
In Table 9-1, Step Four of the creative problem solving process When the graduate engineer enters the real world of industry
is equated with Step Three of the analytical problem solving. In the command is still, Find the solution to the problem and fix
analytical problem solving, one solution is proposed. In creative it. Many industrial organizations believe that there is only one
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CHAPTER 9
ROADBLOCKS TO CREATIVE THINKING
way to solve a problem. Society as a whole places a great deal of All hope is not lost. Although typically engineers at age 25 may
value on the analytical, reasoning, judgmental, logical, and be using only about 2% of their creative thinking skills, those
mathematical skills of the left-brain thinkers. Therefore, to suc- skills are still in the brain; the seeds of creative thinking were
teed in business and industry, the engineer may continue honing planted at birth. They must be fertilized, watered, and sheltered so
those career skills. that they may blossom into great ideas.
PERCEPTUAL ROADBLOCKS
Fig. 9-1 Problem visualization.
As the name implies, perceptual roadblocks keep people from
seeing the real problem itself, or the information needed to solve
the problem. problem statement was, How do we get customers to recycle
expanded polystyrene containers? Many ways were tried to
Seeing the Expected motivate the customer. The problem might have more solutions if
Psychologists have proposed that the human mind stores new the problem was stated as, How do we recycle food containers?
information by looking for similarities between the new object and This process of removing the constraints and boundaries from the
patterns already known. The mind strips away the parts of the new problem statement is called searching for background data in
idea that dont fit in the boxes, and classifies the remaining image the creative problem solving system.
into one of the old boxes. The labeling of images makes it possible
to store information.
Inflexibility in Viewing the Problem
The stereotyping of new images is how the mind categorizes
Once the problem statement is read, the words are translated
information. Once a block of information has been categorized as
into a mental image by the mind. This mental image is used as a
object A, that image will only be recalled when sorting for
model in solving the problem. Read the problem statement below:
category A objects. In order to find more solutions to prob-
lems, the habit of stereotyping people and things must be broken. Problem statement
Design a play device that can be attached to a tree and used
Limiting the Problem by a child to enjoy the spring breeze.
Most engineers believe that the first step in the sohrtion to a
problem is to write down the problem statement. Here is the Before proceeding, sketch your idea. Figure 9-2 shows the
problem statement: Figure 9-1 shows nine dots arranged in a image of this device from several viewpoints. Although this
square. Draw four straight lines which connect all the points. Do cartoon pokes fun at the various viewpoints, it highlights the fact
not lift your pencil from the paper while drawing the lines. Find that people all look at a problem statement or an object through
the solution to the problem. different eyes: the accountant, the design engineer, the manufac-
In trying to solve this problem, most people find themselves turing engineer, the assembly engineer, the materials engineer,
butting up against the sides of the square they placed around the and last, but most importantly, the customer.
dots. They also struggle with the delicacy of the pencil line and the In order to expand the realm of solutions, the problem and its
rigidity of the dot locations. They have placed artificial barriers environment must be viewed from several perspectives.
and constraints on the problem statement.
Recently a restaurant chain struggled to find a solution to the EMOTIONAL ROADBLOCKS
problem of getting customers to recycle expanded polystyrene Humans desire to feel comfortable with themselves, to be safe,
food containers and paper products while disposing of trash. Their and to be at peace. As they go through life, they find that taking
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CHAPTER 9
ROADBLOCKS TO CREATIVE THINKING
the well trodden trail might not be the picturesque way but it will to the next problem. The respect for struggling with a problem
be the safe way. Much of their daily behavior is undertaken to must be restored. Without the acceptance of struggling, the fwst
protect both the emotional and the physical life. mundane solution that comes along will be accepted.
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 9
ROADBLOCKS TO CREATIVE THINKING
Conformance to Existing Customs place the problem, to try to find a solution. In further development
Approaches to solving a problem in a business environment are of the Synectics technique, Gordon and George Prince formalized
strongly dictated by the customs of the business community. In the the journey into a fantasy world by a mechanism called an
small rural Pennsylvania manufacturing company, a machinist excursion. Daydreaming all day is foolishbut never imagining is
with a idea to improve the product might explain it directly to the never growing.
plant manager. In a large company it is unusual for a blue-collar
worker to speak to a white-collar worker, particularly a high-level HABITUAL BLOCKS
one. In that environment, cultural taboos prevent the communica- Habit is the security blanket of adulthood. Feeling secure and
tion of ideas. safe is a basic need. Once a safe route to the cabin is learned, it is
In American society, eels are considered loathsome creatures always followed. On the way to the cabin, there is a clean, quiet,
that kill game fish. Yet, in other parts of the world, the eel is reasonable motel; why look for another? It is easy to eat at the
considered a delicac y. A few years ago, the catfish was considered usual restaurant, go to the usual movie theater, watch the usual
by some to be an ugly creature that ate garbage in the river. As the television. Habits are nice, because they free the mind from the
need for more food expanded, someone took the risk, broke the anxiety of decision making. However, they keep people in the
taboo, and experimented with cattish as commercial people same old rut.
food. Today there are catfish farms that raise catfish for some of
the finest restaurants in the country. Without that risk taker, catfish Tried and True Methods
farming would never have developed as an industry. When new individuals enter a social organization or a business
organization, they try to interject their previous experience into the
Emphasis on the Competition new organization. Many times, their ideas are met with, We
American society is apparently preoccupied with what others dont use that type of fund-raiser! Toot Company doesnt use that
are doing. At home and in business, the questions are, What is manufacturing process. Thats not our style of doing business.
the competition doing? Are they succeeding? Should we do what The tried and true method is the shield for those who do not want
theyre doing? to take risks.
The creative approach to problem solving begins with research Certainly all the customary ways of doing business must not be
into what others have done to solve similar problems, but doesnt abandonedbut technology is providing new solutions to old
copy that work. It is used as a stepping stone to achieve greater problems, and the new ways must be considered. The horse-drawn
improvement in the product. carriage makers who insisted that they would continue to make
quality carriages were left behind in the automotive age.
Indulgence in Fantasy is Folly
Human creative skills increase from birth until they reach a Dependence on Authority
plateau at about age five. From age five until adulthood (age 21) One of the biggest habitual blocks is the dependence of many
they decrease to a low level, where they remain unless stimulated people, in both business and social organizations, on an authority
and challenged. tlgure to direct their behavior. These people are very much
A child picks up a stick in the yard and becomes a pirate. An creatures of habit, until dh-ected to change that habit. Society in
adult picks up a stick in the yard and throws it in the trash. The the past has placed an authority figure at the head of every
child is a dreamer with a high degree of imagination. The adult is organization, and has taught respect for and reliance on that
a realist with a direct purpose. authority figure. The result is an organization of people who keep
Society, both social and business, places a great deal of moving in the same direction at the same pace until the leader
emphasis and reward on practical, direct approaches to a goal. The dkects a change.
wanderer, the day-dreamer, the wisher, are seen as lost or The self-directed, self-responsible character of the American
misguided. Some degree of fantasy in problem solving methods is pioneer, revived in business and social colleagues, can provide
needed to break through the barriers. William J. J. Gordon, of creative solutions to problems. The introduction of participatory
Synectics@ Educational Systems, has shown that successful cre- management and group problem solving teams in many business
ative problem solvers often create a fantasy world in which to organizations is rekindling that pioneer spirit.
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CHAPTER 9
DEVELOPING CREATIVE THINKING
actual practice of creative thinking skills must be respected and have so strongly infiltrated vertical thinking that techniques of
trusted. The business environment must tolerate and even encour- lateral thinking must be learned and practiced in order to stimulate
age some degree of risk-taking in problem solution. Most impor- creativity.
tant, the environment must accept that the problem solver will The need for formal lateral thinking techniques results from the
make mistakes in solving the problems. There must be time way that the mind works. The mind is a pattern making system.
allowed in the creative problem solving process for both idea Each experience creates patterns in the mind. It later recognizes
incubation and solution trial. the similarities and differences between patterns. As a new image
The formation by management of an environment that will appears before the mind, it compares that image to those stored in
support the creative problem solving process is not an easy task, its data bank and puts a verbal symbol on the visual image before
Management today is driven by accomplishing strategic business it. If the visual image cannot be categorized based on previous
objectives quickly. However, without a climate to support the experience, the mind discards it as irrelevant information. Figure
creative problem solving process, the creative thinker will wither 9-3 shows a visual image of a problem statement. What is the
and die like a wildflower in the field after a drought. image? Most people see a black vase. Betty Edwards in her book
Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain stresses the value of
concentrating on negative space when trying to draw a difficult
VERTICAL (CONVERGENT) THINKING object. 15 Negative space is the space around the primary object,
The analytical thinking or deductive reasoning taught in math-
ematics and science in schools and colleges is termed vertical
thinking (convergent thinking). Itmoves forward inastraight line TABLE 9-2
in sequential steps only after a positive decision has been made Characteristics of Vertical and Lateral Thinking
based onthe available information. Ifnopositive decision can be
made at a step, the thinking stops abruptly and the thinking process Vertical Thinking Lateral Thtiing
returns directly to the problem statement. Another solution direc- (Logical Thinking) (Creative Thinking)
tion is assumed by the thinker and the thinking process
starts again. 1. Only one correct solution 1. Many possible solutions
Vertical thinking can be described as analytical, judgmental, (selective). (generative).
critical, and selective. It begins with a proposed solution and 2. Analytical 2. Provocative
checks the solution for correctness. Once it reaches the <correct (judgmental). (nonjudgmental).
solution it stops, and that is its biggest fault in creative problem
3. Movement is made in a 3. Movement is made in a
solving; the first workable solution is used.910
sequential, rule-based manner. chaotic random pattern.
4. If a positive decision 4. If a positive decision
LATERAL (DIVERGENT) THINKING cannot be made at a step, cannot be made at a step,
Lateral thinking skills are nonselective. Lateral thinking moves thinking stops. thinking jumps.
in many different duections until several solution dwections are
5. Follows only the most 5. Follows all paths.
exposed. The thinking movement may be linear, but is more often
likely solution.
characterized by jumping from one idea to another. A negative
thought at one concept step simply acts as a springboard to catapult 6. Only relevant facts are 6. All facts are considered.
the mind to a new kind. Nothing stops lateral thinking it just considered.
keeps rolling on. Lateral thinking is like a child gathering 7. Deals only with reality as 7. Can create its own reality
wildflowers in a field. The child picks one up, then runs to another science knows it today (fantasy).
part of the field, plucks another flower and immediately races (reality).
toward another. When the child finally can carry no more, he/she
will sit down near a stream to examine the flowers. This is the 8. Moves only if a clear 8. Moves specifically to
essence of lateral thinking. Lateral thinking is random, sporadic, direction is exposed. generate a direction.
nonjudgmental, and generative. 1112 9. Classifications and labels 9. Reclassifies objects to
are sacred. generate ideas.
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CHAPTER 9
DEVELOPING CREATIVE THINKING
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CHAPTER 9
CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES
4. Variety of experiences A continual exposure to new time for the unconscious brain to compare and contrast this idea
experiences in the fine arts, sports, industry, sciences, with its bank of experiences, to see if there are any other solutions.
music, and literature provides the crystals from which new Many people awaken in the middle of the night blurting out the
patterns are made. name of the thing that they were trying to think of. The
Unfortunately, people today consider it their inalienable right subconscious mind was working on the problem while asleep. A
to criticize and complain. They will go to great lengths to find practical creative problem solving plan should start with an intense
something wrong with a plan, rather than to praise its good points. study of the problem statement and an intense, but short, search
It happens everywhere. Suppose a company wants to have a for possible solutions. Then, the problem should be put aside from
picnic. Five people will criticize the choice of a site for the picnic, the active mind. The problem should be allowed to incubate in the
but no one will want to suggest another place for fear of criticism. subconscious mind for about a week, and a second intense search
A policeman must be established to stop the fatal criticizer for solutions should be consciously performed. Then, with direct
from killing ideas. In a group creative thinking environment, a stimulus, the ideas that have been incubating in the subconscious
skilled facilitator can parry the thrusts of the criticizer when be mind will spring forth. Altering problem solving procedures will
lunges for the heart of a new idea. help to get the most and the best solutions to our problems.
The fast-paced society of today is driven by output. The first In industry the term experience means ten years m a product
reasonable idea is accepted, because output is rewarded not design engineer of lawn mowers. In creative problem solving,
necessarily quality. The industrial mentality of throwing the experience means being exposed to a great number of activities. It
design over the wall to manufacturing personnel with the doesnt mean being an expert at them. Personal experiences are the
dictum, Get it out next week! forces manufacturing people to colored crystals in the kaleidoscope of the mind that are manipu-
take the first old tried and true technique that comes to mind to get lated to create new patterns that image themselves in the conscious
the problem solved immediately. But the first right answer is not mind as solutions to the problems. Individuals should have the
always the best right answe~ there may be multiple solutions, Just courage to try different activities, even if they cant be winners at
because it works doesnt mean that it shouldnt be fixed. all of them. In a group problem solving team, the facilitator should
Everyone has heard someone say, Let me sleep on it a few select the team members so that a variety of experiences are
days. 111give you my solution on Friday. Most people think this represented on the team.
is a ploy, to avoid giving an answer. In reality, the person wants
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s What can be SUBSTITUTED? Who else instead? What PUT TO OTHER USES?
else instead? What other material? What other process? New ways to use as is? Other uses if modified?
What other place? ADAIT?
c What can be COMBINED with it? What about a blend, What else is like this? What other idea does this suggest?
an alloy, an assortment, an ensemble? Combine units? Does past offer a parallel? What could be copied? Whom
Combine purposes? Combine appeals? Combine ideas? could be emulated?
Combine concepts? MODIFY?
A ADAPT? What else is like this? What other ideas does it New twist? Change meaning, color, motion, sound, odor,
suggest? Does the past offer a parallel? form, shape? Other changes?
M MODIFY? New twist? Change meaning, color, motion, MAGNIFY?
sound, odor, form, shape? Other changes? What to add? More time? Greater frequency? Stronger?
MAGNIFY? What to add? More time? Greater Higher? Longer? Thicker? Extra value? Plus ingredient?
frequency? Stronger? Higher? Longer? Thicker? Extra Duplicate? Multiply? Exaggerate?
value? Duplicate? MINIFY?
MULTIPLY? Exaggerate? What to subtract? Smaller? Condensed? Miniature? Lower<?
P PUT TO OTHER USES? New ways to use as is? Other Shorter? Lighter? Omit? St~eamline? Split up? Understate?
uses if modified? Other places to use? Other people to SUBSTITUTE?
reach? Who else instead? What else instead? Other ingredients?
E ELIMINATE? Minify? What to eliminate? What to sub- Other materials? Other process? Other power? Other place?
tract? Smaller? Condensed? Miniature? Lower? Shorter? Other approach? Other tone of voice?
Lighter? Split up? Streamline? Understate? REARRANGE?
R REARRANGE? Interchange components? Other pattern? Interchange components? other pattern? Other layout?
Other layout? Other sequence? Transpose cause and Other sequence? Transpose cause and effect? Change
effect ? pace? Change schedule?
REVERSE?
Transpose positive and negative? How about opposites?
The use of the questions is rather straightforward. Each Turn it backward? Turn it upside down? Reverse roles?
question is asked about the problem to see if it generates any Change shoes? Turn tables? Turn other cheek?
possible ideas for solutions. Since the questions are very general, COMBINE?
they may not all apply in every situation. How about a blend, an alloy, an assortment, an ensemble?
For example, what should be done with grass clippings from Combine units? Combine purposes? Combine appeals?
residential lawns? Using the SCAMPER questions, modify Combine ideas?
doesnt trigger any immediate response. However, the question
put to other uses? triggers in ones mind ideas such as using it
as weed preventer in the garden or adding it to a city compost pile
to make topsoil for city parks. Notice, these ideas may not be TABLE 9-5
economically feasible or socially acceptable sohrtions today. Role Playing Characters for Product Evaluation
These are idea-generating techniques.
In another technique, role playing is used to gather the Assume that you are the individual listed below. View the
perspectives of the various persons who may come into contact product from only that perspective.
with a product or service. By wearing the hat of a person using 1. Customer.
the product or service, and writing from that persons view- 2. Child.
pointthe good and bad features of the product, many different 3. Service technician.
opinions about the products advantages and disadvantages may be 4. Store clerk.
discovered. Table 9-5 lists some characters who have been used in 5. Elderly customer.
DFM/A product design workshops.9 6. Packaging engineer.
7. Final assembler.
8, Mother.
Forced Random Stimulation
Most peoples minds function in a logical patternmaking
system, rejecting strange elements in an image to enable the brain
Several different techniques can be used to select the random
to process information more rapidly. It may seem very unusual for
object.
someone to make a mind connection between the thistles sticking
to their clothes after a stroll in the woods, and a systcm to fasten . Look out the window and select the first visible white (red)
clothes without buttons. But, there are various creative idea object that comes into view.
generating techniques that are designed to force the conscious . Open the dictionary to a page given by the last three digits of
mind to link together seemingly unrelated things. 20 a telephone number and select the word down from the top
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CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES
whose position is the same as the fifth and seventh numbers The generation of the metaphor is very important. It must be
of the telephone number. drawn to a subject that is familiar to the participants, and it must
. Open a catalog at random and select the object pictured on contain at least one obvious connection to the problem. The
the upper (lower) right (left) corner of the page. subjects familiar to the participants obviously will vary from one
. GO into the plant and locate the first moveable object that problem solving group to another. Individuals are aware of the
you see. subject areas with which they are familiar. In a group problem
. Open a magazine; count twelve advertisements from the solving situation, the facilitator might want to gather an interest
back (front) and select an object in that advertisement. and skills survey from the participants prior to the group problem
solving exercise.
Once the random word or object is selected, its name is written
The one obvious connection in a metaphor can be drawn at any
on a piece of paper and the brief problem statement on another
connection level. The objects may be connected
paper. The mind is focused alternately between the object and the
problem. All the thoughts (without judgments) are recorded on a . Functionally
third piece of paper. Visually
It is often helpful for people to select a certain perspective for . Aurally
their viewing, srrch as: Aromatically
. Tacitly
. What are the similarities?
Tastefully
. What are the differences?
. Can the problem be put inside the object? The development of meaningful metaphors is a skill that must
. All five senses (sight, touch, hearing, taste, and smell) can be practiced. The technique requires practice in generating and
be used to compare and contrast the object and the problem. analyzing metaphors. Table 9-6 contains some metaphors that
. DO the attributes of the object apply to the problem? might be used to develop these skills. Some are left blank
. Can the object be used as a tool to repair the problem? intentionally, to give some practice in completing the concept.
Five to ten minutes of concentration may be adequate time to
stimulate ideas. A longer time will bring on boredom and distrust TABLE 9-6
with the procedure. Once the concept becomes familim, this time Sample Metaphors
will be adequate.
If no ideas flow, that is okay. However, immediate selection of 1. That mind is like a steel trap.
another word will soon become a game to find the right random 2. A personality like 60-grit sandpaper.
word. Instead, at this point it would be appropriate to use another 3. A sewer router is like a groundhog.
style of creative idea generating technique. 4. That tool had a grip like a python.
5. Creative thinking is like taking a picture
6. A telephone is like . . . . .
7. A garbage disposer is like . . . . .
Metaphors
8. A cocklebur sticks to clothes like . . . . .
Psychologists have studied how great inventors came up with
9. A carburetor is like . . . . .
their revolutionary ideas for new products and how scientists recall
how they discovered new theones. In both instances psychologists
discovered that visual thinking (imagery) and metaphor transfor-
mation created unusual connections between dissimilar ideas that GROUP TECHNIQUES
finally resulted in the new invention. (To most people, the Although most individual creative idea generating techniques
metaphor is a figure of speech that should be forgotten. ) can be used in a group problem solving environment, the reverse
The dictionary defines metaphor as a figure of speech in is not true. Group creative idea generating techniques rely on the
which a term or phrase is applied to something to which it is not interaction of the minds of the various members to generate the
literally applicable, in order to suggest a resemblance. To the springboards needed to make the connections between diverse
creative thinker the metaphor is a trampoline that vaults the mind ideas. Each of these techniques uses a different mechanism to
across the chasms between the mind fields of different concepts. 2* stimulate the mind. They may be used singularly, or combined
The metaphor forces the examination of the connections between with each other to provide additional mind sparking.
two seemingly unrelated objects. A biologist might compare the
heart of a dog to that of a pig. Would they however compare the
heart of a dog to a water pump? Imagine the similarities (differ- Brainstorming
ences) between these two objects. Doesn t this give you a new Almost everyone says that they brainstorm an idea when they
perspective on the problem? merely spend some time thinking about an idea. True brainstorm-
A metaphor is like the blacksmiths forge welding hammer. ing can only occur in a group environment in which certain rules
This, too, is a metaphor; it probably only appears to those are strictly followed. Alex F. Osbom originated brainstorming in
knowledgeable in manufacturing processes, because only with a the 1940s as a group ideation technique at his advertising agency.
knowledge of manufacturing would the connection between these The objective of the technique is to capture the spontaneous
two strange objects be evident. The connection is that the reactions of several participants to each others ideas. The spark-
metaphor and the forge hammer are tools that are used to link plug for each mind is the brilliant flash from another
together previously unconnected objects. This metaphor also persons mind. 22
emphasizes one important concept in metaphor construction: a Unless the rules of brainstorming are being followed by the
metaphor must draw on the previous experience of the people group, the meeting is merely a highly charged committee meeting.
using it. There are four basic roles that must be understood and followed by
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all participants in the group. These rules should be recited at the If the facilitator desires to capture the essence of incubation in
beginning of the session and, if possible, displayed on the wall in each persons mind individually, an unedited list of the ideas
the room during the session. The four basic rules are: generated in the first session can be sent to each participant. The
facilitator asks each participant to review the list, add any ideas
1. Criticism is ruled out. The judgement of ideas is sup-
that developed over the last week, and return the list to the
pressed until later in the problem solving process.
facilitator. Alternately, the facilitator can adjourn the first meeting
2. Free-wheeling is welcomed. Wild, silly, facetious ideas
with the stipulation that the group will reconvene in two weeks to
are encouraged. It is easier to tame down than to think up.
reconsider the ideas. During the interim, the facilitator should send
3. Quantity is wanted. The greater the number of ideas, the
each participant an unedited list of the ideas generated at the first
greater the probability of a great idea.
session, with a request to write down any additional ideas that may
4. Combination and improvement are sought. Participants are
have occurred to the individual. Each participant should bring the
encouraged to build upon ideas of others or to combine
list to the next session.
diverse ideas of several people into a new idea. 23
The facilitator controls the brainstorming session, acting alter-
These are nearly identical to the four general rules that were nately as traffic cop (to provide dwection and timing) and
cited to create a creative thinking environment. cheerleader/coach (to provide encouragement). The session should
The brainstomning team should be composed of a diverse group last as long as ideas flow freely from the participants (perhaps
of people in order to bring about the mind-jarring interaction that 30-45 minutes). If the session bogs down, the facilitator may
sparks ideas in peoples minds. There need be only one person in choose to introduce one of the individual or group problem solving
the group (the facilitator) familiar with the brainstorming process. techniques to get the creative juices flowing again.
The group should be composed of six to ten people distributed into
the categories shown in Table 9-7.
In order for a brainstorming session to achieve effective results, Attribute Listing
the meeting should follow a planned agenda. The following Attribute listing was developed by Professor Robert P. Craw-
agenda has proven effective: ford as a guide to considering all the parameters of a problem. The
fwst step is to write down all the attributes (parameters) of the
1. Review the problem statement.
problem. In product design this would be definin the primary,
2. Explain the four brainstorming rules. $4
secondary, and aesthetic functions of the product.
3. Explain the record-keeping procedures.
The second step is to apply a list of modifiers (or perhaps the
4. Do a creative thinking warm-up exercise (5 minutes).
5. Conduct the brainstorming session (30-45 minutes). SCAMPER questions) to each attribute, one at a time, to generate
alternatives to the original method of providing that attribute.
6. Close the session promptly by thanking all the participants
Once five or six alternative means of obtaining one attribute have
for their input.
been generated, move on to the next attribute. In the third step,
7. Process the brainstorming ideas with the client alone.
one alternative method is selected from each attribute column and
Earlier it was noted that incubation of an idea in the mind plays these alternatives together specify a new product. If this combi-
an important role in creative problem solving. To provide for nation triggers a total new concept for the product, the idea is
spontaneity, participants in some cases are not told of the topic of sketched out.
the brainstorming session in advance. There are two methods that Several attributes of a canteen and alternatives are listed in
can be used to capture the seeds for incubation: Table 9-8. A random selection from suggested alternatives might
1. Individual recording. yield bladder, 2 quart, leather, and shoulder strap. This might be
2. Second group session. new to the group-however, the use of an animal bladder with a
shoulder strap was known to nomadic tribesman many, many
years ago. Another random selection, toroid, 2 quart, aluminum
TABLE 9-7 and felt, and shoulder strap, represents a newer design but it is
Composition of a Brainstorming Group not novel.
There is one basic flaw in the attribute listing technique:
1. Facilitator (1): A person knowledgeable in the moving from column to column allows the selection of the word
techniques of brainstorming and that seems appropriate. Nothing is jarring the mind to try the
group dynamics. strange combination. There is no check-off system that requires
2. Client (l): The person who has ownership of the examination of all possibilities.
the problem and the authority to
implement a solution to the
problem.
3. Inside technicians (2): Persons knowledgeable in the TABLE 9-8
technical aspects of this type The Attribute Listing Tecludque Applied to a Canteen
of problem.
4. Outside technicians (2): Persons knowledgeable in a Shape Size Material Carry by
technical or scientific field not
related to the problem. Cylindrical 1 qt. Steel Belt
5. Outsiders (2): Persons with no knowledge of Spherical 1/2 qt. Aluminum Shoulder strap
the problem area and not Bladder 2 qt. Thermoplastic Handle
acquainted with the majority Toroid 3 qt. Leather No attachments
of the group members. Hip flask 4 qt. Aluminum and felt Knapsack straps
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CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES
date
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CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES
2. In the creative process the emotional component is more criticizing voice that says Its not logical. Anything goes. The
important than the intellectual, the irrational more impor- wilder the idea, the more stimulating it is. A great source of
tant than the rational. fantasy analogies is the field of science fiction writing. Science
3. It is the emotional. irrational elements which can and must fiction writers stretch the boundaries of imagination in creating
be understood in order to increase the probability of aliens from other galaxies, space ships that move through time,
success in a problem solving situation. 26 and beings that can sense emotions. Are these true? Not today. But
todays dreams may be tomorrows realities.
The essence of the Synectics creative thinking process has been As the Synectics team operates, they move from one analogy to
described as: another, generating ideas for solutions to the problems. The
1. Make the strange familiar. purpose of each analogy is to put the problem in a new perspective
2. Make the familiar strange. and generate more ideas.
3. Make the strange familiar.
The essence of the original Synectics research was the gener- Modern Synectics@
ation of four mechanisms for making the familiar strange on Traditional Synectics concentrated on making the minds of the
demand. These four metaphorical comparisons are: problem solvers jump into a new world to see their problem in a
very different perspective. George Prince and his colleagues at
1. Personal analogy,
2. Direct analogy. Synectics, Inc. have developed the Synectics creative thinking
technique into a total creative problem solving process, not just a
3. Symbolic analogy.
4. Fantasy analogy. technique of generating new ideas. Synectics (modem) involves
controlling the flow of ideas in the meeting so that the group
In the personal analogy, the individual assumes the position of changes from convergent thinking to divergent thinking and back
the mechanism being studied. One group that was doing a DFM/A again as needed, to find a solution to the problem with a heavy
project on a childs fishing game became the game itself. Four emphasis on the development and refinement of creative ideas.
people became the fish swimming around in the pond and leaping Websters Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary now defines Synectics
for the worm on the pole held by the fifth person. They reported as a theory or system of problem-stating and problem-solution
a change in perspective on the problem. Instead of being on the based on creative thinking that involves free use of metaphor and
outside looking into the game, they were on the inside looking at analogy in informal interchange within a carefully selected small
the players. They reported that this perspective gave them a better group of individuals of diverse personality and area of specializa-
understanding of which parts must actually move relative to the tion. Where the traditional Synectics efforts focused on the
other parts in the product. creation and use of analogies and metaphors, the modem Synectics
The direct analogy is the one most often used because it efforts focus on the total problem solving process from problem-
involves a comparison between different technologies, or looking statement to problem-solution.
for a solution in a different world. Synectics, Inc. research has The heart of the Synectics creative thinking technique is the
shown that many inventions have been created by drawing an facilitator who orchestrates the movement of the minds of the
analogy between the mechanical device and something in the field participants to achieve a harmonious movement from opening
of biology, botany, or anatomy. An explanation of the creative prelude to final sounds. The facilitator has two roles: first, to
problem solving process might draw an analogy between photog- maximize the creative output of the team members, and second, to
raphy and creative problem solving. Composing the picture would focus the energy of the team toward the problem at hand. The
be setting the problem statement. Focusing the camera is like facilitator must strike a delicate balance between traffic cop
refining the problem statement. Exposing the film would be the and coach.
generation of images (ideas) in creative problem solving. A direct As the Synectics creative thinking technique evolved and the
analogy should be drawn to a technical area with which most facilitator was no longer the person with the problem, a new role
participants have some degree of familiarity, although no one emerged: the client. The client is the person who knows the
needs to be an expert in the area. technical details of the problem and has the capability of imple-
A symbolic analogy uses objective and impersonal images to menting the solution to the problem. The client has three main
describe the problem. The objective is to reduce the problem roles: first, to provide the background to the problem-statement;
statement from words to visual images which can be processed by second, to provide direction to the teams problem solving efforts
the nonlinem right brain. In ancient times, alchemists represented at certain key steps in the process; and third, to encourage the
their chemical transformations with symbols rather than words. spontaneous energy of the group.
Cartographers use symbols on a topographical map to represent The third character in the Synectics creative thinking workshop
different three-dimensional elements of the landscape. Today, a is the resource participant. Each participant is considered an
mechanical engineer might represent a hydraulic control system by honored guest, and as such is encouraged by the facilitator to
a block (function) diagram using different shaped blocks to respond freely and openly to all the stimuli generated in the
symbolically represent different functions in the system. The use meeting. The participants are expected to bring to the meeting a
of a blank block permits the engineer to keep an open mind in well-oiled whole brain, tuned to a frequency of open, wild, free,
really designing the mechanical element or electronic element to irrational, speculative thinking. The participants are not necessar-
achieve that function. The symbolic analogy takes away the ily technical experts in the problem area.
preconceived notions about the product form and allows the The basic Synectics problem solving process is outlined in
creation of the needed form. Table 9-9. The facilitator and client meet prior to the meeting to
A fantasy analogy is the easiest analogy for some people to define the problem-statement, called the task headline. The task
develop. As its name implies, a fantasy analogy suspends all headline is presented to the group at the start of the meeting and
knowledge of the physical laws of science and turns off that self- the client develops the background the problem during the analysis
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CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES
TABLE 9-9
The Problem Solving Process Outline
1. Task Headline A one sentence headline worded to invite actionable ideas vs. unfocused discussion.
2. Analysis Why is this a problem or an opportunity?
Give a brief history.
. what is your Ownership/Clientship?
. What have you already thought of or tried?
. What would you ideally like from this meeting?
3. Springboards Generate I Wish and How to statements by converting facts, feelings, concerns, opinions,
and wishes from the Analysis and previous thinking on the subject.
4. Selection Client selects a Springboard (or a combination of 2 or 3) to pursue further.
a. If a client has a beginning idea of HOW to do the selection, have client state the idea.
(Option: group can add additional ideas)
b. If client needs help, then group generates ways to do the selection.
5. Summarize Client states emerging idea incorporating selected ways to accomplish it.
Emerging Idea
6. Itemized Response Clients friendly evaluation of the emerging idea:
1. At least 3 pluses (specific useful elements, advantages).
2. Key concern(s) in how to form (to invite further development of the idea).
7. Modification Generate ideas to overcome concerns (one at a time, in order of importance to the client).
8. Restatement as Possible Client states modified Possible Solution that helps to solve a piece (or pieces) of the original
Solution tasks. The Possible Solution may be checked for
. Elements of newness.
. Enough feasibility.
. Enough commitment to take a next step.
9. Next steps Client lists actions to be taken:
By whom.
. By when.
stage. In the springboard stage the participants are expected to attributes of the excursion to the attributes of the task headline in
open up their thinking about the problem statement. A springboard order to generate springboards or new ideas or directions. The
is a one-sentence headline of any thought or connection that begins facilitator must reinforce the safety net of nonjudgmental thinking
to address the task headline, the problem, or an opportunity. at this point, to coax the participants into making strange combi-
Springboards are often phrased I wish or How to to relieve nations of attributes without testing them for feasibility first. The
the idea giver of the responsibility of knowing if it is truly feasible. excursion is a technique that requires a degree of skill that can only
It is in this area that the famous Synectics creative thinking be obtained through proper training.
techniques of analogy, metaphor, and fantasy are employed to In step five the facilitator leads the group, under the technical
stimulate idea generation. The process of seeing the problem in a direction of the client, in convergent thinking on some
new perspective is today called an excursion. selected ideas.
There are three simple steps to an excursion: In the modification stage the facilitator seeks ideas from the
participants to resolve the clients concerns on each selected
1. Put the problem temporarily out of mind.
springboard. If necessary, the facilitator may interject a short
2. Focus on some irrelevant subject.
excursion to stimulate more ideas if needed. The facilitator will
3. Force-fit the irrelevant material and the problem-statement.
move the tone of the session from step 7 back through steps 4
The facilitator selects the time and the mood of the excursion. through 7 as needed to build the selected springboards.
The facilitator directs everyone to forget about the problem, and As the meeting comes to a close the facilitator will ask the
covers the task headline. The facilitator asks people to participate client to formulate potential complete solutions by putting together
in a mental vacation away from the problem, which might involve the elements of various ideas that form a complete solution.
describing a new experience to them. This is where the facilitators The last step is for the facilitator to ask the client for some
experience in direct analogy, personal analogy, symbolic analogy, actionable responses and a timetable for the evolution of those
fantasy analogy, metaphorical thinking, or visual thinking is responses.
invaluable in breaking the thinking gridlock. After three to five This problem solving system has proven very reliable in new
minutes, the facilitator brings the group back to focus on the task product and new technology development. However, it does
headline. In the third step the group is asked to force-fit the require considerable training for the facilitator.
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CHAPTER 9
APPLYING CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING TO DFM/A
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CHAPTER 9
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
When the convergent thinking is finished, there will be one or CREATIVE THINKING IN MATERIAL
two suitable materials for each part. The separate material process AND PROCESS SELECTION
selections must be force-fit. If they don t seem to fit, that is an Although the term simultaneous isoften applied to DFM/A
opportunity to apply some other creative thinking techniques, such methodologies, a more accurate description of their functioning
as morphological analysis, to develop the creative materialprocess would be interactive parallel processing. The ideal creative
combination. thinking function, atthep~ level, would betoconcurrently, but
Akhough the selection of a manufacturing process was consid- independently, think about materials selection and process selec-
ered first for each individual part, the material selection could have tion for each part and then to bring the material ideas crashing
been considered first. Toworkthat way, judgment regarding the together with the process ideas. If aDFM/A team is working on
processability of a material must be suspended during the time the redesign, one half of the team should consider material
spent thinking about creative materials. Once several creative selections while theotier halfthi&s about process selection. This
materials have been developed for each individual part, then will truly separate the two thought processes and will stimulate the
convergent thinking can be used to select the more reasonable generation of wild ideas. The giant crash will occur when each
materials among these. Atthatpoint, thinking shifts to the process team comes back together and strives to force a connection
selection mode. Again, judgement of thematenals processability between each material and each process. The strongest potential
needs to be suspended in order to broaden the vision of the material and process combination for each part will then be
potential manufacturing process. Once theprocess concepts have evaluated in detail.
been narrowed down by convergent thinking, then the best The next section in this chapter, Conceptual Design, is a tie
material choices and the best process choices are put together and that binds creative thinking to product design.
a link forced between the two.
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
In ancient times, design was combined with simple manufac- necessary to go back to the design specifications and make
turing, based upon trial-and-error methods. Later, projected, some compromises in order to manufacture the product
two-dimensional scale drawings were used to represent products. economically. Finally, a set of documents is generated
This made it possible to plan the product before it was manufac- which include engineering drawings and other relevant
tured, and marked the birth of modern design. The advent of the descriptions. All information needed for manufacturing the
computer changed the methods of engineering design. Computer product must be completed at this stage.
graphics, numeric analysis, and artificial intelligence have been
introduced into daily design activities, stimulating research in
It can be seen that the conceptual design is the beginning of the
design theory and methodology. Today, most theorists and prac-
actual design process, therefore it has the largest leverage on the
titioners agree that design can be roughly divided into four
quality of the final product. If a bad design concept is chosen, no
major stages:
matter how much effort is put into later design stages and
1. Specification. In this stage, the main task is to determine manufacturing, the final product cannot be satisfactory.
the design specification or clarify the design requirements. This point can be best illustrated by the following example. In
In the end, a set of specifications is generated to meet the steel making, iron ore is first reduced to produce melt iron in the
requirements stated by the customer or generated from blast furnace. Then the melt iron is fed into a converter and the
market analysis or other sources. composition is adjusted in the liquid state. The melt steel is then
2. Conceptual or preliminary design. In this stage, the task is poured into a mold, cooled down, and pulled out from the mold.
to conceive solution concepts, typically represented by The product is known as an ingot. To obtain structural shapes,
drafts, symbols, or abstract diagrams, that will functionally such as channels, equal and unequal angles, etc., the ingot is
meet the above specifications. transported to the milling plant and heated again for rolling. The
3. Layout design, or embodiment design. In this stage, one entire process uses many different machines. Improving any
optimal alternative is chosen based upon rough analysis, particular piece of equipment involved (for example, increasing
experience, and other heuristic rules. This solution concept the speed of the equipment used for pulling from the mold, or
is then fleshed out to generate a layout (sometimes called a raising the thermal efficiency of the heating equipment) would
general arrangement). If problems are detected at this improve the process. However, to make a revolutionary change, a
stage, the selected concept must be modified, or replaced new concept is needed. Analyzing the functional requirements
by other alternatives. reveals that in this process, the input is the melt iron, and the
4. Detail design. In this stage, each component is precisely output is the shaped steel product, which is the goal of the process.
specified. This includes engineering analysis (such as In this process, there is an intermediate stepmolding. This link
stress analysis), material selection, dimensioning, etc. causes cooling and reheating the ingot. If it needs to be reheated
During this analysis, problems that were not obvious in the again, why has it been cooled in the first place? This reasoning
earlier stages may be uncovered. Then, the design iteration leads to a new solution concept: to feed the molten steel directly
begins; a new cycle starts again from the layout design into milling machines, a process known as continuous casting.
either by selecting other solution concepts or even one step This concept has been implemented, and has resulted in great
back to conceive new solution concepts. Sometimes, it is improvements. One implementation is shown in Fig. 9-5.
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CHAPTER 9
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
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CHAPTER 9
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 9
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
[*/////
1 2 3 4 5 6
,. , ....
*, ,. ,,
1,1, .,
,. .!
$. . . ..
,. . ....
,. .:1
.. - - ,,,.
..-. -- . .
7F- Y
[b] Final implementation
-. . .
Fig. 9-9 A new mWlcal device for removing urinary calcuti. (Reprinted with permission of Springer- Verlag)
Characteristic relationships exist between form and Mechanical engineering has a long history. Through many
function. 3233That is, a certain function can be mapped into one or generations of effort, especially in the 18th and 19th centuries, a
more specific shapes. For example, the function of supporting great many components, devices, machines, and mechanical
loads over an open span can be mapped into beams, trusses, shells, systems were invented. Many books34 have collected the results,
etc. By using physical principles, these mapping characteristics and serve as valuable resources for conceptual design by analogy.
can be found, and thus a new design concept generated. By adapting and alternating these mechanisms in various ways and
making new devices analogous to them on different, abstract
AnalogyA Powerful Tool levels, many a new design concept can be created. Interestingly,
In engineering design, especially in the conceptual design marry good ideas originate in toys, and are later adapted to real
stage, the analogical technique is both powerful and pervasive. machines. The most famous example is probably the rocket. Its
Any object has a set of attributes attached to it. If two objects share ancestor was a kind of fwework invented hundreds of years ago.
at least one of their attributes, the two objects are analogous. The There is another reason for the use of analogy. Engineering
more attributes the two objects share, the more similar they are. A design involves many constraints and complex factors. It is
stone, a screw, and a gear are similar because they are solids. But improbable that one persons frost effort can create a perfect
the screw is more similar to the gear than the stone since both the product. Existing devices have evolved through generations of
screw and the gear are made of metal. effort. Therefore, in many cases it is safer and more time-saving to
Here are two basic applications: start the design with something already in existence than to start
In the first case, the new design is analogous to a particulm from scratch. Looking fust for an available solution can avoid
existing component, device, machine, or mechanical system. For reinventing the wheel.
example, the mechanical system used in the computer disk drive is Moreover, since everything is changing and developing, some
analogous to that used in the record player, in which data is stored ideas that were considered impractical or infeasible in the past
in a disk-shaped object and a head moving radially picks up a might be worth reconsidering now. A good example is a steel-
signal. The pen carrying and moving mechanism used in flat-bed making method to blow pure oxygen into a converter instead of
plotters is similar to that used in an overhead crane which can carry air. The idea was proposed a long time ago, when it was very
a load and place it on any point within its limits of longitudinal and expensive to make oxygen. As a result, the proposal was dis-
transverse travel. carded, With advances in refrigeration technology, cheaper oxy-
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CHAPTER 9
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
gen can be obtained. The pure-oxygen steelmaking technique was and he or she can use the best word to express an idea. Likewise,
reevaluated and its advantages confirmed. Now it has become the a good engineer is familiar with the subtle features of the devices
dominant steelmaking method all over the world. performing the same function, and thus can make a better design.
In the second case, if there is no existing component, device, For example, there are at least five different mechanisms that can
machine, or mechanical system which can serve as an analogous transform rotation to translation, as shown in Fig. 9-10. Therefore,
object, then the new object can be selected from a similar one the y are synonyms. But each of them has its own properties
occurring in nature. A good example is the blind system used in that make one specific mechanism more suitable for certain
satellites. About 65% to 70~0 of the time, a satellite is exposed to applications than others.
strong sun radiation during which time its temperature may rise to It is important to note that in many cases the analogy produces
as high as 392 F (200 C). When it flies into the shadow of the just a prototypical beginning, and this is followed by a series of
earth, the temperature may drop to as low as 328 F (200 C). modifications and iterations to improve the design, based upon
Such a drastic temperature change could adversely affect the
working condition of the instruments. This posed a great challenge
to satellite designers. Through investigation, the engineers noted
that a kind of butterfly could adjust its body temperature well
because its body is covered with small scales. When exposed to
the sun, the scales open to reduce the heat absorption by changing
the incident angle. When the temperature drops, the scales close to
face the sun and absorb more sunlight. In this way, the butterfly
can keep its body temperature within a reasonable range. By
imitating the scales, the designer created the thermal-sensitive
(a) Four-bar linkage
metal-controlled blind system. Thus the problem was solved.
Nature provides an exhaustive source list for analogy. More
such examples can be seen. Some robots, for example, are
analogous to insects (one with six legs, named Attila, could be
used to explore the surfaces of distant planets), and some similar
to human beings. In the same sense, the airplane is not unlike the
bird, in that botb have wings. It is even believed that the saw was
invented by someone who was cut by some blades of grass with (b) Power screw
serrated edges. Computers represent the effort to imitate the
human brain. A careful observance of nature can bring the
designer endless new and good design concepts.
It must be noted that the key point here is functional similarity,
because the design goal is to satisfy desired working requirements,
not the specif]c shape. For example, the wings of the helicopter are
functionally analogous to those of the dragonfly, but their motion,
shape, and structure are completely different. A function-to-
(c] Rack and pinion
device-token (F-Dt) matching model was proposed along this line
of thinking. 35 In this research, mechanical conceptual design was
compared with chess playing, because both activities are intelli-
gent, and often creative. Researchers have discovered that master
players can play a better game because they store in their
long-term memory more chessboard patterns and the best move in
each situation. Thus, in a real game, when a familiar pattern is
encountered the master player can quickly make the best move.
This is quite similar to conceptual design. A designer who stores
more function-to-device-token pairs in long term memory can
quickly retrieve the best solution if the required function is within (d) Radio tuning mechamsm
the stored function-to-device-token pairs. According to this the-
ory, to generate better design concepts, it is neceswuy for the
designer to store more function-to-device-token pairs in long term
memory. For example, in the design of lawn mowers, the
functional requirement is to cut grass. Thus, the engineer who
knows that a rotating wire can be used as a means for trimming is
able to conceptualize a new product line, while the designer who
thinks only of a rotating hard blade, cannot. The collection of total
function-to-device-token pairs is very much like vocabulary.
Those who have larger vocabularies can express themselves better.
In languages there are many synonyms. Similarly, there may be
several devices that can perform the same function. Synonyms are
[e] Cam mechanmm
sometimes interchangeable, but in most cases, one is more suitable
than the others. The same is true for the function-to-device-token
pair. A good writer knows the shades of meaning of the synonyms, Fig. 9-10 Mechanisms for transforming rotation into translation.
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FUNCTIONAL EFFICIENCY TECHNIQUES FOR ASSURING ECONOMICAL DFM
scientific principles or experimental results. For example, earlier example, when doing four digit division, it is much easier to use
machine-powered boats had two or more large paddle wheels. a pencil and a piece of paper to write down the operation than to
Later, the paddle wheels were replaced by spiral impellers, do it mentally only. The pencil and paper here serve as a visual
because fluid mechanics research revealed that the latter were aid. Solid modeling, the central part of the CAD/CAM system,
more efficient. can generate three-dimensional images with coloring and shading.
Analogy is powerful, but not all new ideas can be conceived It not only lets the engineer see the actual product on the screen,
from this source. A laser, for example, is from theoretical physics. but also checks for interference in assemblies. Engineering design
Therefore, to generate innovative ideas, engineers must obtain a involves handling physical objects; the image helps the engineer to
broad knowledge, accumulate experience, and carefully observe search for new ideas.
the world around them. All three factors contribute to better Next, the product can be tested on the computer through
design concepts. simulation. Engineering analysis, such as finite element method,
quickly generates results. Theengineer ordesigner can even see
FACILITATION OF CONCEPTUAL how the product will perform its function through computer
DESIGN BY COMPUTERS animation. If there is a problem, the engineer or designer can
The rapidly increasing power and economy of computers have quickly get the feedback before the product is manufactured, Thus
brought revohrtionary changes to engineering design. Computer- high quality of conceptual design can be achieved.
aided design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAWCAM) technol- Furthermore, knowledge and data can be stored in the com-
ogy ha:6 been used to develop a permanently manned space puter andretrieved in various ways. This would not only relieve
station. Modem CAD/CAM systems can help engineers with the engineers and designers from memorizing details, but allow them
conceptual design in several ways. toconcentrate more oncreative thiuhng and even sort, store, and
First, they act as a visual aid. Cognitive psychology research retrieve libraries of devices (as in Reference 34), For more
indicates that reasoning can be facilitated by visual aids. For information, the reader is referred to Reference 28.
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FUNCTIONAL EFFICIENCY TECHNIQUES FOR ASSURING ECONOMICAL DFM
The main tools in CE are still the accumulated experience and possible to force a conciseness, clarity, and succinctness that
knowledge of the participants on the design teams. There is a need greatly aid in identifying the real reasons that costs are incurred,
for standardization of methods, and especially for quantifiable and perhaps wasted. Careful use of the full potential of the
methods that will help designers make quick preliminary choices language is vital to achieving the best result of this method.
among alternative possible approaches. In addition, it is unrealistic Start by noting that nouns may be quantifiable or not. For
to expect designers to understand the manufacturing process as instance, a wire may conduct electricity, which is the sort of
well as the manufacturing engineers do. Likewise, manufacturing description a lay person would expect. The method of functional
and production engineers cannot instinctively understand the analysis used here requires that the amount of electricity that is
intended function of the assembly as well as the designers. A need conducted be described in terms that can be measured. Accord-
exists for a method to facilitate the exchange of information ingly, a wires function is more accurately described as conducting
necessary for improving mutual understanding. One method looks current. Obviously, that concept may be quantified by quoting
at the cost of manufacturing each feature of an assemblys the number of amps that the conductor is rated for. Using a
components, and compares the functions performed by each quantifiable descriptor, the potential user may compare one
manufactured feature with a list of functions expected to be product with another by simply comparing the quantity of the
performed by the assembly. Any individual feature of a compo- commodity that is handled by each product. Wherever possible,
nent which does not contribute to the overall function of the use nouns with which the quantity of something can be
assembly can thus be quickly identified as having poor value and identified. In that way, for a given cost, the number of units of
perhaps unnecessary cost. Any feature actually detracting from the something acted on per dollar spent can be determined readily.
overall function is quickly identified as a candidate for redesign. Alternative designs with the same cost may deliver or process or
act upon different amounts of something, and therefore repre-
sent different values for the same price. Unless the amount of
THE CONCEPT OF FUNCTION (something can be quantified, it is quite impossible to determine
All cost is for function. That insight, which may seem which alternative will be best for the customer.
obvious to readers now, was recognized by L.D. Miles37 50-odd Next, recognize that verbs may be active or not. Active verbs
years ago as he began to develop cost control and cost cutting help pinpoint the crux of the activity. Words like accelerate as
techniques forthe General Electric Company. Thelinking of cost in accelerate mass tell quite specifically what action is being
and function, and especially maximizing function while minimiz- performed. There are dozens of other common active verbs which
ing cost (without sacrificing quality), was the cornerstone of the are used often. Table 9-10 gives a partial list of the most common
discipline that became known as Value Engineering. As verbs and nouns.
founder of the Society of American Value Engineers, he left a It is not uncommon in the beginning to assign functions to
legacy and a large following dedicated to solving problems objects in common, not scientific, language. One who turns the
through a detailed study of the function of parts and their handle of a faucet is not performing the function of open valve,
associated costs. The acronym for the society (S .A.V.E. ) suc- at least not in the context of function analysis. Increase flow
cinctly states its main purpose. The ability to identify every (rate) or decrease pressure differential are both more specific
function that a component or system must do (or can do, should and succinct descriptions of the most fundamental principles that
do, or might do) is a powerful tool to concentrate attention on what are being manipulated. Also note that the amount of change in
is important (and what is not) in the design of a system. Also, both flow rate and pressure differential can be quantified
identifying functions which the customer does not want and is using conventional units. The word valve does not offer the
not willing to pay for is vital to assuring the lowest-cost device opportunity to be so specific and precise.
that satisfies the customers needs. Avoid the verbs 6to be and to have because of the dead,
A legitimate objective of a design is to create objects whose nondescriptive, over-used character of the words. Teachers of
functions meet the customers needs at a cost which is low enough creative writing consider them anathema; users of functional
to convince the customer that the product represents good value. analysis techniques should accord them the same treatment.
Value must be defined in such a way that it can be quantified, if a Perceptive readers will quickly realize that in products per-
technique is to be developed which will permit maximizing it. forming multiple functions, some functions are more important
When value is defined as the ratio of function to cost, it is easy to than others. Some functions are more necessary or more intimately
see what changes will result in an increase in value. Figure 9-11 connected to the fundamental tasks of the product than others.
shows the possibilities and their relative desirabilities, Cost is easy Some functions may be thought of as optional extras, nice but not
to quantify, at least in theory. The units are the units of money. necessary, while other functions are so necessary that their
The methods of quantification are the methods of the cost elimination would render the product unusable. Function analysis
estimator. Quantifying function is sometimes more difficult, but distinguishes vital functions from merely destiable functions by
performance parameters (actual, not design specifications) usually using the terms basic and secondary,
suffice to distinguish between the abilities of competing products A basic function is fundamental and absolutely necessary for a
to perform their intended functions. Sometimes problems arise product to perform the most elementary tasks that the consumer
when products with different, but overlapping, capabilities are expects. If a basic function were eliminated, the product would
compared. When only some of the capability of each product is simply be unable to perform its most rudimentary tasks.
required to fulfill a customers needs, the excess capability of one By contrast, if secondary functions were eliminated, the
product may be quite different from the other. Anticipating product could still perform its fundamental tasks. The products
whether some of that excess capability will be useful in the future performance might diminish, or the users sense of satisfaction
presents unique problems in forecasting. might be lessened, by the elimination of certain secondary
To perform a function means that an object will do some- functions. Thus, successful products may perform secondary
thing. To describe an object and what it will do, a noun and a functions, but by definition secondary functions could be elimi-
verb are required. By placing some restrictions on the words, it is nated without crippling the basic performance of the product. Paint
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 9
FUNCTIONAL EFFICIENCY TECHNIQUES FOR ASSURING ECONOMICAL DFM
Function
Performance
Best
cast k Better
Function
Performamx
cost
Good Worst
on a car is not necessary for the car to perform its principal the device is used for different applications. When the light bulb
expected function. Thus the function that the finish on the car cited in the preceding paragraph heats a chick incubator, its name
performs is secondary. is a misnomer, and its basic and secondary functions are reversed.
In describing the function of the paint on a car, words like New products are designed to perform some task, that is, to
appearance, attractiveness, color, protection, and longevity might perform certain functions. Potential customers and their perceived
be used. Improve appearance is a reasonable description of one or expressed needs are usually identified before the design process
function paint is expected to fulfill. <Appearance is obviously begins. Thus, both the required and the merely desirable functions
not quantifiable in customary engineering units. Secondary func- can be expressed early in the design phase. Well developed,
tions often appeal to aesthetic sensibilities, and thus may be systematic methods to get feedback from market research to the
exempt from the need to be quantified. Market researchers attempt designer are available. Qurdity function deployment (QFD) is one
to quantify characteristics of appearance that will appeal to such method.
customers and increase sales. In design, however, it is pertnissi- A list of desired functions for a new product should precede the
ble, perhaps even necessary, to use passive, nonquantifiable start of a new design because of the clarity of purpose such a list
descriptions for secondmy functions. brings to the design task. This list of overall functions to be
A single object may simultaneously and unavoidably perform performed by the finished product may differ substantially from
more than one function. The filament of an incandescent light bulb the function list that a designer can, and should, make for each
simultaneously creates heat and light. It is quite impossible, during individual component. Comparing the functions performed by the
the normal, expected operation of the device, to do one without the individual components with the overall expectations quickly iso-
other. Note, that the create heat function is secondary because lates functions which may be extraneous and therefore add
if it were possibie to have light without heat, the bulb would unnecessary cost. Most of the remainder of this article addresses
satisfy the customers main need. Conversely, if heat were created that technique.
without light, the basic function of the bulb would not be Fust, however, the reader should be alert for a trap that awaits
performed. those who substitute wishful thinking for reality. The designer
The concept of function is contextual, not absolute. The same may express the function in terms of a desired result rather than in
device may have quite different basic and secondary functions if terms of the actual physical phenomena which will be operative
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FUNCTIONAL EFFICIENCY TECHNIQUES FOR ASSURING ECONOMICAL DFM
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FUNCTIONAL EFFICIENCY TECHNIQUES FOR ASSURING ECONOMICAL DFM
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -- .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?i
;
c
0
_? %
r2E
:.!2
.s
~
.
*
.E
:
.
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CHAPTER 9
FUNCTIONAL EFFICIENCY TECHNIQUES FOR ASSURING ECONOMICAL DFM
will be provided reliably by another source, then those functions systcm. Since these functions arc the ones the designer considers
may be placed outside the scope lines of the flow chart. most important, it follows that the rating number assigned should
be reflected by the largest positive value.
Assign + 3 to needed, useful, desired, secondary functions.
FEATURE FUNCTIONS VERSUS
These would normal] y be designed-in but nonessential features
SYSTEM FUNCTIONS that clearly contribute to the value of the product. The decorative
In systems, the functions performed by the system as a whole
and protective coatings that were discussed previously fall in this
will differ in some measure from the functions of the individual
category. The casual observer might think that paint on an
components. For instance, there may be features on certain
automobile is essential, but in the restricted, specialized language
components to facilitate assembly, which do not contribute to the
of functional analysis, it is not a basic need. The car will still run
functioning of the system once it is constructed and operational.
and get the passengers safely from one place to another without
Those features were produced to perform a particular set of
paint on the outside.
functions and have some cost associated with them, of course. If
Assign + 1 to functions that are unintentional but make a
the features stop being useful before the end of the life of the
positive contribution to the overall performance of the component
product, there is real reason to assume that some or all of the cost
or system. This may also be a harmless byproduct of a desired
of creating those features was wasted.
feature. If acceptable cost is incurred in creating the desired
It is also possible that a feature may actually perform a function
feature, and other benign functions serendipitously follow, there is
which is counterproductive during the operation of the system.
no reason to penalize the additional functions.
The feature might have been created in the mistaken belief that it
Assign 1 to functions where money has been spent to create a
was necessary for the proper operation of the system. For instance,
feature that participates in the function but where the function
the use of bearings to permit movement of a component where
neither contributes in a positive way to the overall operation of the
movement is permissible but not required, is a candidate for
device nor detracts from it. This definition might suggest that the
redesign to eliminate the moving parts.
function is neutral, and therefore would logically be weighted as
zero. However, spending money to create a feature that does not
THE QUANTIFICATION OF FUNCTION contribute in a positive way to the performance is wasting money.
A parts design is not optimized unless the part is designed to Assign 3 to secondary functions that are demonstrably harmf-
perform its intended task in the lowest-cost way. The cost of a ul. The friction created in a bearing falls into this category,
system is comprised of the costs of manufacturing each individual despite the fact that the presence of the bearing might seem to be
component and the costs of assembling the components into the a better (lower loss) case than the absence of the bearing. The
final configuration. Each component will be manufactured by a point is that by identifying the deleterious effects of friction,
series of steps that gradually transform its geometry and properties attention is foe used on the possibility of eliminating the movement
from the initial state into final form. These steps can beenumer- that creates the friction. The example presented at the end of this
ated in the form of a process sheet. Each step has a certain cost article, which is from a case history of the redesign of a prototype
which can be, and often is, estimated. Also, each step adds to the prior to production, illustrates this point.
value of the component, but that is seldom, if ever, tabulated. It may not be possible to eliminate a 3 function. The final
Obviously each step and cost at the component level contributes to design may need to retain some 3 functions because no suitable
the cost and value of the system. Ideally, the increment of cost for alternatives exist. However, if this method is followed, the 3
anyoperation performed on the component should addvalue to the weighting will have performed its intended function, which is to
system in proportion to the cost. However, if a feature on a force reexamination.
component is created simply because that feature is required to By symmetry, the next weighting factor should be 5 for an
mate with or interact with another feature on another component, undesirable basic function. However, any design that actually
but the function those features perform is not needed for the contains a counterproductive basic function is probably so flawed
overall functioning of the system, then unnecessary costs may that it cannot be rescued.
have been added. Next, from process plans or estimating, the costs associated
It is unusual to check whether the cost of an individual with every feature that is created and performs a function that has
operation performed during a components manufacture adds been identified and weighted can be matched up with the appro-
commensurate value to the system. By checking the list of priate functions. The product of the cost and the weighting factor
functions of the individual components against the functions of the is the weighted cost of the component. This is obviously a
system, discrepancies will standout. Any function performedbya fictitious cost figure. However, if all the functions have ratings of
feature of a component whose creation adds to the cost of + 5 and +3, it would signify that the product is not performing
manufacturing, but which is not also a desired function of the any functions that are not contributing to the performance in a
overall system, improbably noncontributing totheoverall value of desirable and useful way. That case represents good value. It is
the system. also rare.
By assigning a weighting factor that reflects the designers
desire or willingness to commit money for the creation of the FUNCTIONAL DESIGN EFFICIENCY
feature, it is possible to quantify the degree to which a feature It has previously been noted that when the same component is
contributes to the value of the system. The following represent used in different applications, significant changes in the list of
reasonable weighting factors and definitions of the conditions to functions may result. If one application utilizes all the features
which each applies. The scale has been chosen quite arbitrarily to (and the associated costs) in a positive way and the other
range from 5 to +5. application utilizes only part of the features constructively (or
Assign +5 foradesirable basic function. Basic functions are worse, utilizes some features counterproductively) then the two
usually easy to determine. They are, by definition, the most parts cost the same, but have different value. Thus, for any real
important and essential functions performed by the component or component which may have some weighting factors other than + 3
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FUNCTIONAL EFFICIENCY TECHNIQUES FOR ASSURING ECONOMICAL DFM
and +5, it is conceivable that for some other application, only problems are most prevalent, and so the theory goes the
+ 3s and + 5s would be appropriate. The condition of only +5 problem solvers then know which problems to concentrate on.
and + 3 weighting factors may plausibly be taken as the bench- Pareto diagrams are also used to display the cost of components of
mark against which less carefully designed products may be a system in decreasing order. In most systems, a relatively small
compared. Thus, a real part containing some weighting factors number of parts will account for the majority of the total cost; the
other than + 5 and + 3 could be compared with the weighted cost diagrams are commonly used to separate the important few from
of the same component which has magically been transformed to the trivial many. The thinking is that time and effort will best be
have only + 3 and + 5 function weights. The ratio of these two spent concentrating on redesign or cutting cost from the most
costs would represent a figure of merit that expresses how closely costly parts. That is certainly true in many instances, but it
the real component is approaching good value. assumes that the components are independent items. It is important
This figure of merit is the functional efficiency referred to in to recognize that the most significant reductions in cost are likely
the title of this section. Low functional efficiency values will to result from a completely new approach to the problem, not from
pinpoint components which would probably benefit from a rede- a fine-tuning of the design of the individual components. Thus,
sign effort by helping a designer identify the lowest value-added indiscriminately applying Pareto and concentrating on only the
features in an assemblys components. most expensive components may actually be a roadblock to the
Many systems have large numbers of minor parts, the total cost most revolutionary breakthrough. Pareto is probably most useful
of which may be a fairly small fraction of the overall cost. An for review of established designs where there is no realistic
interesting question arises about how to identify the parts whose likelihood of a completely new approach being appropriate. That
functional efficiency values will be worthwhile. In Pareto dia- is a delicate line to identify, because well established product lines
grams the components are listed in order of decreasing cost. This must, by definition, become dated and therefore ripe for being
quickly identifies the most expensive components. It is not upstaged by a competitor who is starting with a clean sheet of
unreasonable to assume that the most expensive components or paper. In the example that follows, Pareto would have identified
subsystems offer the greatest potential for cost reduction through the frame of the machine as the most expensive item. Then
redesign. Traditional value engineering methods frequently sug- conventional design techniques would have concentrated on re-
gest that, on the average, 80% of the cost of a system will arise ducing the cost of the frame, on the tacit assumption that the frame
from only 20% of the parts. Based on that assumption, traditional should be retained as part of the system. The functional efficiency
value engineering studies concentrate on a relatively small number technique makes no such assumption, and it led directly to the
of parts in a system. elimination of the frame.
Real dangers lurk for the designers who blindly follow the
pattern of not bothering to reconsider the least expensive compo-
EXAMPLE OF USING FUNCTIONAL
nents. First, man y designs with large numbers of small parts, like
nuts, screws, and washers, are poorly designed because the cost of
EFFICIENCY FOR DESIGN REVIEW
The following is an abbreviated discussion of an example that
assembly, not the cost of the components, is excessive. Pareto
is presented in greater detail in References 38 and 39.
analysis would not catch these problems unless the touch labor
The strength of asphalt is tested in compliance with ASTM
cost is included and all the similar parts are lumped together to
D-113 using a force transducer whose design is not standardized.
form a large class of, say, fasteners. The discipline of design
The test is conducted with a tensile specimen lying in a horizontal
for assembly (DFA) would, however, quickly spot the difficulty.
plane submerged in a salt water bath. One end of the specimen is
There is extensive literature on the subject of DFA. The method
pulled by a screw-driven cross head while the other end of the
presented here would spot the same problem (but much more, as
specimen is attached to a force transducer. The basic functions of
well). Functional efficiency techniques should be used in concert
the transducer device are:
with, not as a substitute for, DFA.
Second, Pareto analysis implicitly assumes that only individual . Locate specimen (with respect to the rest of the machine).
components are candidates for redesign. There is no provision in . SuppOrt specimen (always horizontal).
simple Pareto charts for lumping component groups or spotting the . Receive force (from the specimen).
relative usefulness of two similarly priced components. The . Transduce force.
functional efficiency technique makes no such implicit assump- . Transmit signal (from the transducer to a recorder),
tion. Functional efficiency identifies every place that unnecessary . Ground force (to the frame of the machine).
cost arises, provides a figure of merit that assists the designer to
The secondary functions are:
decide just how bad the waste is, and pinpoints components that
might be superfluous. In doing so, the method may suggest an . Appear attractive (the sell function).
entirely new approach to take toward the design of the system. The . Resist mishandling (be technician-proof).
example at the end of this article illustrates a case where that . Resist corrosion.
actually happened.
A company wished to develop a model that would become the
Pareto diagrams are used in various problem-solving methods.
accepted standard in the industry. There seemed to be a market for
They display the frequent y of occurrence of some chosen vari-
about 1000 devices. The plan was to develop a suitable prototype
ables. In this sense they are a variant of a histogram, but instead
and sell about a dozen of the prototypes. If that design received
of arranging the intervals in order, the frequency of occurrence of
satisfactory acceptance, a much larger production run would
the interval is arranged in descending order. Pareto diagrams are
be made.
most commonly used in quality control or problem-solving appli-
cations to rank the frequency, and thus the implied importance, of
different problems that occur. If rejections are due to several The Original Design
causes, the causes are ranked in order of the number of parts The original design is shown schematically in Fig. 9-13. It
rejected for each cause. The diagram graphically displays which consisted of a five-piece, welded, stainless steel frame supporting
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 9
FUNCTIONAL EFFICIENCY TECHNIQUES FOR ASSURING ECONOMICAL DFM
Specimen pulls in
this direetion o
Frame
w <
Commercial
m l--d cell
-Ii
twoparallel swinging wrns which, intum, supported the pan that Two functions are not required by the master list. This is not
held the specimen. The frame, arms, andpancreated a parallel- clearly bad design because most of the functions are legitimately
ogrammechanism which held the specimen always horizontal and contributing to the overall functions required by the device.
permitted such movernentas wasnecessary topermitthe force to
2. Pintle screws.
be sensed by a commercial load cell. The arms were secured to the
frame and pan, but were permitted to pivot by use of stainless steel . Support pan (in the horizontal position) ( + 5).
setscrews that were modified with points to act as pintles. The . Permit adjustment ( + 3).
setscrew pintles were secured with lock nuts. . Transmit force (from the pan to the arms) ( + 1).
Function lists for three of the components are given below. The . permit movement (l).
weighting factors are also given along with a short discussion. Create friction (at the pintle/pan interface) (3). The reason
for describing the function as creating friction rather than
1. Pan, reducing friction was discussed adequately in the text
above.
Locate specimen (with respect to the rest of the machine)
(+5). Here there is a counterproductive secondary function. Table
. Support specimen (always horizontal) (+5). 9-11 shows the weighted cost for this seemingly simple compo-
. Receive force (from the specimen) (+5). These frost three nent. The calculations in this case are based on an equal division
functions characterize efficient design of this component of the total cost among the five functions listed. In other cases
because each corresponds to a function listed above for the where complete cost estimating data accompany the production
whole device. plans, the cost assignable to each function might not be equal.
Transmit force (to the next parts on the load path) (+1). These screws were made by machining a point on a stock
There is no requirement to transmit the load to another part. stainless steel setscrew. Note that the two most important func-
In fact, a one-piece design was proposed but abandoned tions, transfer force and support pan could have been done
because it could not be made rigid enough to support the with the stock point. That means the cost of customizing this
specimen properly and, at the same time, flexible enough to component was expended entirely to create features required for
permit strain gages to transduce the loads. secondary functions, two of which were negatively weighted. In
. Permit motion (1 ). There may not be any actual harm in this case the design efficiency is only a bit over 38%.
this, but it gets a 1 because it is not required according to Note that a Pareto analysis would dismiss this part as insignif-
the master list and because money was definitely spent to icant. However, even though this is not an expensive item
create the hole to receive the pintle point setscrews. compared to the welded frame, this very low efficiency strongly
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CHAPTER 9
FUNCTIONAL EFFICIENCY TECHNIQUES FOR ASSURING ECONOMICAL DFM
suggests that the design approach using pintle point setscrews may TABLE 9-11
not be the best. Perhaps a major redesign is indicated. Weighted Cost for Pintle Screws
3. Long arm.
Perfect
Support screw (to support pan) (+5).
Weighted Best Weighted
. Permit movement (of pan) (l).
Function Cost Weight cost Weight cost
Transmit force (+1).
. Resist bending (as discussed below) (+ l). 1) support $.10 +5 $.50 +5 $.50
. Exert force (on load cell) (+5). pan
Create friction (3). 2) Permit .10 +3 .30 +3 .30
This arm transmits the force received from the specimen to the adjustment
Ioad cell. To do so, thedesigner made thearm quite stiff so that 3) Transmit .10 +1 .10 +1 .10
it would not bend perceptively under any load that the specimen force
could exert on it. There isnooverall device function that relates to 4) Permit .10 1 .10 +1 .10
the stiffness of any of the components. Thus, this component movement
could have been made flexible without violating any design 5) Create .10 3 .30 +3 .30
requirement. friction
TOTALS $.50 $.50 $1.30
Efficiency = $.50/$1 .30 = 38%
The Redesign
Based on the characteristics displayed in the function list for
the pintle screws and the arm, a redesign was conceived that
completely eliminated the pivots. By recognizing that the device The number of parts per assembly was reduced from 30 to 17.
did not have a stiffness requirement, the stiff arms were replaced All seven welds required in the original design were eliminated.
by flexible arms that were rigidly attached to a much simplified That eliminated the need for the welding fixture and the post-weld
frame and weight pan. Strain gages were mounted on the arms. A straightening that had contributed a major portion of the original
force on the specimen caused a small deflection on the arms which cost. Stainless steel is, of course, particularly susceptible to
the strain gages could sense. The redesigned device is shown in warping during welding, so that any competent producibility study
Fig. 9-14. would have spotted the welds as a trouble spot to be eliminated.
[
Specimen pulls in
this direction
o
[
@@
Spa-cers
i
v
4orm &tdge
Jvi:
tiin gages <
lln
EL Frame is block of
stoinless*I
mounted on load frame
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CHAPTER 9
A CONCEPTUAL DESIGN SYSTEM
However, without functional efficiency analysis, it is likely that eliminated and the eight tapped holes in the stainless frame would
the frame configuration would simply have been redesigned as, have been retained.
say, a casting. In fact, that approach was already being considered The total cost of the finished product was cut approximately in
when the functional efficiency analysis was made on this device. half by the radical redesign that was inspired by the functional
Had that approach prevailed, the pintles would not have been efficiency approach.
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CHAPTER 9
A CONCEPTUAL DESIGN SYSTEM
issues. Separation of functional and physical design issues on the provides a basis for reasoning in representation and synthesis
level of conceptual design is the core assumption of this chapter stages. Figure 9-16 shows an overall requirement R, its decom-
which deals only with the functional domain. position into subrequirements, and the corresponding functions.
An arc between nodes of the tree in Fig. 9-16 represents a
METHODOLOGY FOR BUILDING A conjunction. A node without an arc represents a disjunction. A
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN SYSTEM requirement may correspond to a function (or functions) or be
The methodology of building a system for conceptual design of decomposed into subrequirements. An example of a design re-
mechanical systems is probably the least studied design aspect to quirement that is not broken down into subrequirements is the
date. Thus, the overall objective of this chapter is to present such selection of a structural material (for example steel, plastic, or
a methodology and then to illustrate its use in the design of some aluminum for the structure of a ship). A requirement that is not
mechanical systems. It is evident that the development of design given a function is decomposed into subrequirements. As an
methodology is a crucial step toward building intelligent design example, a requirement specifying safety measures for a car
systems. Such methodology should permit progress beyond the can be used.
currently used ad-hoc design procedures. In the example presented in Fig. 9-16, the overall requirement
The methodology recognizes the importance of three different R is satisfied by each of the following three sets of subrequire-
spaces pertaining to the design process: requirement space, func- ments:
tional space, and physical space. This approach for development 1. (R6, R7).
of the design methodology stresses the relationship between the 2. (R9, R4, R2).
three design spaces and ties them together, as presented in Fig. 3. (R8, R4, R2).
9-15. Figure 9-15 depicts how the presented methodology, apply-
ing analysis and synthesis, brings the requirement, functional, and Note that the above sets include only those requirements for
physical spaces together and treats the entire area of conceptual which it is possible to specify or select a function. The function is
design in an integrated manner. This is believed to be a feasible either selected by the design system or specified by a designer.
option allowing the design system to make decisions aiming at the Functional Space
design of high quality. In the functional space, each function specified or selected for
The methodology consists of three major stages: specification a given requirement can be further decomposed into subfunctions
of requirements and functions, representation of specified func- (see Fig. 9-17).
tions, and design synthesis. The specification stage provides In Fig. 9-17, the function Fl has been selected as the main
requirements and transforms them into functions of the designed function, and then it is decomposed into subfunctions. Decompo-
object. It occurs at the highest level of abstraction and it must sition is done either by the system or the designer. The example
provide enough information to begin representation and synthesis presented in Fig. 9-17 inchrdes the following sets of functions
processes. At the representation stage, components are assigned to satisfying subrequirement R6:
the functions, providing model and frame representations of the
1. (Fl).
functions generated at Stage 1. The synthesis stage uses the
2. (F2, F3).
representations obtained at Stage 2 and synthesizes them into the
3. (F4, F3).
designed object.
4. (F5, F3).
SPECIFICATION OF REQUIREMENTS 5. (F6, F7, F3).
AND FUNCTIONS 6. (F8, F7, F3).
Design requirements are demands and wishest hatclarify 7. (F9, F7, F3).
the design task in the space of needs. U They provide an abstrac- 8. (FIO, F7, F3).
tion of the design task from the most general demand (the overall Each requirement may be satisfied by one or more functions,
requirement) to more specific demands (subrequirements). A and each function may correspond to one or more requirements.
design function indicates the behavior which is required for the The interaction between requirements and functions can be repre-
device to satisfy a given requirement. sented in the form of a requirementfunction incidence matrix.
Requirement Space Illustrative Example
Design is a process of producing a description of an object to Suppose that the overall requirement (the need) has been
satisfy a set of requirements. 45 The relationship between require- formulated (recognized) as:
ments may be expressed in the form of conjunctions or disjunc- R: Develop the conceptual design of a lifting device.
tions. The set of requirements, subrequirements, the logical The above requirement can be decomposed as shown in Fig. 9-18.
relationship between requirements, and the alternative functions In Fig. 9-18, one possible set that satisfies the overall require-
for each requirement provide a description of the requirement and ment is (Rll, R4, R2). The functions corresponding to each of the
functional spaces for a class of engineering systems. For example, three above requirements are presented in Figs. 9-19 through 9-21.
in the design of a relatively simple mechanical system such as a Assume that the costs of functions Fl, F2, F7, F8, and F15 are
coupling, the design requirements may include: given as Cl = 1, Cz = 2, C3 x 1, Cd= 1, C5 = 2, respectively.
Thus, the requirementfunction incidence matrix that has been
1. Flexibility of coupling.
introduced earlier is:
2. Ability to transmit a torque.
FI F2 F7 F8 F15
For more complex systems (such as a ship or a car) many other
requirements may be added including noise level, cargo capacity, Rll 11
the area of operation, duration of operation, special material R4 11
requirements, etc. Knowledge of the requirements, their decom- R2 [ 1 1
position into subrequirements, and their functional specification [Cj] [ 1 2 1 1 2 ]
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 9
A CONCEPTUAL DESIGN SYSTEM
Requirement space
n
A
n
a
I
Y
s
i
s
Functional spxe
J/l
Physical space
. i ,o
I
I
I
I
,
\
s
Y
n
t
h
e
s
I
s
=L
Fig. 9-15 Analysis and synthesis in three spacea aesoeiated with conceptual design.
9-32
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 9
A CONCEPTUAL DESIGN SYSTEM
R1 R2 R3
R4 R7
R7 R7
basedon thetransformation from requirements through functions tion for the components description can parallel the abstraction
to models and frames. Models and frames represent building level employed by the designer during the conceptual
blocks (components) for the conceptual design. These design design process.
building blocks can be created at dif{erent leve~ of abstraction~o Ii the representation stage, conceptual design building blocks
aid reasoning during the synthesis (Stage 3). The level of abstrac- (components) are identified and defined. Specifically, a compo-
nent description contains all information available about its own
attributes, but it does not provide the possibility of changing the
attributes of the other components. For such components the
0
R6 following experiments can be performed:
Specify or select 1. Simulation. Component description includes dynamic be-
a timetion havior that can be used to simulate the changes of certain
components attributes in time.
2. Sensitivity analysis. Sensitivity of the value of input/output
I F4
Models and Frames
The model and frame representation aspect of the proposed
methodology is discussed in References 46 and 47. For the sake of
F6 F7
completeness, the model and frame representation is briefly
I reviewed below.
It is assumed that the overall model of the designed object
consists of components (lowest level models). Each component is
I
11ml
F8 F9 F1O autonomous and represents a function or a group of functions that
have entered from the specification stage. Components are devel-
oped by expert designers and are stored in a model base. Figure
Fig. 9-17 Function tree corresponding to subrequirement R6. 9-22 presents the graphical component representation.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 9
A CONCEPTUAL DESIGN SYSTEM
I
Design a
lifting device ~
R1
Device is able to move Device is powered
Device is not powered
weight vertically by an engine
Function
R4 R5 R6
Function
R8
R1 1
Function Function
Theelements .x, andx in Fig. 9-22 denote input variables and 1. Charwe-dlfferent forrnsof inuut and output.
are represented with small bo~es, while y and~l denote output 2. Vary~different values ofinp~t and output.
variables. The expression.xl = ~~(x) reads: x, is a function of x 3. Connectdlfferent numbers of inputs and outputs.
defined for component A, Figure 9-23 shows the component that 4. Channelno change in the form and value but different
represents functions FI1, F9, and F13 introduced at the specifi- places of input and output.
cation stage. Component C, represents input force F, and rota- 5. Storedifferent times ofinput and output.
tional veloeityj, that have been applied, resulting inmoment Ml
A designer, or the system, may change, add, or subtract some
andvelocity jzas the output. The force FJhasbeen applied on the
attributes of the component before beginning an actual design. The
distance a. In Fig. 9-23, F, andjl represent the input variables
following attributes may be included in a frame representing a
received from the outside of the system boundary.
component:
The model representation is easy to develop and useful for 1. Constants.
user-system interaction. The operations within a model of the 2. State variables. They describe the component indepen-
designed object can be performed more effectively with frames. dently from the values of other attributes.
Frames are used to describe the flow of energy, material, and 3. Dependent variables. The values of dependent variables
signals which, according to many authors, are fundamental in are defined using algebraic equations and are computed
design .u3484g Frames can also represent the generally valid from the constants and the current values of the state and
functions that include:~ input variables.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 9
A CONCEPTUAL DESIGN SYSTEM
I RI 1
I
F1
Transform force Transform Forcethrough
thraugh one screw a system of screws
F3
F5
TransForm
horizontal force horizontal Force
into vertical Force
m
F7
Apply human
force by foot
F9
Fll
F13
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 9
A CONCEPTUAL DESIGN SYSTEM
F15 I
lift weight
F16
Praduce vertical Produce vertirnl
farce movement
,
F18
4. Input andoutput variables. Allowing thecomponents to be Each component may be involved in more than one type of
connected during the matching process. conversion (material, energy, signals) through one or more gen-
5. Conditional expressions. This attribute consists of logical erally valid functions (change, vary, connect, channel, store).
expressions which activate events. Thus frame representation includes, besides attributes and dy-
6. Algebraic equations for functions ``store' 'and <`connect,'' namic behavior, the definition of type of flow and function.
expressing the relationship between attributes. Figure 9-24 shows the three examples which illustrate the
relationship between subfunctions andmodels represented graph-
A designer may also modify or add his/her own description of
ically and with frames.
the dynamics of the component.
In the frame in Fig. 9-24, F, is the acting force, a is the
Dynamics represents the sequence of state transitions which
distance from the center of rotation, and M, is the resultant
may occur in a component during the flow of energy, material, and
moment. Velocityjl has been channeled through the component
signals. The following are examples of mathematical tools that
without any change in its form and value. The designer can modify
may be used to describe the components dynamics involved in
or add some attributes and equations in the components frame.
functions change, vary, and channel:
After the model and frame representation at Stage 2 has been
1. Differential equations. accomplished, it is possible to enter the synthesis s~age.
2. Algebraic equations.
3. Logical statements.
4. Mathematical programming models
5. Queuing models.
c1
Fla= Ml
F} Ml
xl Y, L-1, L22
1-1}= Q2
xl = fA [xl Y, = fA [Y]
I I
Component lwundary
Fig. 9-22 Component A as an autonomous system. F}g. 9-23 Component C, representing functions F9, Fll, and F13.
9-36
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 9
A CONCEPTUAL DESIGN SYSTEM
Example 1
This example illustratesa subthction which is represented with the graphical madel below
and the Hlowing kame:
(Companent (CJ
~ype-Of-flow [Energy]]
[Function (Vary]) SFi: Vary the aWlied force
(Atributes
[Siuk_variables (a,b)]
[Dependent_variable [FJ)
[lnput_variable (F,]]
(Ouiput_variable [F,))~
[Dynamic_behavior
(.Algebraic_equation [F, = a/b F,I])) 1-2
Example 2
[Campanent [CJ
lType_Of_fl~ (Energy)l
[Function lStare])
SFi: Vary the a~lied farce
(Mributes
EE
(Canstcmt(g))
(Siute_variable [m])
(Dependent_vcmiable [h))
(Algebraic_eq.atian (E = mgh)~
(lnput_variable IE]]
10utput-varioble (E])))
Example 3
[Component CJ
lTyp_Of_flOw @WsXial)l
(Functian (Vary])
SF[ Increase the length
(Attributes
(Canslunt ~]
[State_variables (l,Afi])
[Depen&t_variable [Al]]
[lnput_variaHe (1]]
[Ouiput_variable (i+Ai]]l
(Dynamic_behavior
[Algebraic_eq.ation (Al= @Afi]))] ~ BA
Using ihe above naiution, component Cl (see Fig. 9-23] is described by the fallowing frame:
lCampOnent [C,]
(Type-af-flaw[Energy]]
(Generally_valid_functions lChange, vary, channel]]
(Specified_functians [lnp.t_farce_ralutiOnally, apply_force_at_ane@int, ampliFy_farce))
@tributes
[State_voriable (a))
[lnput_varialdes [Q,, F,]]
[0.p.t_variables [~, M,]]]
[Dynamic_behavior
(Algebraic_equatians [M, = Fla, Q, = QJ]]]
Fig. 9-24 Examples illustrating the relationship between subfunctions end models.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 9
A CONCEPTUAL DESIGN SYSTEM
DESIGN SYNTHESIS The value ~B(x) in Fig. 9-25 represents input to component B
At Stage 3 of the proposed design methodology, the design and is equal to the value j(y) that represents output of the
synthesis is performed leading to the hierarchically structured component A. Such a connection may represent the energy,
models and frames representing the designed object. The synthesis material, and signal flow between two components. Each compo-
phase is of great importance to the theory and practice of design; nent may have several input and output variables. An overall
however, it is an area which is not well understood. Synthesis is model is built by selecting and matching the appropriate I-O
concerned with a systematic generation of alternatives in order to connections. The resultant model structure is normally of a
create new designs or improve the existing ones. It usually hierarchical nature.
includes the following issues:so Any two components can be matched using I-O connections of
various types. An I-O connection can be viewed as:
. Selection of appropriate components.
. Interconnection of the components. 1. Describing tbe material, energy, and signal flow between
. Selection of the parameters of the components. two components. Material, energy, and signals are trans-
. Definition of appropriate representations for objects to be ferred from one component to another through I-O connec-
synthesized. tion. The transformation process takes place only inside the
components.
The approach presented employs a system-theoretic hierarchi-
2. Allowing for access to the attributes of another component
cal synthesis which provides a practical tool for reasoning with
components. Itisbased onaworking hypothesis that it impossible and their values.
to synthesize hierarchically structured mechanical systems by Thus, the input and output variables provide an interface to the
reasoning with models and frames corresponding to the compo- environment of the component. The search for component Cj
nents. As a result, the architecture and information flow at the matching component Ci is performed as long as all outputs of the
synthesis stage takes into consideration the following assumptions: component Ci are not connected or interfaced to the outside of the
overall model boundary.
Hierarchical representation of components with various
Components may be nested hierarchically in higher level
levels of detail is suited for modeling of mechanical systems.
models. Higher level models contain structural information about
. Any hierarchical model of a mechanical system can be
themselves by listing their components, output and input vari-
characterized by its components and connections that were
ables, and component connections. For example, a hypothetical
applicddunng the matching process.
model consisting of components C,, C2, and CJ can be represented
Traditionally, designers have been solving the model synthesis with the following frame:
problem at the conceptual design stage in an ad hoc manner. In this
chapter, a formal synthesis approach is presented which is suitable (Higher_level_tnodel (Mz)
for computer implementation. (Components (Cl, C,, C,))
The model synthesis is presented to facilitate the discovery of (Outputvariable (y~)
innovative design solutions. It involves the generation of a set of (Type_of_flow (Energy)))
components for which all requirements are met, and building an (Input_variables (x~, fl~)
overall model from the components. (Type_of30w (Energy, Signal)))
The capability of synthesizing hierarchically structured models (Component_connectionS (y, > X2, yz > xl,
from thecomponents isanimportant feature of the system. This Y3 > X2)))
capability is supported by production rules that are structured in The above frame is stored in the model base and allows the use
two levels: of model Ml as an autonomous component. If there is a need for
1. Mets-n.des related to the underlying general systems details, the components CJ, C2, and CJ can also be retrieved from
theory. the model base.
2. Domain-based rules related to the specific domain of Any real-life object to be designed may involve a large number
the design. of subfunctions and the corresponding components. Matching of
such a large number of components into an overall model can be
Building a design solution from the components requires a
accomplished with production rules. 52
synthesis method. Thesynthesis ofengineering systems, though of
Production rules are structured at two levels:
great importance to both the theory and practice of design, is an
area which is not well understood. 1. Mets-rules related to the underlying general systems
There are three basic abstraction levels in the design of theory.
mechanical systems: the level of the overall model of a mechanical 2. Domain rules related to the design specific domain.
system, the model level, and the component level. The notion of Mets-rules are structured to ensure that:
input-output (I-O) component connection is the basic element
which allows components and transfer information to combine. 1. An overall model of the designed object is generated in
These two elementscomponents and connectionsare consid- such a way that all components are included (the set of
ered as the basic elements for building higher level models. The components at the initial state of a model base represents
overall model represents the highest abstraction level. all functions specified at the specification stage).
2. All boundary inputs and outputs of the designed object are
Synthesis of Models and Frames included in the synthesized model, and they represent the
Following the component representations discussed previously, only way that the designed object communicates with its
the process of combining them into an overall model is briefly external environment.
outlined below. For more details see References 51 and 52. 3. Only physically and logically feasible matchings of com-
Figure 9-25 explains the notion of an I-O connection in a ponents are explored (that is, representing feasible variants
design example where component A is joined with component B. of the design).
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 9
A CONCEPTUAL DESIGN SYSTEM
fAIYl = fB(xl
A fJxl B
fA(Y)
Mets-roles are structured independently of the domain and The following important components phenomena can be seen
cannot be modified by the designer. in Fig. 9-27:
Domain-based roles are tailored especially for a particular
domain of the design. They can be built into the design system or 1. One component can represent a group of functions (for
entered through the interface by the designer. Domain-based rules example, C)).
ensure that during the matching process the components 2. Functions represented by one component can belong to
connections: more tban one function tree (for example, C3).
1. Agree in the type and value.
2. Follow tbe specific requirements related to a particular Figure 9-27 also shows that the functional space covered by
domain (for example, physical, safety requirements, mar- components Cl, C2, and Cfsatisfies thesetof fonctions(Fl, F7,
keting requirements). F/5) and the set of requirements (Rll, R4, R2). The physical
representation of these components at the conceptual level may
For the design in a new domain it is necessary to specify a set inchrde, for example, one-arm lever, screw, and knee-linkage.
of domain-based production roles. Figure 9-28 shows tbe physical representation of the abstraction
The synthesis is completed when the boundary input and output shown in Fig. 9-26.
variables of all components have been included in the abstraction The abstraction in Fig. 9-28 is described with the following
of the object being designed, The possible final model of the frame:
lifting device discussed at the specification stage is presented
in Fig. 9-26. (Model (Lifting_device)
In Fig. 9-26, in addition to component C, discussed previously (Components (C,, C,, C,))
(see Fig. 9-23), component C, represents function Fl, and (Output_variables (V,, F,)
component C3functions F14, F16, and F/7, During the synthesis (Type_of_flow (Energy)))
stage it is possible to obtain more than one overall model of the (Input_variables (j), F,)
designed object. Each such model should rechecked against the (Type_offiow (Energy)))
logic built into the function trees. The model is accepted if its (Component_connection (C, > C,, C,>C3)))
components satisfy the set of functions that has entered the
representation stage and thus the requirements selected for the After tbe frames describing the components Cl, C2, and C3
designed object. Figure 9-27 presents this part of the functional have been connected, the moment and rotational velocity are
space that has been covered by components C,, C2, and C3 of the transmitted through the screw, producing force and movement of
model shown in Fig. 9-26. the knee-linkage .-
C, C2 C3
F1 F2
V2
%
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 9
A CONCEPTUAL DESIGN SYSTEM
Fig. 9-27 Functional space covered by components C,, C2, and C3.
Illustrative Examt21e
In this section, an ~xample illustrating model synthesis is
presented. The model synthesis has been applied to the conceptual
design of a shaft coupling. Design of a coupling based on the
Knee. linkage traditional approach is presented in Reference 53. The objective is
to show the potential of applying the modeling approach to
One - arm conceptual design. Design of a coupling has been chosen as an
lever illustration for this section because it can bc represented with a
relatively simple conceptual model. It depicts the ideas presented
\ without unnecessary complications.
Suppose that the overall design task is to develop a conceptual
design of a shaft coupling. The requirements for the design can be
stated as:
1. Couple a shaft.
2. Flexible coupling,
3. Transmit torque of radial and axial offset of the shaft.
The overall function (OF) of this design is:
OF: Transmit torque.
Fig. 9-28 Physical representation of the abstraction presented in Fig. After the OF has been defined, the coupling is represented as
9-26. shown in Fig. 9-29.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 9
A CONCEPTUAL DESIGN SYSTEM
b
c,
W=ME2 xl Apply Y,
The overall function (OF) can be decomposed into the follow- ig. 9-30 Component C, representing subfunction SF1.
ing subfunctions (SFS):
SFI: Apply movement.
Any change in the design requirements results in a change of
SF2: Transmit movement. the abstraction. For example, if in addition to the previously stated
SF3: Receive movement. three requirements au additional requirement is imposed:
Graphical representations of the three above subfunctions and
the corresponding components (lowest level models) are shown in 4. Transmit high value torque.
Figs. 9-30 through 9-32. The multiplied transmit function SF2 may be recom-
In Fig. 9-30, element x, represents the output variable received mended. The physical representation of the abstractions for the
from theoutside of the system boundary, andatthesame time is shaft coupling is presented in Fig. 9-34.
the input variable of component CI. The element yl is the output All the abstractions should be checked to see whether they meet
variable of the component C,. the design requirements. Those which meet all the design require-
The variable y~ in Fig. 9-32 represents the output outside of the ments should be selected for the second phase, namely the
system boundary. physical description phase.
TO build the overall model using the components Cl, C2, and
C;, the I-O connections have to be used in the matching process.
The I-O connections for the components presented in Figs. 9-30 Reconsideration of the
through 9-32 are defined as follows: Shaft Coupling Design
y, >X3 In this section, details of the frame representation of the shaft
y, >X2 coupling considered
y2 >X3 no~tion is introducedry e presented. The following
y~ > no connection (output outside of the system boundary) L= Length of the shaft.
Matching of the components associated with the above con- D= Diameter of the shaft.
nections can be expressed in the form of production rules, for 1= Length of tbe key.
example: Width of the key.
IF y, is not the output to the outside of the system ;= Height of the key.
AND there exists yi > Xj connection G= Modulus of rigidity.
THEN match the corresponding components Ci and Cj. F= Force acting at the distance a from the center of
The synthesis is completed when all the boundary input and rotation of the shaft.
Distance from the center of rotation of the acting
output variables of all components have been included in the a
abstraction of the designed object. Based on the above four force.
connections, two possible final abstractions of the shaft coupling T= Torque.
are presented in Fig. 9-33. Ss()= Shear stress in the shaft (S), flange (F), key (K).
Fig. 9-31 Component C, representing subfunction SF2. Fig. 9-32 Component C, representing subfunction SF3
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 9
A CONCEPTUAL DESIGN SYSTEM
El E2
El 2
Transmit Y2 ~
3 Receive Y3 E2
,
,
=!.
.
1=. Drive element Drwenelement
m ,
.. ..
....
..
_
-+i!- El P .,- Transmission element
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CHAPTER 9
A CONCEPTUAL DESIGN SYSTEM
lPSS(F
is stored in a model base and used as an autonomous component in
more complex designs in which the coupling might be an element.
SF3H=HF3
m--=-l I
Fig. 9-36 Abstraction of component CJ. Fig. 9-37 Abstraction of the coupting model.
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CHAPTER 9
A CONCEPTUAL DESIGN SYSTEM
ll
Integration with Al techniques A
I I
Specification of the Specification OFthe s
I requirement spoce ~ fwwtianal space I t
a
I - I 9
Stage 1 Stage 1
e
I I
I
1
I
Optimization in the
I functional space I
+
I Stage 1
4
,
+
I s
Development I I Development t
af model of frame a
I I
representation representation 9
I I e
stage 2 Stage 2
I I 2
Synthesispracess
I I
1 4 I t
Stage 3
a
l.. 1 9
e
retrieved from the existing literature. Some additional knowledge The Component Synthesis Algorithm
will also be generated w-bile performing the synthesis proces~. Step 1. Open a set MODEL>ASE consisting of all compo-
Performing the various stages of conceptual design requires the nents generated at the specification and representation
knowledge and data pertinent to design activities and precedence stage.
constraints among activities. Scheduling of these activities will be Set level = 1.
supported by a scheduling system, the methodology of which Step 2. Apply production rules to generate connections be-
includes concurrency attributes, precedence constraints, the con- tween elements in MODEL_BASE.
currency knowledge, and some optimization criteria. The system Step 3. If no connections are generated, stop;
will identify the attributes that are relevant to a given step and Otherwise, match elements in MODELJ3ASE into
generate the order in which the attributes should be considered. pairs using the existing connections.
The modeling framework of component synthesis was imple- Step 4. Define input and output variables for models generated
mented in an object-oriented environment. The implementation by the matching process.
serves as the following: Step 5. Remove from MODEL_BASE all elements that have
taken part in the matching process.
1. A central modeling mechanism forimplementing produc-
Step 6. Add to MODELEIASE all models generated by the
tion rules that guide the synthesis process.
matching process.
2. A tool for graphical representation of the hierarchical
Step 7. Set level = level + 1 and go to Step 2.
structure of the overall concepturd model.
3. Adisplay of thetextual expl&rationo fthesynthesis. SUMMARY
4. Amechanism fordefining components graphically and as Recognizing the need for a systematic modeling approach to
frames in the model base. conceptual design, a methodology for an intelligent design syn-
5. Abalance between thesystem tasks andthose that are best thesis system was presented. An important part of the proposed
performed by the human designer. synthesis is the model base which includes a number of compo-
nents (the lowest level models) representing functions determined
The synthesis of components and models into an overall model from the design requirements. A conceptual model of an object
begins atthelowest level (level l)of abstraction represented by being designed is derived using the component synthesis. The
the initial state of a model base. It isperformed according to the component synthesis is based on an algorithm supported by
following algorithm. production rules.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 9
APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DFM
Components are represented with frames. Each frame includes functions related to the conversion of energy, material,
the components attributes and the description of its dynamic and signals.
behavior. In the design process, components and the correspond- Adesign domain can berepresented bya number of specific
ing frames can be modified. The latter increases the design components and higher level models. A model base may thus
flexibility which is of particular importance in rapid prototyping. include representations of various domains. As the principles of
Components are structured according to the informational clo- model synthesis are the same for different domains, the architec-
sure principle used in the theory of autonomous systems. As such ture presented may be used for the building of the domain
they pretreated as self-contained, autonomous entities. independent intelligent systems for conceptual design. The pro-
The framework presented for representation of components and posed approach was implemented in an object-oriented program-
higher level models allows for modeling of generally valid ming environment (such as Smalltalk-80).
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CHAPTER 9
APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DFM
be useful. For example: a company maintains a database that complex, infrequent problems are better suited for the experts
describes all of the parts it produces. Each part record describes themselves. This leaves moderate-value applications that are used
the parts color, sales per month, material used, operations frequently as the best candidates. An often cited figure is any
performed, production time, etc. The company would like to use application that takes an expert from three minutes to several hours
that database to help create group technology clusters. Depending to solve.
on the characteristics of the data, the system is just as likely to A very rough estimate can be developed by applying break-
form clusters based on color and sales volume as it is to group the even analysis. Here, the object is to compare the amount of an
parts based on operations. By contrast, if a human expert were to experts time that will be devoted to building the system with the
determine the categories, usable groups would be far more likely amount of time the system will save once it is developed (see Fig.
to emerge. Most important, the computer would never synthesize 9-39). Thus, the Total Time with AI System represents the total
a new attribute to help classify parts. amount of the experts time devoted to building and then main-
taining the system. The Total Time without AI System repre-
SELECTING AN APPROPRIATE sents the cumulative total of the experts time that would have
APPLICATION been devoted to solving the target problem without the expert
Not every problem is a good candidate for solution with an system. Work sampling can be used to develop a reliable estimate.
artificial intelligence application. In fact it can be very difficult to
determine at the onset which applications will succeed. However, Rules, Relationships and/or Facts
most of the pioneers of applied artificial intelligence agree that Are Well Known by the Expert
some common attributes are shared by most successful applica- There are two major AI applications generally available for
tions. For example, it is a universal belief among developers that common use. They are expert system shells and supervised trained
a successful application of applied AI is not simply one that works. neural network simulators. Neural networks manage vague data.
A successful application is attractive to both the workers who will By contrast, expert systems work well when the rules, relation-
use it and the managers who will support it. The following list ships, and/or facts are well understood. The reason expert systems
should help to recognize other attributes of good candidate work best with well defined rules is that their knowledge is in the
applications. form of IF . THEN rules. Because it can be surprisingly difficult
to determine if the available knowledge will fit this approach, a
Restricted Availability of Expertise description of r-de processing may he helpful here.
Most present-day applications of expert systems (ES) are built Expert systems use rules to find the value of a goal variable.
based on information supplied by human experts. Therefore, if the The goal of an expert system is the value that the system is
human expertise required to develop an AI system is readily attempting to evaluate. For example: to determine whether a
available, there is probably little or no use for the system. If, on material was a plastic, metal, or elastomer, the goal of the system
the other hand, the expert is entirely inaccessible, development might be stated as
will probably fail because of that inaccessibility. Thus, good
candidate applications generally target individuals who perform Find Material
important, rather than urgent, tasks. An expert system that assists In this case, the expert system will use a forward or backward
in preventive maintenance will probably succeed. By contrast, an search strategy to evaluate IF . . . THEN rules to find a value to
expert system designed to assist in making emergency repairs is assign to Material.
likely to fail. Expert system rules are blocks of code that evaluate facts. In
Many applied AI developers resolve the availability of exper- expert systems terminology, facts are values assigned to variables
tise problem by selecting tasks performed by personnel near that are assumed to be true. Generally, facts are assigned by one
retirement age or recently retired. As applied to DFM, the best of three sources: assignment from within the expert system,
candidates for AI are tasks performed by master designers and assignment by an external program, or assignment by the user.
craftsmen who are near retirement. An example of direct assignment of an internal fact is: Material
= metal. More often, internal assignment of facts will be
Expertise is Scattered determined by way of rules. For example, the system may
Frequently critical information is distributed among a group of
determine that Material = metal by evaluating:
people. As a result, no one sees the full picture. (Note that this
observation forms one of the postulates for needing DFM: con- Rule M
sider all goals and constraints early. 57) In addition, scattering of If Surface = shiny and
expertise often leads to rule conflict. Thus, applications involving Conducts_electricity = yes
scattered expertise are appropriate for two reasons. First, the Then Material = metal
scattering of expertise makes that expertise less accessible. Sec-
A more complex rule is:
ond, the integrity of the information may be compromised. For
example, a designer may use the rule, If parts do not fit together Rule N
as designed, then tighten specifications. However, given the If assembly_class <> base and
same problem, a manufacturing technician may determine, If (access = required or
parts do not fit together, then loosen specifications. The soh- upgrade = yes) and
tions are diametrically opposed. Reliability = low
Then assembly _order = end
The Application Will Be Used Frequently allowable_orientations < = 4
Applications that will see little use can fall into either of two
Assignment from an external source might look similar to:
categories: trivial, and highly complex. A system that only solves
trivial problems is trivial itself. At the other extreme, highly Spreadsheet, material = B 15, C:/EXCEL/materials. wks.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 9
APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DFM
Y
Total time
Time
*
---- ---- ---- --- --
weeks
Fig. 9-39 Comparison between time en expert takes to develop an artificial intelligence (AI) system and the amount of time saved once the AI system
is in operation.
In this case, the first part of the clause, Spreadsheet, THEN rules into mechanisms that process fuzzy information. At a
informs the expert system that the required value is stored in an deeper level, fuzzy information represents the end result of
electronic spreadsheet. The second portion of the clause assigns evaluating an objects degree of membership to a set. For example:
the value stored in cell B15 to the expert system variable set A is the set of objects that are bushes and set B represents the
material. The last part of the clause tells the expert system set of objects that are trees. Then a fuzzy membership diagram
which electronic spreadsheet file to use. In this case the system might look similar to Fig. 9-40. The actual value of a fuzzy
will seek a spreadsheet called materials that is stored under the interaction varies from one system to another. However, the
EXCEL directory on drive C. operations are usually similar to those originally proposed by
Facts that are established by the user are generally determined Zadeh for the evaluation of fuzzy sets. That is, given A (CF 10)
by query. For example, the user may be prompted to answer a and B (CF 20) and C (CF 30), the confidence factor will equal the
question such as, smallest CF, 10. Similarly, given A (CF 10) or B (CF 20) or C (CF
30), the confidence factor will equal the largest CF, 30.
Which of the following would you say best describes this
To illustrate, say a knowledge base contains rules 1, 2, 3, and
material?
4 shown below. Assume that A = 20, B = 11, S = 14, and T =
shiny
91. After evaluation, R = 2 with a confidence factor of 20, and W
flat
= 2 with a confidence factor of 80.
transparent
opaque Rule 1
As a system grows in complexity, it is often convenient to If A = 20 and
separate rules into related groups. Once the groups are formed, B=ll
metandes can be used. A metarule is a rule about roles. For Then C = 2, confidence 75.
example, when applying DFM, the rule, A part should act as a Rule 2
base that other parts can be attached to is only applicable to the If S = 14 and
first component of an assembly sequence. Therefore, a rule that T=91
helps to determine whether or not a component is a base is a Then (Q) = 2, confidence 20.
metartde, because a number of other rules are applicable if and
only if the component is a base. Rule 3
It is usually impossible for an expert to state a fact with If C=2 and
complete certainty. Rather, the expert will evaluate the circum- (Q) = 2
stances and develop a degree of certainty that a particular fact is Then R = 2.
true. A confidence factor is a method employed by expert systems Rule 4
to assign certainty to a fact. For example, experience may have If C=20r
shown that plastic bushings will fail after about 2,000 hours for (Q) = 2
certain types of applications. Therefore, an expert might be willing Then W = 2.
to assign a vahre of 80 (on a scale from O to 100) that a plastic
bushing would work for that application. Thus, confidence factors Note that the knowledge base is a collection of rules that
allow the knowledge engineer to capture less-than-certain infor- represent logical relationships within a specific domain. The
mation. Thereby, knowledge engineers can transform strict IF . . . attributes of a knowledge base that separate it from other forms of
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CHAPTER 9
APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DFM
Rule n
If
If this is true
then
Then
this is true
allowcrble.orientations <=4
Fig. 9-41 The real expertise of a knowledge base is captured in tbe conclusion portion of tbe rules.
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CHAPTER 9
APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DFM
3. Fast response time is impressive. It pleases management Experimental data has shown that systems with a response time of
and is a desirable public relations consideration. between zero and four seconds can be considered acceptable.
4. Fast response time is desirable to keep up with the Joneses. Acceptability is governed by the perceived complexity of the task.
These three postulates are used to formulate two equations:
In general, when designing interactive systems, studies by R.
B. Miller may be referred to. His values, shown in Table 9-12, P, = system performance (Seconds to respond per one hun-
represent the maximum acceptable response times for a given style dred rules). This describes the excess processing power
of human-computer interaction. Note that based on Millers that the system possesses when meeting the response
time considered acceptable by the user group.
TABLE 9-12 p, = supplied performance (Seconds to respond per one
Minimum Feasible Response Times Versus Marginally hundred rules). This describes the estimated speed at
Acceptable Application Environments which the expert system shell is known to operate. This
statistic is sensitive to peripherals and rule design.
Minimum Feasible Marginally Acceptable Application
Response Time (r) Environment If it can be assumed that the knowledge engineer will desire to
deliver the greatest power possible from a given environment, then
r > 15s Noninteractive systems or circumstances the system will be delivered when P, = P..
in which the user will not generally be The equations corresponding to P, and P, must be derived
required to have further system experimentally because they will vary greatly depending on
interaction. variables such as the user group. software, hardware, and style of
15s>r>4s Circumstances that do not require use of rules developed. Fortunately, regression anal ysis can yield ade-
shor--term memory or problem solving quate results. Thus, in general if R equals the number of rules:
activities. P,=a&O+ a1ER+a2ZR2 +... amER (1)
4s>r>2s Dialogues or interactions that do not P,=a$O+ a1ER+a2ER2 +... aEER (2)
require high levels of concentration.
The rules data is likely to be somewhat noisy. However,
2s>r>Os Interactions that require high concentra-
adequate results may be obtained by simplifying and solving for
tion and heavy mental work loads.
the first order linear coefficients a. and al. Next, estimate the
r - 0s Typing, spatial design activities. equilibrium point by solving for the intersection where P. = P..
Thus,
a+b
a bR = C + dR => Requi,ib= (3)
studies, the AI system should respond in under 2 seconds. b+d
Thus, it is preferable, from a performance point of view, to use
conventional programming techniques rather than an expert sys- (see Fig. 9-42),
tem approach. It is only the need for frequent addition or
modification of rules that may make conventional programming
impractical. The Time Path
Observing the behavior of the system over time will reveal that
the number of rules in the knowledge base will initially climb.
The Application Can Be Completed with However, as the number of rules climbs, response time degrades.
Reasonable Expenditure of Resources At some point, in a well managed system, the knowledge
One of the most challenging aspects of rule-based expert engineer(s) will begin to work on eliminating redundancies. As a
system development is the problem of selecting a reasonably sized result, the number of roles will begin to decrease. Eventually, it
application. The following section describes a method for estimat- will become clear that the system is lacking the richness that is
ing project duration very early in the development process. The desired, so rules will be added until performance is no longer
approach is described as conceived by G. Kalley and refined with satisfactory.
L. DeTroia of AT&T. The number of rules in the knowledge base will vary about the
a+b
equilibrium point, R,qUi,ib = over time. Furthermore, the
Project Duration Control Variables b+d
In developing a control model for rule based expert systems relationship between excess capacity, required capacity, and the
project management, there are three accepted postulates. First, a number of rules is:
successful expert system must be nontrivial. That is, it must aid in
the performance of a meaningful task. Experience seems to dR
indicate that expert systems with less than 400 rules tend to be = z (PrP,) (4)
z
trivial. Second, the system must be completed and delivered in a
reasonable period. Based on present-day dcvclopmcnt environ- where z is a proportionality constant.
ments, there appears to be a ceiling of about 800 rules for Substitution of the equations for P, and P, gives the time
microcomputer-based systems (larger systems seem to become relation R(t) that expresses the expected number of rules in the
unwieldy). Third, expert systems, like any other software envi- knowledge base at time t.Thus,
ronment, must provide the user with a reasonable response time
(that is the time from the instant the user presses the return key to
the time the system begins to display something on the screen).
R(t) =
(R(O) R) e-z(b+a sin(cat) + ~d (5)
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CHAPTER 9
APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DFM
In graphical form, the model appears as shown in Fig. 9-43. creativity; the right-brain prefers graphical information. In
Note that the damping envelope addhion, applied researchers have found that management and
users are more receptive to an interesting graphical front end.
a+c ~z{b+ @ ; a+c
(t) = (
(o)-b )+ ~ b+d
(6)
Data is Simple but Abundant
curves, as control limits and the damped curve represent the The practical application of a simple rule such as, standardize
number of rules in the knowledge base at time t.From this model parts wherever possible may prove insurmountable simply be-
the duration of the project can first be estimated based on the time cause of the sheer volume of parts and materials involved. For
it takes to reach the equilibrium point, since this occurs at ~. Thus, example, a company may use over 200 types of fasteners for over
all that remains is to estimate Z. Solving for z at the estimated 1,000 products. In that case, there could be up to 200,000
equilibrium point, fastener-part combinations to be researched. The problem may be
further complicated by the need for certain fasteners to exhibit
a+c
Rkqud ~ specific attributes such as resistance to chemicals. An AI system
~ = In + (b+d)t (7) can tirelessly search and compare any number of records.
a+c The key to successful implementation of a neural network or
sin((ot) R(O) ~
( ) expert system that can search large databases is automatic system
[1 generation. For expert systems, deduction and induction are used.
Induction is a formal method of generalization. It is by way of
As the project progresses, the models accuracy will improve.
induction that prototype examples are extended to less-than-
Once the peak number of rules actually decreases for the first time, perfect matches. An example may present information about three
~ will be known with greater accuracy. In a similar manner, as
molded parts. It states what each molded part is made of, and what
time goes on, the true equilibrium point, RgqUi,ib, will become
that parts failure rate is. Formally, the relationship is stated as:
more apparent. Prediction of the actual project duration is deter-
mined by noting when the graph of the function, Fact 1: Part_A (failure_rate) = high
Fact 2: Part_B (failure~ate) = high
Fact 3: Part_C (failure_rate) = high
R(t) =
(
R(O)-%
) e-z(b+osin((ot) + ~ (8)
Fact
Fact
4:
5:
Part_A
Part_B
(material) =
(material) =
rubber
rubber
appears to have nearly damped out.
Fact 6: Part_C (material) = rubber
The Interface is Graphical Infe~ All parts made with rubber have a high failure rate
and Visually Stimulating Induction is a very powerful mechanism that allows rules to be
Conventional programming is generally used to assist left- developed directly from data stored in a conventional spreadsheet
brain activities such as arithmetic and logical analysis. The or database system. For example, if data relating three parts and
interaction nurtured by AI systems can focus on assisting the two materials was stored in a database, the flat-file represen-
right-brain. These activities include pattern recognition and tation of this information might appear similar to Table 9113.
...
. ..
...
...
. . . ..
. . . .. Pr= c+dR
. . . ..
...
. ..
. ..
...
..
. . . ..
..
. . . ..
..
. ..
. ..
. . . ..
..
Number of rules
Fig. 9-42 IMimation of equilibrium point by solving for the intersection where P, = P,.
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CHAPTER 9
APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DFM
Equilibrium
+
A
<;>
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CHAPTER 9
APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DFM
Listing 2:
Rules Generated by a Complex Induction System
Find Failure~ate
Rule 1
If Material = rubber
Then Failure~ate = high
Rule 2
If Material = plastic
Then Failureflate = medium
As the automatic generation of rules directly from database
information illustrates, induction is a very powerful technique.
However, induction is also prone to error. For example, assume
color has absolutely no effect on reliability, Further assume that
Table 9-14 represents the same parts listed in Table 9-13. Bill JeFf Sue
However, for some reason, no one ever bothered to document the
material used. Instead, the color of the part was recorded. The
resultant database is listed in Table 9-14.
Fig. 9-44 Graphical representation of workers versus production
rates.
TABLE 9-14
Flat File Representation of Database Adduction is powerful, but the power comes at a steep price
because there is seldom a method available to actually prove
BASIS BASIS CONCLUSION
causality. For example, does fever abate because blood-letting
Parr Color Failure~ate releases the evil spirits, and the bark of the willow tree introduces
A red high a more powerful and friendly spirit? Or is something else at work?
B red high The danger of adduction is further complicated by the observation
c red high that induction and adduction almost seem to conspire, Together,
A purple medium they can easily lead a developer to produce rules that seem correct
B purple medium but are very wrong. The best protection against errors is to be
c purple medium suspicious of (1) all rules that are formulated from limited
experience, and (2) all rules that assign causality.
Notice that this time even the more powerful ID#3 algorithm
will not be able to identify meaningful rules. In fact, the rule base
The Goal of Solution Can Be Reached by
that would be generated would appear similar to Listing 3.
Applying Deductive Reasoning
Listing 3: If an expert system is to be a successful approach, the problem
Incorrect Rules Generated by a Complex Induction System solution must be attainable through the process of deductive
reasoning. The following well-known syllogism perhaps best
Find Failureflate
demonstrates the process of deduction.
Rule 1
If Color = red Old Fact 1: Socrates is a man.
Then Failure~ate = high Old Fact 2: All men are mortal.
New Fact 1: Socrates is mortal.
Rule 2
If Color = purple The syllogism is the basic pattern upon which expert system
Then Failure_rate = medium rules are buih. The general belief is that if the premises are true,
the new facts will also be true. However, logical truth and
correctness are not the same. For example, in the preceding
Facts Infer Causality example, inductive reasoning was applied to establish, Old Fact
If an expert frequently makes comments such as the machine
2: All men are mortal. If a male human was to live without end,
stopped because . ... an expert system may be a good approach.
would that person remain a human? And, who but another
This is because these types of comments imply that the expert is
immortal could establish immortality, and if so after how long?
using adductive reasoning. Adduction is the act of assigning
Clearly, inductive antecedents can lead to incorrect new facts.
causality. For example: a graph shows worker versus production
Deductive reasoning can also get into trouble if the wrong
rate (see Fig. 9-44). The process of adduction indicates that
questions are asked. This danger is particularly acute if the
changing workers will cause a change in the production rate.
deductive process is used to develop an adductive inference. The
Adduction is at the heart of what is perceived as expertise and
history of the development of the tubeless tire demonstrates the
knowledge. This is particularly true of diagnostics. For example,
problem. At the time experimentation began, the old facts were:
when a medical doctor detects fever, infection is assumed to be the
cause. Furthermore, by trial and error, the physician has applied Old Fact 1: Tires lose pressure when air leaks out.
both induction and adduction to conclude that both blood-letting Old Fact 2: Air leaks out through holes at seams.
and the bark of the willow tree (aspirin) will lower the fever. New Fact 1: Tires lose pressure through holes at the seams.
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APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DFM
Based on the belief that the preceding syllogism was correct, c. Nornlecontains cin the conclusion, therefore, this information
the major tire companies spent considerable sums attempting to must be supplied by the user.
design a bead that would not leak. Finally, research dropped off as Backward chaining is particularly useful in systems that advise
most of the companies began to believe the problem was without orperform diagnostics. This isespecially true when the knowledge
solution. However, one man had the needed insight. Old fact 2 engineer includes explanations along with each rule. For example,
was altered to read a rule might read
If
Old Fact 2: Air leaks out through holes. fastener_type = mechanical and
number_offlasteners < 4
Then he asked, What is a hole? Not long after, he
determined that the interstices between the steel crystals compris- Then fastener = standard
ing the wheel were just large enough to allow molecules of air to
slip through one at a time. The process for making wheels was Explanation The system is attempting to determine if a
standardized mechanical fastener is being used.
changed. The tubeless tire is now the standard.
If a problem can be solved using deductive reasoning, the next
step in determining if an expert system can be applied is to
determine if the inference engine will be able to direct the system
to a solution. Generally, expert systems support two basic search
methods: forward chaining and backward chaining. I
In forward chaining, all rules whose antecedent values are
known (facts) are evaluated first. As each rule is evaluated, the
conclusion is determined to be either true or false. If the conclu-
sion is true, a new set of facts are added and the remaining rules
are scanned so that they too can be evaluated. This process
r Rule O
T Rule 2
iFp=5
continues until the goal has been satisfied. then ife>O
Figure 9-45 demonstrates the process of forward chaining. In r=21 / A then
this case, c = 20 is a fact. Rule O is skipped at this time because
the antecedent (if p = 5) cannot be tested. Rule 1 is evaluated
because the antecedent (if c > 1) can be tested. Rule 1 is true,
therefore, the facts b = 22 and e = 11 are added. These new facts
cause Rule 2 and Rule 3 to be evaluated. When Rule 3 is evaluated
the system goal is determined and evaluation is halted. The values I then /
of each of the variables at the conclusion of the dialog are:
a=22
b=22
~=zf)
e=ll
p = unknown
~=5
Fig. 9-45 Forward chairing.
Forward chaining is particularly useful when formatting a
database search. Database searching is particularly useful when
attempting to standardize. Forexample: inattempting to determine
the best type of fastener to use for a particular application, a
user might establish one initial fact: Function = fastener. From
this information a forward chain might next ask for loading
information and operating environment factors such as tempera-
tureand presence of solvents. Inaddition tothese general factors,
Rule 2
a number of product-specific fact parameters might also be
determined. When an inference engine employs backward chain- ife>O
then
ing, the conclusion of each rule is examined to see if it contains the
q=5
system goal. If the system goal iscontained in the conclusion, the
inference engine will attempt to evaluate the antecedent of that
rule. If the antecedent cannot be evaluated because the value of
one or more of the variables is unknown, the system will convert II
that variable into an intermediate goal and start the search process
over again. For example, the knowledge base shown in Fig. 9-46
would reevaluated in the following order: First Rule 3 would be
scanned because theconclusion (thena = 22)contains the system
goal. However, Rule 3 cannot be evaluated because the antecedent
(ifb = 22)isunknown. Therefore, theinference engine scans the
knowledge base to find arulewith binitsconclusion. Rule lhas
bin the conclusion, therefore the system will next seek a value for Fig. 9-46 Backward chaining.
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CHAPTER 9
APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DFM
Selection Among Alternatives Requires The identification of meaningless databases is important for
Comparison of Incommensurate Variables several reasons. First, if the database does not real] y contain
Comparison of competing designs usually requires the designer meaningful information, but workers use the database to identify
to make tradeoffs. For example, the designer is routinely asked to problems, this means that any problems identified are not really
find the best compromise among factors such as cost, esthetics, supported by the data. Rather, they are illusions. Second, it is very
safety, weight, and strength. It is difficult to compare esthetics expensive to maintain a database. Just getting the data into the
with safety and cost. However, tradeoff rules can frequently be database requires data collection, data input, and data review, as
defined in the form of minimum and maximum acceptable values. well as programming, hardware maintenance, database mainte-
nance, etc. Collectively, these activities are both expensive and
time-consuming.
Alternatives Need to be Generated
One of the first rules of brainstorming is to generate alterna- Pattern Matching
tives without constraints of any kind. AI systems are ideal for this Humans are very good at pattern matching. However, they can
type of task because they are entirely nonjudgmental. For such a easily become distracted. Therefore, one of the most difficult tasks
task, the designer must describe a product in terms of component in DFM is identifying a well designed product that exhibits a high
and end functionality. In addition, the system would need to be degree of manufacturability. Neural computing is ideal for such a
supplied with a number of methods for achieving functionality. task. Researchers have developed several approaches to applying
For example: in describing components of a car, one would define neural networks. The approaches inchrde both hardware and
the engine as a source of locomotion. The AI system would be software implementations. There are also a number of methods of
supplied with a number of locomotion devices including rocket, training neural networks. Of all these approaches, the most
jet, and mag-lev power. Similarly, the guidance system could rely popular and practical implementations today are those that employ
on human interaction, various sensors, and so on. supervised training and back propagation to train neural network
simulators. This situation may change as researchers learn how to
Information is Hidden in improve the design and manufacture of hardware neural network
Large Volumes of Data systems and as the researchers discover how to better employ
The rules that drove former design decisions are captured in the unsupervised training. In the meantime, the pattern matching
designs themselves. For example: when piping is used within a capability of neural network simulators is quite useful.
certain temperature range, and certain solvents are present, a The types of data for neural network pattern matching can
particular material should be used. Furthermore, if an information generally be divided into 3 groups: image, numeric, or symbolic.
extraction algorithm fails to detect any rules within a database, It is tempting to expect the most power to come from image-based
then the value of the database itself may prove suspect. pattern matching. Unfortunately, hardware limitations greatly
One of the most important activities in a successful DFM reduce this capability for several reasons. First, every node in a
program is the constant review and re-review of designs to assure neural network is theoretically interconnected to every other node
that the latest insights are applied wherever possible. Applying the (see Fig. 9-47). Depending on the degree of connectedness, the
ID#3 algorithm to the design database will point out inconsisten- number of required connections can grow at an exponential rate
cies as well as adherence to standards. For example: a design with the number of neurodes. Thus, even a simple character-
database that indicates that identifying neural network can consume large amounts of mem-
ory. For example: a network is to identify characters and numbers
If working_fluid = acid randomly presented on a 10 by 10 grid. The output layer consists
Then material = PVC
may also indicate that
If working~uid = acid
Then material = glass Input layer Hidden layer Oulpai layer
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CHAPTER 9
APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DFM
of one neurode for each possible outcome (that is, a, b, c, . z and Neural networks (also called connectionist systems) have been
O, 1, 2, . . . 9). Thus, there are 100 input neurodes and 36 output tried on a large number of applications. As with their predeces-
neurodes. Researchers have learned that as a rule of thumb the sors, called perceptions, m wild claims are made all too
number of neurodes in the hidden layer should approximately frequently .6] Just howsuccessful theapproach will prove to be in
equal the average of the number of neurodes in the input layer and the long run remains to be seen. In the interim, there is little
the output layer. In this case that average is (100 + 36)/2 = 68. controversy concerning the ability of neural networks to perform
Thus, there are a total of 204 neurodes requiring approximately extraordhmry feats of pattern matching and recognition. Pattern
40,000 connections. To double the acuity of the system and matching by neural networks can prove extremely useful in
provide a 20 by 20 grid, this number climbs to over 400,000 reducing product complexity and cost while increasing reliability,
connections. At a practical level, this means that the day when a customer satisfaction, etc. This is because of thenetworks unique
neural network system will be able to look at the CAD image ability to identify vague patterns contained in large volumes
of a part and evaluate its manufacturability is a long way off. Such of data.
a capability would require more than 1,000,000,000,000 The value to DFM of a neural networks ability to extract
connections. patterns is best explained by demonstration. A company has
Numeric data can be presented to the network in the form of collected design information for a large number of products. Some
continuous values along a near inflnitc range. The ability to of the information that has been collected includes: number of
attenuate neurodes automatically was one of the most challenging operations, number of transportations, number of fasteners, num-
problems faced by earlier researchers. However, the function, ber of parts, number of orientations, and volume. In addition,
Output = 1/(1 + e-) produced the desired result (see Fig. 9-48). information has been collected concerning unit cost, percent
Small changes in the input (net) create large changes in the output
as the function approaches one (see Table 9-15). TABLE 9-15
Understanding the behavior of the output function is critical to Output of a Neural Network Transfer Function that
developing successful neural network applications. Specifically, Incorporates Automatic Attenuation
data that is normalized about the origin will be more amenable to
identification by the network. Conversely, multimodal data will be Output = 1/(1 + e) Net
difficult for a neural network to work with. For example: raw data
for processing temperatures cluster about 1,470 F (800 C), 0.0000453 10.0
2,190 F (1 ,200 C), and 2,620 F (1,440 C) (see Fig. 9-49). The 0.0066928 5.0
normalized data would cause the network to be exceptionally 0.2689414 1 .0
sensitive to changes around the 2,190 F ( 1,200 C) range. 0.3775406 4.5
However, changes about the 1,470 F (800 C) and 2,620 F 0.4013123 4.4
(1 ,440 C) points would elicit only small changes in the output 0.4255574 43.3
function. Thus, if all three modes represent important conditions, 0.4501660 -0.2
the data would have to be separated, into low temperature, 0.4750208 +.1
medium temperature, and high temperature processing groups. 0.5000000 0.0
The neural network would then measure the normalized degree of 0.5249791 0.1
membership in each group rather than the normalized data. 0.5498340 0.2
After that brief discussion of the behavior of neural networks as 0.5744425 0.3
pattern matching devices, the fundamental question returns: 0.5986876 0.4
What is DFM as applied to a particular product line? The 0.6224593 0.5
generalized guidelines presented throughout this handbook, by 0.7310585 1.0
definition, do not offer specific advice. Furthermore, a rule that 0.9933071 5.0
works quite well in general might be disastrous when applied to 0.9999546 10.0
a specific product line. Neural networks may offer some relief.
Outpd
10
05
0 Net
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CHAPTER 9
APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DFM
defective, and throughput. Some of the data is shown in tabular This simple rule will force a review of the types of fasteners
form in Table 9-16. In addition to this data, it is determined that and the conditions under which they are used. For example, to
it will be easier to interpret the results of the data if a single determine if numberoffiasteners = reduced the user will
variable called manufacturability is created. Here manufactur- have to evaluate the operating conditions. Similarly, evaluating
ability is a weighted value derived from cost, percent defective, Type_of_fastener = standard will require the development of
and throughput. rules for recognizing standardized fasteners. Once the basic DFM
The output of a neural network that has been trained on this rules have been captured, specific user applications, such as
data would appear similar to Figs. 9-50a and 9-50b. In Fig. 9-50a, training, diagnostics, advising, and review, can be targeted.
the number of fasteners is varied over the range 1 to 100 while all
of the other input values are held constant and the number of parts Training
is set equal to 10. In Fig. 9-50b, the number of fasteners is If a DFM program is to succeed, everyone in the organization
increased to 25. needs to understand the principles as they apply to the business.
Expert systems are superb training tools. For example, an expla-
nation clause attached to each rule delineates why that role is
SUGGESTIONS FOR DFM EXPERT SYSTEM necessmy. In addition, once an expert system arrives at a conclu-
APPLICATIONS sion, the rules it used to reach that conclusion can be returned by
There are endless opportunities for applying expert systems to asking the system how? Thus, personnel can learn both
a DFM effort. However, the best starting point is to capture the individual DFM rules and the way these roles relate to one
basic DFM rules outlined throughout this handbook in the form of another.
a tutorial systcm. For this type of information both forward and
backward chaining will work equally well. As the system grows, Diagnostics
there should be a trend away from the general and toward the more Unfortunately, not every design will work as intended. How-
specific. For example: start with the simple DFM rule Reduce ever, designers and field engineers are sure to have learned
the number of fasteners. In expert system form the role would be tricks over time that seem to fix the problem. This is an ideal
situation for the application of adductive rules.
If No_of_fasteners = reduced and
Type_of_fastener = standard
Design Review
Then FastenersaeetDFM_Std = yes
With the integration of DFM there will probably be a large
Explanation The large numbers of fasteners should be re- number of new design rules imposed on the design and manufac-
placed by smaller numbers of fasteners that are stronger. These turing engineers. They are likely to forget the new rules and fall
new fasteners should be standardized so that they can be used into comfortable old design habits that have served them well for
on many other products. years. An expert system is an ideal way to review designs. The
TABLE 9-16
Partial Listing of Design Data
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CHAPTER 9
APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DFM
Number of I&teners
Number of fosteners
I
F]g. 9-50 Manufacturability patterns extractsd by a neurat network.
system will only ask the designer relevant questions, and it will Search for Conflicts in Design Rules
ask those questions privately without threatening the designers Induction systems cannot work if the sample data contains
ego. Furthermore, there is the hidden benefit of standardization of conflicts. Therefore, the induction system can serve as a powerful
approach. That is, every designer will adhere to the same set of method for reviewing past designs for consistency.
rules for better or for worse. Thus, if something goes either very
right or very wrong, it will be much easier to identify a possible
source of the change.
Design Advisor
The same type of expert system that might be used for design SUGGESTIONS FOR DFM NEURAL
review might also be employed as a design advisor. In this NETWORK APPLICATIONS
capacity, an expert system can be written to provide advice such as Neural networks provide an excellent method for identifying
Due to expected vibration, you should use metal fastener and predicting outcome based on extremely complex interactions.
number 225. They also provide a method for capturing and evaluating symbolic
concepts. Just a few of the interactions that might be explored
Search for Standardization include input, such as number of components, number of fasten-
An expert system that is designed to search for standardization ers, materials used, or vendor, and outputs such as ease of
opportunities can be developd by establishing use rules that assembly, assembly time, mean time to failure, mean time to
aPPIYto each item that might be used on a number of products. service, etc.
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CHAPTER 9
REFERENCES
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CHAPTERlO
HUMAN FACTORS
ISSUES IN
NATURE OF DESIGN GUIDELINES The early decisions, although few, are of dispro- PRODUCT
The product design process is characterized by a portionately great importance in determining manu- DESIGN 10-65
steadily increasing rate of decision makhg, starting facturing cost. They define the fundamental architec-
t a minimal level at the beginning of the concept ture of the product and how it will be manufactured, DESIGN FOR
including its basic form and configuration, the ma- SERVICEABILITY
stage and culminating with the first product shipment.
1&67
DESIGN CIRTERIA
FOR PRODUCT
AND PACKAGE
10-70
The Contributors of this chapter are: Carol E. Bancro& Advisory Engineer, CIM Technology Center, IBM;
Robert G. Campbell, P. E., President, Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Inc. and Associate Professor of
Engineering, Harper College; Patrlcla Card, Vice President, Juliard Associates; Dave Engemann, Instructor, Kirtfand SUPPLIER
CERTIFICATION
Community College; Katrlna FahIin, Supervisor, Incoming Packaging Supplies and IPC, Dorsey Laboratories/
10-72
Sandoz Pharmaceuticals; Ronald W. Garrett, Ph. D., P. E., Associate Professor of Engineering, Grand Valley State
University; Pierre Juliard, President, Juliard Associates; Anii Mital, Ph. D., P.E., Director, Ergonomics and
Engineering Controls Research Laboratories, University of Cincinnati; Dr. Ivan E. Morse, Head, Designing for
Manufacturability Group, University of Cincinnati; Rick fVoller, Director, Polymer Solutions; Pom Plumaomboon,
Ph. D., Vice President, CIM Systems, Inc.; Rick Purcell, Navy BMP Representative, Department of the Navy,
Washington, D. C.; Edward S. Roth, P.E., CMfgE, President, Productivity Services, Inc.; Jose Manuel Sanchaz,
Ph. D., Professor, Centro de Inteligencia Artificial, Instituto Tecnologico y de Estudios Superiors de Monterrey,
Mexico; Ronald L. Sheffer, P.E., Engineering Manager, Hayes Machine Co., Inc.; James J. Smetsna, Manufacturing
Consultant, Schenectady, NY; Paul Welsh, Manufacturing Engineer, Hewlett-Packard,
The Rev/ewers for this chapter are: Lowell W. Foster, P.E., President and Director, Lowe// W. Foster
Associates, Inc.; Barry W. Haathcotte, CMfgE, President, Geometries Consulting; Dennis P. Karl, GDT Technical
Representative, Engineering Staff, Ford Motor Company; Don A. Lucca, Ph. D., Associate Professor, School of
Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, Oklahoma State University; Frank L. Lucca, Technical Section Head,
Microwave Division, Radar Systems Group, Hughes Aircraft Co.; John Phillips, Productivity Engineer, Avondale
Division, Hewlett-Packard; Clifford Terry, P. E., President, Linear Perspectives Inc.; Daniel J. Yovich, Professor of
Supervision, Manufacturing Engineering Technologies and Supervision, Purdue University Caiumet.
1o-1
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 10
IMPACT OF DESIGN CONCEPT AND EARLY PROJECT DECISIONS
terials and processes to be used (plastics, castings, stampings, Near the end of the design project, only the small detail
etc. ), technologies (semiconductor famil y, etc. ), key suppliers, decisions are practically accessible to change before the product is
and critical specifications. introduced.
In the later stages of the project, the decisions represent a sort of
filling in of the details around the fundamental decisions made Effect of First Shipment
early on. The final manufacturing cost is determined, to a large The instant the first unit of a product is shipped to a customer,
degree, very early in a projects life. an incremental additional loss in flexibility takes place. This has
nothing to do with the technical difficulty of undoing fundamental
COST COMMITMENT decisions as described earlien rather it is the result of constraints
Figure 10-1 shows how cost commitment accumulates over arising from service and marketing objectives.
time. ~isisnot actual cost; rather itisthe percentage oftotal cost This is best explained through an example. Printed circuit
committed to tbe design. boards in electronic products typically fit into a slot of a specific
At production release, less than 100% of the true final shape and size. If, intheprocess ofredesigning the circuit board,
manufacturing cost is established. The relatively small amount the shape is changed, other associated parts would have to be
remaining represents the cost changesreductions or increases changed to accommodate it. All of the changed parts would then
which take place over the production life of the product. Cost be incompatible with earlier versions of the product, and both old
changes may result from component changes, process improve- and new parts would have to be stocked to support the different
ments, design changes to solve quality problems, and so on. The versions of the same product. Tbe desire to avoid the resulting
step increase at the time of the first shipment is caused by service complexity and cost exerts great pressure to keep redesigned parts
and marketing issues and is explained in the next section. compatible with earlier versions of the product, regardless of the
loss of other benefits.
DESIGN FLEXIBILITY Market-oriented design parameters that may be effectively
The flexibility of adesign is affectedly several factors: how frozen include those which may define standards for interfaces to
long a design has been in production, events related to the first other products, accessories, or consumable items. Any changes
shipment of the product, and how the time line of the product is would obsolete the initial product, from the customers point of
affecting the process. view, because future releases of accessories or associated products
would be incompatible with the older design.
Decline of Flexibility
Design flexibility changes with time in roughly inverse pro- Decline of Process Flexibility
portion tothecost commitment (see Fig. 10-2). Each of the early It can be said that when aproduct is designed, the processes
architectural decisions, although potentially reversible, is a stone designed right along with it. Most ofaproducts design includes
inthefoundation of the instrument. Astheproject moves forward, manufacturing process specifications which become built-in along
additional decisions are made which build upon, and interlock with the design. Itisfairly obvious that hind-tooled part processes
with, the eadierdecisions. For this reason, each decision slowly (plastics, stampings, die castings, etc.) are very concretely imbed-
becomes less and less accessible to change, because the cost of ded into the product design. Not so obvious, however, is that this
delay and expense of reversing these buih-in and built-upon is also true of overhead m-ocesses. such as material schedulirw. -.
decisions become prohibitive. purchasing, warehousing: and order processing.
100% .
1
I
Percentage of I
final product cost
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
1
I
I
Time
Project phases: Concept
I Design I Protoiype
I Production
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CHAPTERlO
IMPACT OF DESIGN CONCEPT AND EARLY PROJECT DECISIONS
Flexibility
design
It follows, then, that a product design project presents an will be the sizes and shat)es? What materials will be used? What
opportunity, not available during the production of a product, for tolerances are required? Mat finishes will provide endurance and
improving manufacturing processes, procedures, and systems. appearance? Are there safety and environmental factors to be
Realization of this opportunity, however, depends on the cooper- considered?
ation of designers to satisfy the requirements of new manufactur-
ing processes. The all-important first step is an early agreement Manufacturing
between designers and the manufacturing department on design Manufacturing will receive from Engineering a set of prelim-
and process goals to satisfy these requirements. inary drawings to convey the product configuration. They must
HOW A DESIGN IS DETERMINED determine the form of raw material to be used, the processes
Such a design is determined by inputs from Marketing, Design required to finish each component part, the assembly methods to
Engineering, Manufacturing, Purchasing, Quality Control, and be used, and the packaging and shipping materials and methods,
Finance, as well as other functions as required. A proper blend of and provide warehousing.
these inputs will lead toward a product such as a paper clip or
ball-chain, where the product function is accomplished through the Purchasing
manufacturing process. Purchasing must provide information and suggestions as to
Many companies are organized vertically into groupings as whether to make or buy the various component parts. This will be
mentioned above. Look at what each function will contribute to determined by the quantity required and its availability in the
the design. marketplace. Some components may be standard items available
from a catalog. Others may be obtained from specialty manufac-
Marketing turers at a lower cost and higher quality than they can be made
Marketing must seek out and evaluate the needs of the in-house. Specialized technology and facilities may be available
customer and communicate them to the business. They must from vendors which can be utili~ed to enhance the product or
determine the size of the market (hundreds, thousands, or mil- lower the cost. Special agreements may be made regarding
lions), what function the product must accomplish, and at what quantity discounts, quality certification, just-in-time (JIT) deliv-
selling price. What does the competition offer? What is the desired ery, vendor-owned inventory, learning curves, shipping methods,
life of the product in terms of wear, breakage, or obsolescence? tariffs, and other terms and conditions.
Will the product be serviced or discarded? How much importance
will the customer place on reliability or performance? Should there
be features for adjustment or tuneup? What is the annual rate of
Quality Control
Quality Control must provide assurance that the customers
production and expected market share?
quality expectations are met to the fullest degree and at the lowest
Engineering overall cost. They must participate in all phases including predict-
With the product function definition from Marketing, Engi- ing customer complaints, final inspection and test failures, rework
neering must produce a design to meet these requirements. How and scrap costs, process controls, and inspection so that an overall
many models or styles are needed to meet the range of uses? What quality control plan can be made.
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CHAPTERlO
IMPACT OF DESIGN CONCEPT AND EARLY PROJECT DECISIONS
Finance Waste
The many activities of Marketing, Engineering, Manufactttr- Waste is any activity or consumption of materials or time
ing, Purchasing, and Quality Control will lead to decisions for which is not inherently required for the task of production. For
which costs should be assigned by the Finance or Accounting example, the waste of reworking defective parts may be necessmy
function. In accordance with established rules, they must deter- to keep a production line running, but it is not inherently
mine how design and development costs will be written off. Costs requiredthe product cotddbe manufactured without it.
for direct and indirect materials must be determined, as well as Much of thecost represented in Fig. 10-1 results from waste,
those for direct and indirect labor. Process costs for capital as shown in Fig. 10-3. As costs become committed, so does the
equipment, tooling, and services must be assigned. Inventory associated waste. Once committed, waste often becomes part of
costs for storage, handling, losses, spoilage, interest, and taxes the process andis very difficult to remove.
must be determined for raw, in-process, and finished goods The waste hidden in standard costs is more subtle than the
inventory. Other overhead costs must be assigned and a total visible waste of scrap and rework, and the difference between
manufacturing cost determined. what is necessary and what is wasteful is often not altogether clear.
For example, it has been only in the last 15 or 20 years, with the
CONCURRENT DESIGN implementation of just-in-time techniques, that companies have
With so many inputs from Marketing, Engineering, Manufac- discovered the wastefulness of large warehouses and expensive
turing including Shop Operations, purchasing, Quality Control, material handling equipment.
and Finance, there should be a plan and guidance to assure their Defects
presence, sequence, and timing. A critical path diagram with The defect rate may be the best available indicator of overall
schedules, budgets, and measurements would be appropriate. manufacturability, It is, in any case, the most obvious and costly
However, such a. formality might soon stifle ingenuity. While it is source of waste. The visible waste from defects includes the cost
obvious that certain inputs are needed to make the next decision, of scrapped parts, rework labor and material, and labor idled by
the various alternate conclusions of that decision might indicate defect-caused production shutdowns.
that a change in the inputs could lead to a better choice. For The waste that is visible is only a small part of the total. Every
example, five sizes might more closely satisfy customer needs defective part found in the factory results in costly hidden waste,
but the manufacturing problems generated would lead to a including:
conclusion that two sizes could satisfy a large percentage of the
market need at an overall lower cost. . Buyers and schedulers expediting delivery of parts to make
The creation of vertical organizational units is necessary to up for the loss caused by scrap.
assure the presence of all the inputs, but complicates the work Manufacturing engineers investigating the defects and rede-
toward an end result. A functional matrix or project team approach signing parts or processes to eliminate them.
seems to be a more effective organization. Material handlers moving defective parts and shipping them
The design engineer could well be the leader of such a project back to suppliers.
team, seeking inputs from Marketing, Manufacturing, purchasing, . Supervisors managing the various defect response activities.
Quality Control, Cost Accounting, and others at appropriate times. . Inspection and test labor, equipment, and space for defect
Since the inputs and conclusions derived may not always lead to screening.
the most cost-effective decisions without further discussions, . Extra inventory to reduce the risk that defects will disrupt
meetings would be necessary. Participation by other functions production.
such as Legal, Shop Operations, Safety, or Shipping should be . Additional floor space for storing and reworking defective
sought as needed. parts.
It maybe argued that defects occur because production workers
MANUFACTURING COST make mistakes, so designers cant be blamed for poor quality. But
A number of factors affect manufacturing costs: variances or it could also be argued, that most defects could have been avoided
deviations from standards, waste, defects, inspections and testing, if different processes, suppliers, and specifications had been
part costs, andnumerous overhead expenses. selected during product design.
Designers cant prevent defects from occurring, but they have
Variances the power to minimize the potential for defects. This can be done
Figure 10-1 is based on true manufacturing cost, which by:
includes variance expense as well as the standard costs of direct . Minimizing the number of ways that defects can occur.
labor, direct material, and overhead. Variance expense is used Specifying predictable and proven processes, parts, and
during the production phase to account for deviations from the suppliers.
standards caused by, for example, scrap and rework Matching specifications to the process capability.
(see Fig. 10-3).
One widely practiced strategy for minimizing the number of
Variances are not normally included in preproduction cost
ways defects can occur is foolproofing-designing parts so they
calculations because they are very specific to the product being
can be assembled only one way, for example. This is on]y one
designed and are considered to be unpredictable. But, aprepro-
aspect of the more general strategy of reducing complexity.
duction estimate of true manufacturing cost is always possible,
Simply stated: the fewer the variables that can go wrong, the fewer
using estimated variance expenses based on process capability
that will. The manufacturing variables affected by product design
information or current production process information.
include the total number OE
Variance expense is often a significant contributor to manufac-
turing cost, and its exclusion from the predicted cost calculation parts.
can be dangerously misleading. Process types.
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IMPACT OF DESIGN CONCEPT AND EARLY PROJECT DECISIONS
4 Visible
waste
Material variance
-i_QI-J }
-l=
Standard direct
materia I
~ Hidden
+1 Material waste
II waste
Process steps. suppliers and processes have been selected, performance specifi-
Specifications. cations have been set, and the basic architecture of the product has
Suppliers. been decided on.
product variations.
The advantages of low complexity go far beyond the reduction Inspection and Test
of defects, and include savings in overhead expense, easier Inspection and test can be non-value-added activities they
product repair, and lower part costs. may add nothing to the product being manufactured. The term
Defects occurring when tolerances are exceeded are called non-value-added does not necessarily imply not required, but it
variables defects and they can be controlled to any desired level certainly fits the dei-lnition of waste. Non-value-added activities
by requiring specifications to exceed the process capability by a involve workers, supervisors, and other support, and typically
designated amount. The Motorola Company has established a six offer fruitful areas for cost reduction.
sigma requirement for all new products. This means that the The degree of inspection and test required is determined by the
tolerances on all part specifications must meet or exceed six potential for defects. Since the defect potential is determined, to a
standard deviations of the measured process variation hefore the large degree, by design decisions, inspection and test requirements
product can be released for production. A six sigma tolerance will are largely determined by the product design.
result in a 3.4 ppm defect rate.
Practically speaking, six sigma can only be met by designing it Part Costs
in from the beginning Motorola isn t applying this standard to Customers pay for their suppliers waste in the form of higher
existing products. In fact, much of the defect potential is designed part costs. Suppliers must have the ability and commitment to
into a product before a first prototype is ever built. By that time, consistently produce defect-free parts, on time. Consistently
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IMPACT OF DESIGN CONCEPT AND EARLY PROJECT DECISIONS
supplying defect-free parts is not sufficient; they should also line on time. Their efficiency is further reduced by other, less
produce only defect-free parts to minimize the cost of waste. obvious, waste and this in turn creates a need for addhional
If a suppliers waste is due to specifications which exceed the staffing. The result is large, expensive purchasing and scheduling
process capability, either the specifications or the process must be departments.
changed. Even with an ideal supplier, the design specifications For example, many electronics companies in this country have
will determine the cost of parts and the potential for defects. The upwards of 100 different 1,000-ohm resistors in stock, with
specifications need to be developed within the context of process various tolerances, technologies, and power ratings. The number
capability, because once they are set, they will be very difficult could be reduced to five or ten without a sacrifice in cost or
to change. performance.
The number of different screws stocked in some companies
Overhead Expense may be in the hundreds, with various materials, thread types,
The elements of overhead waste are obscured by the traditional thread sizes, head styles, and lengths. The numbers could be
accounting practice of lumping expenses together and then allo- reduced by a factor of ten or more with no loss of capability.
cating them, typicallyon the basis of the direct labor distribution. Another aspect of complexity is the large number of unneces-
This practice encourages the view that overhead expense is sary suppliers serving many companies. In some cases this
essential y fixed or, at the least, not the responsibility of designers. resulted from the practice of forcing a stable of suppliers to bid
Although the hidden waste buried in overhead is often institu- against each other for the lowest prices. In many other cases,
tionalized and seems unchangeable, it is actually directly affected however, it was simply the result of not having supplier reduction
by product design, and becomes committed early in design as a stated goal. Extra effort is required to reduce the number of
projects the same as direct material and direct labor expense. suppliers, and designers cannot do it themselves. In recent yearn
designers and purchasing departments in some companies have
Purchasing and Scheduling worked together to dramatically reduce the number of suppliers.
Purchasing andscheduling will be affectedly stockouts from
late or defective raw material deliveries, and by the complexity of Inventory
the purchasing and scheduling departments themselves. The traditional calculation of the cost of inventoty includes the
Stockouts. If parts are not delivered on time, or are recognized occupancy cost of the floor space used, the cost of staffing to
as defective upon delivery, workers have nothing to do and labor manage it, and the cost of tbe capital used to purchase, or
is wasted. Extended delay smaybecharged toa variance account, manufacture, the inventoty. The actual cost can be much greater
and in that case the waste would be visible. than this, including: shrinkage from theft, damage, and miscounts;
Thewaste from part stockouts is frequently hidden, however. scrap caused by obsolescence or design changes; and costs
Labor may be inefficiently redirected during the stockout period associated with suppliers inventory which are passed on in the
or, if stockouts are frequent, the time is expediently lumped into form of higher part prices.
the labor standards. Buyers, engineers, andmanagers must expe- Inventory levels are not often thought of as being affected by
dite parts, devise design work-arounds and rearrange work sched- design decisions, but inventory requirements increase with the
ules. Extra expense may be incurred for overtime to make up for following, which are all determined by the product design:
thelost production time. Even worse, extended delay smay cause The total number of parts.
missed delivery commitments and unhappy customers. . The number of different parts.
It is easy to blame the buyer for late parts, but the buyer may The number of product variations.
made by designers early in the design process. The batch sizes of the suppliers processes.
For example, a supplier with poor production processes may The number of parts using declining technologies.
periodically (lose the process and not be able to supply parts for The part cycle times.
extended periods. Other suppliers may do a poor job of forecasting Product variations. The level of finished goods inventory
lead times. Or, a financially weak plastic molding company may (FGI) which must be maintained depends on the number of
declare bankruptcy and not only shut off the supply of parts but product variations. Since the order mix varies from day to day,
lock up the tools used to make them. each product variation requires an excess over the average inven-
Another design consequence, process complexity, can lead to tory to satisfy the maximum expected demand. The greater the
stockouts by stretching production lead times and complicating the number of product variations, the greater the excess inventory
materials management task. For example, a part that is produced required.
using the four-step process of sand casting, machining, painting, The FGI level required depends not only qxm the number of
and silkscreening may require up to four different suppliers. Each variations, but also on the way they are implemented. If the
supplier must schedule labor and equipment, then ship the com- product has been designed so that variations can be installed at the
pleted parts. Each process step stretches delivery times and injects point of sale or shortly before shipment, only the generic, not the
uncertainty into the delivery schedule for the completed parts. An configured, form of the product needs to be inventoried. For
improved design, which could fulfill the same function using example, many electronic products are designed to operate on all
simpler processes, might consist of a machined part with a plastic line voltages so they can be stocked in generic form. They are
cover in place of the ilnished casting. This solution replaces one configured just before shipment by throwing a switch to select the
finished part with two parts, but it has the advantage of replacing correct voltage, and by dropping the appropriate line cord
one four-step serial process with two one-step parallel processes into the box.
and, thus, simplifies the material management process. Batch size. Designs may specify processes which require the
Complexity. The time used by buyers and schedulers to batch production of parts. The larger the batches for economical
manage the problems of defects, stockouts, and long lead times processing, the larger the average level of inventory. Suppliers
detracts from their primary task of getting parts to the production will often try to satisfy their customers demands for lower
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IMPACT OF DESIGN CONCEPT AND EARLY PROJECT DECISIONS
inventory levels by storing the parts and sending frequent small In the second case, cure time is ten times the assembly time and
shipments. But the waste of inventory hasn t been eliminated, it the downstream worker must wait until the adhesive has cured
has just been hidden in supplier costs. before picking up the assembly. The cycle time is now eleven
Lifetime buys. When parts are discontinued by suppliers, times the assembly time, and the WIP consists of ten assemblies,
often the only option available is to make a lifetime bu y to each waiting for the adhesive to cure.
maintain production and provide spare parts for customer support.
The size of the lifetime buy will be based on an imperfect estimate
of total future demand, so at some time in the future either excess
parts will be scrapped or the supply of parts will be exhausted, Material Handling and Warehousing
with unpredictable damage 10 business objectives. Most compa- There are several other issues related to material handling and
nies will act conservative y, by purchasing excess inventory, and warehousing that the designer may not consider but should: how a
this material will sit in inventory, slowly depleting, over the component is packaged by a supplier or vendor, nonstandard
production and support life of the product. routings it may take on the plant floor, and how to handle it if it
Parts are discontinued by suppliers for many different reasons is difficult-to-handle.
but the most important ones are: Component packaging. The design and specification of sup-
plier packaging is an important, if frequently neglected, part of
The technology is obsolete.
designing a product. It is usually left up to suppliers because they
. The volume is low because competing products offer know the parts better than anyone else. Unfortunately, experience
better value. has shown that many suppliers pay little more attention to
. The supp]ier has decided to refocus his business away from
packaging than their customers do. Even when they do, it is the
the product or technology represented. rare supplier who will take the initiative to determine the special
Obsolescence occurs frequently in the electronics industry packaging needs of his customers.
where the technology evolves very fast. Parts incorporating Poor packaging can result in damaged parts, and packages
declining technologies are often familiar to designers and are which are obviously weak or damaged force warehouse workers to
inexpensive, thus the temptation to use them in new designs. modify their procedures by providing special handling care. For
Trends in technology are usually apparent, though, and declining example, workers may repackage parts or isolate them to prevent
technologies are usually avoidable. further damage.
When a supplier discontinues a part because of competition, it Detrashing is the process of removing parts from non-
is not a problem for his customers indeed it may be an oppor- reusable packaging and placing them where they are accessible to
tunity, if the competitors product is 1:1 compatible. When it is assembly workers. This can be labor intensive, and the extra
not, the customer is faced either with a lifetime buy or redesign of handling of parts may result in damage. The resulting trash takes
the product to adapt to the new part. Even if the product is up valuable floor space and disposal must be paid for.
redesigned, a large buy of parts to cover the redesign period will Strong, reusable packaging will solve this problem if it can be
still be required. easily returned to the supplier. Another solution is to arrange with
Parts at risk of discontinuance for competitive reasons can suppliers to package their parts in materials which can be used to
often be identified by investigating the financial health of the ship the finished product. In one case, the packaging for molded
manufacturer and by visiting the factory to evaluate its processes. plastic instrument enclosures is saved and used to package the
Of course, a thorough evaluation of the part performance will finished product, complete with internal cushioning and external
expose any deficiencies compared to competitors parts. printing.
It may seem that there is no way to predict shifts in supplier If neither of these alternatives is possible, packaging can still
business objectives which would result in discontinued parts, but be designed so that it is easily opened and offers a good
there are usually signs, including: presentation to the assembly worker. Extra part handling is
avoided because the opened carton serves as a supply bin for the
. The totrd volume and price are low so the revenue is low.
assembly worker.
The supplier will lose little if the part is discontinued.
Obviously, designers must draw on the help of manufacturing
. The part represents a fringe part of the suppliers
process engineers and others to optimize packaging for produc-
overall business.
tion. But the package specification is a component of the part
The part is unprofitable or troublesome in other ways.
specification and is thus the designers responsibility.
. The supplier was recently bought out by another company or
Nonstandard routings. Typical batch process shops, such as
has undergone a major restructuring. This is an additional
machine shops and printed circuit assembly shops, manufacture
risk factor if at least one of the other factors is present.
parts by moving in-process material from machine to machine
Cycle time. The process time required to produce a part is its until all necessary operations have been performed. Any sequence
cycle time. This may or may not include lead time, which includes of machines and processes may be specitled, with the flow of parts
nonprocess time such as the wait in production schedule queues. being controlled by routing documents. This flexibility is very
For example, the cycle time for producing an assembly of two convenient for designers but results in scheduling difficulties,
parts, ghted together, includes the labor time to pick up the parts extra floor-space requirements, defects from missed operations,
and apply the adhesive plus the time it takes for the adhesive to set. long cycle times, and extra material handling for the shop.
Inventory increases with cycle time and the reason can be The paths of material movement in such a shop connect almost
illustrated by examining two cases of the previous example. In the every machine to every other, resulting in great material move-
first case, a fast-cure adhesive is used so the assembly is available ment distances for parts as they cross the shop from machine
to a downstream worker as soon as the assembly task is done. The to machine.
cycle time is equal to the assembly time, and the work in process There is a prefemed sequence of operations in every shop based
(WIP) inventory of the finished assembly is essentially zero. on the ease with which one operation can follow another. For
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IMPACT OF DESIGN CONCEPT AND EARLY PROJECT DECISIONS
example, holes should be punched in sheet metal parts before they It could be argued that systems should be made more flexible
are folded. If all parts were designed to follow this preferred to allow the maximum in design flexibility, or that living with the
standard routing, the machines in the shop could be arranged in workarounds is worth the benefits of designs which are incompat-
the sequence of the standard routing. Not only would the material ible with materials systems. But if designers are aware of the
flow paths be shortened, but the routing document could be limitations of product structures, designs can usually be made
retired, defects from missing operations would decline, and compatible without sacrificing product objectives.
machine scheduling would be simplified. Order management. The total number of product variations
Diff]cult-to-handle parts. Material handling costs, and per- grows exponentially with the number of different options, and can
haps part damage, will be greater for parts which are difficult to reach into the millions for some products. The greater the number
handle. They may be delicate and subject to damage, awkward to of variations, as well as restrictions and interactions between
handle, or excessively heavy, Material handling problems can be options, the greater the complexity of ordering and
particularly acute when difficult parts must be moved long building a product.
distances, such as between supplier sites or even across the factory Complexity can quickly overwhelm customers, salespeople,
floor. Special packaging may be required which, in itself, requires and factory order processors. Ambiguous and unbuildable orders
additional handling. can reach the production floor resulting in confusion, partially
The difficult-to-handle aspect of parts is often established in the built units waiting for change orders, rework, and dissatisfied
concept stage of a design. The functions of delicate parts can often customers.
be integrated into other, more robust, parts if the problem is Systems have been developed which can screen orders for
identiflled early enough. Or, a protective carrier can be de- validity and even aid salespeople in configuring products. Proba-
signed which accompanies the part through the process to protect bly the best known is the XCON (eXpert Configure) expert
it but becomes a nonfunctional part of the final product. system developed for the Digital Equipment Company and used by
Awkward or heavy parts can sometimes be broken into two salespeople to configure its VAX computers and peripherals, and
manageable parts which come together in the final assembly. even design hardware layouts. It reportedly costs DEC approxi-
mately $1 million per year to support XCON but it undoubtedly
Manufacturing Engineering saves many times that in production costs and customer support.
Many of the activities of manufacturing engineers are directed The basic architecture of a product determines its ordering
toward reacting to problems, particularly defects, stemming from complexity and therefore the costs associated with bad orders and
decisions made by the original product designers. Poor, unclear, supporting computerized configuration systems. Bad orders result
or incomplete specifications are responsible for a majority of these in visible waste. Order screening and configuring systems result in
problems. Manufacturing engineers must change either the design the waste of non-value-added activities. The latter may be re-
or the process to reconcile the design specifications with the quired, as it undoubtedly is for DEC, but perhaps the costs of
process capability. supporting XCON could have been lower with a different product
Problems are not always defect-related. Parts discontinued by a architecture.
supplier may require a lifetime buy if manufacturing engineers
cant find a way to avoid it. They will look for a substitute part, TECHNOLOGY OF THE PROJECT
and if one cant be found they will try to design out the AND TECHNIQUES
discontinued part. At the beginning, verbal communication with reports and
Engineering changes on a released product almost always result minutes of meetings will suffice. As soon as possible, sketches
in a more expensive product than if the problem was solved in the should be utilized. When available, a computer-aided design
original design, and the engineering effort required is probably (CAD) system can be used to create a database and compare to
greater. The reason is the lack of design flexibility available. The existing standards and constraints. At this time, considerable
manufacturing engineer must design within all of the constraints interaction will occur, Since this interaction is likely to be
established by the original designers, butt ypically cannot consider concentrated between limited numbers of the DFM team they
fundamental architectural changes which might ease the should be frequent and informal with only those involved present.
constraints. Tentative decisions can be made regarding aspects beyond the
responsibility of those present, and reviewed later by the experts.
Manufacturing Systems This will keep things moving and aid in spontaneity and creativity.
Two factors which can affect design are product structure and Models should be made at an early point to improve visualiza-
order management. tion. A CAD terminal with 3D graphics and solid modeling can
Product structure. The product structure is the materials serve many of these needs.
management computer system representation of a products mate- A designer may enhance product design and part configuration
rial list. It describes the relationships between product variations through simplification, standardization, combination or elimina-
and the required parts and assemblies. The product structure is tion of parts, raw material selection, and process selection.
used whenever materials planning or inventory calculations are
necessmy. Simplify
Product structures are typically not flexible enough to represent The most elegant design is usually the simplest one.
every design that can be conceived by designers. The most Use the simplest shapes possible. Keep in mind the manufac-
difficult problems arise when the parts required by one option turing processes to be used. For example, use a rod or rectangular
depend on the other options of the finished product, Since product bar stock instead of machining a complex shape. If necessary, drill
structures do not contain if/then/eise branch capability, they a hole or machine a groove.
cannot represent such a product. In these cases, manufacturing Machine only where needed. If the machining does not
departments devise workarounds which take extra resources to contribute to the prime function, do not machine unless customer
manage and often result in inventory errors and stockouts. esthetics are required.
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IMPACT OF DESIGN CONCEPT AND EARLY PROJECT DECISIONS
Use bent sheet metal instead of a machined part. In many ber of parts. 2 Once the power ot this concept is appreciated, it is
applications, sheet metal can be cut and bent to perform the same not diftlcult to begin to imagine how this idea could be further
function as a machined part with only minimal machining. A extended. For example, having used a procedure to determine the
folded-back edge or ribs can provide stiffness. theoretical minimum number of parts for a particular design, the
Use fastenerless assembly. By addhrg grooves, notches, designer could begin searching for ways to eliminate the theoret-
holes, slots, tangs, and the like, parts can nest or slip together and ical reasons why a part should be separate. He or she could also
be crimped or staked at assembly without the use of fasteners. begin to question the number of extra parts needed to provide a
Use self-locating assembly. The use of chamfers, tapered or desired range of product variations, and seek innovative ways to
radiused ends, grooves, ribs, etc., will allow parts to self-align or reduce this number. With these possibilities in mind, consider the
come into position for assembly. following:
Relax tolerances. Critically examine all close tolerances, 1, In many designs, the product concept or technological
especially those requiring an extra operation, such as grinding, to approach determines the number of parts, Consider modi-
achieve. Proper clearances can often be achieved at assembly by fying the design or changing the technological approach to
an adjusting screw, a spacer, a bow spring, a slide and lock, or make the theoretical minimum number of parts as low as
doweling. possible.
Reverse assembly. Shapes of parts should be such that they
2. Determine the theoretical minimum number of parts for the
cannot be assembled incorrect] y. This will save costs of disassem- design. Seek innovative ways to eliminate the reasons why
bly and reassembly further along or at test. a part must be separate.
3. Reconsider alternative product concepts. Determine the
Standardize theoretical minimum number of parts for each concept.
There are a number of ways a designer can standardize parts. Consider adopting favorable aspects of alternative
Usecommercially available components. This is especially concepts.
important for fasteners, bearings, springs, gears, and similar parts. 4. Modify the design to reduce the number of extra parts
Further savings can be gained by selecting a widely used, high needed to provide a desired range of product/model
quantity produced component. Its life and reliability is already variations.
established and high quantity production will lower the cost. 5. Check all parts for function and modify the design to
Minimize sizes. This is especially valuable foxholes, charrr- eliminate redundant parts.
fers, radii, grooves, slots, bolts, keys, and hardware. Tool and 6. Seek ways to modify the design to eliminate those parts
hardware inventories can bereduced andquantity discounts made which do not need to be separate for theoretical reasons.
by Purchasing.
Robustness assessment. Quality can be defined as consistent
Standard parts. Parts, such as brackets, gussets, ends, or
conformance to design intent. Robust design, or design which
mountings, while not commercial or catalog parts, can be results in a product which is tolerant of variation and change that
standardized.
is, which consistently conforms to design intent in spite of external
Multifunction parts. Examine thedesignto see if parts can
and internal noise therefore results, by definition, in a high
serve additional functions such as balance or rigidity. Acover can
quality product. This idea indicates that a great opportunity for
be a SUpport for devices or bearings; a device housing can provide
quality enhancement exists through proper assessment of the
structural integrity for an assembly.
robustness of a product concept and process plan in the early
Family of parts. Where parts perform similar functions but are
stages of design. With this in mind, the following robustness
needed in various sizes, such as housings or covers, a common
assessment procedure is suggested:
design can be made larger or smaller by cutting or adding, or even
customized at machining. 1, Evaluate the robustness of the proposed product concept
Separate variables. Isolate special requirements, such as and process plan with respect to the following principle
precision, noise or electrical insulation, air or liquid leakproofing, questions:
and vibration dampening so that they can be accommodated at How might the product change over time? How might
their source.
market or customer needs change? How would the
product design be affected by these changes?
Combine or Eliminate How might the process plan or production technology
A designer may eliminate or combine more than just parts; change over time? What effect would these changes
finishes, special features, <make-from parts, numerous opera- have on the product design?
tions at one station, and parts that could be interconnected or What product or model variations are planned? How
joined are all candidates to be considered also. does the productiprocess concept accommodate these
Parts. Examine all parts that are rigidly fastened together to variations? What new variations could be introduced in
see if they can be made as one. the future? How would these changes impact the product
The designer should keep in mind however, that while design design and process plan?
for manufacturability (DFM) suggests that the number of parts What normal manufacturing variations can be expected?
should be reduced and that more functionality should be incorpo- How will these variations affect product performance
rated into one part. this idea could cause problems for a low- and other benefhs?
volume product. It reduces the number of standard parts and leads What extreme or major changes in manufacturing con-
toward custom parts. ditions could occur? How would such changes affect
Minimum part assessment. One of the most important con- product performance and other benefits?
cepts embodied in design for assembly methods (such as . What outer noise will the product or process be sub-
Boothroyd-Dewhurst) is the idea of a theoretical minimum num- jected to? What will be the effect?
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IMPACT OF DESIGN CONCEPT AND EARLY PROJECT DECISIONS
. What inner noise (functional variation due to deteriora- and interlaid in the same ratio as needed for final assemblies.
tion and variation between product units) will the prod- Spacers, washers, bracket parts, gussets, and supports can be
uct and process be subjected to? What will be the effect? provided by this means. This will not only more fully utilize the
2. Analyze the results of the evaluation and formulate a sheet or plate, but will cut the remaining skeleton into smaller
strategy for reducing or eliminating the undesirable effects pieces for easier disposition.
of variation and change identified. An axiomatic approach Near net shape. The raw material should be acquired or
can be particularly useful. modified as near to the final shape as practical considering further
3. Improve the product design and process plan according to processing operations. For example, a shaft with a flange or hub at
the strategy adopted and re-analyze. Iterate until satisfied. one end can be made from bar stock with a hot upset-forged end
of adequate diameter and thickness. A funnel-shaped part can be
In using the robustness assessment, the analyst should attempt
expanded from tubing or spun from a disk. Rotary forging can
to answer each question in as much detail as possible, given the
shape tubing to variable diameters and wall thicknesses. Expand-
product and process definition available. If the product design and
ing or bulging can provide variable-diameter parts. Flanges can be
process plan are fairly complete, then the assessment will help
rolled on cylindrical parts.
identify vuhrerabilities to variation and change. If the product/
Machining can be reduced by using precision or semi-precision
process concept is less well developed, then the assessment will
castings rather than rough sand castings. Lost-wax or styrofoam
help define design direction and goals.
patterns can be used to make intricate-shaped castings. Styrofoam
Finishes. Question the need for a special finish, especially
patterns glued together from standard modules and hot-wire cut
plating, regarding its necessity and whether the need can be pro-
pieces can provide an extensive variety of parts.
vided by a less costly means.
Precision forgings can reduce machining. These can be made in
Special features. Special needs can be provided by inserts,
several operations by conventional means or in one operation by
attachments, or processing, such as a wear-strip instead of harden-
high energy impact forging. Thinwall parts can be formed with
ing, injecting plastic to seal joints, pressure treating castings to
only a female die and pressure from an enclosed rubber bag or
seal porosity, bushings or inserts in soft materials, stiffeners or tips
an enclosed explosion.
attached, or insulation applied by dipping or adhesive.
Utilizing near net shapes means that manufacturers do not have
Make-from parts. Where assemblies have common type
to pay once for excess material and then pay again for its removal.
parts, such as shafts or end-housings, a basic part can be designed
Pre-finished material. Material is readily available with
in such a way that it can be used for all special models or slightly
plating, painting, coatings, and textures applied. This can lead to
altered for customized models.
lower costs, added variety, and a shorter manufacturing cycle.
Complete all operations in one setup. Considerable savings
can be made if all machining can be done in one setup, such as in
a numerically controlled machining center. The part design may
need to be modified so that machining is required on only five of
the six sides, leaving the sixth side for attachment to the machine Process Selection
table. Process selection is usually done by Manufacturing with
Interconnected or strip parts. Parts can often be designed so Engineering concurrence, and is typically along the lines of the
they can be made in interconnected strips and cut apart as the last type of equipment currently in the shop. Such a selection is
operation. This is especial] y the case with sheet metal or wire parts sufficient to provide a base cost. Most shops take pride in their
made on a multislide or wire-forming machine. It is also possible equipment, processes, and know-how. They may be centers of
to insert or fasten other parts by feeding them into the machine as excellence, at the forefront of available technology. The use of
the parts are made for automatic assembly. specialty manufacturers or procurement of advanced technology
equipment for the shop will often lead to a lower cost. Discussions
with machine tool and process equipment suppliers will provide
Raw Material Selection information, so that comparisons can be made to determine
Factors which influence a designers selection of a particular whether the purchase of new equipment can be financially
material include its type, form, utilization, ability to be machined justified.
or formed to near-net shape, and prefinishing. Creativity and broad latitude should be utilized in searching for
Type. Metal, plastic, or composite materials with remarkable new processing equipment to lower tbe cost versus conventional
properties can be utilized. The cost of the base material as well as processes.
further processing costs can be considerably reduced by judicious The cost comparisons should take into account all service and
choices. The easiest to process material should be selected relative support functions and materials. For example, a computer numer-
to first cost. Combinations, such as a metal piece molded into a ically controlled (CNC) machine, an electron-beam welder, or
plastic part, can lower costs. plastic molding machine may require hiring and training of
Form. Castings, forgings, weldments, bar, sheet, extrusions, personnel, or purchase of outside support expertise. Some pro-
powdered metal, upset, swaged, coined, and other forms of raw cesses generate hazardous fumes or wastes, and the cost of proper
material can make lower cost parts, depending upon quantity or disposition must be taken into account. Such challenges should not
special properties required. Material utilization and subsequent inhibit the selection so long as they are properly considered.
processing costs can be saved. Timing may dictate that available processes or specialty man-
Utilization. Parts to be made from sheet or plate material can ufacturers be used until advanced technology processes can be
be nested or interlaid so that a maximum number of parts can be made available in the shop.
made from one piece of raw material. The outline shape may need Process equipment may be thought of in terms of shape
to be modified or various other parts selected to more completely generation, tolerance achievement, joining or assembly, and
fill the area. Fill-in parts may need to be made thicker or thinner finishing. The basic processes have been available for many years,
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CHAPTERlO
IMPACT OF DESIGN CONCEPT AND EARLY PROJECT DECISIONS
but recent developments in materials, tooling, drives, and controls assembly time. The advantage of using a robot with one less
have led to many refinements and the incorporation of other degree of freedom will only be achieved, however, when 1007.
features including part handling equipment such as conveyors, uniaxis assembly is accomplished. If even one part is inserted from
robots, and programmed vehicles. a different direction, the robot will need the extra degree of
Shape generation. Base material is usually provided by freedom.
casting, molding, or extruding to various degrees of precision. It Uniaxis assembly has similar advantages in manual operations.
is then altered through (1) forming, such as forging, rolling, One is that tbe assembler does less bending, resulting in a process
swaging, coining, upsetting, bending; (2) removal, such as ma- that is less physically tiring as well as faster.
chining, elcctro-etching, clectro-erosion, or cutting by blade, Uniaxis assembly eliminates some of the advantages of hard
flame or laser; or (3) addition, such as weld deposit. automation, Hard tooling usually costs more than soft tooling
Tolerance achievement. Hopefully, the desired tolerance will because the hard tools have to be custom-made for each product.
be achieved in the initial shape-changing process. Processes such Addhg to the cost is the fact that hard tools generally cannot be
as grinding, honing, shaving, and reaming may be utilized to reused for a different product. This fact also adds to the risk of
achieve the desired accuracy. This often adds significantly to the hard tooling. If demand for the product should stop unexpectedly,
cost, so it should be used judiciously. the investment in hard tooling will be lost. It might also be lost
Joining or assembly. After elimination or combination of when switching to a new-generation product.
parts, the remainder will be joined or assembled. Where relative Hard tooling justifies its existence by reducing assembly time.
motion, clearance, isolation, or access is not required, the parts It is able to accomplish this by doing many things simultaneously.
may be joined by adhesives, welding, or fasteners. These pro- This parallel action can be facilitated best by designing the product
cesses are available from very simple to very sophisticated. The so that operations can be done at the same time indifferent sides.
very sophisticated can often enhance the product or eliminate the If a product is designed so that uniaxis assembly is the only
need for preliminary processing. possibility, space constraints above the product will limit hard
Ideally, designers would like to reduce the number of assembly toolings parallel activity. For example, a hard tool can easily
steps. Keep in mind though that sometimes it is easier to add insert two parts on a subassembly, The insertion mechanism is
several simple steps than one complicated one. duplicated on opposite sides of the work area. However, if uniaxis
Assembly can be accomplished manually (where people per- assembly is used, there may not be room on top of the subassem-
form the assembly tasks), by soft automation (reprogrammable blyfor two insertion mechanisms. One part would replaced, the
robots), or hard automation (specially designed machines). As insertion mechanism moved, and the second part placed. This
mentioned earlier, considerations in design configuration can more that doubles the time required.
contribute to the ease of assembly. In order to take advantage of the investment in hard tooling, the
Manual vs. robotic assembly. The option to use manual product must be designed to allow operations on all sides and not
assembly may not seem as attractive as using automation because designed foruniaxis assembly. Uniaxis assembly doesnot serve as
assemblers are unlikely to have the power or expertise to facilitate general arrde as DFM implies.
design changes. However, manual assembly has an edge when it Finishing. Product function, life, and appearance requirements
comes to making small process changes after production has can be met by various finishing processes. These may be met by
begun. Assembly workers are involved with the process on a daily abrasive, plating, painting, or coating processes.
basis. They can see the problems and the easiest way to solve Abrasive finishing can be used to remove burrs and provide a
them, providing continuous process improvement. smooth surface. Abrasive behs, buffing, ortumbling can be used.
In manual assembly, the human usually must be able to see Protective coatings may also reincorporated in the process.
what is being worked on. The tactile sense of an operator is not as Plating is sometimes necessary for surface protection or to
good as the visual sense. Therefore, a hole that something has to impart certain properties such as low friction or electrical conduc-
be inserted into should not be hidden from view. On the other tivity. The process is very expensive in direct costs for process
hand, a robot does not care if the hole can be seen. It only cares equipment, material, power, and part handling, as well as indirect
that the hole is in the same place every time. costs for process control and hazardous fume and waste disposal.
Robots have a much more difficult time with compliance than Painting is used for various product appearance and protection
humans. Assemblers can use their visual skills to adjust for an needs. Direct costs for equipment, material, and labor may be
incorrectly located hole. A basic noncompliant robot cannot adjust quite low, but indirect costs for cleanup and fume and waste
when it encounters this condition. If a basic robot is used for disposal shotdd not be overlooked.
assembly, tight location tolerances must be applied to the design. A wide variety of oxide, chemical, and plastic coatings are
Uniaxis assembly. Onc of the primary rules of DFM is to available for special requirements. Sometimes elaborate equip-
design for uniaxis assembly where all of the parts are placed on the ment, process expertise, and quality control measures are
base from the same direction. In many cases, uniaxis assembly is necessary.
an excellent DFM technique to apply. However, in some situa- Certain materials, such as aluminum, brass, plastics, orpre-
tions, such as for hard automation, applying this technique will finished materials, may reduce finishing requirements and prove to
hurt the manufacturability of the product. be very cost-effective.
There are various reasons for uniaxis assembly. In a robotic Packaging, warehousing, and shipping. The basic product
application, one less degree of freedom is required because the design should include methods for properly protecting and pre-
robot inserts parts onto the subassembly from one direction, This serving the product at the lowest cost, While these items do not
results in a less expensive robot and in a shorter assembly time contribute directly tothecustomers satisfaction with the product,
because the robot has fewer motions to accomplish. The robots they are an added cost and any failure can cause dissatisfaction.
work area is smaller, allowing parts to be placed closer to the The fragility of the product should be carefully examined so that
subassembly The shorter distance traveled by the robot also expensive packaging, warehousing, andshipping measures are not
results in reduced floor space requirements and a decrease in required. This can also prolong the products useful life.
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CHAPTERlO
IMPACT OF DESIGN CONCEPT AND EARLY PROJECT DECISIONS
DESIGN PROCESS ELEMENTS have not normally been expected to produce extremely accurate
Every design project, even the most traditional, follows some results, especially in the manufacturing business where many vari-
process aimed at manufacturability, however misguided or inad- ables were accepted as being stochastic. In fact, models can actoafly
equate with respect to current thinking. Most are probably not provide better answers than limited full-safe testing for that very
formally defined or documented, but each probably consists of reason. Models can take into account the statistics of processes, while
some combination of the following six elements: full-scale tes~ represent, at best, limited samples.
Design for assembly. The Boothroyd-Dewhurst and GE/
. Design guidelines and objectives. Hitachi assembly evaluation methodologies have become popular
. Modeling and simulation.
as design aids, because they offer the means to quantitate the
Informal design reviews.
assembleability of product designs. Both are oriented toward
. Design tools and CAD.
optimizing automatic assembly, but they are also applicable to
Formal design reviews.
products which will be assembled manually.
. Manufacturing test.
A common misconception is that physical parts are required to
Theconceptual curves in Fig. 10-4 areplots ofcost reduction perform an assembleability analysis; drawings and even concep-
potential (CRP) versus project phase for each of the six process tual sketches are sufficient. If hardware were required, much of
elements. Asilhrstrated, there isavery specific period when each the opportunity to use these techniques would be lost. The factors
process element is effective in reducing cost. For example, design which most greatly affect the evaluation scores, and therefore the
guidelines and objectives are most applicable in the concept stage, assembleabilities of products, are determined very early in design
and their impact declines quickly. This does not mean that while flexibility is available.
guidelines and objectives are ignored later in the project; it means For example, a design which requires mounting a part to the
they must be applied during the concept stage to impact the project bottom of a product with four screws would be heavily penalized
costguidelines and objectives have very little influence if for the motions required to install it. But such a mounting location
introduced to designers in the middle of a project. would typically be dictated by the fundamental architecture of the
Process elements which are effective early in a project have product and would likely be very difficult to change significantly
higher peaks in Fig. 10-4 than those whose effectiveness comes in the later stages of a project.
later. The reason is apparent when Figs. 10-1 and 10-2 are Production models. A number of software packages are
superimposed on Fig. 10-4. Design guidelines and objectives have available which can be used to simulate production lines including
the maximum impact on cost because they are at their most labor, cycle times, and material queue sizes. These tools are well
effective early in projects when designers have the flexibility to known and are typically used by production people to optimize
apply them. Manufacturing test reaches itspeakeffectiveness later production-line layouts for products which have already
in projects and it has much less impact on manufacturing cost since been designed.
design flexibility has dropped. A less common use is as a product design aid. These models
can provide a measure of the overhead waste a product will be
responsible for, by predicting the inventory levels, floor space,
Design Guidelines and Objectives material flow paths, and cycle times that will result from the
Design guidelines and objectives consist of all of the formal
design. Since the models can usually be quickly programmed, the
and infomlal strategies, goals, recommended parts and suppliers,
first simulation can be run as early as the concept phase of the
process recommendations, and design rules related to manufactur-
project. The results can be compared against goals to help direct
ing that designers are asked to follow,
efforts toward reducing design and process complexity.
In traditional organizations, design guidelines and objectives
Defect model. If manufacturability and reliability, in the form
may include no more than suggested fabricated part tolerances,
of reduced defects, are to be designed into new products, a way is
design manuals, and lists of design rules. But design guidelines
needed to predict defect rates early in a project when designers
and objectives should not be rules imposed by the manufacturing
have the flexibility to change theu designs. The defect model
department; they should be developed in parallel with the product
approach uses process capability and design specifications to do
concept, in negotiations between the manufacturing and design
this. Actual defect data cannot be used because it will not be
departments. The lowest manufacturing costs are attained when
available until well after the product is in production. Even data
the product and process are designed in unison and, based on Fig.
gathered from prototype parts is not available soon enough, and is
10-1, that must be done mostly in the concept phase. During this
of little value because of the small sample size.
period, new processes can be identified for development in parallel
Defect models are constructed by starting with an assembly
with the product. At the least, better matches between new designs
sequence diagram for a specific product which shows each part,
and existing processes will result.
each process step, and their sequence of occurrence. Characteristic
process capability data is then added for each part and process
Modeling and Simulation step. Finally, the defect status following each process is calcu-
Models are mathematical representations of cause and effect lated, and noted, at the appropriate places on the diagram.
among the variables of real systems. They are used to simulate the The term process capability as used here has a looser
outputs of the modeled systems in response to various inputs. The meaning than the formal definition often used for machined parts,
motivation for developing and using models is that the responses and its nature will differ with the different processes used in
of systems to wide ranges of variables can be tested very quickly manufacturing.
and cheaply. Manufacturing models can thus be used to optimize For attributes defects, the process capability is simply the
critical design and process variables during the concept phase, characteristic process yield, derived directly from existing process
before they become irreversibly committed to the design. information. For example, the defect rate for hand-loading printed
The accuracy, and therefore the complexity, required of a circuit board components is about the same for all boards and can
model is largely a matter of the question to be answered. Models be measured on existing production boards.
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CHAPTERlO
IMPACT OF DESIGN CONCEPT AND EARLY PROJECT DECISIONS
c
R
P
c
R
P
c
R
P
Time
c
R
P Formal desjgn reviews
c
R
P Manufacturing test
Time
Proiect
phases I Concept I Design
I Prototype I Production
I
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTERlO
IMPACT OF DESIGN CONCEPT AND EARLY PROJECT DECISIONS
For processes that produce variables defects, such as machin- is mutual respect, the process will be virtually automatic. Manu-
ing, the characteristic process yield is derived from the process facturing will listen to, and participate in, design discussions and
capability index: will see the latest hardware as soon as it is available. Designers
Upper spec - Lower spec will ask for manufacturing advice and make process suggestions.
Process capability index = (1) Most importantly, the interchanges take place under conditions
Natural tolerance
which are optimum for understanding and acceptance.
The numerator represents the design specification and the Design Tools and CAD
denominator the process characteristic. Natural tolerances are In recent years, with the proliferation of engineering worksta-
measures of how tightly variables can be controlled and are tions, design rules are being included in CAD software. Depar-
defined as + 3 standard deviations of the process variation. Since tures from good practice are flagged before a designer commits a
the natural tolerance is a characteristic of the process, not the lot of time to a particular design, so designs stay within the design
design, data can be gathered from existing processes for use in rules. Good examples of this are the printed circuit layout systems
the model. which are now in fairly widespread use. Design rules for conduc-
Defect models are used to manage the information necessary in tor spacings and other parameters, as well as libraries of preferred
following a standard four-step approach to improvement: parts, are included.
1. Establish a benchmark model by mapping existing process
Formal Design Reviews
capability onto a first proposal for the design.
Formal design reviews are generally conducted as formal
2. Establish a defect budget model containing defect goals.
meetings with specific objectives and with all vested interests
3. Measure progress with a defect forecast model.
represented. These meetings deal with the specifics of designs, so
4. Take corrective action if the forecast exceeds the budget.
are generally conducted after a fair amount of design and prototype
Go to step 3.
building has already taken place. As Fig. 10-4 shows, formal
The benchmark is used as a basis for establishing defect goals. design reviews have less impact on final manufacturing cost than
Any new design should certainly be expected to at least match the several other design process elements which are applied earlier in
benchmark level of defects because it can be achieved without any projects. They are, nonetheless, still useful and necessary took.
process or design improvement at all. Formal design reviews and manufacturing tests are used in
Defect goals are represented by a defect budget model which is conjunction, by Manufacturing, to find potential problems and
used to allocate certain numbers of defects to each assembly and opportunities for incremental improvements. For example, one
each designer. A single overall project goal number is useful as a approach that has been used successfully with fabricated parts
starting point in developing the defect budget, but it is not includes the following steps:
sufficient by itself for managing improvement. Detailed goals
1. Design reviewReview drawings for ambiguities, missing
assignable to individual designers, as provided by the defect
information, difficult or expensive operations, etc.
budget, arenecessary toensure ownership for final results.
2. Manufacturing test After the designer has made the
Taguchi analysis. The Taguchi method is named after a
corrections indicated in the previous step, the part is
Japanese engineer, Dr. Genichi Taguchi, who developed it. The
manufactured using production (not model shop)
essence of the method is to desensitize designs to the effects of
processes.
variations. This can result in manufacturing advantages by allow-
3. Design review Measure parts, note any defects. Discuss
ing looser manufacturing tolerances without sacrificing product
desi~n and process problems and oppo~unities. Manufac-
function or reliability.
turing and designers negotiate changes, Go to step 2.
The first step is to identify the controlling factors which affect
product performance or reliability. Then, statistically designed Manufacturing Test
experiments are performed todetennine the effect on the product Any manufacturing operation performed using the production
performance of varying values of the factors. Finally, the factor process is called a manufacturing test. For example, if a machined
values selected for the design are those which are the least part is hand made by a toolmaker in a model shop, it is not a
sensitive to variation. Because of the lower sensitivity to variation, manufacturing test. However, if the part is made on an automatic
tolerances can be widened. production machine similar to what is used in production, it is a
manufacturing test. Another example of a manufacturing test is the
Informal Design Reviews pilot run which presages production in many companies. It tests
An informal design review is any informal design discussion the complete manufacturing process including fabrication, assem-
that takes place between a designer and someone from manufac- bly, purchasing, and material scheduling.
turing. These encounters allow Manufacturing to influence the Manufacturing test is most effective when designers take an
design of the product, and designers to influence manufacturing active role in the test. For example, they can watch parts being
processes, before they become irreversibly committed. machined or printed circuit boards being loaded with components
The process of design is iterative; designers share infomlation, and soldered. Potential problems can often be spotted by the
discuss alternatives, modify designs, and often compromise with designers, and designed out. All parts should he thoroughly
their fellow designers. Informal design reviews are Manufactur- inspected and tested, to detect any defects and obtain a measure of
ings opportunity to participate in this give-and-take. It is in this process variation.
venue that a sense of priority of the various manufacturing goals is There is a school of thought that says the more times a design
conveyed to the designers, and the design guidelines and objec- is turned (manufactured, then modified to correct problems),
tives are interpreted and evolved. the more manufacturable it will be. This concept of quick turns
The best way to facilitate informal design reviews is to sit is applied by producing a series of prototypes in very low volumes
designers and Manufacturing personnel in close proximity. If there in equally spaced time increments. This is in contract to the
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CHAPTERlO
IMPACT OF DESIGN CONCEPT AND EARLY PROJECT DECISIONS
more traditional approach of manufacturing one or two large ing, and Quality Control will provide incoming material and parts
batches of prototypes at scheduled milestones. The final number of inspection plus preshipment inspection and performance testing of
prototypes will be the same in either case, but designers will have the product. Quafity Control will also provide a quality plan for
had more opportunities to identify problems using quick turns. packaging, warehousing, and shipping to assure that the product
In traditional companies, manufacturing tests provide the reaches the customer without damage. The customer will be the
manufacturing departments first exposure to new products and final judge of the overall result and express any dissatisfaction
their only opportunity to improve manufacturability. This follows with complaints, but don t expect the customer to perform final
a tacit belief that test-fix-test is the best way to make a product inspection and test.
manufacturable. But manufacturing tests can do little more than Quality Control should measure the effectiveness of the system
expose overt problems. They cannot find subtle problems of by a joint effort with Accounting, to accumulate and periodically
variation, because sample sizes can never be large enough to report on the costs for complaints, scrap, rework, inspection, test,
detect them. Manufacturing tests are important, but they are only process controls, and quality planning. These should be diligently
one piece of an overall DFM strategy. reviewed by operating management to assure that complaint costs
are held to a minimum, with reasonable costs in the other areas.
Scrap and rework costs should be minimized with reasonable
Manufacturing Influence on Design expenditures for process controls.
Of the six design for manufacturability process elements, only
the first threedesign guidelines and objectives, modeling and
simulation, and informal design reviews can have a major
impact on fkral manufacturing cost. They are applied before much CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT
design flexibility is lost and, most important, they influence the Design for manufacturability projects can be utilized for
creative side of the design process. On] y through innovation can improvement of existing products as well as for newly designed
major, fundamental cost reductions be attained. products. Products to be selected for continuous improvement are
The fourth element, design tools, is preemptive. These tools identified when the product needs to be improved or enhanced,
prevent mistakes and save the cost and delay of problems arising scrap or rework costs are high, new processes become available,
later. But, of course, they cannot contribute to creative design. or the present manufacturing cost needs to be reduced.
Formal design reviews and manufacturing tests are used for The same team members from the various functions should
flushing out problems. They are important for identifying needed be utilized and the previously mentioned techniques
process improvements and design oversights. They are applied can be employed.
very late, when there is not much design or process flexibilityy, so For example, a conventional casting can be replaced by a
they have little effect on fundamental design. Occasionally, precision casting to gain the benefits of near net shape. Or product
though, projects are reset when large numbers of serious problems improvements can be made by replacing a conve~tional casting
are discovered in manufacturing tests, causing a return to the with a forging, extrusion, or fabricated part. A cylindrical part
concept phase. with extensive machining requirements can be replaced by one
One consequence of the fast increase of cost commitment and made from thinwalled material with the various convolutions,
decline of design and process flexibility is the fast decline of DFM ledges, or flanges rolled, bulged, expanded, or pressure formed.
opportunities. Traditional] y managed projects do not invite man- Parts with excessive wear can be hard-surfaced by weld deposit,
ufacturing participation until very late in the project, usually in the spraying, or bombardment to implant a hard material.
manufacturing test stage, leaving scant opportunity for manufac- Other previously mentioned techniques can be applied, such as
turing to contribute to the design. It is not surprising, then, that the combining two or more parts into one, using a bushing or threaded
old <throw it over the wall method of releasing products to the insert, or utilizing a commercial y available part. A fertile field to
manufacturing department produced such poor results. The lack of investigate is the use of specialty manufacturers to supply a part
design and process flexibility available after products are in previously made in-house. These specialty manufacturers often
production also explains why cost reduction programs mounted by have technologies and equipment that can enhance the perfor-
manufacturing departments are not often successful manufactur- mance or life of a product or lower its cost.
ing engineers can only chip away at the edges of designs and A study of the existing product line can often identify families
processes at this point. of similar parts that can be more economically produced in a
An American company invented the video recorder but Japa- manufacturing cell or a versatile CNC machine. The application of
nese manufacturers made it into a low cost, high volume, group technology and part classification techniques can aid in this
consumer product. The y didn t do it simply by cost-reducing the study as well as eliminate the need to design a new part if a similar
American design; they changed the design fundamentally, devel- existing part can be modified to meet the need. A CAD/CAM
oped new processes in parallel with the design project, and system can be utilized for this.
employed DFM techniques from the beginning. Where there is a suggestion plan, a cost reduction team, or a
manufacturing loss analysis system, ideas can be identified for
continuous improvement, Factory worker involvement is very
QUALITY CONTROL important.
During the design phase, Quality Control will make a plan to It should be noted how important process changes are in
assure that the quality features desired by the customer are maintaining a competitive advantage. A competitor can always
provided. This will include working with the product designer on reverse-engineer a product and discover the innovations that took
performance and life testing. Quality Control will work with a long time to develop. It is not as easy for a competitor to discover
Manufacturing to provide process control measures and inspection the innovations that are used in production. The product will be
operations to assure minimal scrap and rework or even zero particularly difficult to copy if the innovations continue to improve
defects. A joint effort by Engineering, Manufacturing, Purchas- the process,
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CHAPTERlO
EVALUATING MANUFACTURABILITY OF CONCEPTUAL DESIGNS
EVALUATING MANUFACTURABILITY OF
CONCEPTUAL DESIGNS
One particular design concept may require different manufac- detail for the evaluation be established so that the information
turing processes than another design concept, even though either required is complete and the results are of acceptable accuracy.
can define a product with equivalent features and functions. A Virtually all manufacturing businesses maintain manufacturing
variety of different types of machines can be used to accomplish standards records; however, much of this data is in a condition
identical manufacturing operations. In the evaluation of manufac- which requires a significant undertaking to transform it into
tunability of a product design, it is critical that the proper level of electronic form. It is logical to take advantage of this commonality
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CHAPTER 10
EVALUATING MANUFACTURABILITY OF CONCEPTUAL DESIGNS
of manufacturing standards across various industries. Fortunately, of a different material? Are separable parts necessary for manu-
a suitable generic database of manufacturing standards is available factoring ordisassembly operations orrepair? However, it is also
and presents an opportunity to deploy data based on manufacturing important to establish whether fewer parts are really better.
standards which reflect several decades of development. The classical viewpoint in estimating manufacturing operation
One novel feature of this technique is that it can be applied to time has been as the machine, tooling, and personnel see it. This
evaluate manufacturability of a design concept. It provides a way approach requires that detailed information must be known about
to evaluate manufacturability without having firm information on theproduction conditions (the machine to beused, the tooling, the
specific equipment, tooling, or annual production. The use of annual volume) before an estimate of manufacturability will be
direct operation time as an indicator of manufacturability is a meaningful. Conventional wisdom says that production conditions
straightforward approach to conducting a comprehensive manu- must be identified in detail for a manufacturability evaluation to be
facturability evaluation. An important characteristic of this method valid. The process-level approach challenges that supposition. The
is that when the basic approach does not involve enough detail, the feasibility of this approach was based on research conducted at the
analysis can be enhanced again and again until an acceptable level University of Cincinnati. 3
of sophistication is reached without requiring a repeat of the
complete evaluation. The Process-level Approach
The process-level approach describes the interrelationship be-
tween a product design and its manufacturability. Tradhional
INTRODUCTION
manufacturing standards estimating procedures are created using
Design for manufacturability is frequently describcdasdefin-
external viewpoint based on the capabilities of machines,
ing a product design in a way which makes it easier to manufac-
~i~tures, and operators. This is a perspective established by the
ture. In evaluating the manufacturability of a given product
characteristics of the manufacturing resources necessary to achieve
design, therequired manufacturing processes must be specified in
the required manufacturing operations.
a more effective way. Historically, industry practices have been
The process-level viewpoint is an internal one based on the
either to delay examining manufacturability until the design is
requirements of the product which is to have a manufidcturing
detailed and released for production, or to focus on evaluating the
operation performed upon it. It has, at its foundation, the expected
feasibility of manufacturing a new product design by utilizing
amount of effort required to perform a given value-added manu-
design reviews, with little time spent on optimization. Evaluation
facturing operation. As an example, if a hole is drilled in a steel
of manufacturability often occurs too late in the development of a
plate, the plate requires a baseline amount of time and energy
new product to have much impact on the design concept. When
expenditure to successful y accomplish the desired result. This
preparing for production of a new product, or an existing one
where major changes are to be made, many production problems internal viewpoint is the basis for the process-level approach.
This approach implies that intrinsically the material and the
can be eliminated or minimized if care is taken in specifying the
manufacturing process dictate the nominal energy and time re-
new design. The earlier this is accomplished, the better.
quired to perform value-added manufacturing operations. It exam-
Today, identical manufacturing operations can be performed
ines whether estimates based on traditionally generated manufac-
on a variety of types of machines. When a conceptual design is
turing standards represent a level of detail that is greater than that
being developed, little isknown about thematerials and processes
necessary to evahrate the manufacturability of conceptual product
to be used in production of the product. Frequently, it is not known
designs. A conceptual product design can be characterized by
which equipment, or even which manufacturing plant, will be used
nominal dimensions, general material selection, and approximate
for production. An approach based on the process-level viewpoint
tolerances. In contrast, a detailed design may be described by
can greatly simplify theevaluation ofmanufacturabilityof a given
definitive specifications for material grade, tolerances, finishes,
product design. This approach shows how individual machine
and heat treated surfaces,
operations have characteristics related to the general manufactur-
ing process utilized, and that their attributes are not strictly based
on the type of manufacturing equipment employed. Approaching the Problem of
During the period when the conceptual design is being de- Manufacturability Rating
scribed graphically, certain guidelines can be followed to help the The purpose of a DFM evaluation is to specify a product design
designer to specify thedesign in away that will make it easier to and its required manufacturing processes in ways that yield the
manufacture. This includes asking questions such as: best combination of product performance, unit cost, and delivery
. Have trade-offs in raw material form and cost of in-house requirements. Most product design decisions are based on whether
the design meets minimum functional requirements, while most
operations been examined?
manufacturing decisions are based on the economics of the
. Have the number of machining directions been minimized?
situation. The Manufacturability Rating Technique Baseline
. Have trade-offs in setup time and unit cost been optimized?
(MRTB) can be used to compare alternative product design
. Have &ade-offs intooling cost andunit cost been optimized?
. Does the design include a stable base? concepts by indicating whether one design has better manufactur-
Have the number of assembly directions been minimized?
abilityy than others.
Although it has not been commonplace to date, the manufac-
. When appropriate, are the least number of parts used?
turability of different designs can be quantitatively evaluated based
Arecomponents rigid enough foranoperator to hold easily?
on the type of manufacturing process required. Naturally, each
. Are parts symmetrical, where possible?
type of manufacturing process has its own characteristics. In the
. Have loose fasteners been minimized?
approach presented here, a numerical indicator of manufacturabil-
Designing for the least number of parts involves testing the ityy for product designs was developed and defined. This approach
design against the following three questions: Does the part move is applicable to new design concepts as well as existing designs
relative to other parts during operation or service? Must the part be which are undergoing modification. The domain of this method is
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTERlO
EVALUATING MANUFACTURABILITY OF CONCEPTUAL DESIGNS
characterized by discrete products and defined manufacturing manufacturing conditions known at the time of evaluation. This
processes. This approach overcomes a significant problem in approach seeks to establish a more precise definition of manufac-
implementing new manufacturability evaluation took; that is, they turability of a product design.
tend to require extensive knowledge bases. Establishing new Four candidates are considered as indicators of manufactura-
databases is time-consuming and tedious, and increases the risk of bility. Each one builds onthe previous one andrequires informa-
gross error. tion of increasing detail. They are shown in increasing order of
MRTB can be used a second way through an Extended complexity as follows:
Analysis. The extended analysis should be used when specific
. The sum of the manufacturing operation time for vahte-
information is available on manufacturing conditions. The tech-
added processes.
nique presented uses a scale that can have units of time or money,
. Unit cost of manufacturing operations performed in-house.
depending on the availability of information. An important first
. Unit cost of in-house operations plus purchase parts.
step in understanding this methodology is to define how manufac-
. Fully burdened product cost like Cost of Goods Sold.
turability should be measured.
Each of these indicators has certain limitations, some of which
MEASUREMENT OF MANUFACTURABILITY are major. For instance, determining unit cost of manufacturing
One of the greatest problemsin the manufacturability area is operations requires knowledge oflabor rates andtooling cost. This
that of measurement.~ Current approaches to improving a prod- may be a nearly impossible task toaccomplish when anew design
ucts manufacturability have striking limitations. Techniques is still in the concept stage. For this reason, the most basic
which use manufacturability guidelines without acheckof valida- indicator of manufacturability manufacturing operation time to
tioncan produce misleading restrlts. They will sometimes support produce aproduct waschosen as the baseline. Themanufac-
conclusions which are divorced from important cost consider- turing operation time for all value-added processes is not only the
ations. To date, the issue of manufacturability measurement has basis for unit cost, butalso formanufacturing cycle time. Using
not been satisfactorily addressed. this indicator andthemanufactufing standmds from the American
A common description given to manufacturability is based on Machinist Cost Estimator (AMCE),5 a manufacturability evalua-
a phrase like ease of manufacture. A design which can be tion can be performed without having information about specific
manufactured more easily than another is said to have better manufacturing conditions such as equipment, tooling, or personnel
manufacturability. No generalized, quantitatively-based measure- to be used.
ment of manufacturability has been widely used.
Although there are various ways to rate manufacturability, THE MANUFACTURABILITY RATING
virtually all attempts to date are based on various types of personal
TECHNIQUEBASELINE
judgments concerning what is good practice. Many look only at
The purpose of the Manufacturability Rating Technique
isolated information, Iike ease of assembly. They commonly use
Baseline (MRTB) is to synthesize product engineering and man-
arbitrary zero to 10 or zero to 100 scales. These scales are often
ufacturing engineering functions relevant to manufacturability in
subjectively established and frequently contain personal opinions
order to identify a generic technique. This technique describes
about what is good and what is bad, and the degree of each.
functions which are common to all manufacturers of discrete
Dependence on subjective indicators also provides evaluations
products, and presents a means of assessing manufacturability of a
which are isolated and cannot be modified to include additional
design in the concept stage, The technique is adaptable to the
important factors such as differences in labor rates. They do not
addition of more detailed information as that information
provide inefficient way of linking theresult of themanufactura-
becomes known.
bility analysis to differences in inventory costs, machining time,
MRTB is shown graphically in Fig. 10-5. The first function
inspection time, etc. This means that more general economic
shown is the generation of the design concept, and the last is the
trade-offs cannot be examined without discarding results of an
release of a detailed design to production. Building blocks in this
initial effort and repeating the evaluation process.
figure are functions (F), databases (D), and decision logic (L). The
In the manufacturing arena, the economics of the chosen
important steps in the technique are:
manufacturing method are frequently critical. Without a system-
atic procedure based on an objective approach to rating the F-1: Generate conceptual designs. Market requirements
manufacturability of a design, a sub-optimal solution may be typically drive the initial design concept, with material
developed unnecessarily because important trade-offs were ig- properties serving as a controlling factor.
nored. However, there is an opportunity to quantify the measure- D-1: Material database. The materials are the vehicle for the
merit of manufacturability, andrate product designs with the same design. Their physical properties, including hardness, ma-
type of objectivity which is used to measure product performance. chinability, weldability, etc., affect manufacturability of
The nature of manufacturability assessment is that it has a the design.
heavy dependence on the cost considerations of the given manu- D-2: Conceptual design(s) definition. The geometric, sur-
facturing conditions. Furthermore, market demands cause wide face, and material parameters establish the conceptual de-
variations in the relative importance of unit cost, product avail- sign definition. The conceptual design is more simplified
ability, and product performance from one market segment to than the detailed design of a product. For instance, a
another. This could be interpreted to mean that each manufactur- conceptual design mayrefer toamaterialas steel without
ing environment should have a unique way of assessing manufac- specifying a particular grade.
turability. Although there are portions of the manufacturability L-1: Is product performance criteria met by the new design?
measurement and rating system that should be unique, evidence Classically, after a conceptual design is defined it is ana-
indicates that the problem of manufacturability measurement has a lyzed for performance. Although this can include the build-
solution that isatleast partially generic; itcanbe addressed by use ingofa prototype(s), itwillat least involve some analysis of
of a baseline measurement system readily adaptable to specific stress, dynamic response, thermal performance, or other
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CHAPTER 10
EVALUATING MANUFACTURABILITY OF CONCEPTUAL DESIGNS
D1
Market
8-EzJ-y-z
N f
12
Y Necessary 10
revise design?
O
N
F3
D4 Define
Detailed ~ final
design design
p~ Release to
production
important criteria. Designs which are believed to meet change. When alternate designs have approximate y the
required performance criteria can then be evaluated for same manufacturirw oDeration time for all value-added
manufacturability. processes, then the ~ele~tion of the best design probably
D-3: Manufacturing environment definition. When the exact will be made based on criteria other than manufacturability y.
manufacturing environment is known, then the characteris- D-4: Detailed design database. Contains the definition of the
tics of that environment are available for use in the evalua- version of the design which is released for production. This
tion. This includes equipment types, fixture costs, cost of includes detailed part drawings and assembly drawings, bill
labor, etc. More often today, the ultimate manufacturing of materials, and specifications for material type and grade,
location is not known at the time a conceptual design is heat treat, finish, tolerances, and testing.
being developed. This creates a need for representative F-3: Begin detail design. When the product engineers,
general data to be used. manufacturing engineers, and other participating personnel
F-2: Deter-mine the operations required by each design agree on the conceptual design definition, it bccomcs the
alternative. The manufacturability of each design is com- basis for the detailed desirer. The detailed design must be
puted. For a baseline evaluation, it is computed based on the reviewed and approved before it is released to production.
sum of the manufacturing operation times required to gen-
erate the features.
L-2: Is it necessary to revise design(s)? This is determined
based on results from the manufacturability evaluation. BASELINE EVALUATION OF
Since lower manufacturing operation times are desirable, the MANUFACTURABILITY
features which have the potential to contribute the most to Naturally, to execute this type of evaluation it is necessary to
high manufacturability should be examined first. Whether have at least generic iuforrnation on the important manufacturing
changes are made to the conceptual design may depend on processes to be employed. The outcome of the use of this
what can be accomplished in improving manufacturability technique is that each of the design alternatives will receive a
versus any loss in product performance caused by the comparative rating of the manufacturability early in the develop-
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTERlO
EVALUATING MANUFACTURABILITY OF CONCEPTUAL DESIGNS
ment stage. This procedure is applied to other design variations can be established subjectively and allow diverse manufacturing
until an acceptable level of manufacturability is found. performance measurements to be combined into one composite
The MRTB illustrates which method of manufacture produces variable. An example would be an organization which thinks that
the end product in the least amount of manufacturing operation it should value improvements in manufacturing cycle time as
time. If all other factors are equal, a design variation which can be equally important to improvements in manufacturing unit cost. In
manufactured in less time than the original design is also the that case, reductions in cycle time would have to be numerically
design that can be manufactured more quickly and cheaper. The linked to manufacturing cost so that they can be combined as one
goal of a manufacturability evaluation which uses this technique is variable. Typically, this is a linkage which compares dollars to
to improve manufacturability by minimizing total manufacturing dollars in order to maximize profits. A close examination would be
operation time. This approach is built upon the premise that expected to show that they should not carry exactly the same
minimizing that time will give the best manufacturability; how- weight; a detailed cost analysis is usually necessary to make sure
ever, in circumstances where that premise is suspect, major design that neither is disproportionately represented in the formula. This
decisions can be delayed until more definitive information analysis may even include projecting increased sales which would
is available. be realized if manufacturing cycle times were reduced.
Individual manufacturability evaluations can include the effects In considering one design alternative against another, the evaluator
of specific manufacturing conditions such as tooling, annual may or may not want to look at the results of the analysis described
volume, overhead costs, and other important factors. However, above as the only input. If the difference in the total manufacturing
these are included only to the extent that there is confidence in the operation times for the different designs is significant, it may be
data being supplied. When there are uncertainties relating to the possible to reject the alternative design(s) and not spend additional
accuracy of data on the specific manufacturing conditions, the time executing the evahration.
option of using the more generic data still exists.
The shortest manufacturing time is a very simple measure of APPLICABILITY
manufacturability and can be a good representation of manufac- The merits of recognizing noncritical design specifications and
turability when the per-hour costs of all manufacturing operations keeping them undefined in order to limit restrictions that could
are similar in magnitude. When alternate designs are compared, occur at later stages in the development of the design are shown in
the impact of the additional factors influencing the manufactura- Reference 6. There are a certain number of product design
bilityof theproduct often has anoffsetting effect. Inother words, parameters which are not critical to product performance but are
many factors like inventory cost, indirect labor expense, scrap and typically associated with any set of product specifications. Certain
rework, andothers may bethesame forseveral orallofthe design arbitrary factors, although not important initially, are very difficult
alternatives. Thus, the extra effort involved in assessing the to change once they become part of the design. The manufactur-
incremental cost of inventory, material moves, inspection, etc., ability indicator can be used to support the determination of the
from one design to another can often be avoided, and this powerful best combination of those arbitrary factors while in the conceptual
manufacturability evaluation technique can reutilized. design stage.
A recent study by British Aerospace showed that 85% of the
Extending the Evaluation final cost of a product can be traced to decisions made in the
After Approval of the Concept concept design stage. 7 If an indicator can be computed on-line, it
Frequently, the manufacturability indicator of choice will be will give the designer timely feedback concerning several design
total manufacturing time for all value-added processes. This is variations. Better designs can be created, because the manufactur-
especially true when short delivery times are required, when ability of a design can be used to affect arbitmy factors before
inventory carrying costs are high, and when per-hour cost of they become fii product specifications. This is achievable by
equipment and personnel is high. When the shortest manufacturing having feedback on manufacturability early in the development of
time is not a good representation, MRTB can provide a way of the design.
linking the result of the manufacturability evaluation to differences A great deal of the current manufacturability work is centered
in inventory costs, machining time, inspection time, etc., between on assembleability. Approaches like design for assembly can have
akemate designs. It allows economic trade-offs to be explored major limitations for use in evaluating the manufacturability of a
without refocus and repetition of an entire evaluation. Although complete product, because they often ignore important influences
additional effort will be required, the baseline becomes the on the manufacturability of the total product.
foundation of the extended analysis. The purpose of the MRTB is to evaluate the manufacturability
An extended version of the MRTB can be generated using the of a product design and the respective design alternatives early in
comparison of manufacturing times as a basis, when hourly costs the design process, even if a conceptual design is all that is
for manufacturing and assembly of parts are known. A manufac- available. This provides a means of objectively rating the manu-
turing unit cost can be found by applying the hourly rates, for each facturability of each design alternative. It is used in combination
type of manufacturing process and number of units required, to the with guidelines for improving manufacturability in order to
manufacturing operation time. achieve the best trade-off(s) between conflicting guidelines, such
Products and industries are sufficiently diverse that each as fewest parts versus simplest part design.
manufacturing enterprise needs to determine how it will establish The baseline technique for evaluating manufacturability applies
trade-offs in prioritizing product performance, manufacturing to a generic discrete product manufacturing environment. When
cycle time, and unit cost goals, based on the assessment of market using MRTB, the generic values of manufacturing operation time
requirements, financial goals, and product and manufacturing can be readily modified as better data becomes available.
characteristics. The MRTB does not require specialized manufacturing costs to
Many organizations will not want their definition of manufac- be generated in order to assess the manufacturability of a product
turability to be a simple result from calculating manufacturing time design. For example, if the annual volume of a proposed new
or cost. They may want to make use of weighting factors, which product or the specific manufacturing facility is unknown, the
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTERlO
EVALUATING MANUFACTURABILITY OF CONCEPTUAL DESIGNS
manufacturability evaluation can proceed without it. Therefore, also includes data on electronics, assembly, packaging, and heat
this approach creates a technique which considers conditions that treat. It is not oriented toward a particular company or industry.
are generally known at the time the manufacturability evaluation Specific manufacturing standards can be easily modified without
takes place. Conditions specified prior to production frequently are changing the general procedure.
not the actual production conditions. When additional information A sample calculation is provided to describe how the calcula-
is known about the particular manufacturing conditions annual tions were performed. Anadjustment factor isusedin cases such
production volumes, tooling costs, hourly rate, overhead ex- as the turning process where the transverse dimension is needed.
penses, etc.the evaluation can be extended to achieve a more Values from the tables were converted to hours per 100 parts
accurate comparison of manufacturability of alternate designs. For produced.
instance, when the annual volume of the product is known, more As an example, an actual part where engineering drawings and
accurate calculations of manufacturability can be made. process pians yielded the following information:
Like the equipment-level estimates, the manufacturing condi- . Materia] was leaded manganese silicon bronze.
tions for the process-level analysis were based on condhions in
. Turning diameter was 3.595 (91.31 mm) and the axial
place when the manufacturing operation time was measured. Use
dimension for turning was 2.3 (58 mm).
was made of manufacturing standards identified in American . Facing process starts at3,595(9l.3l mm)diameter and the
Machinist Co.Ft Estimator; it is frequently referenced by its
transverse dimension is 1.2 (30 mm).
abbreviation, M4CE.
Although there were similarities, each manufacturing process The method for manufacture of this part was to take workpiece
type analyzed had a unique set of steps necessary to complete an diameter, workpiece material, and type of cut from Table 10-1.8
estimate at the process level. The steps for creation of the process The material is a copper alloy; the next highest diameter found in
level data for each individual process are as follows: the table is four inches. The first cut is turning and the second is
facing. Both were treated as roughing cuts. This table yielded a
1. Lathe operations: lathe operations include turning, facing,
rate of 0.10 minutes per inch. This was multiplied by the
boring, and cylindrical chamfering. The parameters re-
transverse dimension of 2. 3 (58 mm) to get a process-level time
quired were workpiece diameter, transverse dimension,
estimate for this turning process. The facing sub-operation was
workpiece material, tool cutting material, and type of cut.
computed in a similar way. Manufacturing operation time in
The type of cut was designated as either roughing or
minutes per piece was converted to hours per 100 pieces. The sum
finishing. For turning cuts where multiple passes were
of the sub-operation times establishes the process-level manufac-
required, a 1/8 depth of cut was used. Chamfering is
turing operation time of 0.58 hours per 100 pieces, This gives the
labeled as a break edges process, and requires the
value process-level operation time. A manufacturing operation
number of outside diameters and inside diameters to
may be composed of one or more sub-operations. The following
be specified.
example is for turning and facing processes.
2. Drilling: sensitive drd]ing, reaming, and power drilling
requires hole diameter, hole depth, and workpiece mate- Part Number: 199021
rial. Countersinking requires the number of places where Operation Number: 615
the operation is to be performed and the depth of the Workpiece material: Copper alloy
countersink. Spotfacing requires workpiece diameter, First Sub-operation
depth, and workplace material. Process type: Turning
3. Milling: end, side, s&addle, and facemilling, andslotiing, Workpiece diameter: 4 (102 mm)
require that the workpiece material, transverse dimension, Transverse dimension: 2. 3 (58 mm)
and tool cutting material be identified. A cutter diameter Type of cut: Roughing
value of four inches wasused forall calculations involving Tool material: Carbide
face milling, side milling, and slot/straddle milling. For Table number: 10-1
end milling, acutter diameter of 1/8, 1/4, 1/2, or one inch Value from Table: 0.10
was available. The value closest to the size of the feature Operation Time(minutes/piece): 0.23
required was chosen. Second Sub-operation
4. Grinding: cylindrical plunge-grinding calculations require Process type: Facing
workplace diameter, transverse dimension, workplace ma- Workpiece diameter: 4 (102 mm)
terial, and depth of grind. For surface grinding, rotary table Transverse dimension: 1.2 (30 mm)
grinding data were used. Tbeseestimates required that the Type of cut: Roughing
magnitude of grinding area, depth of grind, workpiece Tool material: Carbide
material, grinding rate, and machine capacity be known. Table number: 10-1
Additionally, certain parameter values were specified and used Value from Table: 0.10
in all calculations. These were tool material, material grinding Operation Time(minutes/piece): 0.12
rate, and grinding horsepower. The available choices for cutting
Total Operation Time (minutes/piece): 0,35
tool material for lathe and milling operations are carbide or
Total Operation Time (hrs./ 100 pcs.): 0.58
high-speed steel.
The following data isusedduring the estimating process: part
number, operation number, operation time, and all AMCE input Augmenting Manufacturing Standards
parameters such as workpiece dimensions, workpiece material, The initial process-level estimates are generated based on
tool material, etc. industry average data which is not related to any specific manu-
The manufacturing standard data provided from ,4MCE can be facturing facility or type of equipment. These initial generic values
considered to be generic. In addition to machining operations, it can be considered as default values and are, therefore, used unless
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CHAPTERlO
EVALUATING MANUFACTURABILITY OF CONCEPTUAL DESIGNS
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CHAPTERlO
EVALUATING MANUFACTURABILITY OF CONCEPTUAL DESIGNS
values oriented to the specific manufacturing environment are . User skills required and user learning curve. One of the
available. For ongoing use in a facility whose manufacturing difficulties is defining where responsibility for the evahra-
characteristics are known, improvement in the accuracy of the tion of manufacturability should reside. Product designers
estimates is possible. often have limited manufacturing process skills. Process
Surface grinding was chosen as an example of the effectiveness engineers frequently have restricted insight into product
of augmenting the manufacturing standards. It was chosen due to performance issues. Any approach with a steep learning
its low correlation with the regression line for all points in the curve can form a ban-ier to entry for users, which can make
sample. For grinding estimates, the generic manufacturing stan- regular usage impractical.
dards were initially used for the process-level calculation of Response time per calculation. Response time required
manufacturing operation time. This was based on starting with a to execute manufacturability evaluation has a major influ-
material grinding rate of 10 horsepower per minute per cubic inch, ence on the feasibilityy. When the designer has timely
and the appropriate value of depth of grind for the specific feedback during concept design stage, not after, then better
operation. This information was used to get a value from Table designs are created.
10-2.9 That value was multiplied by the area to be ground, and
then divided by the machine capacity in horsepower. An arbitrary Scope and Limitations
value of 5 horsepower had been used for generating the initial This approach has broad application to discrete-product man-
process-level data. ufacturing industries such as consumer appliances, automotive,
In order to improve the accuracy of the results from the and assembled electronic products. However, the following state-
process-level estimating method for surface grinding, new param- ments clarify the important boundaries.
eter values were determined. This was accomplished using data To design products which are competitive in the market-
from the same manufacturing enterprise which were not otherwise
place, both the product performance and the way in which
used in this study. Based on this adjustment, the manufacturing
that product is manufactured are very important. This
operation time for surface grinding operations was re-calculated.
The approach described above avoids several of the most approach does not attempt to show how a manufacturability
rating should be combined with product performance char-
significant problems in the evaluation of manufacturability:
acteristics to create a generic, integrated parameter which
. Loading and updating a database. Users like to avoid the represents both. However, through use of the extended
extremely extensive effort of developing, loading, validat- analysis, this type of need can be readily addressed on a
ing, and maintaining a database. case-by-case basis.
TABLE 10-2
Rotary Table Grind
Material grinding rate, hp/cu in./min
Depth
of Grind 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 Add1 1
0.010 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 ().10 0.20 0.01
0.015 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.12 0.13 ().15 0.30 0.015
0.020 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 ().20 0.40 0.02
0.025 0.10 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.20 0.22 ().25 0.50 0.025
0.030 0.12 0.15 0.18 0.21 0.24 0.27 ().30 0,60 0.03
0.040 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32 0.36 ().40 0.80 0.04
0.050 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 ().50 1.00 0.05
0.060 0.24 0.30 0.36 0.42 0.48 0.54 0.60 1.20 0.06
0.070 0.28 0.35 0.42 0.49 0.56 0.63 ().70 1.40 0.07
0.080 0.32 0.40 0.48 0.56 0.64 0.72 ().80 1.60 0.08
0.090 0.36 0.45 0.54 0.63 0.72 0.81 0.90 1.80 0.09
0.100 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 I .00 2.00 0.10
0.125 0.50 0.63 0,75 0.87 1,00 1.12 1,25 2.50 0.13
0.150 0.60 0,75 0.90 1.05 1.20 1.35 1.50 3.00 0.15
0,175 0.70 0.88 1.05 1.27 1.40 1.57 1.75 3.50 0.18
0.200 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 4.00 0.20
0.250 1,00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.043 2.25 2.50 2.75 0.25
Add1 0.001 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.01 0.02
a Multiply table me by A/hp~ to obtain min.; A = sq. in. (Courtesy American Machinist)
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CHAPTERlO
PRODUCIBILITY
The level of detail of estimates created using this method The process-level approach has at its foundation the properties
ignores specific machining feed rates and cutting speed of the workpiece material and the nature of the corresponding
conditions, and does not consider specific grades of material manufacturing processes, This new approach is based on the
as specified by SAE/AISI numbering schemes. Rather, premise that each type of manufacturing operation has attributes
materials are anal yzed based on their general type, such as related to the general characteristics of the required manufacturing
low carbon steel, copper alloys, and aluminum. process and is not dependent on the specific machinery, tooling, or
Setup costs are not a part of the MRTB. This technique manufacturing technology employed. A numerical indicator of
provides a way for setup costs to be included by executing an manufacturability for product designs was developed and defined
extended analysis. Likewise, the costs of labor, purchased as the sum of the manufacturing operation times for value-added
parts, tooling, fixtures, gages, and other production ex- processes.
penses can be included in an evaluation of manufacturability With all the advantages realized in executing an extended
of a product using this technique. analysis, there are practical reasons why MRTB should be the first
No attempt has been made to examine the effect that scrap choice in a manufacturability evaluation. The problem of timing of
and rework considerations may have on manufacturability the activities required for manufacturability evaluation in new
evaluations. product development is significant. A quick evaluation of the
manufacturability of a design can provide valuable feedback. This
SUMMARY can help improve control of undesirable results due to design
Conducting evaluations from a broader perspective than is parameters which initially are arbitrary but become fixed as time
commonplace today has many advantages. It avoids several of the passes and the design solidifies. These arbitrary parameters can
most significant problems commonly found in the evaluation of ideally be specified to maximize manufacturability without sacri-
manufacturability: loading and updating a database, overcoming a ficing product performance. The process-level approach can be
significant user learning curve, and achieving acceptable response used early in the design process even if a conceptual design
time per calculation, definition is the only level of detail available.
PRODUCIBILITY
INTRODUCTION tion, and poor quality. Dealing with these problems has revealed
Nowadays, in the age of specialization, designers are becoming the importance of producibility. In recent years, attitudes have
proficient in product design. However, they are also becoming less begun to change. Many manufacturing companies are realizing the
familiar with available manufacturing capabilities. As a result, need for
new products are difficult to manufacture because of poor design, . A methodology to incorporate producibility into the product
costly production problems, and a constant issue of engineering development process.
change notices (ECN). In the last few years, several companies . An assessment tool for determining at the design stage
have been focusing more and more on those design issues that whether a product can be easily manufactured,
enhance product manufacturability. Obviously, design for manu- The goal of this section is to explore some of the factors that
facturability has become a major aspect in developing products
affect design and to discuss some quantifiable avenues for accurate
successfully. Producibility can be defined as a measure of the
prediction of producibility.
design-to-production capabilities of a product design. In other
words, producibilityy is a smooth transition from development to NEEDS ANALYSIS
production followed by an ongoing and uninterrupted produc- Consideration of manufacturing parameters and problems in
tion. ] Thus, the manufacturability of a product is affected by the design process is an excellent approach for reducing cost and
unsuitable product design characteristics that make difficult, if not increasing productivity. This is clearly illustrated in industry by
impossible, the transition from design to production. Over the substantial reductions in manufacturing costs, resulting from
years, several design and manufacturing guidelines have been performing producibility analyses during the design stage. J1 Too
developed to fill the functional gap between design and manufac- often the benefits of producibility analysis are realized too late. If
turing. However, it is not always easy for an inexperienced the product is already in production, the producibility issue is
designer to apply these guidelines to a product design. This complicated by tbe fact that investment is already committed to
suggests a need for a methodology that provides quantitative tooling, equipment, materials, and labor.
feedback on design manufacturability as early as possible in the A successful manufacturing company is one that can reduce
product development process. costs and respond on time to changes in market demands.
In the era preceding World War II, designers seldom worried However, in the effort to comply with these demands, design and
about how their design would have to be built. Manufacturing manufacturing engineers have ran into several mutual problems.
engineers accepted the new design and did their best to optimize its
production. Usually, manufacturing engineers tried to use inex- . The producibility implications of a product arc rarely con-
pensive parts and to maximize production capabilities as much as sidered during its design and development process, and
possible. Today, this typical style of operation causes many surface only as unexplainable bottom-line costs.
problems, such as high manufacturing costs, out of tolerance . Producibility analyses and evaluation are labor- and
conditions, special handling requirements, high risks in produc- expertise-intensive, and thus difficult to appreciate and
evaluate.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTERlO
PRODUCIBILITY
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 10
PRODUCIBILITY
Production Quantity and Quality requirements such as no tolerances less than 0.005 inches or
Producibility objectives, such as minimum production volumes minimize the use of screws, future producibility requirements
or required levels of product quality, can vary with respect to the and evaluations must include quantifiable metrics which can be
intended purpose of the design. A die casting process required for directly used in design tradeoff analysis. Only with quantifiable
low-vohsme prototypes is the result of a poor producible design measures can the designer, management, and manufacturing
choice, since die casting is rare] y used in production batches of adequately evaluate a designs producibility and its effects on
less than 100 items .2526In such cases, a machining process would other product development parameters.
be more appropriate. Similarly, requiring high levels of quality
can increase production cost and may not increase the functional
product performance. Appropriate quality levels or tight quality
specifications do not mean poor producibility if they are EVALUATION
properly justified. There are several DFM and producibility methodologies and
tools which can provide design and manufacturing engineers with
THE DESIGN-MATERIAL-PROCESS TRILOGY a better decision-making environment. Although they have been
While some publications2728 consider the material selection developed to meet the unique goals or needs of a specific group of
process as being separate from the manufacturing process selec- users, they can be used to accomplish a variety of producibility
tion, the reality is that the two are tied together by design process. actions including:
The design performance requirements drive the material selection . Comparison of competing designs.
process and influence the selection of the fabrication method. . Provision of managerial information (cost, schedule, risk,
Also, since each manufacturing process meets only selected design
quality, etc.).
specifications, the characteristics of the chosen material and the . Identification of cannot build situations.
design specifications will dictate the manufacturing process . Identification of areas of technical risk,
needed to fabricate the product. Figure 10-6 depicts this important . Optimization through design and process trade-off studies.
relationship.
The producibility goal should be to design products flexible Some of these are shown in Table 10-3.
enough so that many processes and materials may be used without The Boothroyd-Dewburst Design for Assembly method seeks
functionally degrading the final product. The optimum balance, to minimize assembly cost by first reducing the number of parts
however, would result from combining a great number of facts, and then ensuring that the remaining parts are easy to assemble.
some of which are not always available new material, properties, Simply speaking, the system concentrates its evaluation on the
equipment, availability, special labor skills, etc. ease with which component parts are handled and assembled, and
Just as product quality and reliability have been transformed whether a minimum oumber of parts has been used in the product.
over the years from a qualitative approach to rigorously applied Hitachis Assembleability Evaluation Method focuses on the
quantitative methodologies, producibility is also ready for a more difficulty of part insertion, the requirement of extra operations
quantifiable approach. Instead of generic qualitative producibility (that is, component reorientation), and part elimination. Using a
one-hundredth-base index, the methodology assesses the ease or
difficulty of component insertion, and does not consider compo-
nent handling. The system is not available to the public,
The GE Design-For-Assembly System assesses and analyzes
ease of assembly according to the difficulty of component inser-
tion, joining methods, and fixturing requirements. The system
m
helps identify and prioritize assembly operations by level of
difficulty, reducing tooling and fixturing cost.
Polis Assembly Analysis and Line Balancing Spreadsheet was
developed to assess how the main factors of part simplification and
handling attributes affect product assembleability early in the
design process. A color-coded spreadsheet with a series of product
design questions helps determine and locate potential assembly
problems (for example, difficult tasks or parts affecting product
assembly and handling).
The Assembly Insight for Designers tool focuses product
evaluation on part functionality, handling and assembly issues,
and repeat count for manual assembly. According to an operators
difficulty-of-assembly judgement, a code number is assigned to
each part and then applied to an algorithm that determines its
assembly cost. Unfortunate y, the knowledge of part function
and product assembly sequence is a prerequisite for using
this approach.
The Manufacturing Rating System developed by General
Electric assesses the manufacturing of printed circuit board (PCB)
designs. By doing a comparison of about 200 optimum design
practices, penalty points are given for each practice which tbe new
design does not comply with. The producibility of the product is
Fig. 10-6 Design, material, and manufacturing process relationships. determined by accumulating these penalty points.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 10
PRODUCIBILITY
TABLE 10-3
DFM and Producibility Assessment Tools
Finally, the Knowledge-based Producibility Decision Maker by The knowledge domain for producibility is complex, and
CIM Systems 29 is an integrated design for manufacturing environ- influenced by a number of manufacturing strategies and functional
ment focusing on alternative machining processes to reduce factors. An option to initiate the producibility assessment process
manufacturing and material costs. This tool offers designers and incorporates producibility with the associated functional require-
manufacturing engineers an interactive, networked, window ments, after the creation of a conceptual design and if strategic
view of producibility considerations for a machined part. It gives factors are given. Based on this, a proposed producibility assess-
rapid visual feedback and <expert recommendations on the ment model includes the following evaluation categories
producibility merits of designs, and recommends a better design/
Material selection and availability.
producibility solution.
. Commonality, standardization, and simplification.
A PRODUCIBILITY MODEL . Manufacturing process selection.
Defining a finite set of producibility metrics is challenging due . Features and tolerances.
to the variety of products, applications and manufacturing pro- . Quality, inspection, and tooling.
cesses to be considered (see Fig. IO-7). The type of data to be . Assembly and systems considerations.
measured is driven by the desired quantitative output. While The model requires the constmction of a deeision network to
managers are most likely to be interested in cost or risk factors for represent the producibility assessment process shown in Fig. 10-8.
comparing designs, manufacturing engineers are more concerned This diagram is later used to create a taxonomy for the classifica-
with a designs complexity and its manufacturing requirements. tion of the producibility evaluation rules, and to calculate a relative
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CHAPTERlO
PRODUCIBILITY
1-
Design process
----- ----- ----- -.--- ----- ----- ----- -p
F* Man.factwin
:=neerinfii;:gies -
Producibili Manufaciurin
enr%yies -
mzationhpl&Jdm
Tolerance analysis
Part selection Taoling
Design criteria Sourcing
Cost/schedule F
~
Improvement . Processverification
ECN Vendor
-.. . . . . .. ... . . . . . . .
Hig. lU-7 YrwJsscibillty information us the design process.
TABLE 10-4
index of producibility. A classification example is shown in Table Producibility Variables32
10-4. Producibility assessment rules can be generated from avail-
able publications and interviews with producibility, design, and cost
manufacturing experts. These rules represent independent obser- Cost estimates
vations, but do not accurately represent the total number of . Cost models (parametric)
categories or total number of items within a given category. Every Complexity
manufacturing industry, fabrication shop, designer, or mamtfac- . Product variations
tunng expert has a unique set of operating rules; many of these pm counts
rules may be incorrect for other applications. . Number of types of features
Manufacturing requirements
Process requirements
. Labor requirements
Material Selection and Availability Technical risk
Selection of the appropriate material for a new design is a vital . Schedule
step in the design process. This choice significantly impacts part Maturity of required processes
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 10
PRODUCIBILITY
.- .. . a .,
Considerations for producibility assessment include, but are etc., that are available from suppliers. One rule of design
not limited to, the following factors: standardization is to design the product so that standard compo-
nents are used as much as possible. Standardization and common-
1. Material criticality.
ality considerations during design will allow the designer to
. New material with limited or no documentation or
maximize process repeatability, product inspectability, inter-
specifications.
changeability, and product simplicity all of which are important
. Unique material difficult to get.
factors for producibility.
. Number of suppliers and foreign sources.
Considerations for the assessment of this category include, but
. Substitution and second sources.
are not limited to, the following factors:
. Lead time.
2. Material availabilityy in standard sizes and shapes. . The number of standard parts per assembly.
3. Material properties such as strength, density, machinabil- . The number of different nonstandard parts per assembly.
ityy, weldability, fatigue resistance, corrosion resistance, . The use of preferred numbers, sizes, scales, weights, raw
elongation, and formability. materials, near net shapes, etc.
4. Material handling and storage requirements. . The use of limits of fit, surface finish, and tolerances
5. Cost and machinability. consistent with standards, testing procedures, and part
6. Material conditioning requirements; or use as is without function.
preconditioning. . The use of common available manufacturing processes,
7. Materialmanufacturing process compatibility. fixturing, and tooling, and alternative standard manufactur-
8. Hazardous features such as toxic, allergic, radiological, ing processes.
fire, and explosive factors. . The number of standard and/or nonstandard features
per part.
. The number Of interchangeable parts per assembly.
Commonality, Standardization, . Tbe number of parts required for final assembly.
and Simplification . The number of proprietary items or processes, and manu-
One of the greatest wastes of engineering time and talent occurs facturing processes.
when the <not designed here syndrome is in effect. Designing a . The number of different materials and manufacturing
new product when an identical or similar product is already processes required to manufacture the final product.
available is counterproductive. For example, in mechanical engi- . The number of nonstandard manufacturing process
neering there are a number of standard parts, such as bolts, nuts, alternatives.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTERlO
PRODUCIBILITY
Manufacturing Process Selection The primary importance of tooling evaluation is the need for
The selection of the fabrication process needed to manufacture designing products that require minimum tooling and loading
a product is a major influence in producibility analysis. First, time. Parts that are complicated and difficult to handle, or which
every manufacturing process is dependent on the type of material require excessively intricate fixtures and tooling, may need to be
used. In selecting a particular material, the designer indirectly redesigned in view of their design characteristics. Some of the
specifies the methods of fabrication. For example, aluminum 356 factors included in this assessment category are:
is only available as a casting. Therefore, whenever this material is Design requirements, such as tolerances and surface finish,
specified, its manufacturing process is specifically defined. Sec- quality assurance and design functions, control point charts,
ond, each manufacturing process is capable of meeting specific and first-article test specifications.
design requirements such as tolerances, surface finish, production Inspection and testing requirements, nondestructive and/or
quantity, and quality. For example, when a designer specifies very destructive testing techniques, proofing of functional items
tight tolerances for a machined part, only a few manufacturing per operational procedures, and test points.
processes can be selected. Third, the method of fabrication Quality plan, completed and approved, with qualification
influences the total production costs and affects the production and inspection requirements.
lead time and the level of product quality. Consequently, the Standard tooling and test equipment integrated or not
nature of the interrelation of the manufacturing method with other independent.
elements of the design process necessitates its consideration when Use of general purpose tooling.
designing for producibility. Some of the assessment factors that Design for inspection; verifiable system and component
should be inchrded in this category are: inspection.
Manufacturing technology requirements.
Standard available or nonstandard fixtures and toolirw: cost.
Manufacturing process availability, flexibilityy, and handling, setup time, repair, tool design, tool prootl~g, and
capability. certification.
Manufacturing technology compatible with design without Assembly and System Considerations
major changes. Since most product designs include some assembly require-
Manufacturing process alternatives. Availability of new or ments, one important segment of the cost of a product is its
alternative planned manufacturing technology. assembly cost. One way to reduce this portion of the cost is to
Production factors, such as production batch size, material design products for ease of assembly. A list of assembly assess-
manufacturing process compatibility, shape of the raw ment factors includes:
material, design geometry, maintenance programs,
Part function, design complexity, design standardization,
manufacturing methods, process planning, part size, shape,
and commonality.
and weight.
Tolerances, number of parts per assembly, modularity, tool
Features and Tolerances clearances, component spacing, clearances for joining con-
Among the effects of design specifications on cost, geometric nectors, etc.
features, tolerances, and surface finish are perhaps the most Accessibility of parts during joining processes, fabrication
significant factors. They affect the producibility of a new design in constraints and assembly.
many ways, from the need for additional manufacturing opera- Part function combination.
tions, to purchasing new, high-cost production equipment. This Type and availability of tooling (jigs and fixtures).
category includes the information that allows the designer to Product modularity.
evaluate (or trade-off) manufacturing difficulty for different geo- Assembly and joining techniques: adhesive bonding, me-
metric features. A list of suggested producibility assessment chanical fastening (screws, threaded metal inserts, stamped
factors includes, but is not limited to: metal screw receivers, drive pin fasteners, welding, etc. ).
Assembly method, process and sequence; high-volume as-
. Product basic shape. sembly considerations (work division, line balancing), as-
. Form features. sembly sequence for in-process inspection and repair.
. Design configuration and over-designed/under- designed Manpower assessment: skill requirements match those avail-
features. able on hand; stability and training.
. Drawing specifications. Packaging and maintenance considerations during prelimi-
. Tolerances and surface finish specifications. nary design.
Tolerance buildup.
PRODUCIBILITY METRICS
Quality, Inspection, and Tooling One proposed design producibility index (DPI) consists of two
Quality, inspection, and tooling considerations are a major part major components: the weighted producibility factor (WPF) and
of designing for procfucibilit y. An often used, accurate phrase is the observed design difficulty (ODD) value. The WPF provides a
Quality cannot b$ inspected into a product, but must be designed weighted factor for the design, material, manufacturing, and
and built into it. In fact, quality and producibility requirements environmental issues that have a major impact on producibility.
are closely related and mutually supportive. Another term closely Each of these factors, which vary for different products and
related with quality is inspection which can be defined as a companies, is qualified by level of importance or influence on
method, usually visual, of ensuring that a manufacturing process producibility. The selection process to prioritize the producibility
has adequately taken place. Because tooling represents a sizable factors may be based on expert opinion, strengths and weaknesses
production investment, its influence in manufacturing must be of an organization, historical information, or new or unique
considered to minimize redundant tooling while maximizing technology and processes. Since the number of factors and their
design manufacturability. importance may change during product development, their
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 10
PRODUCIBILITY
weights must be modified throughout the design process as their what if queries. When modifying a design, new WPF and ODD
importance increases or decreases. An example of producibility values are re-evaluated and reflected in new DPI calculations.
factors with their corresponding influences in two different phases After a few iterations, engineers can arrive at an optimal choice.
of product development is given in Table 10-5. A conceptual design of an integrated producibility assessment
The next step in the producibility assessment process is to system is depicted in Fig. 10-9. The methodology starts by
evaluate a specific design and its requirements by the selected importing a part design from a CAD package via a standard data
factors. The ODD value is a measure of the manufacturing exchange format such as PDES (Product Data Exchange Specifi-
difficulty and risk expected during production for each of the cation). First, a series of feature recognition rules are applied to
earlier defined influencing factors. For example, a complex extract various manufacturing and geometric features from the part
product design with intricate geometric features is expected to design. Then, the system consults with the six manufacturing
have a high level of production difficulties. This type of design knowledge bases (materials, assembleability, standards, etc.) to
will be rated with a high ODD value, while designs with simple, select the best material and the best processes to meet the
easy to manufacture features normally have low ODD values. specifications. It analyzes all the producibility aspects of the part,
Several methods can be used to calculate an ODD value, calculates the producibility indexes, and recommends the best
depending on how it is measured or controlled and what informa- method for manufacturing. It also suggests alternatives which can
tion is available. A decision table is one method for calculating improve the producibilityy index if some design parameters can be
these values. A decision table offers a number of advantages, changed. With such a tool, designers can rapidly evaluate several
using standard formats to handle combinations of condhions in a design options and pick an optimum design which satisfies all the
concise manner. Several evaluation rules are identified for each criteria and is highly producible.
factor to provide a means for measurement. A penalty is assigned
to each evaluation rule; a higher number represents a more critical SUMMARY
factor. Another type of evaluation procedure might simply assign Formally established procedures to evaluate design producibil-
a Penalty based on a feature, type of tooling, or other applicable ity can help detect and eliminate expensive design requirements. A
level or rate. Some ODDS may be calculated without user methodology that can be applied to determine the producibility of
intervention if databases are available to provide information on a new design has been described. This methodology provides a
material properties and processing capabilities. framework for any type of application. In particular, it has been
After the WPF and ODD values have been determined, an found that the described approach allows the evaluation of
overall DPI value can be calculated through the following different types of design environments with slightly different
equation: assessment ktors. It is also clear that a multiple knowledge bdse
approach is appropriate for measuring producibility. By account-
DPI = ~ WPF, s ODD, (2) ing for man y interrelated factors that affect production fabrication,
i-1 the described methodology can provide an unbiased process for the
where n = total number of evaluation categories. evaluation of product manufacturability. Finally, the use of the
Once a DPI value has been calculated, engineers can perform methodology by industry experts will provide historical informa-
trade-off studies to optimize a designs producibility through tion which should lead to further modifications and improvements.
TABLE 10-5
Weighted Producibility Factors
Weighted Producibility
Factor (WPF)
Conceptual Detailed
Categories/Rating Factors Design Phase Design Phase
Material selection and availability
Material availability 10 8
Machinability 2 7
Commonality, simplification, and standardization
Part family compatibility 4 4
Standard parts 3
Manufacturing process selection
Production facilities 6 8
Material/manufacturing process risk 10 6
compatibility
Features and Tolerances
Tolerances and surface finish 10
Geometric feature complexity 6
Quality, inspection, and tooling
Tooling
Assembly and systems considerations
Design for assembly
Drawing specifications
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CHAPTER 10
PRODUCIBILITY
4 II
I Imported drawings
PDES ~
I reader ~
:;:
I
I
I
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1 i I
I
I
I
I
I
I. 4 I
1 I
I I
I I
I
I I I
I
& pmrmeler
------+
-------
b
recommendations
Manufacturability
assessmentand costing
Conceptualpart design
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CHAPTERlO
PRODUCIBILITY ASSESSMENT FOR DOD CONTRACTS
PA FOR DECISION MAKERS AND organization, using data available within the firm or from other
MANAGERS sources such as component suppliers. Two such hands-on evalu-
This section is for decision makers and managers. It addresses ation methods are dkcussed later in this section.
the importance to both the company and DOD of producibility More often than not, the initial source of data for producibility
measurement. Itsuggests whoneeds to reinvolved in the process, assessment is past experience on similar projects. Once the bid
both in the company and DOD, to assure as much as possible that effort is begun, more precise data on the unknowns will be
a company gives DOD an accurate portrayal of its capabilities, and available from the evolution of the design, and from inputs from
identifies potential problems that may be involved in making what teammates, subcontractors, and suppliers. More precise produc-
DOD wants. ibility measurements can then be developed for use in the
proposal itself.
When a decision to bid is made, the team must develop
When and Where to Use PA meaningful producibility assessment data information that can
Producibility assessment begins at the front end of the acqui- prove crucial to ensuring profitability as well as customer satis-
sition process. It must be part of the proposal process from the faction when the contract is won and the product is delivered. To
very outset. Failure to address producibility before the proposal do this effectively requires synergy. It is not sufficient to have
has been submitted puts a contractor behind the power curve and people available to answer questions while putting the proposal
will most likely require costly catch-up work. Likewise, DOD together. All the skills identified above, and any others that may
program offices and evaluators who fail to verify a contractors be appropriate, should be part of the proposal team.
production capability are likely to experience cost overruns. Once the contract is won, these same people should be
Smooth transition from development to production is enhanced members of the teams for development and production. There
greatly by thorough assessment of producibility. must be day-to-day, even hour-by-hour interaction among all the
Industry benefits. The anticipated benefits to manufacturers players on the proposal and subsequent development and produc-
of the use of producibility assessment include: tion teams. Producibility assessment is a critical part of the design
. More complete and competitive proposals can be issued. process. Design and manufacturing must work together and with
. Problems that could arise during production are identified other members of the proposal team in an environment that
early, and corrective actions taken before the problems facilitates interaction and communication. That means collocation
prove costly. in an area where people can see each other and move easily from
. There is an emphasis on design to achieve optimum, one desk to another. The environment should promote one-on-one
cost-effective production. and small-group exchanges of information and consultations.
. Subcontractor abilities and deficiencies are clarified. If subcontractors are supplying key components of the
. product quality, reliability, and maintainability program, especially if those components involve new technology
are improved. and products, it is reasonable to expect them to employ a
. New technologies needed to achieve producibility may be meaningful producibility assessment program and be able to
identified and explored. demonstrate this capability.
products can be delivered on schedu]e and within cost. Contractor responsibilities. Department of Defense contrac-
. ~ereisa greater oppofiunity formore profitable production tors must:
or lower cost to customer. Know what the RFP or contract says, explicitly or implic-
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTERlO
PRODUCIBILITY ASSESSMENT FOR DOD CONTRACTS
. Inspection and quality assurance production, but is particularly useful in the early develop-
. Test and evaluation ment stages.
. others as required Tool #2 is goal oriented, using data derived from similar past
efforts and from day-to-day work being done on the new program.
DOD responsibilities. The Department of Defense must:
It can be used throughout product development and production,
. Know what the RFP and contract say, explicitly or implic- but is particularly useful in a continuing assessment role as data
it]y, about producibility. from development and production grow.
. Have qualified people in design, engineering, manufactur- Used properly, both tools can provide to management the
ing, materials, quality, producibility, etc., available to information it needs to improve producibility, by identifying
evaluate contractor proposals and work. weaknesses as well as new processes and technologies needed to
. Designate a producibility assessment group to assess con- improve manufacturability.
tractor producibility capability. They should be collocated in The tools should be applied to each distinctive part that makes
an environment which promotes communication. up the whole. In that way, a specific component or module that
. Decide which producibility assessment tools will be used to could pose producibility problems can be identified at the earliest
evaluate contractors. possible point, and action taken to correct the difficulty or
. Evaluate how respondents to the RFP or the incumbent substitute another production process.
contractor have addressed producibility, verify their ability
to produce, and review the methods they are using to
evaluate producibility.
Determine the impact of the contractors producibility capa-
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CHAPTER 10
PRODUCIBILITY ASSESSMENT FOR DOD CONTRACTS
ELECTRICAL
producibility Assessment Worksheet
Assessmentcandidate
1.
2.
3.
4.
Msthad PM#l PM #2 PM #3 PM #4
Al Design/hrmdkng
0.9 Existing/sir@+sa ESD required .
0.7 Minor redesign/irrcrsa5s in carcsplsxity
0.5 Ma@ r&4gn/rnoderate irrcreas=complexity ESD rsquired .
0.3 Tschnabgy
csvaiksblecomplex cbsign/significant increase
0.1 State-of-the-ari rsseorch rsquirsd/highly carnpbx/white - required .
A2 Pracess/method
0.9 Processis provsn and techrsabgywsts
0.7 Prsr.iousexprience with process
0.5 Pracassexperience sw.ilabb .
0,3 Processis available, but nat prwsrs yst .
0.1 Na experience withprocess,nesds R&D
A3 Ins@ion
0.9 Dsdicated mats type stoticm
0.7 Special ebctrcmicsmelsring
0.5 Simpls alectranics metering
0.3 Continuity check only
0.1 Visual only
A4 Taoiing
0.9 Simpls fixture
0.7 Minar fixluring _ _
0,5 Moderate fixiuting _ _ _
0,3 significant fixturing .
0.1 Dedicated fixturing
praducibiliiy AssessmentRatings PM #1 _ PM #2 _ PM #3 _ PM #4 _
FareachMe&d A + N + ~ + M + i] . PraducibihyAssessment
Rating for that Method
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTERlO
PRODUCIBILITY ASSESSMENT FOR DOD CONTRACTS
MECHANICAL
Producibfffty Assessment Worksheet
AssessmentCandidate
1.
.L.
J.
4.
Melhad PM #1 PM #2 PM#3 PM #4
Al Design
0.9 Existing/si~e dwgn
0.7 Minar redasigdirrcrease in complexity .
0.5 M+r red=gn/maderote increasecampbxity .
0.3 TechnabW maildde complex design/significant increase . .
0.1 State-af-the-ati research required/highly cor@.x
A2 Pracess/methad
0.9 Pracessis prawn and technabgy~sts
0.7 Previousexperiencewithprocess . .
0.5 Process
experiencerrvailde
0.3 Pracassi$ available, but nd praven yet .
0.1 Na exprience with paces, needs R&D
A4 Taaling
0.9 Simplefixture .
0.7 Minaf fixluring .
0.5 Ma&ate fixturing .
0.3 $ignificanl fixlurirrg
0.1 Dedicatedfixtwing
pmduciliii~ Aeswnent
Rcrtings PM#l _ PM#2 PM #3 PMUA
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTERlO
PRODUCIBILITY ASSESSMENT FOR DOD CONTRACTS
CIRCUITCARD ASSEMBLY
producibility Assessment Worksheet
AssessmentCandidate
prod.ctianMsthad (PM)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Methad PM #1 PM #2 PM #3 PM #4
Al Design
0.9 Existingstamfard 2 sided PC bard
0.7 Existingstandard multilayer card
0.5 M.hifaysr card, high thermal bads . .
0.3 Muhifayw card, high thermal, hard ta wire
0.1 Highly campbx urpaven design
A3 Malariak/&ctrical cornponsnts
0,9 Readily avaifabfdaff-shelf campansnts
0.7 I -3 monthordw sams components
0.5 3-9 manth order mm components .
0.3 9-12 manth ordsr/spscial U& campcmsnts
0.1 12-18 mantharder/new VHSIC chip .
A5 lns+mction/testing
0.9 Can be auta tested/inspectedusing standard auta equipment
0.7 Requirssspecial testequipmentfor auto Isst
0.5 Manual test/inspectionwith lab instruments
0.3 Test/inspection requires engineering dsvebpment
0.1 Test/inspectionrnetbd undefined
praduc!bilityAsssswnentRatings PM#l _ PM #2 _ PM #3 _ PM #4 _
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 10
PRODUCIBILITY ASSESSMENT FOR DOD CONTRACTS
UNIVERSAL
Producibility Assessment Worksheet
Assessmentcandidate
Praduckn tvlethad(PM)
1.
3.
4.
Method PM #1 PM #2 PM #3 PM #4
Al Design
0.9 Existing/siqde dagn .
0.7 Minor redasign/increosa in complexity . .
0.5 Mc@r redwgn/mxlerate increase complexity
0.3 Techrwbgy mailable compJexdesign/significant increase .
0.1 State-of-the-ati research required/highly compk
A2 Pracess
0.9 Princessis praven and technobgy
exkts
0.7 previaus experience with process
0.5 Pmcass experience available .
0.3 Processis available, but not proven yet
0.1 No expwknce with process, needs R&D
A3 Materiab (availc&li~/machinability}
0.9 Readily Crvaikrlddaluminum albys
0.7 manthorder/ferrousalbys
1-3
0.5 3-9 mantharder/stainbss steels
0.3 9-18 monthorder/non-m@a[kc(SMC, etc.) .
0.1 18-36 mantharder/n* R&Dmaterial
A4 Design la COSI(DTC)
0.9 BudgsI not UCSSdSd
0.7 Exceeds 1-5% in DTC
0.5 Exceeds 5-20% in DTC
0.3 Exceeds 20-50% in DTC ,,
0.1 Cost DTC gads cannot be ochiwed >50% .
A5 Schedule carqdiance
0.9 Nagligibie irrqxtcton program
0.7 Mirwr slip (<1 ma.)
0.5 Moderate slip (1 -3 rrso.)
0.3 Significant slip [3-5 ma.)
0.1 M+r slip (.5 MO.)
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CHAPTER 10
PRODUCIBILITY ASSESSMENT FOR DOD CONTRACTS
obtain a valid assessment. This may require coordination with Similarly, if the six elements of the board each have four
material or subcontract management for cost and availability data components, then the fourth root of 0.97327 is taken and the first
with quality assurance for reject and rework data on similar time yield of each component must average 99.327. to meet the
projects, or with other centers of experience and expertise as 85% goal of the board. Worked another way, six elements of the
appropriate. The more precise the data used by the evaluator, the board times four components per element gives 24 opportunities
more precise the producibility assessment. The information gath- for defects. The required component-level yield is then found by
ered in these early stages of the producibility assessment process is taking the 24th root of the 85% overall goal of the board which
the beginning of the product history which will provide the basis would be 0.9932. In other words, if all the components were to
for future analysis. exhibit a first-time yield of 99.32%, a tirst-time board yield of
Producibility assessment rating. When the worksheet is 85% could be expected.
completed, it will yield a producibility assessment rating for each With these figures it is possible to go to data for similar
of the methods of production considered, by applying the formula production efforts and determine actual yields that can be com-
at the bottom of the sheet to the data in each column. An example pared to the new project. If it is found that yields similar to the
of a completed PAW for a power supply housing is shown in components 99. 32?t0 have been achieved previously, then a bid
Fig. 10-14. decision, if that is the issue, can be supported. If past data show
Based on the completed assessment, management can make a that producibility of some elements or components did not achieve
decision to employ the method with the highest rating,or consider the yields necessary to reach the specified goal, then a degree of
what might be done to improve the viability of one or more of the risk enters into the assessment. [f the disparity is small, it might be
other methods. If one of the less desirable methods can be changed overcome by changing suppliers or materials or making a process
in a cost-effective way, it might then become the prefemed method improvement. If the disparity is large, a design change may be
of production. Producibility assessment worksheets not only necessary. Perhaps the total number of elements can be reduced,
provide the best choice among existing options; they highlight thus reducing potential misplacements in assembly, the frequency
strengths and weaknesses ,and point to areas where investments in of soldering errors, and failure rates. If there is truly a large gap,
improvement and innovation might be traded for long-term gains it is the responsibility of management to seriously consider not
in producibility. pursuing the program, or for the DOD customer to review its
specifications or consider other sources.
In all instances, if complete data are not available for all the
components involved, educated estimates based on the best
available data and experience can be used. However, the more
Tool #2 Application estimates and incomplete data are used, the greater the risk
Tool #2 provides the means for setting and realizing produc- involved in the assessment and any decisions based upon it.
ibility goals; determining if a company can achieve its own or
customer producibilityy goals profitably as it currently operates; The above is an example of the deductive use of Tool #2 to
and analyzing products currently in production to lower production determine what is needed to achieve a customer or company
costs and increase quality. specified goal. The depth of the measurement can be broken out to
Components of producibility. There are three major factors further suballocate yield to lower levels, depending upon the size
involved in producing a product: the design, the manufacturing of the potential contract, the nearness to the goal achieved at any
process, and the materials that make up the product. When these given level, the amount of risk the company or the DOD customer
three factors are brought together, a product results. The conver- is willing to accept, etc. Even when this form of assessment
gence of the design of the product, the process, and the materials indicates that the aggregate yield for all components is sufficient to
is referred to as the region of producibility. It provides a means of meet the overall design goal, it may highlight weaknesses that can
identifying positive and negative contributions by each of the be reduced or eliminated to improve quality and producibility for
factors. Controlling and minimizing the independent effects of the benefit of the company and DOD.
design, process, and materials variations can improve a products Tool #2 can also be used by reversing the mathematical
quality and enhance producibility. All three must be controlled for process, moving from components to elements to boards, etc., to
optimum overall results. The primary goal of Tool #2 is to determine the overall producibility of a product. Management can
eliminate or reduce observed or potential defects in design, then determine if the product is economically feasible with the
process, and materials to achieve increased producibility. The manufacturing resources available. This approach can be used
following example, using an air-to-air missile power supply circuit most effectively when historical yield data are available. It can
board, illustrates how to apply Tool #2. also be used to identify areas where quality and productivity can be
Circuit board assessment example. The circuit board is one improved, to increase profitability for the contractor and to
of five circuit boards contained in the power supply assembly provide the DOD customer with a product that has increased
housing of an air-to-air missile. In full production the circuit reliabilityy, maintainability, and operability at lower cost.
boards must achieve a minimum first-time yield of 85%. Produc-
ibility goals can be set either by the customer or by the company
to meet budgets, comply with performance requirements, adhere
to schedules, or ensure profitability. Given an 85% requirement,
the object is to determine what is necessary to achieve that rate.
Using Tool #2 the evaluator determines that each board has six A Continuous Process
elements RF, digital, IR, etc. By taking the sixth root of 0.85 Regardless of whether Tool 1, 2, or both are used, producibil-
(each root representing a unique independent element) it is found ity assessment is a continuous process that is repexdted frequently
that the average first-time yield of each element of the board must in the early stages of a program and periodically as a
be 97.327% to meet the specified 85% goal of the board. program matures.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 10
PRODUCIBILITY ASSESSMENT FOR DOD CONTRACTS
Method PM #1 PM #2 PM #3 PM #4
Al Design
0.9 Existing/sirr@e dssign
0.7 Minor redesign/increme in cornplwty T
0.5 M.+ red=gn/moderate increase cotnpbxily 5
A2 Process
0.9 Procsssis proven and technobgy exists .9_
4
0.7 prwious experience with process _...JJ.
0.5 Processe~ience av.ifabb
0.3 Processis o+ailoble, but not proven Ye4
0.1 No experience with process,nseds R&D
A3 Matsriah (c+mil&ifity/rnachinccbility)
0.9 Rsodily availa!ddaluminum albys
0.7 1-3 mmth order/ferrous allop T7T
0.5 3-9 monthordsr/stainbss steels
0.3 9- I 8 monthordw/non-rnetalhc (SMC, etc.]
0.1 18-36 month order/new R&D material
A4 Design to cost(DTC)
0.9 Budgetnot eXCSSdSd
0.7 Exceeds 1-5% in DTC 2_.z _
0.5 Exceeds5-20% in DTC
0.3 Exceeds20-50% in DTC J!
0.1 Cost DTC gocdscannot be achiwed >50%
A5 &hedule conqdianca
0.9 Negiigibfe impoct on program .7 .? _
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CHAPTERlO
GEOMETRIC TOLERANCING STRUCTURE AND LANGUAGE FOR CE
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GEOMETRIC TOLERANCING STRUCTURE AND LANGUAGE FOR CE
methods and techniques would be used to manufacture it. The alternative interpretations resulting from these techniques.
reduction of engineered items to a precise graphical form (includ- Looking at a historical example, it was a common practice, up
ing tolerances) as a separate phase preceding production is a until World War I, to produce models of a product. A model could
relatively recent occurrence that can be traced back only to the serve both as a prototype that would lend itself to experimental
latter part of the nineteenth century. Prior to that time, and purposes-functional and process relatedand as a definition of
particularly under the contractor system of manufacture, it was the desired end product, However, while it was advantageous to
not unusual to find both design and manufacturing skills embodied have this physical model available, the technique encountered
in the same individual. Many of the problems that might have been some disadvantages resulting from the change to more decen-
encountered in manufacture of the product would have been tralized production, with facilities separated by both time and
anticipated by this contractor in giving the product final definition distance. The model had to be replicated with a high level of
and in designing the manufacturing system. Therefore, the con- precision for use at each of the remote sites, and any alterations
tractor who had an immediate economic stake in the outcome of to the product definition involved expensive and time-
the overall system design was the first example of concurrent consuming changes.
engineering being applied to volume production. Considering the generation of the working drawings from the
With the increased specialization brought about by mass standpoint of this model, it is apparent that the use of graphical
production and the creation of formal programs of engineering methods to communicate design intent has created one area with
study, the separation of the design and manufacturing functions major implications relating to the delivery of an acceptable
was started. With the enhanced scientific base that was incorpo- product. The very nature of the physical model required that
rated into engineering programs around the mid-twentieth century, possible methods of manufacturing were taken into consideration
the severing of these functions was almost complete. Many of the when generating this communication device. Functional concerns
current organizational management techniques, both in the human were automatically addressed in creating the model. Thus, the
resources area and in financial management, increase the apparent documentation of the desired details of the components included
need for specialization to enhance asset utilization, addressing the difference between the perfect part, created in the
It is a general perception that in most firms a wall exists designers mind, and the actual parts that would result from
between the design and manufacturing departments, and that production in the physical world.
neither of these disciplines should be allowed to intrude in the The idea of the engineering model versus the actual fabricated
others area. The present organizational structure of many firms part has a parallel in engineering analysis. The initial step in
increases this isolation and makes it difficult to optimize the design performing a mechanical analysis on an engineered part is to
of the product, or its allied production system, early in the determine the force loadings that may applied to the part. The first
design cycle. level of analysis involves the use of statics, where the component
The underlying nature of the design process is iterative and that is being analyzed isassumed to berigidthat no deflections
interdependent. Once a preliminary design has been created, occur on thepart under the loads that it is to withstand. Once this
seemingly minor alterations in a functional feature can have major information is determined, the next step is a refinement of the
impacts on other elements of the product delivery system. This assumptions made for the static analysis. It is now assumed that
presents major organizational problems, resulting from the fact small deflections occur and that deflections and stress levels may
that existing personnel have not been introduced to the iterative be calculated from the loads developed in the first stage.
nature of the interactions between design and manufacturing. The design of the product that is developed during the creative
Thus, education and training have fostered isolation of the stage of the process is analogous to the static model defined in
elements of the product delivery system and made it difficult for engineering mechanics. It is graphically modelled with the as-
the necessary communication to occur during those phases of sumption that all of the necessary features are perfect in their form
the process where significant positive economic results and position. Such assumptions areinherent inthe design process,
may be obtained. whether performed manually or with the aid of a computer.
In the creation of any product, the main criteria to be used in Refinements of this ideal model occur through an analysis that
decision making involve the functional requirements necessary to assumes a deviation from perfect form, orientation, and location
satisfy market needs. The processes used to create the final which would beanalogous to the elastic analysis mentioned above
product are all derived from these functional specifications. One to obtain deflections and stress levels. The important thing to note
goal of the engineering process is to communicate the design intent is that there is a distinct difference between the model of the
in sufficient detail to ensure that any decisions made in component and the actual part that will be produced. Depending
implementing production will maintain the integrity of the onhowrobust thedesign is, this deviation could inhibit or alter the
envisioned design. desired function of the product.
Modern practice relating to the design of interchangeable Many of the graphical techniques that exist to define a product
product begins with the creation of concept sketches to provide do not have the ability to provide methods to document and
both the designer and the decision-makers with some graphical communicate all of the design intent required to arrive at the
method of visualizing the proposed product. As the design cycle production version of the product and the allied processing
proceeds and the preferred design concepts are solidified, a systems that will be used to produce it. If these techniques do not
preliminary design layout is created that starts to give definition to incorporate the geometric controls allowed under the Y14,5M
the functional features of the elements of the assembly. As the standard, then there is no recognition of the physical variability
cycle continues toward the production stage, the design layout is that will result from production of actual components. Only
transformed into detailed representations of each of the compo- through the use of a variety of structured annotation techniques can
nents that make up the product. Throughout this process, the this information be attached to thegraphical model ina way that
original design intent must not be obscured by the communication will communicate the desired functional relationships that are to be
and documentation techniques used, or the introduction of possible maintained during manufacturing.
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CHAPTER 10
GEOMETRIC TOLERANCING STRUCTURE AND LANGUAGE FOR CE
THE LANGUAGE OF CONCURRENT ophy of geometric dimensioning and tolerancing takes a critical
ENGINEERING Y14.5M step in providing single design definition that reduces the likeli-
With increasing emphasis on quality concerns and the interna- hood of product and process changes late in the manufacturing
tional scope of the manufacturing environment, it is desirable to cycle where the economic impact is high.
use a common language that is capable of providing a method of Concerning the listed items, the particular thing to note is the
communicating the functional requirements of the engineering interaction that is implied between them. In existing applications
design. The various individuals and departments involved in of tolerance analysis it is assumed that the features that are to be
delivering the resources to produce the end product should all be analyzed are of perfect form and that the tolerance analysis
versed in the interpretation of this language, and capable of proceeds to deal with location variations on the basis of conven-
arriving at a single specification of the product and the allied tional techniques. These techniques may deal with nothing more
processes to generate it. There can be no more important goal in than two-dimensional, rectangular tolerance zones, possibly ig-
developing this language than that it is capable of giving complete noring interpretation problems that can lead to ill-defined zones
and unique definition to the product. and resulting assembly difficulties.
One of the best took available to communicate this product The implication of the Fundamental Rules is that all features
definition is the ANSI Y14.5M standard (and equivalent ISO are subject to variation not only of size, but also of form,
reports and standards) that deals with dimensioning and toleranc- orientation, and location. It is noted in the body of the standard
ing. For products that are manufactured from a number of that this location variation (positional variation being a prime
components that will require assembly, there is currently no other example) can take forms other than those that are implied by
technique that aggressively organizes the necessary thought pro- conventional techniques. The necessity of providing a single and
cesses that are required in the design of the manufacturing system, complete product definition requires the recognition of interactions
nor that allows a common basis for discussion of the salient points between these four general sources of variation when defining the
that must be addressed as the product cycle proceeds. product. More important, the standard emphasizes the functional
It should be emphasized that while this standard specifically and assembly relationships that can only be controlled through the
applies to engineering drawings and related documentation prac- use of the refinements that are outlined.
tices, much of the material discussed on in the standard has far The introduction of this regimen into the design cycle also
wider implications. Early in the standard, there is a list of introduces the possibility of assessing and setting product toler-
Fundamental Rules, a number of which are germane to the topic at ances that are no longer guesses, but the result of a formal
hand and are listed in Fig. 10-15. While this is an abridgement of justification process. Without consideration of form, orientation,
the list contained in the standard, these six items form a philo- and locational variations in the production process, the normal
sophical basis to create the desired language base that is being approach to setting the process characteristics is to err on the side
advocated. of tighter tolerances, with the knowledge that these can be relaxed
An additional point to be made here is that the application of in the event that the production department encounters problems in
these rules also forms a general design strategy that aids in the maintaining the specified levels. This impairs recognition of the
realization of the design, To accomplish this, Item 4 in Fig. 10-15 product definition as the source from which all other system
must be elaborated by the addition of the datum reference decisions should flow.
frame concept that will be discussed below. With this element The use of the standard goes beyond the abstract ideas that are
included, the concepts woven into the Fundamental Rules provide embodied in the Fundamental Rules and provides a dictionary of
structure to the geometric design process, where no other tech- terms that are used in all discrete part manufacturing organiza-
niques are available to integrate the disparate needs of product tions. It provides a source of definitions of the terms and the
designers and production personnel. ideas that are needed in dealing with the design of an inter-
While it is a common engineering desire to conform to these changeable product.
Fundamental Rules, it is also apparent that the implementation of This is where the value of the standard as a communication
these practices occurs to a lesser degree than is desirable. The device comes into play, Many of the concepts that are embodied in
creation of a design strategy that incorporates the general philos- the standard are refinements of ideas that have long existed in the
fabrication of artifacts. The process of assembling the standard has
forced the codification of these techniques in a way that now
makes them accessible to other nonproduction dk+ciplines and
fosters communication at appropriate points in the design and
1 Each dimension shall have a tolerance,
manufacturing cycle, where discussion of concerns and decisions
2. Dimensions for size, form, and location of feotures shall be can have the most positive economic impact.
complete to the extent that there is full understanding of the
characteristics of each feature,
Application of Y14.5M Concepts
3. Each necessary dimension of the end product shall be shown, In order to understand how the benefits of geometric control
can be achieved, a number of fundamental concepts upon which
4. Dimensions shall be selected and arranged to suit the function
and matmg relationship of a part. the overall system is constructed must be identified and explana-
tions provided. The most important of these ideas involves the use
5. The dimensions shall not be sublect to more than one
of datum reference frames. Additionally, a few areas of concern
interpretation.
must be touched upon to il Iustratc the necessity of complete
6 The drawing should define a part without specifying understanding of these concepts to the successful implementation
manufacturing methods.
of the system.
There are five concepts that form an important part of the basis
Fig. 10-15 Abridgement of fundamental rules from ANSI Y14.5M. of a system of geometric control: datum reference frames, inter-
(Courte.,y American Society of Mechanical Engineers) related features, the boundary concept, Taylors Principle,
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cHAPTER 10
GEOMETRIC TOLERANCING STRUCTURE AND LANGUAGE FOR CE
and the refinement of controls. Each of these is a critical element single point of contact. The explanation in the standard goes on to
in the creation of a system of design methodologies and geometric say that the alteration of the precedence of these planes will change
control. Without knowledge of these elements in designing a the location of an actual part in space. Thus a change in the order
product, an incomplete product definition is created that will cede of contact or precedence will create a different DRF and a different
control of the product and its allied processes to individuals positioning of the object.
located downstream from the design team. Figure 10-17 shows how this concept can be applied to a
Datum reference frames. Of all the concepts that are con- cylindrical part. In this case the three-plane concept may still be
tained in the Y 14.5M standard, the one that provides the most applied, but the location of the component is determined by the
important foundation for concurrent engineering activities is that coincidence of the intersection of two of these planes with the axis
of datum reference frames (DRF). As already mentioned, the of the cylindrical feature on the part.
designer has an idealized view of the results of the manufacturing The establishment of the DRF for an actual part is accom-
process. The creative design of a specific product does not plished by the allied processing equipment that the standard
normally look into the vagaries of the physical world and how they identifies. In the case of Fig. 10-15, the DRF could be the table of
will affect the execution of the design. This type of information is a machine tool that may simulate the primary datum, with rails
gathered during the development of the production prototypes or providing the secondary and tertiary datums. The cylindrical part
of the production system. would have its DRF determined by the chuck or mandrel on a lathe
To ensure that the design intent is maintained, the reduction of where the axis of the true cylinder that is, the ideal part is
the preliminary design layout into detail drawings should generate simulated by the machine tool axis. The tertiary datum that would
specific information relating to the kinematic control of the various constrain rotation about the axis would be simulated by a stop.
system components in terms of their interrelationship in the final The key ideas involved in the definition of a particular DRF
product assembly. This control is established by defining a DRF include the functional definition of the component as it relates to
that describes how the six degrees of kinematic freedom are to be the next level of assembly, and the spatial interrelationship of this
constrained. To put this more succinctly, the DRF provides part and the other components. The theoretical datum planes
information as to how the component is to be located in space to appropriate to a specific design are determined by (he designer,
provide its required function in the product assembly. through consideration of the functional relationships that are
Examples of the two most general types of DRFs are shown in contained in the assembly. By focusing on the functional and
Figs. 10-16 and 10-17. The first diagram shows the application of interrelational aspects of the product assembly, the primary intent
this concept to a prismatic part and indicates how the object is of the designer is maintained throughout any discussions relating
located in three-dimensional space through the use of three to the spatial positioning of the component during the stages of
orthogonal planes. The underlying theory requires that the object manufacture. The DRF allows visualization and description of the
contact one of these planes (primary plane) with three points of parts location in three-dimensional space, and maintains
engagement; the second plane (secondary) is established by two the integrity of the functional requirements throughout the
points of contact; and the third plane (tertiary) is determined by a design cycle.
t
Y
/ A /
Three mutually
perpendicular
dolum planes
/
Three
datu~
mutually
perpendicular
planes
/> z
/
A
/
\
\
I 1/ / /
\
z \
\ /
\
\ / I /-\ /
\ /
\\
,/
/
.-
x I / \
\/
I
I/
Fig. 10-16 Prismatic part related to datum reference frame. Fig. 10-17 Cylindrical part related to datum reference frame.
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CHAPTERlO
GEOMETRIC TOLERANCING STRUCTURE AND LANGUAGE FOR CE
Interrelated features. Many of the products that are available allows the determination of the extent of allowable variations
today achieve their added value by the assembly of individual in the geometry, and the effect of these variations on the
components to create the desired product. With the assembly assembly process.
operation comes the desire to reap the benefits of economies that Boundary and axial concepts. In considering the assembly of
are associated with the interchangeability of the components. mating components, the visualization of the worst-case assembly
If interchangeability is to be achieved, the product designer and condition is a useful concept that allows early consideration of the
manufacturing engineer must consider the interrelationship of the level and type of tolerance control that must be maintained to
various features on individual components and between the produce a functional product. For purposes of positional toleranc-
mating parts. ing, the standard introduces two ways of looking at the
The communication of feature relationships is not contained in tolerance zone.
any of the existing drafting techniques, with the exception of those The first method identifies a bounding surface-the virtual
that are codified in Y 14.5M. Without the specification of a DRF, condition boundary that defines the extent of the cumulative
interpretation of the drawings based upon the standard indicates effect of the controls that are applied to a specific feature. This
that there is no required interrelationship of form, orientation, or boundary limits the extent of the surface of the feature, and in
position that is necessary to allow the components to be assembled conjunction with the maximum material condition (MMC) con-
or to function as the designer envisions. If such a relationship is cept, also defines the worst case that would be encountered in the
desired, then the use of Y14.5M techniques must be explicitly assembly operations. At the maximum material condition, the
implemented. For instance, by using positional tolerancing meth- boundary identifies the greatest extent that the surface of a feature
ods that are developed in this standard, and by using identical may assume (considering allowable form or orientation variations)
datum reference frames to control the location of related features, if it is located at its true or perfect location as specified in the
the interrelationship that is important to the assembly and opera- product definition. Maintaining this imaginary surface as the focus
tion of a design is specifically stated and communicated to all who of design considerations allows the determination of appropriate
are interested in using this information for fabrication of the levels of tolerance control through the use of a realistic analysis of
product. Nothing is left to the imagination of the individuals who tbe deviations that may be encountered. This approach is more
will be responsible for production. advantageous than defaulting to the tolerances called out in the
As an illustration of these relationships, Fig. 10-18 shows a general notes that are standardized on most firms drawing sheets,
part that is to mate with a second component containing a number The default zones are not explicitly three-dimensional in nature,
of pins. As the surface of the mating component carrying the pins and the additional spatial refinement developed through the
engages the part, the fixed pins must simultaneously enter the application of geometric controls may be more than warranted by
holes on the part. Entry of these pins will only occur if attention functional design requirements,
has been paid to the relationship of the holes both size and The second descriptive technique is the use of a zone that
orientation to each other and to their location relative to the contains the axis or centerplane of the feature. This method allows
cumulative effect of their geometric variations. As shown in this insight into just how the alteration of form, orientation, or position
figure, perfect form, orientation, and position have been as- can affect the actual feature, and highlights possible interactions of
sumed which is the first level of analysis that a designer might the various control characteristics. The individual effects of
contemplate. position and orientation are more readily grasped by looking at this
Another view of the world would include specific recognition zone.
of the variations that will result from the actual production In both of the cases that can be used to communicate the
process. [n Fig. IO-19, the precise communication of the desired deviation of actual pm-t features, the use of the methods described
relationships is included through the specification of a DRF and in the standard provides a three-dimensional tolerance zone that
application of geometric controls. The use of these techniques now more adequately describes what may occur in the generation of
I I
I I
I I
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CHAPTERlO
GEOMETRIC TOLERANCING STRUCTURE AND LANGUAGE FOR CE
~ andorientutionvariations
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GEOMETRIC TOLERANCING STRUCTURE AND LANGUAGE FOR CE
1 I-:::nce
Positional Orientation
variation variation
kis of hole
at Irus position
II RTc%Llt- F--l
HMinimum
hole
I diameter I
/\:f
Axis of role True position of axis
Fig. 10-21 Equivalent controls ofclearance holes by boundary andtolerance zone syskms.
The idea behind Taylors Principle can be considered as This idea ties together the boundary concept with the datum
somewhat expanded and extended within the context of the reference frame toallow the various stages of product and process
Y 14. 5M standard by invoking the virtual condition of the features design to proceed, with a realistic method of discussing the
when appropriate, as well as their MMC limits. The virtual interrelationship of actual part features. Application of these
condition is the collective effect of all geometric controls and the concepts goes a long way toward assuming the position held
MMC boundary of the feature. This would have the effect of previously by the physical model already mentioned. While not
enlarging the boundary of an external feature or reducing the replacing the fabrication ofa prototype, itdoesextend the thought
boundary of an internal feature. The principle, for design pur- process during design into areas that conventional dimensioning
poses, would then state that the virtual conditions of all related and tolerancing techniques do not consider.
features that arc controlled by the functional DRF should be gaged Refinement of controls. In all manufacturing endeavors there
simultaneously. are some economic constraints. Because this is true even in the
Fig. 10-22 Equivalent controls of projecting bolt byhoundary and tolerance zone systems.
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GEOMETRIC TOLERANCING STRUCTURE AND LANGUAGE FOR CE
product design. When economics dictate the application of geo- hydraulic pressure
metric controls, the DRF concept and the types of controls allowed
through the application of the Y 14.5M standard provide a type of
checklist that can be used to lead even the novice designer through
the various steps of consideration necessary to arrive at a func- Fig. 10-23 Typical application of assembly where orientation retTne-
tional product definition. ment to locational control is required.
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GEOMETRIC TOLERANCING STRUCTURE AND LANGUAGE FOR CE
establish their location, the level of accuracy of the datum features possible gaging techniques for a particular control, it provides
can be established. In the absence of other technical bases to enough guidance to allow intelligent detlnition of the methods that
determine the level of control of the datum features, the specifi- could be applied to verify conformance to the product definition
cation of datum accuracy should be based on a measurement error and to allow consensus to be reached by the concurrent engineer-
anal ysis of the part/inspection system. The obtainment of an ing team.
appropriate datum specification will be the direct result of the The ultimate and most realistic arbiter of whether a control is
assessment of repeatability and reproducibility of the part/inspec- verifiable is if the part can be setup for measurement using surface
tion system and a determination of its stability over time. Hence, plate inspection methods. With the possible exception of circular-
the ultimate decision rests on the ability to verify the desired level ity and cylindricity, a preliminary check on the controls can be
of control. instituted by this relatively inexpensive method without resorting
The second major item in the consideration of datum accuracy to fabrication of hard gaging. If the part cannot be staged for
reflects concerns during processing, inspection, and assembly. inspection, then either the drawing control is not understood or an
The standard makes some distinction between the datum inappropriate control has been specified.
designated by features in the product description, the datum
features generated on actual parts, and the simulated datums that CONCURRENT ENGINEERING
The use of the concepts found in the Y 14.5M standard is the
are part of the associated processing equipment, such as the table
of a machine tool or a surface plate used in inspection. Thus, the glue that holds together the concurrent engineering team. Within
techniques used to arrive at the correct level of control are focused the context of this section, concurrent engineering is the simulta-
neous design of the product and its allied manufacturing system.
on the variation inherent in the production processes and allied
equipment, and the inclusion of this variation in the design cycle. The scope of the system extends from marketing to the delivery,
It should be highlighted that a large proportion of the variability servicing, and disposal of the product.
inherent in processing and inspection can be traced to variation in With as many disciplines as a system this broad entails, it is
the setup techniques, and that this setup error is affected in a large impossible to expect that all of the important strategic decisions
number of cases by inconsistent use of the datum reference required to deliver a product can be anticipated by a single
frame concept. individual. It is only through implementation of a team approach
Interchangeability and assembleability. While the applica- that the opportunity exists to provide the management guidance
tion of the techniques being described here may be useful in the necessary to a flawless delivery. Thus, the use of a simultaneous
creation of products that do not require interchangeability, the approach to product delivery requires the alteration of more
greatest concentration of applications is in this area. As already traditional project management techniques to allow creation and
implied in the discussion of Taylors Principle, the overriding empowerment of the concurrent engineering team.
concern in being able to assess the level of interchangeability, and Figure 10-24 shows that as the product cycle proceeds from
also assembleability, is the interrelationship of the features that concept to implementation, substantial investments in physical
represent the functional surfaces involved in the assembly. assets begin to accumulate, and they may require expensive
The DRF provides a mechanism that allows direct and concise alterations if engineering changes are instituted in the later phases
statement of the desired relationships. Without this level of design of the cycle. Changes in choice of process, manufacturing equip-
refinement, there is no precise method available using other ment, or hard tooling can all incur tremendous financial conse-
technical documentation tools to communicate those relationships quences. Furthermore, while the financial losses attributable to
seen by the designer as needed to achieve a functional product. It these engineering changes may inflict considerable damage to the
further recognizes that the choice of a process DRF rather than the project, a more insidious loss is incurred through the increase in
functional DRF introduces tolerance stacks which may defeat the time necessary to bring the product to market.
best design unless consideration is given to analyzing and control- The goal of the team is to provide a product that has passed
ling these effects prior to instituting production. through the various phases of design without incurring engineering
Veritable controls. The use of a DRF and geometric controls changes in the later phases of the cycle where the economic
forces recognition that the placement of tolerance controls on the ramifications are severe. The team should include all of the
product description includes the responsibility that such controls members of the organization who have the required expertise to
are verifiable. It would serve no purpose to ask for types or levels anticipate any areas of concern and the necessary authority to
of control that cannot be verified or that do not verify the intended resolve these at a time when it is most economical] y eftlcient,
function or relationship of the features. The Concurrent Engineering Team
An example of this would be the prevalence of two-point While not intended as an exhaustive list of the members of the
measurements to inspect the size of a feature that is to assemble concurrent engineering team, the following suggestions indicate
with a mating part. As Taylors Principle points out, such the breadth of areas that must be represented in order to achieve
measurements provide no information relating to assembleabilit y. the goal of anticipating all of the important concerns. Addition-
If the desire is to obtain information that relates to the assembly al y, indications are given as to how the Y 14.5M methodology
process, then a full-bodied gage should be used that simulta- permeates the team, enhances communication of critical concepts
neously inspects all of the related features necessary to the parts between its members, and increases the efficiency of the design
intended function. If a pin is to enter a bore, the inspection for size process.
using a micrometer will not ensure that the pin is sufficiently Marketing. In any product development activity, the direct
straight to allow assembly. needs of the customer must be represented. The inclusion of the
The use of the standard provides a listing of the possible marketing arm of the firm provides this representation to ensure
controls that are allowed, with a concise definition as to what each that, as the product development cycle proceeds, any technical
of these controls involves. It is a source that can be used to decisions that are made keep the consumerthe ultimate judge of
arbitrate disputes over the controls that are placed in the product the success of the designin view. The marketing representative
definition. While the standard is not intended to define any of the assumes the role of the con sumers advocate in the process.
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CHAPTERlO
GEOMETRIC TOLERANCING STRUCTURE AND LANGUAGE FOR CE
Production
w
Product Detail
TOQIS Drawings
Drawings
cost
+~
I Design
layout ~
14
,t-- Concept changes [ [ sketch changes [[ Releowd drawing llHard tooling chongesl
changes
1~ Time
Design engineering. As common sense would dictate, a major can be seen, there are a number of possible choices that can have
portion of the team responsibilities will be represented by a a marked effect on the producibility of the component and still
member of the design engineering function. This is probably the provide the desired functionality, The choice of the appropriate
discipline most in need of the leavening effects brought by the level of control should be the result of a formal analysis, and not
other team members who can reflect the physical reality of the an automatic default to the standardized levels.
production process. It is also the discipline that may gain the most Dkciplines such as tool engineering or quality assurance may
from the structure imposed by the Y 14.5M regimen. not have the knowledge or the authority to determine the func-
Since moth of the latitude available to the downstream activity tional controls to be placed in the product definition. They do have
concerned with the production system design is circumscribed by the obligation and authority as part of the concurrent engineering
the product definition, it is useful to point out that the standard is team to work with the designer to achieve a functional product
intended only to cover the exercise of dimensioning and toleranc- while introducing producibility concerns in order to limit variabil-
ing methods as they relate to the product definition. Its use as a ity in the process. To accomplish this task, all members of the
gaging standard is specifically excluded. The design engineer has team need to be conversant with the controls and the com-
the primary responsibility for inclusion of the appropriate level of munication techniques that are incorporated in the geometric
control required for part functionality. The designer has the final tolerancing standard.
responsibility to determine and justify the level and type of control Manufacturing engineering. These are the individuals that
appropriate for the product function, and must realize that the can have the most influence on the delivered price of the product
results of such an analysis will not be nice neat numbers such through early consideration of the actual form that the manufac-
as are found in the standard tolerance block contained on tured components will take as a result of the processes that must be
many drawings. utilized. They introduce into the design discussions the next level
An example of the range of controls that might result from the of refinement of the manufacturing controls that will be used to
analysis of a mechanical fastener mating with a clearance hole is ensure the functionality of the design.
shown in Fig. 10-25. The criterion used to assess the alternatives The incorporation of process-related knowledge into the design
listed was that the head of the fastener cover the clearance hole, As phase by the manufacturing engineer will require the use of the
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 10
GEOMETRIC TOLERANCING STRUCTURE AND LANGUAGE FOR CE
r
1.499- .500] 4 xjZf .500 -.625
+\@ O@lA~B~
r
.750 min. 4x$2f .514 -.625
*
+] Eio14@l Al BlFJ
I ,
~ 2.5o * .03 /
Flg. 10-25 Example of alternative tolerance control for a 4-hole pattern, showing the range of possible callouts.
Y 14.5M standard. It provides a dictionary of appropriate terms responsibility for the final design of the product rests with the
and definitions which is available to all disciplines, including manufacturing group, since they have the necessary understanding
those whose education and experience do not encompass sufficient of process variability to completely specify the desired product.
manufacturing background to appreciate the variation of functional Tool and gage design. With the increasing emphasis on the
features that will be encountered in the fabrication of physical
Total Quality Management system, the inclusion of the individuals
components. The use of the underlying concepts in the standard
may provide the only mechanism able to initiate investigation of who will be responsible for much of the information upon which
these process variations prior to actual production. decisions and corrective actions will be based is paramount. From
Another point that should be considered is that elements of the the specification of in-process gaging to the design of custom
standard are, and have been, incorporated into the manufacturing tooling and inspection equipment, these people can have a marked
sciences during the entire course of their history. Many of the effect on the design of the overall manufacturing system.
concepts and controls that the standard identifies are commonplace Much of the fundamental activity of tool designers starts with
in the manufacture of discrete products. In many cases where the the positioning of the component in three-dimensional space. The
simultaneous design philosophy does not exist, the ultimate method used to accomplish this is referred to as the 3-2-1 location
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GEOMETRIC TOLERANCING STRUCTURE AND LANGUAGE FOR CE
technique. While not described in tooling texts in the specific the individuals responsible for this task, it is imperative that the
language of the Y 14.5M standard, this is a detailed application of control function also be adequately represented on the concurrent
the DRF concept. Further incorporation of the standards tech- engineering team.
niques exists in the ability to reduce the consumption of the It is somewhat of an adage that quality must be designed and
working tolerances by the tooling and gaging devices through the built into a product. It is impossible to inspect it in. If advocating
specification of geometric controls and the qualification of datum the creation of a concurrent engineering team implicitly includes
features. Concise statement of these controls will occur through this idea, then the members of the quality function must be
the use of the geometric characteristics allowed by the standard. conversant with the appropriate control concepts that may be
In the situation where dedicated tooling is to be included in the incorporated into the product definition, and actively participate in
manufacturing system, many of the functional characteristics that the design of the product and the necessary production system to
are identified as critical to the product definition must be incor- bring the product into being. This argues for the use of the
porated into the design of the tooling and gaging hardware. The Y14. 5M standard as the medium of communication at both the
communication of these concerns will take place within the assurance and control levels.
context of the DRFs involved in generating the product and the Purchasing. With firms making strategic decisions to out-
levels and types of feature control that will be required. source many of their component needs, or placing their reliance on
Metrologists. Because of the trend toward higher resolution JIT suppliers for important material requirements, it is necessary
inspection techniques, it is important that a member of the team be to bring the purchasing activity into team discussions at the
versed in dimensional metrology principles that involve the areas preliminary stages of design. This will allow the incorporation of
of measurement that will establish product conformance to the information relating to available materials and process capabilities
desired standards. This is to ensure the integrity of the database that might be acquired from outside the firm.
that the quality system will use. Since the design activity is focused on the generation of a
The employment of a metrologist on the team is also important precise definition of the product, it is imperative that the purchas-
to deal with the generation of a virtual model of the product ing representative be conversant with the Y 14.5M standard and its
through the use of computer-assisted inspection procedures. Many ability to communicate design intent. This representative must
current inspection techniques that are incorporated into computer- impress upon the firms suppliers the need to correctly apply and
assisted equipment do not conform to the definitions that are interpret the controls that are used to ensure product conformance.
contained in Y 14.5M; hence the ongoing activity to mathematize The import of these activities is to obtain lower quotations for the
the Y14.5M controls. The metrologist can be expected to identify resources that will result from the bonus tolerances available
where discrepancies exist between the inspection system and the through implementation of the Y14.5M controls and clarification
control that is being utilized, and to design techniques that may be of engineering requirements. Identification of the methods to
able to mitigate or overcome the effects of these errors of ascertain this conformance will take place prior to the supplier
interpretation. starting production, and will influence the choice of successful
The metrologist will be actively involved with identification of bidders on the work to be subcontracted and also the level of cost
other sources of error in the quality system. Some of the possible that the supplier will incur in performance of the contract. The
sources of variation in the areas of dimensional metrology include only method to ensure efficient and concise communication is to
the temperature requirements for the measurement of artifacts, base this control on the standard.
vibration isolation of the measurement systems, measurement Suppliers. It is important to include members of any principal
system stability, and others that may be identified for specific supplier organizations on the team. These members bring special-
applications. ized knowledge to the discussions that can have great impact on
Quality assurance and quality control. Membership of a the design of the product or the allied processing systems. The
representative of the Quality Assurance group is mandatory if the inclusion of supplier personnel on the engineering team results in
concerns of the individual team members are to be incorporated benefits from the suppliers proprietary knowledge, without an
into a system design that will assure the delivery of the product at increase in cost beyond that incurred for the resources that were to
the appropriate level of conformance. Implicit in the implementa- be purchased anyway.
tion of concurrent engineering is the idea that this methodology is Participation on the team will also give suppliers an incentive
incorporated within a larger system based on the principles of to undertake training in the use of the geometric controls covered
Total Quality Management. by the standard. Without knowledgeable people in their organiza-
The responsibilities of the quality representative maybe broken tions, it is impossible for suppliers to take an active part in the
into two separate tasks. The first of these is the quality assurance simultaneous engineering of the product, and this may provide the
activity, making sure that quality is what it should be. This is a host organization an early indication that alternative sources
planning function that designs the systems and provides the should be investigated to provide the needed resources.
procedures that are necessary to identify what quality is and to The suppliers activities are directed toward process related
assure that the system is constructed to obtain the desired out- tasks and require performance with respect to legally executed
comes. Additionally, the quality assurance function provides the contracts. Since the engineering drawings form part of the con-
necessary technical expertise of the quality engineering personnel tractual agreement, the individual suppliers will find positive
to deal with the types of experimental designs that will be used to benefits resulting from participation on the concurrent engineering
increase robustness of the product design and to facilitate the team. This resuhs from their ability to influence the product or
generation of the complete product definition. process design early in the cycle, where advantages may accrue
The second quality task is that of quality control, which from the process system design. This places the supplier in the
inchsdes all of the operational activities that make quality what it position of assuming more authority for the product outcomes than
is. This is the implementation of the system that is designed by the is the practice when a contract is based solely on solicited
quality assurance function. Because much of the control of the quotations obtained on product designs undertaken with no pro-
production system will be based on the information gathered by ducibility considerations.
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With many firms making strategic decisions to source major cause failure of the product function. Minor characteristics are not
portions of their manufacturing requirements external] y, the incor- likely to impair product performance.
poration of process-driven individuals into the design process early It is at this singe that design simplification should take place by
in the cycle will serve to reduce contractual disputes over product trying to eliminate from the design as many of the critical and
and process definition. This occurs through the early resolution of major characteristics as possible. It is also at this stage that the
misunderstandings or disagreements relating to the interpretation concurrent engineering team begins to have its greatest influence.
of the product definition. Ultimately, this will serve to reduce total Since the removal of these characteristics will alter the creative
delivery cost of the product. design, it is obvious that members of design engineering, market-
ing, manufacturing engineering, and the other identified disci-
plines will want to be actively involved in the decisions as to the
nature and importance of the elements being reviewed for change.
Design Layout Methodology Mechanical simulation. The first steps toward creation of a
A series of six steps (see Fig. 10-26) are used by the concurrent prototype are taken here. While a physical prototype is pmbabl y
engineering team to achieve the required product and process the most desirable method to simulate the design, with the
system design .34 While the steps that are outlined below may increasing emphasis on time as a strategic factor the iterations that
appear to be laborious and time-consuming, it can be argued with would be necessary to optimize the design through such techniques
some validity that as either the funds involved in a project or the would not be feasible. Additional y, the expense that would be
complexity of the product increases, the information that would incurred in executing numerous variations of the baseline proto-
have been developed in these six steps will be developed by the type design would be prohibitive. Thus, at this stage the use of
conscious implementation of this method or through trial-and-error computer-aided techniques to simulate the product and aid in
in the later phases of the product cycle. In any case, to reach the design optimization becomes feasible.
same goal either method must eventually develop the same These computer techniques now make it possible to simulate
database. The argument here is that the use of the methodology static, dynamic, kinematic, and spatial relationships, and achieve
causes this information to be developed at stages of the design many of the results that previously required the use of physical
where it may have the most positive financial impact on the prototypes. It is also possible to model some elements of the
project. If, for instance, the tolerance analysis is performed after production process with the use of computer application packages.
the tooling stage of the production cycle where physical elements One prominent example is the mold flow analysis that is routinely
of the system are now in existence, then changes to hard tooling performed in the design of injection-molded components. The
will be more expensive than if they occurred during the effect of all of this is to reach a level of product definition that
design stage. would have been gained only through the use of much time and
The depth of conformance to the methodology can be modified financial resources in the past, and may have been reached only
to reflect the nature of the product and the strategic goals of the after the product was in production. Thus, the use of these
firm. Not all of the steps that are suggested would be required in simulation techniques can now anticipate problem areas that
all instances. Decisions based upon experience may replace the once required the use of full system implementation.
implementation of the discrete steps that have been outlined. This stage of the product design, as mentioned, should involve
However, shortening the process in this manner should be done the simulation of the spatial relationships that are necessary to
with the consensus of the concurrent engineering team. assure product assembleability and function. Because of the need
Detailed assembly layout. Once the creative phase of the for a common technique to identify the necessary requirements to
product design has been completed, a detailed layout of the new achieve this, to communicate these desires in precise and accurate
product should be performed. The purpose of this layout is to form, and to incorporate the necessary controls into the simtrla-
establish a baseline from which discussions and decisions in the tions, the use of the ANSI Y14.5M standard is of critical
succeeding steps may proceed, importance.
Identification of critical characteristics. This step provides As discussed earlier, the primary intent of a creative design is
identification of the characteristics of the assembly that have the to provide a complete description of the elements that are required
preponderant influence on the functionality of the product. One to produce a functional product. This preliminary stage usually
method of classifying these characteristics is found in DOD does not generate sufficient information to provide a robust
STD-210 1 where the listed classes are critical, major, and minor. product definition that can immediately be placed into successful
The concern here is with the critical and major classifications. production. The controls that are contained in this dimensioning
Relating these definitions to the commercial sector, critical chw- and tolerancing standard can take the idealized design concepts
acteristics involve human safety and major characteristics can and refine them to reflect what is achievable in the physical world.
What they do is provide a form of checklist for consideration of
product deviations from perfect form and location, and of func-
I I
tional relationships that may have been ignored or given insuffi-
I
I
1,
2.
Detailed assembly
Identificdionofc
layout
riticol characteristics
I cient thought in the earlier stages of design. The act of considering
the use of these controls at this point slows the design process
I
I 3 Mecfmnical simulation
down at just the appropriate point to look at possible deviations
I from the ideal contained in the product definition. While this
I 4. Desgn brmswnbly
I technique adds to the length of this simulation phase, products
I 5 Design of experiments
I exhibiting characteristics that require the use of geometric controls
will all require the expenditure of this time, either during this
I 6. Physical prototyping
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The other major advantage of using the controls from the necessary if the functional requirements are to be met. The
standard is that the language used to describe the expected quantification of these parameters for the geometric characteristics
deviations is common to the manufacturing disciplines and will can be introduced at the needed level of precision by utilizing the
allow timely input from both the manufacturing and quality areas Y14.5M standard. The use of the standard is twofold, it allows
of the concurrent engineering team. The creation and perturbation precision in the specification of the characteristics, to reduce any
of the design baseline model will be more efficient and likely to uncertainty about what is actually being controlled. Additionally,
yield more optimum results if the downstream activities of the it prescribes the manner in which the magnitudes of the controls
manufacturing process can be folded into the simulation where the will be ascertained (while not specifically stating how gaging is to
appropriate parameter values and tolerances may be set. be performed), and allows intelligent choice of the operating
Consideration of design for assembly. It is at this stage of the characteristics and the variation that can be tolerated.
design that concerns arise relating to the use of design for Physical prototyping. Once the variables and attributes have
assembly (DFA) principles. Various sources show that in many been identified for experimentation, the next step is the use of
products the cost of assembly can exceed 50% of the total physical prototypes for both laboratory and field testing. The use
manufacturing costs. Because of the large impact on the cost of actual physical implementations of a worst-case analysis, based
structure of the product and due to other competitive and labor on the product definition, now introduces the necessary realities to
force concerns, the automatic assembly of the product should he the product. These prototypes are developed using virtual condi-
analyzed for strategic purposes. tion analyses based on either the maximum or least material
While whole texts have been written on the various techniques condition concepts. The use of such techniques makes the inter-
that may be utilized in DFA, the concern here is in the require- action between the product and the process vividly apparent.
ments that DFA imposes on the overall design of both product and The creation of prototypes requires preliminary definition of
process. A number of general design rules attributed to the components that comprise the assembly. The geometric
Boothroyd35 can facilitate automatic assembly. The incorporation controls will be applied to constrain the target parameters that are
of the geometric controls from Y 14. 5M finds an impetus in the use incorporated in the prototype. The rationale for this level of
of these DFA guidelines. control is to have the model generated to those target values that
The first of the guidelines of concern is the dictum that the are deemed most likely to provide useful information from testing
number of parts involved in the product should be minimized. As of the physical models. This stage of the process begins to
the number of components is reduced, the density of functional consume significant financial and time resources that may be
part features contained on a single component is likely to increase. conserved by the careful choice of model parameters.
As the interrelationships multiply, it becomes exceedingly impor-
tant that these design relationships are identified and communi-
cated. The only consistent method that currently exists is through Conformance to Product Definition
the use of the datum reference frame and the geometric controls The implementation of the design methodology just described
that are allowed under the Y14.5M standard. is effectively the system-level design of the desired product. In
Another rule that illustrates the importance of geometric proceeding to the stage of the design process where individual
controls is the suggestion to use a base upon which to create the components are considered, it is of paramount interest to realize
assembly. This is an excellent example of the need to maintain that work dealing with component design, both product and
functional interrelationships and of the need for a specified DRF to process, must conform to the product definitions that have been
accomplish the required control as components are added to the established by the system-level design.
assembly base. [n particular, Boothroyd mentions that this base Much of what should be of interest at this step of the design
should be readily located in a stable position. This conforms process relates to the component product/process system and the
with the purpose of the DRF specification when dealing with ability of these systems to bring the product to physical reality. As
individual components and the assemblies that they are part of. such, there are some critical factors that must be considered as the
While the two roles that are mentioned above deal with the design cycle progresses.
complete or assembled product, rules are also available for Concurrent engineering team. To achieve conformance to
individual part components. The main guidance relates to the need the product definition, the implementation of the simultaneous
to orient these parts in appropriate positions for assembly. Defi- engineering concept has as its primary goal zero engineering
nition of the DRF places the component in that singular position, changes. The use of the team concept makes efficient and effective
in three-dimensional space, that will allow assembly. use of scarce human resources in a decision-oriented environment,
Design of experiments. The intention of this phase of the cycle empowering the team to use the specialized knowledge of each of
is to ensure the functional integrity of the product. The main its members to achieve this goal.
concern is the establishment of target parameters, required for the Inherent in the team concept is the assumption that the
functional response of the product and its sensitivity to variation in individual members of the team are at the same location, or at least
these values. Through the use of Design of Experiments, the in close proximity, to facilitate the necessary communication. The
tolerances that are to be applied to the design parameters, which interdependence of the members makes it imperative that interac-
control the variability of product performance, can be assessed. In tion can take place in a nonjudgmental atmosphere. This is most
a product composed of a number of components or subsystems, likely to occur when communication can take place through both
the results of these activities will allow decisions concerning the formal and informal organizational channels, and is enhanced by
partition of tolerances to each of the subsystems. These values are the team performing its tasks at one she. Where team members are
the controllable design parameters that determine the functional dispersed geographically, the use of computer-aided design and
outcomes of the product operation. They may include, but are not manufacturing systems may allow additional communication
limited to, the spatial relationships required for product operation. channels that can overcome some of the difficulties that can be
In assessing the target values of spatial characteristics and their caused by the decentralization of the concurrent engineering
associated tolerances, an appropriate level of precision will be functions.
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The charter of the concurrent engineering team is twofold. The sional metrology, the Y 14.5M standard becomes an invaluable
first task is to take the feasible solutions to customer needs and tool to allow intelligent and structured discussion of the controls
reduce them to a concrete design. The team will make usc of desired. As the level of sophistication of the product definition is
analytical tools such as quality function deployment (QFD) to increased, the ability to achieve the desired functionality of the
achieve a specific, marketable product. The success of this task is product requires more control than is afforded by conventional size
evaluated by the existence of functional physical prototypes. and location techniques. Since the process uniformity may be
The teams second task is the reduction of the physical model assessed by looking at product uniformity, it becomes ever more
to a complete and unique defkrition of the product, with specifi- obvious thdt the standard will provide the only common ground
cations of all pertinent components to be included in the assembly. from which to quantify the variables to be studied. The implication
The specific geometric design of the product, with recognition of in the use of product samples to assess process capability is that
the constraints on possible variations that can be tolerated in the measurements are involved to obtain information on the underly-
fabricated components, is undertaken through the use of the design ing parameters. These must be defined, measuring techniques
methodology based on the concepts found in Y 14.5M. established, and levels of error ascertained to proceed. This
The cumulative effect of these two tasks establishes the quality succeeds only through the application of the standard.
of the product; this might be defined as <absohrte conformance to Team design of manufacturing process. Due to the interac-
absolute] y correct specifications. 36 The import of this definition tions that can be expected between the product design, the
is to reduce the need for changes in either the product or the materials chosen, and the manufacturing processes involved, the
process. The team is expected to do the job correctly the first time. design and specification of the manufacturing system are under-
Error measurement analysis. In determining whether there is taken by the concurrent engineering team.
conformance to the product definition, it is important to realize Since some definition of the product has already been specified
that the information that is acquired to make this assessment when consideration of the manufacturing system begins early in
contains some measure of uncertainty. It is not unusual to find that the product cycle, the team should have available the results of the
the underlying information taken using dimensional metrology baseline design layout, the critical characteristics analysis, and
techniques may contain errors that consume from 50 to 300% of information relating to the process capabilities. Discussions of the
the product tolerance, Setup error alone may comprise sf)~o of the process design will focus on the achievement of a process
measurement error, 37 sequence that obtains the desired level of conformance to the
With regard to achieving product conformance to dimensional desired functional characteristics.
standards, one of the major sources of setup error is associated At this stage of the system ciesign, individual components of
with kinematic control of the workpiece during production. the product assembly are being considered, and many of the
Incorrect duplication of the functional DRF in system design, or influences of component variability on product functionality can
the use of multiple process DRFs in excess of those that are really only be determined by assessing what have been previously
functionally necessary, probably introduces the largest component identified as functional features of the components. For commu-
of error into the process. These are faults that can be eliminated nication purposes, the discussion of the variables that influence
through the intelligent use of the DRF concepts that are embodied these characteristics must be described in accurate terms that allow
in the standard. complete communication of the designers intent. The Y 14.5M
It is part of the concurrent engineering teams responsibility concepts are the only techniques that can specify, in a quantitative
and the reason that a metrologist and quality representative are fashion, the needed controls in the dimensional area.
included to quantify the effects of the errors that are present both Team design of gaging and inspection. With variability
in manufacturing and in the allied inspection and gaging pro- inherent in all of the physical stages that the product passes
cesses. Establishment of the level of measurement error is essen- through on its path to realization, it is of prime interest to consider
tial to assure that the information taken and used in decision how conformance of the final product is to be ascertained.
making will lead to reliable results. The emphasis throughout this section has been on the need for
Machine and process capabilities. As part of the information standardization of the language and concepts that are used in the
base that supports the simultaneous engineering activities, the product cycle. In the area of dimensional metrology, this standard-
concept of process capability has assumed great importance. To ization is achieved through the implementation of the
support decision making, the quantification of the ability to hold Y14.5M concepts.
the required tolerances is of tremendous value. Assessment of the Looking at industry acceptance of what is a voluntary standard,
variability of selected processes and their influence on conform- it is possible to find various degrees of compliance both internally
ance of the product to the specified standards allows appropriate and extemall y to the use of the Y 14.5M methodology. To ensure
selection of the process sequences that will form the manufactur- that precise definitions of the gaging and inspection techniques
ing system. will be applied, the concurrent engineering team should arrive at
Placing a vahre on the inherent uniformity of the process takes consensus solutions to the specific problems that will be involved
place at two levels of concern. The first level deals with categories in assessing product conformance and the techniques that must be
of manufacturing processes. An example would be the general applied to overcome these problems.
category of metal removal processes with a subcategory of It should be recognized that there is no accepted gaging
milling. The second level involves the particular pieces of ma- standard currently in existence; the utilization of techniques based
chinery that a company might use in implementing these pro- on the Y 14. 5M standard is still subject to some discretion on the
cesses. Thus, consideration of process capability occurs at both the part of the individuals designing or implementing the inspection
general and the specific levels. processes. The Y 14. 5M standard specifically excludes its use as a
In discussions of process capability, a commonality of defini- gaging standard and does not provide reference to any other
tion is required that allows for the precise specification of the document for guidance. In the international arena, only the
characteristics that are to be controlled. Without this definition, it ISO/TR 5460 technical report gives guidance as to how the
is not possible to quantify the capability. In the area of dimen- geometric controls may be inspected, However, this document is
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also not a gaging or inspection standard, and in fact indicates that Component Analysis
the verification principles illustrated do not allow for unique The design methodology outlined above for the end product at
interpretation of the requirements. the system level is not sufficiently detailed for application at the
Figure 10-27 illustrates the possibility for the team to use component level. A procedure (see Fig. 10-28) is offered to deal
surface plate techniques to replicate functional gaging or to with the various stages of design involving the individual compo-
establish the feasibility of measurement of the desired controls nents that are assembled into this final product. 38
based on open setup methods. Establishment of a method to Datum reference frame. The concurrent engineering team
determine conformance to the controls in the product definition is determines the single DRF that will orient the component in
an important and often ignored concept. Any controls that are three-dimensional space in its next assembly position.
employed must be verified at the level specified. If the team It is impossible to do this unless each element of the assembly
cannot decide upon and simulate the required inspection tech- has been completely specified and all of the functional relation-
niques, or cannot create a procedure of sufficient resolution for the ships have been defined and agreed to by the concurrent engineer-
data to be meaningful, the controls should not be applied to the ing team. Hence, the need exists for the completion of the design
product. Of all the possible characteristics that may be used to layout of the product assembly before attempting to design or
control geometry of the part, only circularity and cylindricity fabricate any of the constituent components. The release of
cannot be verified through the use of surface plate techniques. component details for manufacturing prior to agreement on the
Thus, for products in the mainstream of manufacturing, there is a assembly layout will inflict engineering changes on the process as
relatively inexpensive method to determine the appropriateness of the assembly definition is completed.
the controls that are being considered. A simplistic example, to illustrate the simulation of the next
The only waytoensure auniform method to get reliability in level of assembly and subsequent incorporation of the DRF
the gaging and inspection processes is to have the team define the contained in this definition in the tooling, is shown in Fig. 10-29.
procedures and techniques that will be incorporated in the design The functional interfaces between the part under analysis and its
of the product delivery system. In some sense, this is as it should mating component are used in the discussions that lead to team
be. Itisnot possible todefine allofthe uses towhichastmdard consensus on the DRF. The next steps of the analysis will build
may be put or anticipate all of the contingencies that a particular logically on this choice to define the production tooling and
component may impose on the interpretive abilities of the stan- inspection fixtures.
dards. The only way to maintain strict control is the conscious Fixture layout. Using the DRF that has been specified in the
consideration of the product and its controls on an individual basis first phase of component design, a fixture layout replicates the
proceedingfmm fundamental principles. next assembly position. In the most simplistic case, this fixture
layout will look like the mating components that are part of the
next level of assembly. In more difficult cases, features may need
to be added to the component design, such as tooling holes,
bosses, or tabs, to provide features of sufficient size to allow
kinematic control. The fixture layout then takes on additional
characteristics in order to provide the location and holding surfaces
necessary for part orientation.
Carrying forward the example that was contained in Fig.
Angle plates 10-29, Fig. 10-30 shows how the production fixture mirrors the
component and simulates the next higher level of the assembly.
While there is admittedly much work to be performed to arrive at
complete fixture specification, the example illustrates the fact that
the basic concepts around which the fixture is to bc built are
defined with the choice of the DRF in the first step of this
methodology.
Gaging and inspection. Referring to the DRF identified in the
first step can determine whether any of the datum features require
inspection. The set of features that together form the DRF may
require GO, NOT-GO, variables, or functional gaging.
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Figure 10-31 shows that inspection fixture design is facilitated If the work is to be retained by the firm and members of the
by the choice of the DRf?, just as the design of the production appropriate depmments were involved with the simultaneous
fixtures was. The implementation of the design techniques that are engineering of the product, the part details and the fixture layouts
explained circumscribes the ability of tool designers to use are sufficient to provide complete product and process definition.
discretion in the creation of the production and inspection tooling When the production of the components is to be performed
packages. The variability of the production process is identified by externally and the suppliers did not participate in the simultaneous
the concurrent engineering team before hard tooling is purchased, engineering activities, then hard tooling should be fabricated and
and the decisions relating to the variability are communicated for provided to the supplier in lieu of the tooling layouts. This ensures
use as specific design rules in generating these packages. the communication of the teams explicit definition of product
While the example in Figs. 10-29 through 10-31 is kept at a conformance, and allows for no discretion in the interpretation of
low level of simplicity for discussion purposes, it is recognized the controls that are contained in the product definition.
that the typical industrial part may have additional levels of Engineering changes. While the goal placed before the team
complexity that will make the design process more difficult. The states that no engineering changes should be necessary, it is
reliance on the functional DRF as a starting point is still advocated recognized that this level of perfection is not likely to be obtained.
as the most direct route to an optimum design for the process Thus, any changes that are to be considered should be analyzed
tooling. It is certainly better than the arbitrary choice of locating using the design and the fixture layouts as a guide. It is also
surfaces that may arise from allowing the design activities to take implied here that the approval and institution of these changes will
place in a multitude of locations with numerous designers making only occur following achievement of consensus by the members of
individual choices as to the appropriate references to be employed. the original concurrent engineering team.
The argument is for an organized and logical approach to the
system design, rather than unorganized but possibly rapid execu-
TOOLING AND FUNCTIONAL GAGING
tion of the production design that will require engineering changes
The ultimate purpose of incorporating geometric controls
in later phases of the project.
into the product definition is to provide early indication of areas
Fixture controls. Once the inspection requirements have been
of product variation that must be explicitly addressed. A final
determined, these relationships are embodied in Y 14.5M controls
discussion relating to the impact of these controls on the process
that are placed on the fixture layout. These are features that must
deals with considerations that involve tooling and
be related to each other due to functional criteria and to the datum
functional gaging.
reference frame of the fixture.
Tooling package. After the controls have been added to the
fixture, both the component detail drawing and the fixture layout General Principles
should be bundled together for any manufacturing planning In proceeding with the design of the process, much of the
purposes or for solicitation of quotations from suppliers .- - preliminary information required to start this phase is to be found
Fig. 10-30 Tooting for Fig. 10-29 component showing how drill jig
Fig. 10-29 Example of simple methodology. simulates mating part.
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in the product design layout and the details of the product essence appears as a mirror image of the part with
components. A number of general principles can be listed that appropriate controls to achieve the desired function and
draw from the previous discussion relating to datum reference relationships of the workpiece. Tolerances associated with
frames and the geometric controls that have been mentioned. the tooling are then determined by the application of the
appropriate geometric controls in the case of production
1. In designing the tooling and gaging for the components,
tooling, or the appropriate gagemakers tolerances for the
each of these designs simulates the mating part of the next
gaging. In either tooling or gaging design, the criteria
level of assembly. In the ideal case, the tooling will contain
applied to the level of control is derived from the desire not
features that replicate the functional surfaces of the mating
to use more than a specific percentage of the working
component and locate the workpiece using the functional
tolerance. Normally discussed figures are a maximum of
DRF that was identified during the component level
50% for the production tooling and 10% for gaging.
design phase.
5, Parts that can be gaged practically can be tooled practi-
2. The primary criterion applied to the design of the tooling is
cally. In defining the techniques to be used in verifying the
that it be functional with respect to the mating part at its
controls, the team will also determine the actual features
most critical interchangeability size. This critical size is
that can be used for tooling purposes. As pointed out
identified in the standard as the virtual condition, which in
previously, the controls that are applied to the details must
this case is the maximum material condition plus or minus
be such that verification is possible; this implies that
the cumulative effects of all of the possible deviations from
accessible and substantial features are used. If this results
perfect form, orientation, and location.
in an acceptable situation for gaging and inspection, then
3. Complete definition of the product will prevent arbitrary
there is a high probability that the same features and
decisions by the tool and gage designer. As already
analogous techniques can be used in tooling.
mentioned, the goal of the whole process is consensus on
6 All tooling and gage design should incorporate Taylors
the definition of the product which will eliminate the need
Principle. Since the final product will be an assembled
for subsequent engineering changes. By the time the actual
product that is intended to contain interchangeable compo-
construction of the hard tooling commences, there should
nents, the application of this principle to deal with all
be no areas left to the discretion of the tool designer. In
interrelated features is imperative. It dictates the criteria for
effect, the tooling and gaging is designed by the concurrent
process design and inspection methods selection.
engineering team.
7 The use of one datum reference frame will minimize setup
4. In designing the tooling, all of the necessary functional
and measurement error in the manufacturing and inspection
dimensions are to be BASIC dimensions as defined in
operation. In actual practice, this ideal situation may be
ANSI Y 14.SM. Specification of the tooling design in
difficult, if not impossible, to achieve. The introduction of
multiple DRFs into the manufacture of a single component
will then affect the outcome in two areas. First, it will
introduce process tolerance stacks that will require charting
to ascertain the probable outcomes. Second, the multiple
DRFs will introduce measurement errors whose magnitude
will vary directly with the number of DRFs involved.
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functional desires but does not allow the precise specification of component does the inspection process generate information
functional intent that would be contained in the complete specifi- pertinent to product assembly. Anything less than complete
cation of a DRF. application of these techniques creates information that is mean-
Multiple DRFs. The use of multiple DRFs complicates the ingless in terms of predicting assembly or function.
design of the manufacturing process. As a consequence, the design Coordinate measuring machines. Since there are trends
goal of a single DRF that is based on part function should be towards the use of more sophisticated inspection and gaging
adhered to whenever feasible. This goal may not be achieved in all techniques, one major concern related to the inspection system
cases. Explicit recognition of this fact is found in ANSI Y 14. 8M- involves the validity of this information and its application to
1989 dealing with castings and forgings. This particular standard product assembly. Two specific methods that are of particular
allows for the use, where an appropriate need arises, of both a importance involve the use of a coordinate measuring machine
preliminary DRF to get the part out of the rough and for a (CMM)and the application of in-process gaging. The following
machining DRF to generate the end item. Therefore it directly remarks are directed towards the CMM applications, but are
introduces the concept of functional datums vis-a-vis process germane to any discussion of in-process gaging.
datums. It should be mentioned for completeness tha( the use of The use of CMMsin determining product acceptability relies
datum targets provides an alternative to the preliminary and on an understanding of how this piece of equipment relates to
machining DRFs mentioned above where the targets can provide alternate methods of accomplishing similar tasks, and also the
the desired level of product control. definition of the characteristics being verified. To make a
The needless introduction of multiple DRFs may have an comparison between two-point measurements, CMMS, and func-
insidious effect on the choice of tolerances and consequent tional gages, they may be separated into either continuous or
conformance to specifications. The use of any other DRF but the discrete devices.
functional datums will require finer tolerances than would other- A functional gage is in effect a continuous device that depends
wise be necessary. It also presents the need to partition the upon its ability to mimic the mating part to determine conformance
allowable variation in order to achieve the desired product char- to the assembly criteria contained in the product definition. By its
acteristics. The possibility then exists that rejection might occur very nature, itconforms tothedictum of Taylors Principle. With
for parts that are still functional but do not meet the more exacting correct design of the functional gage, assembleability is assured.
and expensive levels of these intermediate controls. Coordinate measuring machines are discrete devices that rely
While all concurrent engineering activities should use the on sampling techniques and mathematical algorithms (not neces-
functional datums, in many cases the product complexity and the sarily correct) to recreate a virtual condition model of the feature.
design of the individual features may make use of a single DRF While the functional gage is also a model, within its level of
impractical or impossible. A conflict between the choice of a accuracy it comes the closest to simulating the simultaneous
functional or a process DRF can be resolved by determining which existence of the boundaries of the interrelated features that cause
one gives the most reproducible and repeatable results. The assembly to occur. The CMM inspection technique introduces a
advantage of the simultaneous design of the product and the number of possible sources of error that must be accounted for in
process is that the introduction of process DRFs occurs early in the the application of the results to determine assembleability.
product cycle, where their effects on product function and cost can One of the concerns involving the CMM relates to the probing
be determined and appropriate methods implemented to limit the of a single feature to establish size and conformance to geometric
functional variation. controls. This relies on a discrete sample, which may not include
Functional gaging. Functional gaging is the simulation of the all of the surface elements of each feature that may affect the
mating component at itsmost critical assembly condition. Because assembly process. While an increase in the sample size can alter
individual components contain features that must be related to the magnitude of the error, it still may not be a sufficiently
each other for assembly to occur, the functional gage must check accurate map of the surface if assembly conditions are the final
these relationships in a manner that mimics assembly conditions. arbiter of inspection success. The standard requires a perfect
The functional gage does not provide stiict control based solely on envelope to simulate assembly at its worst condition, and the
adherence tosize dimensions of an actual part. It follows that the CMM in its current form does not generate this boundary.
possibility exists for rejection on the basis of size while the The second and possibly more critical concern addresses the
component will still pass a functional check. This eventuality inspection of related features in a sequential rather than simulta-
should be considered in the application of size and geometric neous fashion. The probing of single points on a single feature
controls by the team. violates Taylors Principle. The inspection process does not
Taylors Principle gives an exact statement of how this, the duplicate the interrelationship of the multiple features that is
desire to simulate the critical condhion of the mating component, necessary for product function and intimately concerned with
is to be incorporated into the design of either tooling or gaging assembly conditions.
elements. The tooling must simultaneously check all of the A third and more fun(kdmental problem is the use of the CMM
interrelated features at their most critical assembly conditions. to establish datum precedence that is part of the DRFmethodol-
These conditions include the maximum material size and the ogy. The use of the probe and the underlying algorithm to
cumulative effects of tolerances of position or other appropriate determine a components location in space, without the use of
geometric controls. some type of gaging tixture, does not establish the components
All of these ideas are reiterated here to impress upon the location based upon the precedence of the datum features that
inspection system designersthe concurrent engineering team would replicate the conditions of assembly. The generation of a
theneed fortheinclusion of these concepts in the final specifica- model based upon a best-fit set of orthogonal planes, determined
tion of the system. The use of two-point measurements, or the bythesampling techniques ofthisdlscrete device, can introduce
individual inspection of the various functional features through the measurement errors of sufficient magnitude to significantly effect
use of CMMs, does not ensure assembly. Only through the use of the use of the CMM-generated data to determine product conform-
simultaneous inspection of all of the interrelated features on the ance. The use of a gaging fixture to establish the required
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setting inspection policy, since the use of this condition (RFS) definition at the most effective points of the design cycle, these
eliminates the additional manufacturing tolerance that is available activities must be undertaken by a concurrent engineering team
under the MMC concepts. It also prohibits the use of functional conversant with the Y 14.5M techniques and terminology. As
gages. Thus, under uncontrolled condhions, the indiscriminate emphasized, the use of the dimensioning and tolerancing standard,
choice of the key characteristics and the use of SPC with these when understood and used by all members of the team, is of
characteristics could increase manufacturing costs. paramount importance in providing a major methodology to tie the
If SPC is to be used, the parameters to which it is applied must elements of the design cycle together. It provides a precise
be chosen with discretion and based on part functionality with the language and documentation technique that facilitates the achieve-
view that it actually improves product quality. The choice of key ment of the goals of simultaneous engineering.
characteristics should not be set in isolation and in an arbitrary In proceeding with their tasks, the concurrent engineering team
manner to satisfy contractual requirements. It is important to make will use function and feature relationships to provide the underly-
the connection between the use of the Y 14.5M standard, with its ing criteria used in assessing the ongoing activities of the product
design-intent emphasis, and the decision process used by the and process design cycle. Critical to this effort is the concept of
concurrent engineering team in determining the identified vari- kinematic control, incorporated into the data reference frame, that
ables that will be monitored. provides the fundamental basis for the geometric design of discrete
products. Much of the variation found in the production of the
SUMMARY product can he quantified and controlled by careful selection of the
The use of the control concepts found in the ANSI Y 14.5M appropriate datum reference frame and the relevant controls that
standard forces the recognition of the variability inherent in the are included in these datnms.
design and manufacturing cycle. It departs from the inadequate The methodologies and techniques that are codified in the
and fallacious design and documentation practices of the past that ANSI Y 14.5M standard are time- and cost-effective tools that are
came close to assuming that what appeared on the engineering capable of creating product and process definitions that will reduce
drawing regarding shape and size information was sufficient to the amount of unanticipated variation found in the design cycle.
create an acceptable product in the manufacturing processes; in They provide an eftlcient means to do the job of design correctly
essence, the perfect part configuration shown in the graphic the first time, and to do it during the phases of the cycle where the
representation was deemed obtainable in the production facility. largest return on resources may be found. They do not provide
Introduction of the advocated geometric control concepts increases cookbook approaches to product design that reduce the level of
the need to reconcile the product definition with actual product knowledge required of the product designer, but they will amply
outcomes, fundamentally altering the previous product control reward the effort needed to train the members of the concurrent
techniques based only on size and use of fit calculations. Design of engineering team. In any event. the results of the applications of
the product and the process is now placed in a mode where control the design methodologies will be achieved at the end of the
is instituted based not only on size, but on functional and product cycle either by logical application of geometric control
interrelational criteria. within the context of concurrent engineeringthe preferred
Due to the broad range of knowledge required to anticipate method or through the illogical application of trial-and-error
process variation and incorporate this information into the product design. For a profit making concern, there is only one choice.
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ENVIRONMENTALLY RESPONSIBLE PRODUCT DESIGN
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exists for the recycled polycarbonate/ABS alloy. Similar ap- them perfectly acceptable candidates if there are locations for
proaches may be possible with other compatible materials. grasping the parts during the disassembly operation.
The other material selection issue is the choice of equivalent Adhesives. Adhesives will typically create more problems
materials. For instance, many materials are used in applications than they solve when designing for disassembly. Unless they
requiring wear resistance. One of (he most common is unfilled are water or solvent soluble, brute force is the only efficient
acetal resin. However, filled versions of polycarbonate can also be method of disassembley. Unfortunate y, adhesive residue is
used in some cases. If the exterior of the application uses often left on the parts and must be cleaned before the parts
polycarbonate, should the designer select acetal or the filled can be recycled. This makes joint design critical not only for
polycarbonate resin for the part needing wear resistance? Will the bond strength, but also for accessibility for cleaning. Water-
selection of filled polycarbonate eliminate all acetal parts from the soluble adhesives are available, but are inappropriate for
product, thereby eliminating one material from the separation and many environments. Solvent-soluble adhesives are also
recycling process? If so, this seems to be a responsible decision. available, but solving the adhesive problem may create
But there is a complicating factor: the filler in the polycarbon- another environmental problem in the disposal of the solvent.
ate may be considered a contaminant by a recycler trying to sell . Thermal methods. Ultrasonic welding, spin welding, vibra-
recycled pol ycarbonate. If the wear-resistant part represents a
tion welding, hot plate welding, and hot gas welding all
small portion of all poiycarbonate in the product, it may be
involve reeking the thermoplastic to form a strong bond.
considered an acceptable level of contamination by the recycler
These are not reversible processes with current technology,
otherwise it may be better to use the recyclable acetal and accept
and force the disassembler to utilize brute force disassembly.
the additional disassembly and separation in order to recycle the
However. since they typically bond similar or at least
product fully.
compatible materials, there may be no reason to separate the
Additionally, there is one other option. It maybe economically
parts, saving a disassembly operation.
desirable to utilize nonwear-resistant materials and an appropriate
lubricant to achieve the same result. The concerns with this . Heat staking. Heat staking is actually a thermal fastening
approach are the amount of lubricant required, whether or not the process, and also requires brute force disassembly under
part must be cleaned before recycling, and the ability to clean the most circumstances. However, because there is typically a
part. If the lubricant represents an acceptable level of contamina- small amount of material that actually provides the fastening
tion, this is an extremely attractive alternative. force (the tip of a pin or other protrusion), it can often be
Ideally, the goal of material selection in design for disassembly overcome with minimal effort and is therefore a viable
is to eliminate the need for disassembly at all. If the product uses alternative for man y designs.
only one material it does not have to be disassembled, and L,, uLu,, w.au,,,~. 1111> ylULCXY 1> U1lC UL L1lG LrUIULC>l U1 LIIG
recycling becomes much more attractive economically. Although thermal assembly processes, but leaves the metal (or metal-
this is not a realistic goal for many products, it is often achievable containing material) inside the part. This can be a problem
for subsystems within the overall product. when utilizing brute force disassembley, as the metal will be
The secondary responsibility of material selection within envi- considered a contaminant and must be removed before
ronmentally responsible design is that of material identification. recycling. However, it offers the option of also utilizing
Identification logos have been developed that facilitate separation reverse assembly, as the metal is still in the part and can be
of materials, but for durable and semi-durable goods may repre- reheated by simply re-energizing an electromagnetic field
sent a method too slow to be economical. Use of color to quickly around the metal. This can allow clean, quick, and efficient
identify material type is a more efficient method, but may require separation and recovery of the parts and materials.
styling changes. Screws. Many people believe that this type of fastener is
Changing materials during production represents a new chal- inherently contrary to design for disassembly and its goal of
lenge, too. How can a disassembler be advised of a switch in reduced pints and fasteners. Screws offer the option of
materials, so that parts made from the old material and the new reverse assembly through utilization of a drill with screw-
material are properly separated? Color identification seems to be driver attachment to back the screw out. Standardization of
the quickest method when thinking of the person trying to quickly screw types and sizes can minimize the number of attach-
identify and disassemble the product. ments required to disassemble the product. Brute force
Fastening methods are the heart of design for disassembly. disassembly can be achieved by simply pulling the screws
Fastening points are well identified during the process of designing out of their bosses, but the screw must still be tracked. If it
the part for assembly, but now an additional process must be is still attached to one part and not removed, it can cause
considered. There are basically two methods of disassembly: serious damage to resin reprocessing equipment. Note that
reverse assembly and brute force, Reverse assembly is exactly either method requires that the screw be accessible.
what the name implies if a fastener is screwed in, it is screwed Inserts. The usc of inserts creates an additional part for
out; if two parts are snap-fit together, they are snapped apart. disassembly. Notonly must thescrew beremoved from the
Brute force is much less elegant, but often the most efficient product, butthemetal insert must also be removed. As with
disassembly method. Parts are just pulled apart or cut apart, screws, access to the insert is critical. Currently, most
depending on the strength of the fastening method. inserts are removed with brute forceeither punched out
Regardless of the fastening method used in the product design, with a hammer stroke or cut out (along with some plastic)
two questions must be answered: first, which method of disassem- and thrown away. Ultrasonic inserts may offer some oppor-
bly will be used? Second, given that method of disassembly, are tunity for reverse assembly, but the cost of fixturing must be
the fastening (separation) points accessible? For instance, pro- offset by high-volume disassembly operations. As with
cesses such as heat staking and spin welding are not designed for screws, inserts intended for reverse assembly should be
separation, but the brute force disassembly method may make standardized to facilitate disassembly.
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. Snap-fit latches. Snap-fit latches are the ideal fastener for the with the product image? Soft drink producers are very concerned
design for disassembly philosophy. Removal of a snap-fit about the use of recycled resin because of the potential for negative
latch is inherently both reverse assembly and brute force connotations to their customers.
disassembly. They require no additional parts for separation, Additionally, there may be regulatory concerns. The FDA is
contain no additional materials to provide possible contam- currently indecisive with regard to its authority over the use of
ination, and can be removed quickly and efficient] y. recycled resins. Some contend ithas no authority, others believe it
Seccmdary operations generally create problems when design- must be involved. Underwriters Laboratories only asks that the
ing for disassembly. This is primarily because they involve material meet thesame requirements as virgin resin. Regardless of
additional materials that provide a function unachievable by plastic the agency, there are regulatory requirements that must often be
in those circumstances. For instance, painting involves coating the met, and it is only safe to assume that eventually, if not now, the
plastic with a material that may be a contaminant for the burden of proof will fall on the manufacturer and the material
reprocessor. In selecting a paint system, consider whether or not it supplier. Recycled material purchasing must be basedon specifi-
must be removed, and, if so, how? Two sources must be consulted cations, as with virgin material.
to adequately address this problem: the paint supplier for appro- Last, but not least, there is confusion about exactly what
priate system selection and the resin reprocessor for identification recycled means, Most experts break recycled materials down
and verification of acceptable contamination levels. into tbree sub-categories: post-industrial, post-processor, and post-
Insulating foams raise another issue. Blow-molded parts some- consumer. Each category represents material that has been recy-
times are filled with foam for insulation or structure, leaving the cled at a different stage of the production process.
foam in a location that is virtually impossible to reach. Can the Post industrial materials. Post-industrial recycled material is
selection of foam material prevent this problem? Use of expanded where most recycled plastic comes from today. This material is
polystyrene foam (EPS) when molding polystyrene parts, or from resin suppliers who have manufactured material that does not
GECET@ foam as the filler for Noryl@ parts, may eliminate the meet their internal specifications. Rather than dispose ofit or store
need for separation of materials. it indefinitely, they will sell it at a reduced price to a reprocessor
In the computer industry and the automotive industry, electro- who can work it in with good material and sell it within their
plating is often used. Although the plating is theoretically remov- specifications.
able, it is not currently being done on a large scale. In some cases, Post-processor material. Post-processor recycled material is
the metal is more valuable than the plastic, so the plastic is resin that has been sold to a molder and has been used, but did not
degraded to recover the metal. Ultimately, recovery of plated make good parts. It may have been used for purging, it might have
plastic parts will probably require a method of reversing the been scrap runners, it may just be start-up parts that are discarded
plating process. for part quality reasons. Regardless, if there is no product within
Labeling can be achieved within environmentally responsible the processors facility in which to make use of the regrind, the
design, but also requires some thought. Embossing is obviously an material may be sold to a reprocessor.
attractive choice. Hot stamping also seems to be an acceptable Post-consumer material. Post-consumer recycled material is
method from the reprocessors point of view. When a solid or film material that actually was used in its intended end-use environ-
label is required, the problem reverts to material selection and ment, was replaced or discarded, and ended up at the reprocessor.
adhesive choice. If the label material is the same as the substrate The best example of this category is recycled 2-liter soda bottles.
(such as polycarbonate on polycarbonate) no disassembly is Regardless of how correctly recycled material is defined, most
required. Adhesive choice is also pertinent-is it an acceptable consumers believe all recycled material is post-consumer recycled
level of contamination, or must it be removed? material. The only sure way to avoid potential credibilityy problems
is to identify the recycled material content by category. This will
require an education program to avoid confusing customers, but
will be safer in the long run. Focus group research has shown that
Specification of Recycled Materials in certain markets, use of recycled material can be a significant
The bottom line for environmentally responsible design is that marketing advantage. However, misleading customers, even un-
itmust be economical ifit istobea solution to the problem. Even intentionally, will negate that advantage.
ifevery designer designed products for disassembly inorder to be
recycled, that still doesnt address the bottom line. Designers must
specify recycled resins in products in order to create a market for
the materials becoming available. To avoid underestimating the
importance ofthis step, consider therecycled paper market. Many
people are not aware that used U.S. newspapers are being shipped
in massive quantities to Europe because there is not enough SUMMARY
demand here forrccycled paper. Newspaper recyclcrs are going Five years ago, nobody foresaw that today designers would be
out of business, not because of supply, but because there is no seriously discussing environmentally responsible design and de-
demand. That must nothappen inthe plastics market. sign for disassembly. Five years from now, it is entirely possible
However, designers cannot arbitrarily decide to specify a that todays product designers will be the managers in charge of
recycled resin without considering the ramifications-and not all disassembling and recycling the products they designed. The
of them are strictly product-related. First, consider the target design community must seriously participate in the drive for
market for the product. Does the use of a recycled resin imply a recycling of plastics.
benefit or a drawback for the product? Is cost an issue? Will the Source reduction, design for recyclability through design for
use of recycled material allow the company to maintain or improve disassembly, and specification of recycled materials are the ways
itsgood citizen image? Second, the product positioning within the in which designers must drive industry and societytoward
market must also be considered. Will use of a recycled resin fit environmentally responsible design.
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CI+APTERIO
HUMAN FACTORS ISSUES IN PRODUCT DESIGN
n
these inputs to engineers and designers are frequently absent from
manufacturing engineering gatherings. Somehow, the two groups I
must communicate in order to achieve the DFM objective.
In this section, human factors issues relevant to designing
I
products for manufacturability are discussed in some detail. The
information is intended primarily for manufacturing engineers
rather than human factors specialists; at the same time it is
intended to clarify the role of human factors in DFM.
PRODUCT USABILITY
L,____I
I
The major problem with traditional product design processes is
that while designers consider users to some extent, the information
available to the design team is insufficient for proper understand-
ing of the user. This is particularly true in cases of nonexpert
users. The product usability concept simply emphasizes making
the user the focal point of the design. In other words, the objective
should be to develop products that are easy to use. If a design is
complicated and requires significant learning and skills to use,
e
users will tend to cast it aside. Products that are easy to use, on the
other hand, will become more popular and should have longer life.
It is important to keep in mind that products are designed to Prototype
fulfill user needs. In order to accomplish this, user attributes must development
be matched with the product attributes, and the product design
process must be redirected toward a consideration of the user by
taking into account the opinions and advice of user experts.
The users and designers thus become partners in the design process
(here a participative approach to accomplish the DFM concept is
being proposed). Furthermore, user participation forces an itera-
tive approach to product design which is the heart of designing for
manufacturability. I
Figure 10-32 shows a simple flow chart of user involvement in
the DFM process. I
I
Delivery to wars
I
J
I
t I
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CHAPTER 10
HUMAN FACTORS ISSUES IN PRODUCT DESIGN
Introduction of the concept of tolerance design for product LOW wage rates.
characteristics.
As long as these conditions prevail, assembly automation
. On-1ine feedback quality control.
cannot guarantee productivity enhancements. Thus, the manual
. Employing optimal preventive maintenance schedules that
assembly option should be a serious consideration in designing for
minimize the quality loss per unit of production.
manufacturability.
Many of these concepts have gained recognition over the yearn,
yet the introduction of somefor instance, on-line feedback MAINTENANCE
quality control has been delayed due to inadequate technology. It is unrealistic to expect that products will continue to function
While it is true that rapid advances have been made to automate satisfactorily over their life cycle. Normal wear and tear, unex-
inspection andquality control,39 elimination of manual inspection pected malfunctions, etc., will necessitate maintenance. Tradition-
is still a long way from becoming a reality. ally, engineers have focused on enhancing aproducts reliability
As long as component inspection is performed manually, byusing high-reliability components. Products andtheircompo-
inspectors efficiency must be enhanced. The factors that affect nents, however, do fail and must be replaced or repaired.
inspection accuracy can be grouped as follows:40 Prediction of component failure times has also helped engineers to
1. Inspector variables: visual acuity (preferably high), age increase the uptime.
and experience (retrained older inspectors are preferable), However, as the complexity of products has grown, it has
and personality (introverts are preferable). become difficult to predict component failure times or reduce
2. Physical andenvironmental vanahles: lighting (fluorescent maintenance costs. The growth in product complexity has simply
light preferable) and visual aids (magnifiers or visual outpaced the progress in component reliability. Product mainte-
overlays are desirable). nance has, therefore, remained as the only major means of
3. Organizational factors: social pressure (reduction inrejec- reducing downtime.
tiontomeet output requirements is undesirable); feedback The increasing need to perform maintenance, and high main-
(it is desirable to motivate inspectors and inform them tenance costs, mandate that designers consider maintenance needs
about the efficiency of their work); rest pauses (inspection in the design process. It should be noted that maintenance
efficiency remains high if short breaks are provided peri- considerations in product design tend to complicate the design
odically 5 minutes every 30 minutes); and speed of process. This isprimarily dueto the fact that cost considerations
working (fault detection increases with inspection time). and product operability considerations require contradictory de-
4. Task factors: product complexity (inspction perfomance sign criteria; while the cost effectiveness criteria favor miniatur-
deteriorates linearly as the number of components in- ization and compactness, operability (maintenance) criteria favor
creases) and probability of defect occurring (probability of enhancement of the ease of operation.
detection increases as the likelihood of fault occurrence In order to consider maintenance requirements while designing
increases). for manufacturability, at least the following types of tasks must be
Additionally, use of multiple-inspector lines tends to enhance considered:&
inspection efficiency; with three inspectors, in excess of 99% of 1. Troubleshooting toidentify faults to be corrected.
faults can be detected .41 2. Inspecting hardware todetect and locate faults.
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CHAPTERlO
DESIGN FOR SERVICEABILITY
3. Manipulation of parts. ment failure and what should be done about it: compromise the
4. Adjusting and repairing. output rate or put the manual option to work. When faced with this
5. Removing, replacing, and servicing. choice invariably the manual option must win. This really means
that in designing for manufacturability, designers must consider
These tasks require the following design considerations:
the manual option in all facets of production.
Visual access. Another issue, not directly related 10 product design, is how to
. Physical access. bring the down equipment quickly on-line. This leads to fault
. Muscular strength capability and resistance requirements of detection, diagnostics, and repair and servicing of the equipment.
components. Since process design and design of the manufacturing system are
. Mobility of the human body and body parts in and around part of the overall DFM philosophy, they indirectly impact the
the product. product design.
The details of design guidelines for accessibility may be
obtained from References 47 and 48.
WORKSTATION DESIGN AND
IMPACT OF EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY OPERATOR TRAINING
The automation option in designing for manufacturability tends Workstation design and operator training are issues peripheral
to be biased in its estimate of equipment reliability. It is not to product design, but they are relevant issues. There is consider-
unusual to come across reliability figures that differ considerably. able human factors literature dealing with the design of worksta-
Frequently, the reliability variations between various sources tions that may be used by the DFM team .4950
make it almost impossible to estimate the impact of equipment The training issue is relevant in product inspection and produc-
failure on production costs. For instance, robot reliability esti- tion equipment maintenance phases of manufacturing, and in
mates may vary from 50yo to well over 9870. Obviously, if the learning the product operation and product maintenance once the
50% estimate is true, production capacity must be doubled, at product is released to the market. While the training programs
significant cost, to maintain the rate of output. Otherwise the intended for manufacturing phases can be comprehensive, user
manual option must be seriously considered. Generally speaking, training for product operation and maintenance should be minimal.
increased production capacity is an unrealistic expectation. Prod- Excessive requirements for user involvement tend to compromise
uct designers, therefore, must confront the possibility of equip- the usability of the product and shorten its life cycle.
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CHAPTER 10
DESIGN FOR SERVICEABILITY
In a company practicing design for manufacturability, the bottom line is made possible by doubling the output of the service
service people are part of the design team. Decisions which affect department. In order to increase the productivity of those depart-
the cost, efficiency, and reliability of service are made during the ments, replaceable components must be emily accessible with
entire development process. commonly used tools. Whenever possible, diagnostic information
Designing for serviceability, therefore, makes sense in two should be readily available, to prevent the amount of guesswork
major areas. First, it reduces the cost of servicing products, and shot in the dark repairs which are common in both the
thereby improving lifetime profitability. Second, it enhances automotive and electronics industry.
customer satisfaction. Most customers will put up with a certain The serviceability of products is becoming more important for
level of equipment faihrre, even prematurely, but costly and/or two reasons. First, efficient serviceability can improve the bottom
inefficient service will not easily be forgotten. It is significant that line significantly, due to fewer warranty repairs through increased
approximately 65% of the time, when customers change suppliers reliability, more units serviced per labor hour, and smaller field
or brands, they do so for reasons other than the product itself, and inventories. The second factor, which is becoming more preva-
poor quality service is one of those reasons. Profitability and lent, is the issue of customer satisfaction. As customers grow more
customer satisfaction are two good reasons for Design For sophisticated and as global competition increases, product reliabil-
Serviceability. ity and maintenance and service costs are becoming important
factors in product selection.
THE EFFECT OF DESIGN ON SERVICE At the very beginning of the design phase, the design team
Until recently, warranty and service costs were considered a must include serviceability objectives in terms of mean time
normal cost of doing business. Based on a variety of available data between failures, and average maintenance or service call costs in
and unjustified optimism, companies have included that cost of terms of time and materials. The team must then continuously
doing business in their pricing formula. The fact remains that evaluate the design, focusing on those objectives.
warranty costs have been both uncontrolled and really unneces-
sary. Admittedly, some premature failure can occur; unfortu-
nate y, too often it can be traced direct] y to a design flaw. The cost
of a recall, field retrofit, or massive failure is beyond measure-
ment. The direct and indirect costs associated with such a DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
catastrophe can be determined, but it is not possible to evaluate the FOR SERVICEABILITY
loss of market share directly related to these events. Serviceability issues are determined during the design phase.
Warranty work is 100% loss off the profit margin; both parts Unfortunately, traditional design methodology scarcely considers
and labor are giveaways. Add to these, transportation costs and service. As mentioned before, the first and most effective way to
whatever other costs might be incurred in keeping the customer in reduce service requirements is to increase the reliability of the
business. For example, a temporary replacement from a supplier, product. This will not only lower warranty costs, but will also
towing expenses from a car manufacturer, mailing and adminis- reduce the size of the service department and all of the costs
trative expenses associated with a field retrofit or a recall. All such associated with it.
costs can no longer be considered costs of doing business but Analyzing the tenets of good design for manufacturing can
should be looked upon as costs of losing business. The best and show how applicable they are to serviceability. One of the primary
most obvious way to control warranty costs is with a reliable rules of DFM is the reduction of components. Reducing compo-
product. Reliability is a design function. nent count has several advantages:
Another associated area, usually neglected during the design
. It reduces the direct cost of the product.
phase, is the service of the product. Product service and service
. It improves reliabilityy by reducing the potential for compo-
costs are among the greatest causes of customer dissatisfaction.
nent failure.
Most customers can tolerate the aggravation of equipment failure
. It reduces the administrative costs associated with ordering
or routine maintenance. What is not so tolerable are the time and
and carrying components on the bill of materials.
cost of the maintenance or repair. A service organization has two
objectives to keep in mind. First, customer concern with time and To the service organization, having fewer components has
cost, and second, profitability of the service organization. Prod- similar advantages. It translates into a reduction of inventones at
ucts must be designed in such a way as to allow the most efficient both the distribution center and the retail or field levels. It
maintenance and repair. The service organization is not different obviously also translates into simpler repairs.
from the manufacturing one. It comprises labor, inventory, ad- Another design feature, extremely desirable from a service and
ministrative, and quality costs, both direct and indirect. In addition maintenance standpoint, is the modular approach. Modules offer
to those costs are transportation costs for those products which several advantages. Properly designed, they are easy to replace
require field service. As with manufacturing, productivity in the and to diagnose. They must be totally independently verifiable,
service organization is extremely important. Service is a profit and interchangeable in the product, and must only fit in the correct
center in itself. The efficiency with which service and calls can be way. This guarantees to the service person that the defective
made is direct] y related to the product design. It is imperative that suspect module is indeed defective, and that the replacement one
the service organization be represented at the earliest stages of is good. The modular approach is best utilized in the military,
product development, and that servicing concerns be fully inte- where it is known as the black box concept. It not only allows
grated into the concepts before pencil is put to paper. Good for more efficient repairs, but makes it possible for a technician to
product design, with up-front consideration for servicing, can perform field repairs which would otherwise require higher level
double the number of units serviced per person over time. With engineering skills. The defective module itself may be returned to
service contracts so common in the office equipment and home the factory for repair.
appliance industry, and with routine repair or maintenance com- Perhaps the most common oversight in prcduct design is that of
mon in the automotive industry, considerable improvement to the accessibility. The difficulty of accessing such essential compc-
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CHAPTERlO
DESIGN FOR SERVICEABILITY
nents as spark plugs in an automobile has already been discussed; AN IDEAL TO STRIVE FOR
but the automotive industry is not the only guilty party. Many As customers become more sophisticated and competition
products from most industries, except those companies which have more heated, the issue of serviceability will gain importance. The
already adopted the DFM approach, present the same problems. current global competition is driving product quality up, while
The design team must clearly understand the service requirements pushing costs down. The remaining field of competition will be on
of a product. It must identify those components and assemblies the level of service and maintenance.
which will require maintenance or replacement, and be extremely situation to strive for would include several
An ideal
conscious of making these as easily accessible as possible,
features. Product failure would self-diagnose to the user. For
Serviceable parts should all be accessible from one side of the example, of all of the failure mode messages available on a
product, or in such a way that they can be reached with the least
computer, none identify the root cause of a problem other than
possible removal of other parts. In other words, access to the
operator error. The software is capable of giving the user a
inside should require easy removal of only one cover or panel.
message such as Cannot format on Drive A or other such
Other features, such as snap fits and plug-ins instead of indications of some sort of system failure. With that kind of
fasteners, also enhance accessibility. information, the user, after trying a few maneuvers, is left to call
In many instances, notably the automotive and electronics the computer service center to make an appointment and find out
industry, diagnostics is still a hit or miss function. The service what the true problem is. Ideally, the computer should indicate
person is left to identify the real problem on a trial and error basis. either software failure or hardware failure, such as disk drive
This is costly in terms of time spent, and often frustrating to the failure replace part # XXXX. This would allow the operator to
customer who is presented with a bill for more parts and labor than place a call and order the proper spare part. Similar problems
necessary. Although some strides have been made in this area by occur with automotive and appliance industries, where even a low
both the automotive and electronics industry, much remains to be level of self-diagnostics is not always available to the user or
done. Through failure analysis of past products and of selected repair person.
components, the design team can anticipate which of the compo- Once the equipment has diagnosed its own problem and
nents are Iikel y to fail, and take corrective or preventive action, indicated what has to be replaced or repaired, the next ideal would
eliminating unreliable components or designing a built-in signal be the application of the black-box principle. With little or no
which clearly identifies the component or module in question as effort, the operator ought to bc able to lift off the cover of the
the defective one. As an example, modem copying machines have computer, remove the defective disc drive, plug in the new one,
a display which identifies malfunctions which can be handled by and immediately go through a quick routine to indicate that the
the operator. Such problems as paper jams are identified, complete new drive is indeed functional. With some planning during design
with the location of the jammed sheet. One quick check allows the and with well written instructions, such repairs could be executed
operator to clear the machine in a matter of seconds. This principle in a matter of minutes. The user could decide whether to do the
should be applied to other more serious failures, so that the repair repair or have a service person do it. In either case, the cost
person could easily identify a problem and replace or repair the savings realized from this kind of repair could be substantial over
proper component quickly, While this principle might increase the the life of a product. It would most likely outweigh the additional
initial purchase cost, it will greatly reduce warranty and service initial purchase cost.
costs for the life of the product while enhancing customer This principle might be applied to the automotive or appliance
satisfaction. industry. Should a car or a washing machine experience a failure,
the driver or user immediately has the information pertaining to the
Related to the ease of diagnosis is the need for positive
part to be serviced or replaced. That person can now decide
indication of imminent catastrophic faihtre, before the failure
whether to call for the spare part and make the repair, or have a
occurs. Modem cars have indicator lights for practically every
service person order the part and replace it. Either way, both
functiontemperature, oil pressure, opened door, unfastened seat
parties have saved time and money.
belt, etc. yet an engine can blow out or a transmission drop or
freeze up without any warning. A good design should include not To a certain extent, some industries, such as computers,
only an urgent indicator, but where safe, applicable, and possi- provide this kind of serviceability provided the user can identify
blean immediate shutdown or an appropriate warning before the problem. Then, with a little technical knowledge and the
catastrophic failure. willingness to remove a couple of dozen screws, the average
computer user can probably replace the defective component,
Just as important as the ease of diagnosis is the ability to verify especially a circuit board,
that the element replaced or repaired has, in fact, solved the While this ideal is not possible for all services and repairs (such
problem. The most aggravating thing to a customer, even more as a cracked engine block), it is certainly a goal which must be
aggravating than equipment failure, is to have the failure mode aimed for and can be attempted during the design phase of product
recur immediately after the repair was supposedly completed. development.
The service person must have the ability to verify that the problem
From the manufacturers point of view, perhaps the most
has indeed been properly resolved. This, of course, can be aided
profitable and efficient way to service a product is to make it so
by the use of the self-dependent modules and of self-
simple for the user to repair, that the entire service organization
diagnostic features.
becomes a spare-parts business. A manufacturer of laboratory
Another tenet of DFM, the use of common parts, parts that are equipment in New England has tried to implement that approach
common to an entire product line, is as applicable to service as it with a high level of success. The manufacturer has established a
is to the manufacture of the product. The primary advantages of spare-parts terminal near an express carrier hub. When a customer
the use of parts that are common to an entire product line are lower needs a replacement part, a call to the service center with proper
inventories and ease of repair procedures from one product identification of part number triggers a same-day express shipment
to another. of the part directly to the user. Administrative and financial details
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CHAPTER 10
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR PRODUCT AND PACKAGE
follow shortly after, but the equipment is back on line with The fact is that much of the serviceability problem can be
minimal disruption to the customer. resolved with input from the service department at the very
As mentioned in the beginning, these are all ideals to strive for, beginning of the design. Goals, in terms of ease and cost of
and while they may not always be pragmatic, as they are applied service, should be established and given as much importance as
to appropriate situations they will greatly reduce the aggravation manufacturability, reliability, and quality goals.
associated with breakdown and repair. The design team must incorporate all possible techniques
which will simplify service, from the most routine maintenance to
the most complex repair. Such techniques include a modular
approach, snap-fits of replaceable components, self diagnostics,
ease of accessibility, etc. With careful planning and ingenuity,
SUMMARY serviceability can be greatly enhanced without necessarily sending
Products of the future will not only be measured in terms of product costs soaring. Of course, a careful trade-off of initial cost
quality and reliability, but also in terms of serviceability. Whether versus maintenance cost must be made during the design phase.
it be a car, a computer, a home appliance, or a piece of factory The benefits of products designed with serviceability in mind
equipment, product breakdowns and failures are aggravating; will be measurable in terms of increased market share, which is
inefficient and costly repairs are intolerable. another way of measuring customer satisfaction.
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CHAPTER 10
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR PRODUCT AND PACKAGE
PACKAGE DESIGN Chip boards. They are low in cost and are manufactured
Developing just the right carton for a particular product can from primarily recycled fiber.
Semi-bending chip. Boxboard used forthelowcr grades of
never be considered a simple task. In order to produce the best
possible package for any product, the package designer must find folding boxes. Itismade ofchipor mixed papers, and does
out everything there is to know about that product, including: not possess bending qualities equal to bending chip.
Bending chip. Box board used for the production of many
1. Theexact size andphysical chmacteristics of the product. types of folding cartons, such as laundry boxes and other
2. What kind of package will be most practical and throw-away containers. It is composed of mixed fibers and
economical? by definition must be able to withstand a single fold of 180
3. If the product manufacturer will fill the carton mechani- degrees without breakage or separation of plies. It is
cally, by hand, or by a combination of both. generally gray or tan in appearance.
4. Elow, when, where, andinwhat quantities thcproduct will News vat lined chip. Boxboard used for gift boxes and
be sold. general purposes. It is a combination board of chip and news
5. Will the purchasers be predominantly men or women? lined on one or both sides. The board has the clean
young or old?
appearance characteristic of news.
6. What kind ofmaterial andconstruction will offer the best Mist board. Boxboard used largely for making suit boxes,
protection against breakage, dirt, or deterioration? such as are supplied to department stores for packaging
7. What kind of package will meet the practical requirements wearing apparel. It is made of wood pulp and reworked
of handling, storage, anddisplay where theproduct will be fibers on a cylinder machine. The board is strong, has a good
sold? bending quality and usually a finish suitable for ordinary
8. What kind of construction, surface design, and finish cart printing. It is generally gray, brown or green with long black
beused to attract the attention ofprospective purchasers? fibers dispersed to give a misty appearance to the top liner.
9. How are competitive items packaged? What competition Single manila. This is made of chipboard with a manila-
must be overcome? colored liner on one or both sides. The board is a good
10. Isthere atrademark that must appear along with the brand bender and has a surface suitable for printing in colors.
name on the package? Bleached manila. This is used where good bending qualities
11. What single advantage within the product canmosteffec- and a surface well adapted to color printing are needed. It is
tively be stressed in the illustration and copy to induce made with a chip board base and is lined with a white manila
immediate purchase? vat liner.
12. What other features of theproduct should be brought to the Coated board. These are multi-layer boards with six to nine
attention of the consumer? plies. They are usually composed primarily of recycled
13. What information about the product must appear on the fiber, and are used for most better grades of folding cartons.
package to meet legal requirements? Patent-coated boards. 130xboard patent-coated on one or
14. If pictorial illustration will enhance the saleability of the both sides with white virgin pulp or white reclaimed fibers.
product, or if actual visibility should be provided. It is produced in many combinations including patent-coated
15. What style of package will be most convenient for the manila, newsboard, and news center-manila back. Cost,
ultimate consumer to examine and use? quality, or appearance requirements dictate which combina-
16. Ifthepackage should have ancasy-opcning device, pour-
tion works best for a particular order.
ing spout, or other user convenience. Clay-coated board. Used in the production of folding cartons
17. If it is necessmy that the package redesigned to prevent where brightness of color, excellent printing surface and
deterioration of anyunused portion of the product. permanence of color are considered essential, it is a high
18. If the nature of the product requires a package with grade paperboard coated with a clay finish.
functional properties to inhibit rust, mold, insects, or other Cast-coated board. This is a high quality boxboard with a
damage; or if it requires waxing or other coating to make glossy finish obtained by pressing the surface against a
the package moisture- or greaseproof. highly polished surface during the drying process. It is
Once all the factors which will have aneffect on the product excellent where sparkling color is required.
anditscarton have been carefully analyzed, thedesigner is ready Laminated board. This category of boxboard includes many
to begin the actual creative work. specialty applications where foil, patterned paper, or any
While the variety of styles used in constructing a folded carton number of other materials are adhered to the paperboard with
are, to a great extent, limited only by human ingenuity, the resin, starch, asphalt, or other type binder.
designer does have a responsibility to accomplish the task in the . Sulfate or kraft board. These boards are composed entirely
most sensible and economical way possible. Therefore, the wide of virgin kraft pulp in a single layer. They are produced
array of standard styles and types of cartons should be explored either as bleached or unbleached board and often are clay
with an eye toward possible modifications. Of course, if the coated to provide a white printing surface.
product marketing plan requires a dramatic, new type of packag-
ing, most carton manufactures are well equipped to meet MATERIAL THICKNESS
the challenge. Sheet thickness or caliper is invariably measured in thou-
sandths of an inch, each thousandth being referred to as a point.
Thus, a board of 0.024 (0.61 mm) thickness is referred to as
MATERIAL TYPE 24-point board, and a 36-point board is 0.036 (0.91 mm) in
Although there are many special types and grades of paper- thickness. As a general rule, the board thickness required is
board, the following list includes those most widely usedin the determined by the cubic measure of the package. This rule is
production of folding cartons. shown in Table 10-6.
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SUPPLIER CERTIFICATION
TABLE 10-6 The size of the carton must be larger than the product, so the
Determination of Package Sheet Thickness product can be loaded into the carton. Approximately one-eighth
inch in all dimensions is recommended. If the product is over-
Package Size, Material Thickness, wrapped, more space must be allowed in the carton to accommo-
in3 (cm3) in. (mm) date it; this may require a carton approximately one-quarter inch
larger than the product. If there is excessive wrap, one-quarter
Up to 20 (327) 0,018 (0.46) inch may not be enough.
40 (655) 0.020 (0.51) The dust flaps on the carton need to be shorter than the bottom
60 (983) 0.022 (0.56) and top flaps for easy machine opening. These top and bottom
80 (1,310) 0.024 (0.61) flaps should be tapered slightly, so if the box is slightly out of
110 (1,800) 0.026 (0.66) square when formed, the corner of the flap will not protrude
150 (2,460) 0.028 (0.71) beyond the edge of the carton. This will enhance the appearance of
200 (3,280) 0.030 (0,76) the carton.
250 (4, 100) 0.032 (0.81) If a package has dividers to separate the product, the dividers
300 (4,920) 0.036 (0.91) need to be flush with the scoreline of the top and bottom flaps for
375 (6, 150) 0.040 (1.02) machine loading. Otherwise the product may catch on the edge of
the divider and cause machine jams.
SUPPLIER CERTIFICATION
Assuring a source of good suppliers is very important to is assured that the item is manufactured in a consistent manner,
industry. Due to the expense of new tooling, licensing agreements, and may be used immediately or with minimal testing.
contractual obligations, and patents, suppliers are not easily Purchased supplies or items generally have specifications.
changed. There is a significant commitment and desire to receive When the supplies are received, they are tested against the
quality supplies from current suppliers by making sure that the specifications by the buyer; this is incoming inspection. The
quality of the item is built into it, not tested into it. The incoming tests require manpower, and result in a waiting period
certification process should be approached by both the buyer and (inventory) before the supply is deemed acceptable. A supplier
the supplier as a continuing process toward improvement of the certification program seeks to minimize the time lag between
manufactured item. A supplier certification program fits the receipt and use of the supply. It also establishes an effective
concept of just-in-time, because without a reliable supplier, the in-process control system at the source, so that defects can be
JIT philosophy cannot work. discovered and corrected before the supply is received by the
Supplier certification is an agreement between a company customer. Defective supplies cause scheduling problems because
purchasing an item and a company manufacturing the item, they cannot be used. If undetected by the incoming tests, the
to reduce or eliminate incoming testing. The reduction or elimi- defects cause rework or scrap.
nation of incoming testing is based on the quality of the suppliers Suppliers participating in a supplier certification program find
manufacturing processes and testing. The item can be a raw that these efforts are a selling point for additional business. Buyers
material, a single component, or a semi-finished or are often willing to pay a premium for the quality that certifiable
completed item. supplies represent. The certification of supplies can be a source of
pride for many suppliers.
INTRODUCTION The certification process should be approached as a continuing
A certification agreement between a purchaser and a supplier is process, to minimize the risk of creating a system which only
much more complex than the simple order and receipt of the maintains the status quo. Both buyer and supplier should be
supply. The goal of the agreement is that the purchaser of the item committed to continuous improvement of the manufactured item.
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CHAPTER 10
SUPPLIER CERTIFICATION
SUPPLIER CRITERIA
A number of different approaches can be made in choosing PLANT VISIT
suppliers suitable for certification. Criteria to consider may in- The visit to the manufacturing facility is one of the most
clude history, volume, financial dependence, and cost of the important parts of the certification program. A team is generally
buyers incoming testing. used. The members of the team may include the purchasing agent
A supplier with a good quality history is the most obvious responsible for the supply, an engineering representative, a user of
choice. These suppliers have demonstrated the ability to pass the supply, and quality assurance personnel. Each member of the
incoming inspections, and to supply the items reliably. Suppliers team has a particular area of expertise and will evaluate the
with a poor quality history should also be considered; they may be supplier in a slightly different way. The team approach works very
encouraged to solve the problems and improve their processes. well to make sure that all areas of concern are evaluated.
A large-volume supplier is also a good prospect for certifica- The arrangements for the visit should include a request that
tion. Because of the large volume, the certification of the supply supplier counterparts of the team be available. It should be stressed
may result in greatly reduced inventory and testing costs. A that the supplier personnel must be able to answer in-depth
supplier manufacturing multiple small volumes of a similar type of questions regarding material handling, procedures, manufacturing
supply is another possibility for certification. In this case, the processes, etc. The personnel responsible for answering questions
inventory of the items may not be of concern, but the testing time must be familiar with the day-to-day operation of the plant.
for small amounts of supplies is frequently as long as the time Sufficient time for the visit should be scheduled so that all issues
required for large quantities. Reduction or elimination of the can be examined. If the item is already being manufactured at the
incoming testing would free manpower for other activities. facility, it is optimal to schedule the visit to coincide with the
Suppliers who are dependent on the buyer for a large part of production of the item.
their business often make the best certification prospects because During the visit, the supplier can explain the manufacturing
the business is important to them, and they are usually very process from the receipt of raw materials to the shipping of the
cooperative in fulfilling requirements. The attitude of the supplier item. It is helpful for the buyer to have a good idea of the flow of
toward customer requirements is very important to the implemen- manufacture before taking the actual tour of the facility; this
tation of a successful program. allows a thorough understanding of the process to be investigated.
Expensive items which require destmctive incoming testing is A verbal tour will allow obvious questions to be covered before the
another area in which a certified supplier would be desirable. tour of the facility.
During the actual tour of the plant, the items of most interest
are materials control, document change control, document control,
INITIAL CONTACT gage control, and equipment maintenance, in addition to the
A formal approach is made to a supplier company. The general facility. All areas of the plant that have anything to do with
approach can be made during the initial design phase for a new the item being manufactured should be visited. Areas to be
item, or with suppliers of an existing product. It should be noted included are receiving, warehousing, manufacturing areas, testing
that the earlier in the design cycle the certification issues and laboratories, in-process storage, final inspection, and shipping.
requirements are addressed, the more successful the certification Some of these functions will obviously be combined in
effort may be, asmall operation.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 10
SUPPLIER CERTIFICATION
If the facility has quality assurance and manufacturing proce- have the certificate of analysis properly completed. It is not
dures, attention is focused on the types of testing, limits, docu- unusual to find that some changes in the reporting process or
mentation, calibration, statistical process control (SPC) charts, certificate need further work, as unforeseen problems are
and any other documents. The customer should be familiar with frequently encountered. During this time period, it is very impor-
the suppliers paperwork to be sure that the documents are being tant to provide feedback to the supplier. The buyer should provide
completed and used properly. The documents already in place in copies of incoming inspection reports to the supplier so that they
the facility can be useful as a starting point for developing the might also compare their results. During this period of fine-tuning,
records that are required as part of the certification documents. communication is very important, as sometimes the inspection
An in-depth analysis of manufacturing capabilities should be comparisons may be dkcouraging at first. This is when the
performed, as an important part of the certification. The process commitment to the certification on the part of both parties is
capability studies may already have been documented and per- very important.
formed by the supplier. If the studies do not exist or are Once the criteria for certification are complete, the supplier is
incomplete, an agreement should be reached with the supplier to considered certified. The amount of incoming testing to be done
complete the studies. It is very important that the process be upon receipt of the supply will depend upon how the certification
proved to be capable of consistently producing to the desired was set up. The certification should result in markedly less
quality level. incoming inspection, or none.
Since one of the goals of the certification program is to replace
the buyers incoming test requirements with the suppliers certif- AWARD
icate, all aspects of the incoming inspection should be discussed. Supplier appreciation is an important part of the certification
The supplier needs a complete understanding of test procedures process. Present the certified supplier with a certification docu-
involving the supply, and should have a copy of the incoming ment, and do it in a public way witbin their facility. Invite all the
testing program. key personnel in their operation, and try to include many of the
As the incoming test requirements are reviewed with the manufacturing personnel involved in the success of the certifica-
supplier, it becomes evident whether or not the suppliers testing tion. The certification of the supplier is a significant event for
fulfills the requirements. Incorporation of the suppliers existing everyone, and this feeling should be relayed to the supplier. This
documentation into the certificate should be discussed. A draft of is a good time to express appreciation and to continue the spirit of
the certification document can often be done at this time. Depend- cooperation that has been sought between the two companies.
ing on the type of supply, a certificate may be requested on each
day of manufacture, each order, or some other logical subgroup of
MAINTENANCE OF CERTIFICATION
the order. Often the certificate will be a reported average of
Once the certification of the supply has been accomplished, the
existing measurements, or the measurements themselves; this will
maintenance phase of tbe certification begins. The initial agree-
be dependent on the type of manufacturing and the buyers
ment with tbe supplier should have addressed the frequency of
requirements. The certificate drafted must fulfill all of the incom-
plant visits, random incoming inspections, etc. At least annually,
ing requirements, unless it is desired that certain tests will continue
a review of all receipts of the supply should be done, to make a
to be performed by the buyers incoming inspection group. The
decision about whether the supplier should continue in a certified
goal is to have all necessary testing completed when the item is
status. This decision may be based on performance, cooperation
shipped, and only need to verify that the item is correct.
when problems arise, and supp~ler visits. The annual review
Discuss the specification for the item, and verify that it is
should be approached as an opportunity to seek continuous
current. If discrepancies exist, they should be identified, and an
improvement of the process.
action plan generated to resolve the differences. The reasons for
As a requirement of the certification process, the buyer should
the discrepancies need to be further evaluated in the context of
be allowed to visit the manufacturing facility on an agreed-upon
adequate change control. Ruggedness of design should be exam-
basis. Revisiting tbe supplier gives an opportunity to discuss
ined and addressed.
mutual problems, observe changes in the facility or equipment,
A formal discussion of the certification program should be
and generally fine-tune the process. Tbe return visits are very
made by the team, after they have assessed what will be required
important to both buyer and supplier. Annual purchasing contracts
of the supplier to fulfill their expectations. A review of the
are often negotiated at this time.
expectations may be made at a separate meeting after the team has
Suppliers who have become certified are not forever free of
been allowed to review their findings together and compare them
problems. Occasionally problems will be encountered with sup-
with the certification program requirements. Verbal agreement to
plies as they are being used. When this occurs, the inspection
the certification process between the buyer and supplier should be
criteria are reviewed with the supplier, to assure that the situation
made, followed by a formal, written agreement. Tbe formal
is unlikely to happen again. If serious problems are discovered, the
agreement should be signed by responsible management of both
certification program may have to be reevaluated. Rejected sup-
companies, assuring their commitment to the certification process.
plies are usually returned to tbe supplier. If the problems are
IMPLEMENTATION minor, fine-tuning of the inspection at the suppliers plant will
After the certification process has been mutually committed to, probably solve the problem. It is important to maintain a high level
any improvement actions needed to comply with a certification of cooperation.
agreement will be scheduled. After completion of all actions,
verification of the system will begin. SUMMARY
The agreement should outline the criteria for certification in A responsible designer seeking to achieve a manufacturable
terms of number of items received, number of receipts, time product is interested in minimal costs, both direct and indirect. It
frame, and any other mutually agreed-upon criteria. The supplies is the responsibility of all team members to identify and provide
should be verified to pass the buyers incoming inspection and inputs to this end.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 10
REFERENCES
There is an old saying, any items not covered in the meeting 30. J.W. Priest, State of the Art Review of Producibility Measure-
will be covered in the final report. ment Procedures in Product Design for Manufacturing Proceed-
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A diligent review and application of the ideas presented in this Measuring Producibility Early in Product Development, ac-
section, plus any related ones that might be brought to mind, will cepted for publication, /nternationa/ Journal of Computer /rrte-
grated Manufacturing, 1990.
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Applications and Measurement of Geometric Dimensioning and
Review Board. Tolerancinq, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, September
17-21, 199~.
35. Geoffrey Boothroyd, et al., Automatic Assembly (New York:
Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1982), pp. 266-267.
36. Edward S. Roth, course notes for SME Workshop Design for
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Optimization, SME technical paper MM88-1 52, 1988, pp. 5-7. Error Analysis, Detroit, Ml, October 3-5, 1989.
2. G. Boothroyd and P, Dewhurst, Design for Assem&r/y-A Design- 38. Edward S. Roth, course notes from workshop Engineering
ers Handbook (Amherst, MA: Department of Mechanical Engi- Applications and Measurements of Geometric Dimensioning and
neering, University of Massachusetts, 1983). Tolerancing, Milwaukee, Wl, September 17-21, 1990.
3. Ronald W. Garrett, A New Manufacturability Technique Based 39. T. Henderson, On-line, real-time inspection for microcracks in
on Design Features, Ph.D. Dissetiation, University of Cincin- hole surfaces, personal communication with A, Mital, 1989.
nati, 1991. 40. E.D. Megaw, Some Factors Affecting Inspection Accuracy,
4. Ernie Renner, Recap of Workshop 87 Sessions, Second paper presented at the Symposium on Ergonomics and Visual
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6. M. Mantyla, J. Opas, and J. Puthakka, Generative Process (Working paper, Baton Rouge, LA: Department of Industrial
Planning of Prismatic Parts by Feature Relaxation, 15th Annual Engineering, Louisiana State University, 1990).
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Conferefice on Advances in Design Automation Proceedings,
DE Vol. 19-1. Part 1 (New York: American Societv of Mechanical and Processes (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989).
Engineers, 1989), pp. 49-60. 43. T. Sata, Development of Flexible Manufacturing Systems in
7. Edwina L. Wedeking, Designing Assemblies with Solid Models, Japan, Proceedings of the First JapanUSA Symposium on
Machine Design (January 22, 1987). F/exib/e Automation (Osaka, Japan: Japan Association of Auto-
8. Ostwald, Table 11.1.2, pp. 261-262. matic Control Engineers, 1986).
9. Ostwald, Table 13.4.7, p. 304. 44. Geoffrey Boothroyd, Making it Simple Design for Assembly,
10. Henry W. Stoll, Design for Manufacture: An Overview App/ied Mechanica/ Engineering (February 1988), pp. 28-31.
Mechanics Review, v.39 n,9 (September 1986), pp. 1356-1354. 45. A. Mital, Economics of Flexible Assemblv Automation: Influence
11. Mike J. Harry, Producibility A4easuremenf Committee: A Quan- of Production and Market Factors, H.R~ Parsaei and A. Mital,
titative Model for Assessing Producibility (Scottsdale, AZ: Gov- eds., Economic Aspects of Advanced Production and Manufac-
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Tools (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975). Evolution of Maintainable Packaging Methods for Electronic
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tion Conference 1987, pp. 706-712. W. Karwowski, eds., Workspace, Equipment, and Tool Design
14. Boothroyd. (Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers,
15. Raymond E, Howe, ed,, Producibi/ity/Machinabi/ity of Space- 1991).
Age and Conventiorra/ Materials (Dearborn, Ml: Society of 48. A. Mital, Workspace Clearance and Access Dimensions and
Manufacturing Engineers, formerly American Society of Tool and Design Guidelines, A. Mital and W. Karwowski, eds., Work-
Manufacturing Engineers, 1968). space, Equipment, and Tool Design (Amsterdam, The Nether-
16. Boothroyd. lands: Elsevier Science Publishers, 1991).
17. Praizler and Gray.
49. T.S. Clark and E.N. Corlett, The Ergonomics of Workspaces and
18. H.E, Designing for Economical Production (Dearborn,
Trucks,
Machines: A Design Manual (London, England: Taylor & Fran-
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.- Too/ Design (Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Science
Prentice-Hall, 1979). -
20. M.L. Begeman and B.H. Amstead, Manufacturing Processes Publishers, 1991 ).
(New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1989).
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 10
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
MACHINING
The audience for the previous volumes in the Tool In keeping with the spirit of design for manufac- CHAPTER
and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook series has turability (DFM) and concurrent engineering (CE), it CONTENTS:
been primarily the Manufacturing Engineer, and the is recommended that the Product Designer consult
material in those volumes has been process-related with the Manufacturing Engineer to learn more about Simplifying
(showing detailed descriptions of how a process or the processes themselves. This will enhance their Machining
machine works, line art of typical machines, their knowledge of manufacturing and help prevent the in the Design
Stage 11-1
speeds and feeds, and so on). With that in mind, the creation of unmanufacturable designs.
contributors to this chapter on machining, and sev- This chapter covers general machining, gage
Nontraditional
eral that follow (Chapters 12 though 15), were asked design through the use of geometric dimensioning Machining 11-33
to develop and present design-related topics to ben- and tolerancing (GDT), machining lubricants, vari-
efit Product Designers. The coverage for these topics ous nontraditional machining processes, and efficient Flexible
is meant to be a quick reference for them while their design of flexible manufacturing cells (FMCS) and Manufacturing
products are still in the design stage. systems (FMSS). Cells snd
Systeme 11-45
The Contributors of this chapter are: William E. Boyes, RetiredSection Manager of Metrology and Quality
Control, Mack Trucks, Inc.; Robert Endoy, Systems Division Manager, Mande/li, Inc.; Hans Fischer, Production
Engineer, Sunnen Products; Howard Freidman, President, Fotofabrication Corporation; Randy Gilmora, Manager
of SoneX Division, Extrude Hone Corporation; Mark E. Meyer, Ph. D., Professor, College of DuPage; James Nolen,
President, James No/en and Company, Coventry, R\; JoAnn Quitmeyer, Research Associate, Dewey and A/my
Chemical Division, W.R. Grace and Company; Lawrence J. Rhoades, President, Extrude Hone Corporation; Donald
G. Risko, Manager of ECX Division, Extrude Hone Corporation; Richard Woo/man, President and General Manager,
Hydro-Abrasive Machining, Inc.
The Reviewers of this chapter are: David A. Be/forte, President, Be/forte Associates, Sturbridge, MA; Ehud
Ellzur, General Manager, /scar Metals, Inc.; Berf P. Erdel, President, Mapal, Inc.; Steven Malkin, Ph.D., Department
of Mechanical Engineering, University of Massachusetts; Robert W. Militzer, CMfgE, P.E., Consultant, Fenton, Ml;
Robert S. Wilks, Chief Engineer, Wilks Engineering Solutions, Loveland, OH.
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CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
of paramount importance. The order of importance may vary cutting speed values. A material with a rating of 50 should be
according to design requirements or other factors, but the overall machined at (roughly) half the speed used for a material with a
importance always remains the same. rating of 100 if identical tool life for both is desired. As shown in
Table 11-1, the material SAE 1212 is the base material that
1. Explore simplicity. Design for maximum simplicity in
others are compared against. Any material having a machinability
functional and physical characteristics.
rating (MR) less than SAE 1212 (MR 1.00) would be more
2. Determine the best production methods. Seek the help of a
difticuh to machine.
manufacturing engineer to design for the most economical
Reference 1 contains a more complete discussion of machin-
manufacturing methods available, with consideration for
ability and the factors affecting selection of materials.
their inherent producibility limitations.
3. Analyze materials. Select materials that will lend them- Shape of Workpiece Material
selves to low-cost production as well as to design require- In considering design for machining, it is important to know
ments, the ways in which the basic shapes can readily be changed by
4. Minimize production steps. Design for the minimum num- machining processes. With the exception of workplaces that are to
ber of separate operations in machining (such as rough be partially formed before machining, such as forgings, castings,
tam, finish turn, grinding, and polishing the same piece). stampings, and welded structures, the choice of the shape of the
5. Eliminate fixturing and handling problems. Design for ease work material depends mainly on availability. Metals are generally
of locating, setting up, and holding parts. sold in plate, sheet, bar, or tube form (see Fig. 11-1) in a wide
6. Employ the widest acceptable tolerances and roughest range of standard sizes. The designer should check on the standard
finishes. Specify surface roughness and accuracy commen- shapes and sizes from the raw material supplier and then design
surate with the type of part or mechanism being designed, components that require the minimum of machining.
and the production method or methods contemplated. Components manufactured from a circular or hexagonal bar or
A comprehensive study of the principles of interchangeability tube are generally machined on machine tools that apply a rotary
is essential for a thorough understanding and full appreciation of primary motion to the workpiece; these types of components are
low-cost production techniques. Interchangeability is the key to called rotational components. The remaining components are
successful production regardless of quantity. Details of all parts manufactured from square or rectangular bar, plate, or sheet, and
should be surveyed carefully to assure not only efficient process- are called nonrotational components. Components partially
ing but also rapid, easy assembly and maintenance. Each produc- formed before machining can be classified as either rotational or
tion method has a well established level of precision which can be nonrotational.
maintained continuously without exceeding normal basic cost. Rotational components are those whose basic shape can be
Economical manufacturing does not just happen. It starts machined on lathes, boring mills, cylindrical grinders, or any
with design and considers the practical limits of machine tools, other machine tool that applies a rotary primary motion to the
processes, tolerances, and finishes. The production tolerances for workpiece. In defining a component shape as rotational, the
various machining operations, and cost curves for tolerances and important factor is that in machining its basic shape, the workpiece
surface roughness, show that it is important to analyze the is rotated. In the nonrotational category, any machining motion,
tolerance structure and surface roughness to produce a functional, either the workpiece or tool, is linear. The basic shape of a
economical design. rotational component is a plain cylinder with dimensions suffi-
cient y large to enclose the final shape (see Fig. 11-2a); the basic
MATERIAL CONSIDERATIONS shape of a nonrotational component is a right-rectangular prism
When choosing the material for a component, the designer with dimensions sufficiently large to enclose the final shape (see
must consider applicability, cost, availability, machinability, and Fig. 1l-2b),
the amount of machining required. Each of these factors influences A method of classifying machined components developed by
the others, and the final optimum choice will generally be a 0pitz2 is an example of how shapes can be organized, This
compromise between conflicting requirements. The applicability classification system allows components to be identified by
of various materials will depend on the components eventual geometric code numbers for the purposes of analysis of complete
function and will be decided by such factors as strength, resistance production systems. The code number depends on the types of
to wear, appearance, corrosion resistance, and so on. These machining processes required to produce the component, and
features of the design process are outside the scope of this chapter, therefore provides a suitable basis for discussion of the ways in
but once the choice of material for a component has been narrowed which basic shapes can be changed by machining. It will assist the
by the application of these criteria, the designer must then consider designer who wishes to standardize components and avoid speci-
factors that help to minimize the final cost of the component. It fying machined features the company is not equipped to handle.
should not be assumed that the least-expensive work material will The basic geometric code number consists of five digits, the
automatically resuh in minimum cost for the component. For first digit describing the component class (either rotational or
example, it might be more economical to choose a material that is nonrotational) and the proportions of the overall shape; the
less expensive to machine (more machinable) but has a higher remaining digits describing the variations from this shape. Figure
purchase cost. 11-3 shows the general basis of the Opitz coding system and the
Although the term machinability y does not lend itself to a means of determining the first digit. Thus, for example, if the
universal definition accepted by all authorities, it does provide a rotational component shown in Fig. 11-2a has a length-to-diameter
rational working base to help determine minimum machining cost. (L/D) ratio of 2, the first digit in the code number is 1; if the
General machinability ratings are expressed in terms of relative nonrotational component shown in Fig. 11-2b has ratios A/B of 1.2
values, Rating figures (often called percent machinability or and A/C of 4.5, it is classified as a flat component, and the first
relative machinability) represent the relative speeds to use with digit in the code number is 6. (In labeling the basic rectangular
each given metal to obtain a given tool life. They are relative prism the largest side is given the length A and the smallest the
11-2
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
TABLE 11-1
Relative Machinability Ratings of Various Materials*
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CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
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On the other hand, if the 3140 to be machined has an actual hardness of 170:
length C.) Components with first digits of 3 or 4 are rotational facility. Machine tool capacities are readily available from man-
components machined from other than cylinchical shapes (hexag- ufacturing engineers and can be compared to values taken from the
onal bar, for example), and components with first digits of 5 or 9 classification system.
are those that do not fit within the other categories.
A supplementary code can also be employed. This supplemen- DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES AND
tary code consist of four further digits: the first gives the basic SURFACE ROUGHNESS
dimension of the component (D for a rotational component and A Dimensional tolerances and surface roughness should not be
for a nonrotational component), the second specifies the material specified to limits of accuracy closer than those required by the
used, the third specifies the form of the raw material, and the actual function or design. This is to assure the advantages of
fourth specifies the accuracy of the machined surfaces. In general, lowest possible cost and fastest possible production. Figure 11-4
the Opitz system, or ones similar to it, can be utilized to keep the provides, at a glance, a general relationship of actual dimensional
designer aware of machine tool limitations in the production tolerance to surface roughness. It is obvious that there must be a
11-5
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CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
Reinforcementbars
X9
Size
Hexaganal bar
~2kr&7i
@al bar
I
Half oval bar
X9
size
Round bar
relationship between surface roughness and dimensional accuracy. factor of seven. If the tolerance is increased to *0.001 ( *0.03
It is not feasible to hold a tolerance of 0.0001 (0.003 mm) on a mm), the chart indicates a finish of 32 microinches (0.8 microns)
part which is to be machined to an average roughness of 125 rms at a cost factor of six. This is a 14.390 decrease in cost.
micro inch (3.18 microns) root-mean-square (rms). Likewise, a Figure 11-5 indicates the tolerance range of general machining
finish of 10 to 15 microinches (O.25 to 0.38 microns) cannot be processes. As can be seen, various prccesses overlap. This is due to
justified for a surface which is merely intended to provide a the ranges and sizes which the various processes can handle. It would
location for subsequent operations. A 40- to 60-microinch (1.02- be difficult to handle a 20-inch (508-mm) diameter hone, and
to 1.52-micron) finish would be satisfactory, and would cost at therefore other processes should be used to hold a tolerance of
least 50% to 60% less. Besides showing the relationship between *0.0015 ( +0.038 mm), as indicated in Fig. 11-5. Similarly, no
surface finish and roughness, Fig. 11-4 shows the relative cost one would build a 20-inch (508-mm) diameter drN to use as a boring
increase as tolerances and surface roughness become finer. If a tool to finish an inside diameter. The figure only shows the tolerances
part is machined to a tolerance of * 0.0004 ( t 0.010 mm), the that can be held within the limits of the process; many other factors
chart indicates a finish of 16 microinch (O.4 micron) rms at a cost must be considered when selecting the process to be used.
11-6
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
Fig. 11-2 Basic component shapes, (a) rotational and (b) nonrotational.
1st digit 2nd digii 3rd digit 4th digit Sth digit
component overall or rotational ph. auxiliary holes,
class main shape w rface surface gear teeth,
machining marhining forming
L Rotational mcschin-
< Zwithdaviation Awdiary fsaks,
F \ Piane surfare
CWrOll Shrpe ivt int~~l ad gear taeth,
extamal shapa machining
L / farming
> Zwith deviation elements
6
Flat components
\ Auxiliary hales,
Plane surface
~ > 3 Long compananls overall shape Principal Lores gear teath,
B machining
forming
+3, +<4
Cubic components
Ckrall Shapa
Spacific
Fig. 11-3 Geometric code devised by Opitz for classification of machined components. z
SURFACE FINISH there are certain aspects of all major metal removing processes
While design engineers need not know how to operate a (drilling, grinding, turning and boring, and milling) which should
particular machine to attain the desired degree of surface finish, be understood. Knowledge of such facts as degree of roughness
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CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
9 0.00010 (0.0025)
I I I
8 0.0tM25 (0.0064]
7 0.00040 [0.0102)
36 O.CKJI
(0.03) =
~ &
.E 5 0.004 (0.10) ~
z .-
~
~4 0.007 (0.18)
E i
23 0.010 (0.25] *
2 0.025 {0.64)
1 0.040 (1.02)
o 0.(!60 [1.52)
500 250 125 63
(12.8) [64) {3.2) (1.6) (::) (0:} [0!2) (041) (Oi5)
Surfoceroughness,microkhes (microns), rms
Fig. 11-4 Relationship between tolerance and tinish.
obtained by any operation, and the economics of attaining a used for rapidly rotating bearings, for heavily loaded bear-
smoother surface with each operation, will aid in specifying ings, for rolls in bearings of ordinary commercial grades, for
surface roughness. hydraulic applications, for static sealing rings, for the
In general, surface roughness is defined as the average devia- bottom of sealing-ring grooves, for journals operating in
tion from the mean surface, expressed in microinches (microns). plain bearings, and for extreme tension members.
Some may use the root-mean-square average deviation, and others . 32-microinch (O.8 micron) rms. This surface results in a fine
the arithmetic average deviation. Although the two averages machine finish. The finish is normally found on parts subject
described are not mathematically equivalent, agreement exists that to stress concentrations and vibrations, for brake drums,
the difference between them is negligible and the term average is broached holes, gear teeth, and other precision machined
universal. The mean surface is located in such a way that the parts
vohsme of peaks above the surface cross-section exactly equals the . 63-microinch (1.6 micron) rms. This is a high-quality,
volume of the valleys below it. smooth machine finish as smooth a finish as can be
As an aid for understanding the applications of various surface economically produced by turning and milling without
finishes, the following list describes some typical examples and subsequent operations and can be produced on a surface
their usage. Figure 11-6 shows the range of surface finishes grinder. This finish is suitable for ordinary bearings, for
produced by various processes. ordinary machine parts where fairly close dimensional tol-
. 4-microinch (O. 1 micron) rms. This is a mirror-like surface, erances must be held, and for highly stressed parts that are
free from tool grinding or visible marks of any kind. The not subject to severe stress reversals.
finish is used on rolls for roller bearings subject to heavy 125-microinch (3.2 micron) rms. This surface results from
loads, for packings and rings that slide across the direction high-grade machine work where high speeds, fine feeds,
of the finish grain, and for tool components. Because of the light cuts, and sharp cutters are used to produce a smooth
high cost, this finish is used only when essential. machine finish. It may also be produced by all methods of
. 8-microinch (O.2 micron) rms. This is a close-tolerance, direct machining, under proper conditions. This finish
scratch-free surface. The finish is used for the interior should not be used on sliding surfaces, but can be used for
surface of hydraulic struts; for hydraulic cylinders, pistons, rough bearing surfaces where loads are light and infrequent,
and piston rods; for O-ring packings; for journals operating or for moderately stressed machine parts which require
in plain bearings; for cam faces; for raceways; and for rolls moderately close fits.
of antifriction bearings when loads are normal. This finish is 250-microinch (6.4 micron) rms. This surface results from
normally used only when coarser finishes are known to be average machine operations using medium feeds. The ap-
inadequate. pearance is not objectionable, and the finish can be used on
. 16-microinch (0.4 micron) rms. Where surface finish is of noncritical component surfaces and for mounting surfaces
primary importance for proper functioning, this surface is for brackets, etc.
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CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
I
I I
Rsoming
Mikng
I I
Driihng
1 1
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CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
, I
Planing and shaping
I
rurning nd slotiing
1 1
I I
Boring i
I I
Milling
I
Drilling
Reaming ?
I I
Broaching
I I
Diamond turning I
and baring
I I
precision grinding I
I 1
lapping and haning
I
$uper finishing
i I I
2.50 125
(6.4) (3.2) (~6) [L% (It) (0:2) [041) [0:5) (o 3]
Surface roughness,microinchas[microns)
l 4.0 * 0.010
-1
I 476
400
Matetial 4130 0.750 10.O1O Diam
300
EEE
100 features should gradually increase, and the diameters of the
internal features should gradually decrease from the exposed face.
If the diameter of the workpiece is less than about 2 (50.8 mm),
the desired surfaces could probably be machined on the end of a
0 piece of bar stock, and the component then separated from the bar
Fig. 11-8 Fig. 11-9
by a parting or cutoff operation. It should be remembered that
when a workpiece must be reversed in the chuck, the concentricity
of features will be difficult to maintain.
Sometimes it is necessary to machine a functional conical
Fig. 11-7 Percent cost relative to fabrication.
(taper) surface. This process requires the use of a taper-turning
attachment on a lathe, adding to the cost of production. Surfaces
be performed are machining of the exposed face and drilling, whose section is curved require special forming tools, and cannot
boring, and threading a concentric hole. All these operations can be justified unless large quantities of the components are to be
be performed on one machine without regripping the workpiece. If manufactured. When machined surfaces intersect to form an edge,
possible, design the component so that machining is not necessary the edge is sharp; when surfaces intersect to form an internal
on the unexposed surfaces of the workpiece when it is gripped in comer, however, the edge is rounded to the shape of the tool
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CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
-L < J -
~; = t 15
& +0 30 0622 *0005
0.750 *O.O1O
Manufacturing tolerances
0.715 BCISIC diam unless otherwise specified
0000 foo15
Angles * 1 degree
Mater!al 4130
Surface ro.ghness~
0.936 ~
40000005=
I
Manufacturing tolerances
0.715 Basic diam unless otherwise specified
0.000 +0.015
Materml 4130 Angles + 1 degree
Surface roughness~
comer. Thus, the designer should always specify a maximum this type of component can be machined without interference by
allowable radius for internal comers. When the two intersecting the jaws of the chuck. However, it is important with this type of
faces are to form seatings for another component in the final component for tbe designer to ensure (if possible) that the
assembly, the matching comer on the second component should be diameters of a stepped internal bore are gradually decreasing from
chamfered to provide clearance. Chamfering ensures proper seat- the exposed end of the workpiece, and that no recesses or grooves
ing of the two parts and presents little difficulty in the machining are required on the surface produced in the parting or cutoff
operations. When chamfering is not permissible, a relief area must operation.
be provided at the seating intersection of the mating surface. Rotational components having a length-to-diameter ratio
Rotational components having a length-to-diameter ratio of greater than or equal to 3 are long, cylindrical components. These
between 0.5 and 3 are classified as short cylinders and are the most components are supported by the tailstock center at the other end
suitable for machining on engine and turret lathes, The workplaces of the lathe. If the L/D ratio is too large, the flexibility of the
from which these components are produced are often in the form workpiece creates a problem because of the forces generated
of bar stock, and the machined component is separated from the during machining. Thus, the designer should ensure that the
workpiece by parting or cutoff, The whole of the outer surface of workpiece, when supported by the work-holding devices, is
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CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
sufficiently rigid to withstand the machining forces. When a cut and a finish cut. On parts suitable for the use of a single-cutter
rotational component must be wrpported at both ends for machin- roller, piloted on a cut being made on a previously turned surface,
ing of the external surfaces, no internal surfaces of any kind can be normal setup tolerances are *0.00 1 ( t 0.25 mm).
machined at the same time. In any case, with slender components, In normal setups, concentricity can be held within 0.002 (0.05
concentric bores would necessarily have large length-to-diameter mm) total indicator runout (TIR) if diameters are formed from the
ratios and would be difficult to produce. Thus, the designer should cross slide, and can be held within 0.004 (O.01 mm) TIR between
try to avoid specifying internal surfaces for rotational components hole and outside diameter.
having large L/D ratios. Length and depth. Standard mechanical stop attachments can
Some general undesirable features (such as an additional be expected to hold t 0.002 ( f 0.05 mm) on length; but
geometrical element on the workpiece) on rotational components wherever possible, depth and length should be specified as
for turning can be categorized as follows: *0.005 ( *O. 13 mm) or greater for economy.
1. Features impossible to machine. Hole tolerances. A minimum tolerance of f 0.002 (f 0.05
2. Features extremely difficult to machine that require the use mm) on diameters can be held, but this requires a rough cut and a
of special tools or fixtures. finish cut. On parts suitable for the use of a single-cutter roller
3. Features expensive to machine even though standard tools turner, piloted on a cut being made on a previously turned surface,
can be used. tolerances of *0.001 ( *0.03 mm) can be held in ordinary
In considering the features of a particular design it should be reaming operations. For hole tolerances closer than shown in
realized that: Table 11-2, a reaming or boring operation must be added. Each of
these additional operations will increase the cost of the part. Table
1. Surfaces to be machined must be accessible when the
11-3 lists economical tolerances for reaming and boring.
workpiece is gripped in the work-holding device.
Depending upon the type of material being cut, surface
2. When the surface of the workpiece is being machined, the
roughness on turret lathes will be about 60 rms or less. Surface
tool and tool-holding device must not interfere with the
patterns depend upon type of tooling and cuts employed. Pitch and
unworked surfaces of the workpiece.
lead accuracy of threads can usually be held to that required by a
The relative difficulty of providing some of these features Class 3 fit, as set up by the National Screw Thread Commission.
depends on the components L/D ratio. For example, internal For quantities too small for economical machining on the
features, most readily machined when the L/D ratio is small, automatic screw machine, the turret lathe is one of the most
become increasingly difficult to machine as this ratio increases. universal machines in a machiue shop.
Also, components with a thin section become flexible and difficult
to grip firmly; so, very small or very large L/D ratios should be Automatic Screw Machines
avoided where possible. Automatic screw machines fall into several categories; single-
The engine lathe has been replaced in modem production shops spindle automatics, multiple-spindle automatics, and automatic
by a wide variety of automatic lathes such as automatic tracer chucking machines. Originally designed for rapid, automatic
lathes, turret lathes, automatic chuckers, and automatic screw production of screws and similar threaded parts, the automatic
machines. With the exception of CNCS, all the advantages of screw machine has long since exceeded the confines of this narrow
single-point tooling for maximum metal removal, and the use of field, and plays a vital role in the mass production of a variety of
form tools for finish and accuracy, are now at the designers precision parts. Quantities play an important part in the economy
fingertips, with production speeds on a par with the fastest of the parts machined on the automatic screw machine. Quantities
processing equipment. Tolerances for the engine lathe depend less than 1,000 parts may be more economical to set up on the
primarily on the capability of the machine and the skill of the turret lathe than on the automatic screw machine.
operator. The design engineer must be careful in using tolerances Tolerances. The following are the economical tolerances that
of an experimental part that has been produced on a precision can be held on automatic screw machines; parts should be
engine lathe by a skilled operator. In redesigning an experimental designed with these tolerances in mind. Closer tolerances can be
part for production, economical tolerances should be used, held with special tooling, but at higher cost, and should be avoided
Machining characteristics of common production turning ma- wherever possible. Diameters and length of steps formed from the
chines are covered in the following paragraphs. cross slide are: up to 1 (25.4 mm), *0.002 ( k 0.05 mm);
between 1 and 2 (25.4 mm to 50.8 mm), ~ 0.003 ( t 0.08 mm);
Turret Lathes and over 2 (50.8 mm), 30.005 ( *O. 13 mm).
Production machining equipment must be evaluated in terms of Concentricity. 0.002 (0.05 mm) TIR on diameters; and
the ability to repeat accurately and rapidly. Applying this criterion 0.004 (O.10 mm) TIR between hole and diameter.
for establishing the production qualification of a specific method,
the turret lathe merits a high rating. Automatic Tracer Lathes
A natural outgrowth of the well-known engine lathe, the turret Since surface roughness depends greatly upon material turned,
lathe can handle either bar or chucking work. Although it can tooling, and feeds and speeds employed, minimum tolerances that
produce parts in quantities too limited to be economically pro- can be held on automatic tracer lathes are not necessarily the most
duced on an automatic screw machine, the turret lathe is primarily economical tolerances .In some cases, tolerances of Y 0.002
suited for parts not within economical screw machine capacity. (*0.05 mm) are held in continuous production using but one cut.
For low quantities such as 100 or 200 parts, it is most Groove width can be held to f 0.005 ( * 0.13 mm) on some parts.
economical to use the turret lathe. In achieving the optimum Bores and single-point finishes can be held to * 0.0005(t0.013
tolerances possible on the turret lathe, the designer should strive mm). On high-production runs where maximum output is desir-
for a minimum of operations. able, a minimum tolerance of & 0.005 ( t O. 13 mm) is econom-
General turning tolerances. A minimum tolerance of +0.002 ical on both diameter and length of turn. Concentricities can be
(+0.05 mm) on diameters can be held, but this requires a rough held as close as 0.002 (0.05 mm) TIR.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
TABLE 11-2
Drill Hole Tolerances
Decimal Tolerances
Drill inch mm inch mm
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CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
Decimal Tolerances
Drill inch mm inch mm
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SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
Decimal Tolerances
Drill inch mm inch mm
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CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
MILLING
Milling is undoubtedly one of the most widely used methods of
removing metal. Well suited and readily adapted to the economical
production of any quantity of parts, the almost unlimited versatil-
ity of the milling process merits the attention and consideration of
designers seriously concerned with the manufacture of their
product. As in any other process, parts that are to be milled should
be designed with economical tolerances that can be achieved in
production milling. If the part is designed with tolerances finer
than necessary, additional operations added to achieve these
tolerances will increase the cost of the part. Tolerances for shell
milling are *0.00I ( *0.03 mm); step milling, tO.002 (tO.05
mm); keyway cutting, *0.002 ( *0.05 mm); end milling,
*0.003 (~0.08 mm).
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CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
possible, principal bores should be cylindrical and normal to the Figure 11-12 shows a cubic workpiece whose external exposed
base of the component. It can also be seen that a spacer is required surfaces can all be machined on a vertical milling machine without
between the workpiece and the workholding surface. reclamping. This figure illustrates that sharp, internal comers
The next type of secondary machining operation to be consid- parallel to the base can be machined readily but that sharp, internal
ered is the provision of a series of plane surfaces, These include comers normal to the base should be avoided.
the machining of steps, slots, and so on, in one of the large The workpiece shown in Fig. 11-12 is blocklike. However,
surfaces of the workpiece. If possible, plane-surfacing machining many cubic components are boxlike (square) and some are split,
should be restricted to one surface of the component only, thus with flanges provided to allow the two split portions to be bolted
avoiding the need for reclamping the workpiece. Plane surfaces together. When the split is provided at a main bore, this main bore
might be machined on milling machines, shapers, or, in very large is machined with the two sections bolted together. Main bores in
workpieccs (such as machine beds), on planing machines. Plane- cubic components are often machined on a horizontal boring
machined surfaces should, if possible, be either pmallel or normal machine. For ease of machining, internal cylindrical surfaces
to the base of the component. Internal radii need not be specified should be concentric and decrease in diameter from the exposed
for the milling operations, because the comers of the teeth on surface of the workpiece. Where possible, blind bores should be
milling cutters are usually sharp. avoided; in horizontal boring the boring bar must usually be passed
Finally, auxiliary holes might be required in flat components. through the workpiece. Internal machined surfaces in a boxlike
These auxiliary holes should, if possible, he cylindrical and cubic component should be avoided unless the designer is certain
normal to the base of the component, and preferably related by a that they will be accessible. With small cubic components it is
pattern to simplify positioning of the workpiece for drilling. possible to machine pockets or internal surfaces using an end-
Components having proportions such that the ratio A/B is milling cutter, as shown in Fig. 11-11. Again, it can be seen that
greater than 3 are classified as long components, and are often internal comers normal to the workpiece base must have a radius
machined from rectangular or square-section bar stock. Extremely equal to that of the cutter. Also, the same cutter will be used to
long components should be avoided because of the difficulties of clear out the pocket after machining the outer shape, and the
work-holding. For obvious reasons, bored holes should be avoided smaller the cutter diameter the longer it will take to perform this
because generally the workpiece cannot be rotated about the operation. Consequent] y, the cost of the operation is related to the
required axis. Also, machined surfaces parallel to the principal radii of the vertical internal comers. Thus, an internal corner,
axis of the component should be avoided because of the difficulties normal to the workpiece base, should have as large a radius as
of holding down the entire length of the workpiece. Instead, the possible. Finally, cubic components will often have a series of
designer should, if possible, utilize work material preformed to the auxiliary holes. Auxiliary holes should be cylindrical and either
cross-section required. normal or parallel to the base of the component; they should also
Components having proportions such that the ratio A/B is less be in accessible positions and have L/D ratios that make it possible
than 3 and the ratio A/C is less than 4 are classified as cubic to machine them with standard drills.
components and are often of quite complicated shape. Cubic Figure 11-13 illustrates the effect of surface finish and dimen-
components should be provided with at least one plane surface that sional tolerances on face milling cost. With tolerances under
can initially be surface-ground or milled, to provide a base for & 0.0002 ( * 0.005 mm), there is a @%0 difference in cost
work-holding purposes and a datum for further machining opera- between machining to 63 microinches (1.6 microns) and to 125
tions. If possible, the outer machined surfaces of the component
should consist of a series of mutually perpendicular plane surfaces
parallel to and normal to its base. In this way, after the base has
been machined, further machining operations can be carried out on
external surfaces with minimum reclamping of the workpiece.
250 Y
\
200 \
3 \ Takrance 0.002
UJ (0,05 mm) and under
.E \
~ 150 \
.E
; ,00
.-E Tokrcmce over
% 0.002 (0.05 mm]
~ so
1
125
[:) (p6) [3.2)
surface raaghness in microirrches(microns], rms
Fig. 11-12 Blocklike workpiece. Fig. 11-13 Cost comparison of milled surfaces. (ASME)
11-17
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CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
microinches (3.2 microns). At 125 microinches (3.2 microns), the tolerances. Rectangular tolerance hole pattern calculations and
cost of + 0.002 ( k 0.05 mm) tolerance and under is 110% more charts must take into consideration the difference in a two-hole
than at * 0.002 ( + 0.05 mm) and over. At 63 microinches (1.6 pattern versus a three or more hole pattern for a given-size
microns) there is a 110% difference, and at 45 microinches (1.1 fastener.
microns) there is a 100% difference. By using the method of true position tolerancing, the same size
hole can be used for one or any number of holes.
DRILLING These tables list the clearance holes for a fixed condition and
Drilling, the simplest of all machining operations, can be floating condition that provide a no-interference, no-clearance
expensive if the tolerances and the depth of holes are not carefully (worst case) condition for hole patterns of mating parts which are
analyzed. Modem equipment such as multiple drill heads and tolerance using true position.
CNC drill presses have made it possible to reduce the cost of True position tolerancing is the prefemed method of controlling
drilling, but the designer must be careful not to use drill tolerances the location of holes with respect to other holes. The placement of
that are closer than the drilling equipment is capable of producing. dimensions is not as difficult in this system as in the coordinate
system, since there is no tolerance buildup. Therefore, datttms
Drill Hole Tolerances may more readily be selected to reduce calculations. However,
Standard drill hole tolerances shown in Table 11-2 should be functional datums must be selected that are more accurate than the
used for economical drilling operations. If functional requirements tolerances used for dimensions based on these datums. This will
make it necessary to use hole tolerances closer than shown in the require the use of a datum hole in lieu of m untrue surface or
table, additional operations such as gundrilling, reaming, boring, formed sheet metal flange.
grindhrg, and/or honing are needed to produce these tolerances. By using this system, fewer parts are rejected. Parts with
Each of these additional operations will increase the cost of the clearance holes may have their centers outside the specific zone
hole or holes. and still be acceptable. This is possible because interchangeable
calculations are made using the smallest hole possible. If the hole
Hole Depth versus Cost checks in excess of its minimum size, this additional factor can be
The depth of the hole is another cost factor to be taken into added to the true position diameter for that hole.
consideration. Figure 11-14 shows the effect of hole depth on The selection of &turns (starting base for dimensions) must be
drilling cost. The cost curve is based on standard equipment, and located from the same matching surface or hole if perfect align-
shows that the cost of a drilled hole increases proportionately to its ment is required. If two surfaces are to be flush after assembly, or
depth until the depth becomes three times the diameter. Beyond if two holes are to be matched perfectly for insertion of a dowel,
this depth, the cost increases more rapidly. The dotted line is the use of matching datums is good practice for true position
shown to emphasize the accelerated cost. tolerance dimensions.
Since these tables only deal with holes for fixed and floating
True Position Hole Tolerances conditions, it is advisable that the design engineer study the
Another factor of cost increase is the location tolerance of method of true position tolerancing as outlined in ANSI Y14.5,
holes. If the method of true position tolerancing is used, it should since this standard has become mandatory for all military
be carefully analyzed. Figure 11-15 illustrates the cost increase as
true position tolerances become tighter.
True position tolerances for hole patterns that must match with
mating holes for good assembly are shown in Tables 11-4 and
11-5. These tolerances are based on standard drill sizes and hole
160
140
%
8120
.!?
~ 100
~ 80
j 40
z
~? 40
20
* 0.0005 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020
o (*0.013] (0.13) (0,25) [0.38) (0.51)
01234567 8 9 To True position &rance, inchss (mm)
kgth expressed as ratio of diametar (t./D]
Fig. 11-14 Effect of hole depth on drilling cost. (ASME) Fig. 11-15 Cost versus true position tolerance.
11-18
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CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
11-19
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CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
Drill Depth for Tapped Holes which can be ground down from rough condition without being
There are two classifications for tapped holes: the open or turned or otherwise machined. Thus many types of forgings and
through-hole, and the closed or blind hole. other parts are finished completely with the grinding wheel at
When blind holes cannot be avoided in design, the depth of appreciable savings of time and expense. Conditions that control
perfect thread should not exceed two times the thread diameter. this practice are the total amount of stock to be removed, the
The depth of the ddled hole should be the depth of the perfect general shape of the piece, and the type of machines available.
thread plus the K factor (see Fig. 11-16). Use a bottom tap- Classes of grinding machines include: cylindrical grinders,
chamfer ( 1 to 1-1/2 threads) only where the depth of the hole centerless grinders, internal grinders, surface grinders, rotary
prohibits using a plug tap-chamfer (3 to 5 threads). surface grinders, and tool and cutter grinders.
Adequate clearance, which can be determined from Tables
11-6 and 11-7, is required between the ends of the thread and the
&llled hole to produce the maximum number of perfect threads. Tolerances
Drill depth must be specified to permit tapping in the following Table 11-9 shows the tolerances for grinding operations in both
order of preference: plug tapping, bottom tapping. production and precision applications.
In Tables 11-6 and 11-7, tilll depth equals the desired tap
depth plus K. Factor K is a minimum dimension and should be
exceeded wherever possible. Effects of Tolerances and SurFace
Example. To determine the drill depth (not diameter) for a Roughness on Cylindrical Grinding Cost
10-24 UNC-2B tapped hole, using a plug tap for 0.25 (6.4 mm) Figure 11-17 shows cylindrical grinding costs, exposing a
tap depth, the K dimension will be 0.33 (8.4 mm) (see Table nonuniform cost behavior pattern. The 40-microinch (1.02 mi-
11-6). The drill depth will be 0.25 + 0.33 = 0.58 (6.4 mm + cron) quality line shows definite breaking points at 0.0005 (0.013
8.4 mm = 14.8 mm) for a 10-24 UNC-2B tapped hole with 0.25 mm) and at 0.00025 (O.006 mm) tolerance. The line shows a
(6.4 mm) perfect threads. Therefore, a plug tap can be used to minor cost rise between 0.001 and 0.0005 (0.025 and 0.013 mm)
complete the tapping operation. tolerances, followed by an abrupt rise between the 0.0005 and
0.00025 (0.013 and 0.0064 mm) tolerances, and then leveling off
Gundrilling, Reaming, and Boring at 0.00025 (0.0064 mm). The cost at 0.0001 and 0.00025
Table 11-8 lists economical tolerances for holes produced by (0.0025 mm and 0.0064 mm) tolerances is apparently the same.
gundrilling, reaming, or boring. The 25-microinch (O.64-micron) surface rises from 37?10at
0.001 (0.025 mm) to 65% at 0.00025 (0.0064 mm), and then
PRODUCTION GRINDING levels off. The break may bc explained by the peculiarities of the
Production grinding is one of the most widely used methods of machine and the skill level of the grinding operator.
finishing parts to extremely close tolerances and fine surface Cost will vary according to the type of machine used, its
finishes. Currently, there are grinders for almost every type of condition, how it is mounted, the abrasive wheel, the speeds, the
grinding operation. Particular design features of a part dictate, to coolant, the material, and the coolant filter, as well as the skill of
a large degree, the type of grinding machine required. Where the operator.
processing costs are excessive, parts redesigned to utilize a less Centerless grinding costs. The chart shown in Fig. 11-18
expensive, higher output grinding method may be well worth- demonstrates the possibility of incorporating quality features other
while. For example, wherever possible the production economy of than surface roughness or tolerance. The difference between the
rotary surface and centerless grinding should be considered. two curves is governed by the design of the part.
Although grinding is usually considered a finishing operation, To gain the benefit of the high-production, low-cost through-
it is often employed as a complete machining process on work feed method on the centerless grinder, the ground diameter must
11-21
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CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
K Dimension K Dimension
UNF Plug Tap, Bottom Tap, UNC Plug Tap, Bottom Tap,
Thread 1st Choice 2nd Choice Thread 1st Choice 2nd Choice
Designation inches mm inches mm Designation inches mm inches mm
080 UNF 0.10 2.5 0,06 1.5 164 UNC 0.12 3.0 0.07 1.8
172 UNF 0.11 2.8 0,06 1.5 256 UNC 0.14 3.6 0.08 2.0
264 UNF 0.12 3.0 0.07 1.8 348 UNC 0.17 4.3 0.09 2.3
356 UNF 0.14 3.6 0.08 2.0 440 UNC 0.20 5.1 0.11 2.8
448 UNF 0.17 4.3 0,09 2.3 540 UNC 0.20 5.1 0.11 2.8
544 UNF 0.18 4.6 0.10 2.5 632 UNC 0.25 6.4 0.14 3.6
640 UNF 0.20 5.1 0.11 2.8 832 UNC 0.25 6.4 0.14 3.6
836 UNF 0.22 5.6 0.13 3.3 1024 UNC 0.33 8.4 0.19 4.8
1032 UNF 0.25 6.4 0.14 3.6 1224 UNC 0.33 8.4 0.19 4.8
1228 UNF 0.28 7.1 0.16 4.1
1/4 20 UNC 0.40 10.2 0.23 5.8
1/428 UNF 0.28 7.1 0.16 4.1 5/1618 UNC 0.44 11.2 0.25 6.4
5/1624 UNF 0.33 8.4 0.19 4.8 3/8 16 UNC 0.50 12.7 0.28 7.1
3/8 24 UNF 0.33 8.4 0.19 4.8 7/1614 UNC 0.57 14.5 0.32 8.1
7/1620 UNF 0.40 10.2 0.23 5.8 1/2 13 UNC 0.62 15.7 0.35 8.9
1/220 UNF 0.40 10.2 0.23 5.8
9/1612 UNC 0.67 17.0 0.37 9.4
9/16 18 UNF 0.44 11.2 0.25 6.4 5/8 11 UNC 0.73 18.5 0.41 10.4
5/8 18 UNF 0.44 11.2 0.25 6.4 3/4 10 UNC 0.80 20.3 0.45 11.4
3/4 16 UNF 0.50 12.7 0.28 7.1 7/8 9 UNC 0.89 22.6 0.50 12.7
7/8 14 UNF 0.57 14.5 0.32 8.1 18 UNC 1.00 25.4 0.56 14.2
11-22
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CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
TABLE 11-8 looks at parts being honed (see Fig. 11-24) will show what the
Economic Tolerances for Holes Produced by right reamer diameter should be for the most economical honing
Gundrilling, Reaming, and Boring procedure.
11-23
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CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
TABLE 11-9
Production Grinding Tolerances
Tolerances
* in. (mm)
Grinding Operation Production Precision
Centerless Grinding
Diameters and parallelism O.0001 (0.003) 0.000025 (0.00064)
Roundness 0.000012 (0.00030)
Concentricity of stepped diameters 0.00025 (0.0064) 0.0001 (0.003)
Thread Grinding
Lead error (inch per inch) 0.00025 (0.0064) 0.00001 (0.0003)
Pitch diameter 0.0005 (0.013) 0.0002(0.005)
Roundness 0.00025 (0.0064)
Concentricity (thread form with OD) 0.0005 (0.01 3)
Grooves (width) 0.001(0.03)
Surface Grinding
. Reciprocating Table Grinder:
Flatness 0.0002 (0.005) 0.00015 (0.0038)
Thickness 0.0003 (0.008) 0.00015 (0.0038)
A blind hole without a relief will be impossible to keep straight these tools must be used for removal of a limited amount of metal;
all the way to the bottom. One reason is that the stroke speed will otherwise too much washout will occur at the edges of the keyway
have to be zero at the bottom (see Figs. 11-29 and 11-30). Luckily, or splines. On the other hand, such washout is not too serious,
most dead blind holes do not have to be straight all the way, because keyed parts do not rotate. Still, instead of locking an
because the mating part does not go all the way down. Realizing assembly with a key, it maybe a good idea to design it with a cross
that, the designer can make the area near the bottom larger, giving pin, a press fit, a clamp, or adhesive.
the honing stone some overstroke beyond the area to be honed.
This relief is helpful, but some problems remain. For instance, the
Material Hardness
chips and grits cannot be washed out during honing. The ideal It used to be that the choice between soft steel and hard steel
made a very big difference in the cost of the finished product, and
design is an open hole, as shown in Fig. 11-31.
it was a wise choice to specify honing before and after hardening.
However, with modem superabrasive stones, such as metal bond
Keyways and Splines diamond and cubic boron nitride (CBN) also known as Borazon,
Keyway honing tools are available. Their contact areas are stock removal is quite rapid even in hard material, and green
wider, to be able to bridge the keyways and splines. However, honing (before heat treatment) is hardly worth the trouble.
11-24
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
70 \
.
25 micrainches[6.4 microns)
.
\ \Total cost
-
\
651- \
\
\
\ \
\ \\ \
40 microinches (1 .02 microns) \ \
\%3ial ~.sting >
cost \
\\ \
M8asuring cast
Grinding cost
10
\\
40
35
11-25
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
Cleaned up
r
.
0.0005 O.OQ1 0.CQ2
(0,013] (0.03) (0.05)
~mensional tolerance, inches(mm)
o 0
out-of-round Bellmouth Waviness Undersize Barrel
11-26
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
Fig. 11-27 Labyrintb seal. FIJZ.11-30 Blind hole with relief and opening for honinz fluid. Better
&;n Fig. 11-29.
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
4.00
Diam.
On the other hand, if the parts are dimensioned using GDT, 2. Provide sufficient rough material or structural support to
there is no decision necessary by either the tool designer or the overhanging sections of the part to resist machining forces.
inspector. They are in automatic agreement with each other. If this is impossible, provide flat surfaces on the underside
Figure 11-33 requires that the bore be located on an expanding of the overhanging section of the part to permit the use of
type arbor, or that some other means be used to establish the exact auxiliary supports that are directly in line with the machin-
center of the part before drilling the four 0.250 (6.4 mm) diameter ing forces.
holes, while Fig. 11-34 requires that the bore be located on an 3. Provide flat surfaces directly opposite the designated lo-
arbor having the maximum material condition of the part before cating points on the part, to permit downward or sideward
drilling the four 0.250 (6.4 mm) diameter holes, in this case, a clamping that is directly in line with the locators.
1.500 (38. 1 mm) diameter. Gages to check these two conditions 4. When dealing with a family of parts, consider similar
are shown in Figs. 11-35 through 11-37. locating and clamping points on all of the parts, to permit
It is not necessary that the datum and the four holes both be use of the same fixture on all of the parts.
dimensioned RFS or MMC. For example, the datum shown in Fig. 5. Use MMC tolerancing wherever possible, since jigs, fix-
11-33 could be dimensioned RFS and the four 0.250 (6.4 mm) tures, and gages can be designed and built for these parts
diameter holes could be dimensioned MMC. Likewise, the datum more economically than for parts dimensioned RFS.
shown in Fig. 11-34 could be dimensioned MMC and the four
0.250 (6.4 mm) diameter holes could be dimensioned RFS. These
conditions, however, would require different gage designs.
METALWORKING FLUID SELECTION
Metal cutting or metal removal is performed using a cutter or
GDT is also the best method for designating datums. Instead of
tool having a sharp edge. Both the metal and the tool are mounted
leaving the part-locating points to the discretion of the toolmaker,
in a machine, such as a turning center or lathe. Metal removal is
exact datum locations and the size of the contacts can be clearly
accomplished when the machine exerts pressure between the
specified on the part drawing.
cutting tool edge and the workpiece through movement of the
Following are some other contributions that the Product De-
workpiece over the tool or by moving the tool over the workpiece.
signer should consider whenever possible:
When metal is being cut, excessive heat is generated. More
1. Provide sufficient flat surfaces, bores, or chucking surfaces difficult cutting operations result in greater heat generation. This is
on the part to permit adequate beation of the part for especially true with alloy steels and titanium or with high cutting
machining. speeds and/or feeds. This heat generation cart result in temporwy
11-28
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CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
-------
-
-------
\ -------
I .375
+ -------
f - 04,00
-------
-------
-------
-
--(
------.
-
-------
F
-----
-----
-------
-----
-
------.
t
.
1 A
--L )0
L
-t I.375
m
+El- 1.375
Fig. 11-34 Dimensioning specifying maximnm material condition (MMC) on datum and holes.
11-29
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
T
-------
--.-.
-------
1~----.
--f--
1.375
: -------
~~
-----
--(
1
1.375
I
&--p-
1.500 axpyding plug
to centrahze parl
Fig. 11-36 Sweep gage for ose with gage shown in Fig. 11-35.
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
1.375 1.375
\-lx 01.5COMMC.Jdalum
t-
welding or fusing of the tool and the workpiece. Temporary wear of the metal. This sacrificial or boundary layer is cons~antly
welding causes metal to build up on the tooling, resulting in a dull removed by the continuing contact; the surfaces are eaten away at
cutting edge. Dull tools vibrate excessively, causing inaccurate a tolerable rate and catastrophic wear is avoided. All metal cutting
dimension and rough finishes. The tool must be removed from the and forming operations involve both hydrodynamic and boundary
machine and ground with a grinding wheel to restore the sharp lubrication to one degree or another. Figure 11-38 shows the type
cutting edge. This is time-consuming, costly, and nonproductive. of lubrication typically required by various metals during the
Coolant or lubricant applied to the point of contact between the machining process.
tool and work reduces the amount of friction generated by the two Types of lubricating fluids. There are four basic types of fluid
metal surfaces robbing together. Heat generated is reduced and is
rapidly transferred away from the toollworkpiece interface, mini-
mizing or eliminating temporary welding. Tool life is increased Hydrodynamic Lubrication Magnesium
and part quality is improved. (Slip) Aluminum
Metal forming operations (stamping, drawing, etc.) permit the
metal to be shaped by forcing a flat metal piece into a die cavity Gray cast iron
using a punch. Stampings require only mild metal flow or Alloy steels
elongation, whereas deep drawn parts undergo severe metal
deformation. A metal forming lubricant allows the metal to be Copper
distorted without wrinkling or rupture, It also serves to prolong die
Tool steel
life by reducing the amount of buildup on the die and punch
surfaces. Cobalt/Nickel
Lubrication Titanium
Hydrodynamic lubrication occurs when a microscopic film of Boundary Lubrication
fluid lubricant separates two metal surfaces the tool and work-
(EP) Stainless
piece. Boundary lubrication occurs when the two metal surfaces
become so heavily loaded that the lubricant film is interrupted. An
extreme pressure agent is required to chemically form a Fig. 11-38 Types of lubrication needed when machining various
monomolecular layer which is sacrificed, resulting in controlled metals.
11-31
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
SIMPLIFYING MACHINING IN THE DESIGN STAGE
lubricants, Petroleum hydrocarbons such as mineral oil can be different chemicals used at a facility, overall cost savings can be
formulated into hydrophobic or straight fluids, macroemul- enjoyed through reduced inventories, reduced chemical handling,
sions, or microemukions. Synthetic or nonpetroleum based lubri- increased recycling potential, and reduced waste handling. The
cants can be formulated as cstraight fluids, macroemulsions, selection of quality products designed for universal application
microemulsions, or true solutions. Table 11-10 compares the helps reduce the number of products and suppliers required to meet
various lubricant types available to the metalworking industry. plant needs.
The industry commonly refers to hydrophobic fluids as straight Lubrication selectionspecific. Fluid choice is based on the
oils, macroemtdsions as soluble oils, microemulsions as type of metalworking process involved. Generally a single fluid
semi-synthetics, and true solutions as synthetics. These can be selected to meet all grinding needs, another to handle
terms refer to the petroleum hydrocarbon content and are generally machining needs, and a third product for metalforming applica-
outdated today with the advent of new-technology synthetic tions, Sometimes the same product can be used for machining and
lubricants which can form the base of all four lubricant types. metalforming. Table 11-12 compares these three processes.
Petroleum hydrocarbons cannot form true solutions. Most high-quality lubricants contain additives. Some of the
Lubrication benefits. Careful selection of a lubricant can more common additives, the reasons for their use, their functions,
result in longer tool life, increased production, less downtime and and the ways they enhance performance are shown in Table 11-13.
improved part quality. A survey of the types of metals and metalworking processes
Longer tool lfe. Each time a tool needs resharpening or involved should be discussed with the chemical supplier for
replacement, time is lost and productivity is reduced while labor optimum fluid selection.
costs and tool costs increase.
Increased production. Often operating speeds and feeds can be
increased. More parts are produced and fewer rejects are gener- Filtration and Recycling
ated. Health, safety, and environmental laws being enforced today
Less down-time. Machines operate for a longer period of time are forcing industry to minimize waste. Extended bath life reduces
between tool changes and repairs. chemical consumption and subsequent chemical waste. Filtration
Improved part quali~. Closer tolerances, smoother finishes, and recycling help extend bath life and should be considered when
and better looking parts are produced. Increased productivity making a product selection. In general, petroleum based products
means increased profits for the machining industry. have limited filtration and recycle life, while synthetics tend to
Lubrication selectiongeneral. Table 11-11 compares the withstand filtration and recycling indefinitely.
advantages and disadvantages of the different types of lubricants/ Machine design concerns. Machine designers should consider
coolants available. Industry today is moving toward single sourc- the metalworking fluids used in the metal cutting or forming
ing of metalworking fluids. By minimizing the number of process. Areas to consider include seals, fluid accessibility, tools
TABLE 11-10
Comparison of Lubricant Twes
Lubricant Type Petroleum-based Synthetic-based Particle Size, microinches (microns) Water Dilutable
Hydrophobic fluid yes yes >17.7 (0.45) no
Macroemulsion yes yes 17.7 to 394 (0.45 to 10) yes
Microemulsion yes yes 0.20 to 17.7 (0.005to 0.45) yes
True solution no yes <(),20 (0.005) yes
TABLE 11-11
Comparison of Lubricant Types
Lubricant Type cost Lube Value Sump Life Fluid Loss Recyclability
Petroleum-based straight oil high high long high fair
Synthetic-based very high high very long high good
straight oil
Petroleum-based very low very low very low high poor
soluble oil
Petroleum-based low moderate moderate moderate good
semi-synthetic
Synthetic-based moderate moderate moderate low very good
emulsion
Synthetic-based moderate moderate moderate very low excellent
solution
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CHAPTER 11
NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING
TABLE 11-12
Comparison of Grinding, Machining and Metalforming
Process Grinding Machining Metalforming
Media Abrasive pad, wheel, stone, etc. Cutting tool; mill, drill, etc. Punch and die
Problems Plugging, frequent redressing Built-up edge; tool wear Buildup
Foam tendency; cause Very high; shear Moderate; turbulence Lowmoderate; turbulence
Chip size Very fine swarf Small to large chips Very fine swarf
Coolant needs Cooling, detergency Cooling, lubrication Lubrication, cooling.
and fixtures, chip conveyors, crevices, and splash guards, productivity, tools and fixtures should be designed for quick
Seals. Water solutions must be kept out of straight oil hydraulic and easy change.
systems and vice versa. The type of seal chosen must be Chip conveyors. Chips and swarf are formed in the machining
compatible with the type of coolant being used. Viton seals are process. They should be removed routinely to minimize corrosion
compatible with most types of metalworking fluids. and fluid spoilage. Chip conveyors should be designed to facilitate
Fluid accessibility. Since the metalworking coolant must be removal of these contaminants with minimal effort.
maintained or changed out and chips and floating tramp oils must Crevices. Overall machine design should minimize cracks and
be removed on a routine basis, sumps and reservoirs should be crevices where dirt, chips, swarf and fluid can collect.
easily accessible to facilitate maintenance. Splash guards. Physical barriers should be constructed to
TOOIS and jlrfures. To minimize downtime and increase minimize operator contact with fluids and mists.
NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING
This section covers laser machining, waterjet and abrasive 5. A single machine can cut, drill, weld, and heat treat
waterjet machining, abrasive flow machining, ultrasonic machin- materials.
ing, and electrochemical machining. 6. Since the laser beam does not wear, dimensional
repeatability is high. Also, there is no tooling or tooling
LASER MACHINING repair cost.
While sometimes considered a nontraditional machining 7. Fixturing costs are minimal due to the absence of mechan-
method, laser machining has become the predominant method for ical forces on the workpiece. Complexity and cost of the
machining certain classes of parts. Applications of laser machining fixturing depends upon part geometry.
include: 8. Since the cutwidth is narrow, substantial material savings
Cutting of prototype metal and plastic parts. can be realized.
Cutting of low volumes of stamped or photochemically
machined parts. The Laser Machining Process
Drilling of holes for airflow to cool aircraft engine parts. To the designer, the laser beam can be considered as a small
Tube cutting. diameter, 0,006 to 0.01 (O.15 mm to 0.3 mm) depending on
Trimming of formed metal, plastic, and composite parts. specific process conditions, thermal cutting tool, Laser machining
Ceramic cutting and scribing. is accomplished by a materials absorption of high intensity laser
energy. Conversion of this energy into heat results in melting and
These applications, as well as new ones being developed as vaporization of the material. A high-velocity assist gas coincident
design and manufacturing engineers become aware of the capabil- with the laser beam helps to remove the laser melted material. The
ities of laser machining, are often based on one or more of the assist gases used include air, oxygen, nitrogen, argon, or helium,
advantages of laser machining. These include: depending upon the material edge requirements. Burrs are formed
1. A reduction in development time by providing quick by incomplete removal of laser-melted material from the cut. The
turt-around on development parts, because the part geom- size and ease of removing the burr depend on both the material
etry is defined in easily produced and modified computer type and process.
programs. The laser machined edge is characterized by a small heat
2. Quick turnaround on individual designs, which allows affected zone or narrow zone of transformed material along the
multiple iterations to refine the part design for optimum edge. Figure 11-39 illustrates the typical profile of a laser cut.
part quality and manufacturability.
3. The use of a wide range of material forms including thin, Capabilities
delicate sheet to plate; flat, tubular, formed, or highly As previously mentioned, the laser machining process is
contoured parts. applicable to a wide range of materials. Table 11-14 contains a
4. The use of many types of materials, including plastics, summary of the maximum thicknesses that are typically cut with
metals, and ceramics; any hardness for structure. laser machining.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING
11-34
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING
0,024- -
[0.61 )
F
&
r j
0.016-
(0.41]
-
! 0.008- -
Hent : (0,20]
o~
affected
zone
0.05 0.1 0.15 0,2 0.25
(1,3] (2.5) (3,8) [5.1) (6.4)
Thickness,inches (mm)
\ /
+J++ t~m
kerf for a given material thickness, it is usually more efficient to
use a trepanning technique, making two cuts of minimum kerf
with a focused beam, rather than a single cut with a
defoeused beam.
Fig. 11-39 Typical profile of a laser cut edge. (Lumonicdhzserdyne)
Edge Profile
Kerf Laser machining produces an edge having a taper, as shown in
The cut width or kerf is a major factor in determining the Fig. 11-39, of 1, comparable to a die with 1% to 2% clearance.
capabilities of laser machining. Figure 11-40 illustrates a general This corresponds toO.017 inch per inch (mm per mm) of material
relationship between minimum kerf (cut width) and material thickness.
thickness.
Kerf increases linearly with thickness, a result of the increased
Part Design
power and correspondingly increased effective beam size. While
The narrow kerf of laser machining permits the machining of
kerf can be increased by defocusing the beam, the reduction in
intricate features, even in delicate materials such as metal foils and
laser intensity brought on by defocusing reduces the cutting rate.
plastic sheet. Whereas the typical diameter to thickness ratio for
If the required cut width is greater than two times the minimum
mechanical methods such as piercing is 1 to 1, laser machining can
achieve high yields with ratios as low as 0.3 to 1.
TABLE 11-14 Complex shapes are easily machined by the laser process.
Typical Thickness Range for Laser Machining (High degrees of complexity may require a high precision laser
machining system and a specialized part program. ) An additional
Material important benefit of laser machining is the ability to machine in
Maximum Thickness inches (mm) areas normally inaccessible to conventional cutting tools (see
Table 11-15, note T = material thickness).
Metals Minimum achievable comer dimensions depend on material
Aluminum 0.2 (5.1) and process parameters dictating energy input and depth of the
Beryllium copper 0.1 (2.5) heat affected zone. Minimum inner and outer comer radii are
Brass 0.125 (3.2) limited by the stability of the processing equipment (while cutting
Carbon steel 0.375 (9.5) the radius) and by the heat affected zone depth. The comers inner
Copper 0.05 (1.3) radius can be limited to the beam diameter or approximately
Silicon steel 0.1 (2.5) one-half the kerf, and the outer radius is lower than this.
Titanium 0.125 (3.2)
Tool steel 0.375 (9.5) TABLE 11-15
Tungsten 0.05 (1.3) Minimum Dimensions with Laser Machined Features
Zirconium 0.125 (3.2)
Feature Minimum Value
Nonmetals
Acetal (Delrin) 0.5 (12.7) Hole diameter 0.1 T, 0.006 (O. 15 mm) minimum
Acrylic (Plexiglass) 0.5 (12.7) Slot width 0.1 T, 0.005 (O.13 mm) minimum
Epoxy 0.25 (6.4) Notch width 0.1 T, 0.005 (O. 13 mm) minimum
Fhroroplastics (Teflon) 0.5 (12.7) Comer radius
Polycarbonate (Lexan) 0.25 (6.4) inside 0.05 T, 0.0025 (0.065 mm) minimum
Polyethylene 0.5 (12.7) outside 0.02 T, 0.001 (0.025 mm) minimum
Pvc 0.25 (6.4) Web between features 0.33 T, 0.010 (0.25 mm) minimum
11-35
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING
Machining Near an Edge or Other Features directly related to production rates. Maximum cutting rates are a
Material may be removed near workpiece edges without edge function of the material properties and product requirements.
destruction. This capability of laser machining is due to the narrow
heat affected zone, WATERJET AND ABRASIVE WATERJET
The minimum web (distance between the machined edge and MACHINING
adjacent edge) is determined by the depth of the heat affected This section relates the tolerance, surface finish, allowable
zone. Minimum web is a function of material thickness, and can geometry, and material topics about waterjet and abrasive waterjet
be approximated as 0.33 times the material thickness for metals, machining to the designer.
with a minimum of 0.0 I (0.3 mm). For plastics, the minimum
web is 0.06 times the material thickness with a minimum of 0.001
(0.03 mm). Tolerances
When utilizing the waterjet process, the discussion of part
Tolerances tolerances often becomes a heated debate. In the early days
Cut tolerances are influenced by both the positioning system and (mid- 1970s), most applications such as carpet cutting, automotive
edge roughness. Typical accuracies of t 0.002 ( &0.05 mm) are instrument panel trimming, and sheet metal blanking did not
easily attainable. The ability to maintain dimension tolerances of the require precision machines; robotic pick-and-place type pedestals
laser cut components is governed by the precision, accuracy, and or overhead gantries were used. Tolerances of * 1/16 ( * 1.59
control of the positioning system. Closed loop control of motion and mm) for the part, and positioning and repeatability of t 0.030
laser output provides the highest degree of repeatability. ( +0.76 mm) for the robot were acceptable. Flat patterns were
often done on retrofitted plasma-arc or flame-cutting two-axis
Distortion
bridge or cantilever systems. When abrasive was required, the
As in conventional machining, dimensional change produced
tungsten carbide nozzles that were employed would wear rapidly
by stress relief of one surface with respect to the opposite surface
(often within two hours), so that tolerances would further deteri-
can result in distortion (bending) of the material. Materials with
orate due to changeouts and repeated indexing. Work envelopes
poor dimensional stability and low rigidity (such as some of the
were usually 2 x 6 x 12 (0.6m X 1.81 m X 3.6m) for three
thermoplastics) may distort. Post-process heat treatment can re-
dimensional work and 4 X 10 (1.2 m X 3.0 m) for flat work. It
duce this distortion.
was not until 1986 that precision waterjet machining became an
Edge Finish issue. The aerospace defense industry pushed the waterjet system
Edge finish involves both the roughness and visual appearance manufacturers and machine tool builders for the critical tolerances
of the edge. Table 11-16 gives edge finishes available for several required to meet their needs, especially with the new composite
materials commonly cut with a laser. and metal matrix materials. Robots and flame cutters were
Major factors influencing the edge micro roughness are mate- replaced by true machine tools built to standards set by organiza-
rial type, machining rate, laser positioning equipment perfor- tions such as the National Machine Tool Builders Association
mance, and the capabilities of the laser control system. (NMTBA) and the rigid specifications of the aerospace compa-
nies. Today, work envelopes are as large as 5 x 12 x 40 (1.5
Machining Rates m X 3.7 m X 12.2 m). Linear positioning to *0,005 (*0.13
The high cutting rates attainable with laser machining are due mm) is now standard, and smaller systems have been built to hold
to the high energy density of a focused beam of energy, adding to AO.OCI to &O.002 ( *0.03 mm to fO.05 mm). The rotary axes
the cost effectiveness of the system. These high cutting rates are are capable of *O. 1 or better. Mechanical backlash and reversal
error has nearly been eliminated. Electronic compensation has
TABLE 11-16 further reduced motion error. It is now possible under dynamic
Finish of Laser Machined Edges of Selected Thicknesses conditions to position and repeat to within t 0.002 (*0.05 mm)
in a moderate volume of typically 3 x 5 x 10 (0.9 m X 1.5
Edge Finish m X 3.0 m).
Thickness, microinches Soon machine tools specified for the waterjet process will be
Materials inch (mm) (microns) Remarks able to position as accurately as any high-precision mtdtiaxis
machine center, that is *0.0005 ( * 0.013 mm). However, there
Metals is another important factor in determining final part tolerance
Aluminum 0,03 (0.8) 130 (3.3) Moderate burr tool wear, from the hydro-abrasive action upon the nozzle.
Brass 0,06 (1.5) 200 (5.1) Moderate burr Historical] y, nozzles were constructed of C2 tungsten carbide.
Carbon steel 0.03 (0.8) 50 (1.3) No significant High-grade garnet media with a Mobs hardness scale range of 8
0.25 (6.4) 150 (3.8) burr when cutting to 9 could enlarge the bore at a rate of 0.002 to 0.005 (0.05 mm
with oxygen to 0.13 mm) per hour or more, when using a rough grade with a
Alloy steel 0.1 (2.5) 110 (2.8) No burr high flow rate of 2 lb/rein (0.9 kg/rein). Another major problem
Stainless steel 0.06 (1.5) 70 (1.8) Moderate burr was with the garnet delivery and metering system; occasionally
0.18 (4.6) 150 (3.8) flow would be interrupted or clogging would occur. Garnet
Titanium 0.09 (2.3) 70 (1.8) No burr starvation, of course, would cause the jet-cutting stream to lose
energy and the cut would degrade or stop entirely. Irregular
Nonmetals metering of the abrasive would cause similar problems, and orifice
Acrylic 0.25 (6.4) 12 (0.3) Firepolished edge failure would cause catastrophic damage to the part material.
Nylon 0.25 (6.4) 37 (0.9) These serious problems have been nearly rectified in the last
Epoxy 0.25 (6.4) 250 (6.4) Charred edge two years (1990- 199 1), through improvements in manufacturing
and materials and heightened supplier quality control standards.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING
There remain minor areas such as nozzle wear that dictate the . Minimal torque is applied to the material usually between
addition of process tolerance to the machine tools inherent 2 ft-lb and 15 ft-lb (2.7 Nm to 20.3 N.m).
accuracies. Minimally, f 0.002 ( *0.05 mm) should be added to
For pure water, a 0.001 (0.03 mm) diamond orifice is being
the machines *O .002 ( f 0.05 mm), resulting in a finished part
considered; and for abrasive jets, exit diameters of 0.025 to
tolerance of approximately t 0.005 ( + 0.13 mm). These figures
0.080 (0.64 mm to 2.03 mm).
assume that proper tooling will take care of part surface conform-
ance and program indexing. On very small details, it is possible to
achieve tighter tolerances in the range of ~ O.001 to t 0.002
Materials
Some of the materials best suited for waterjet machining have
( ~ 0.03 mm to *0.05 mm). Large, complex components can be
been mentioned. Other materials include: glass (except for tem-
waterjet machined to within *0.0 10 ( f 0.25 mm). The tolerance
pered, which tends to fracture); laminates of differing thermal
target for the near future will be t 0.001 ( z 0.03 mm) for small
properties (the jet does not reach more than about 180 F(82 C));
and moderate envelopes and *0.005 ( *O. 13 mm) on
metallics and nonmetallic bonded together; heat-critical materi-
large details.
als; fracture-critical items; tool steels; foam; papen rubben and
Surface Finish honeycomb materials of all types. Table 11-17 lists various
Roughness average in relation to waterjet machining should be parameters for some selected metals.
examined by separating materials into two major groups: metals
and composites. Metals break down into two subgroups: soft ABRASIVE FLOW MACHINING
metals (aluminum, copper, brass) and hard metals (steel, stainless Abrasive flow machining (AFM) finishes surfaces and edges
steel, nickel alloys, titanium). The soft metals are abradable, and by extruding a semi-solid abrasive media through or across the
usually the best surface finish is 125 to 250. The hard materials workpiece. Generally the media is hydraulicallyy driven from a
can attain finishes in the 63 to 125 range. The entry side of the jet lower media cylinder through passages formed by the workpiece
produces the best finish. The exit is usually where striations occur and tooling to an upper media cylinder, where the action is
and the finish roughens. reversed. The type of finishing action which results (debuming,
The composites group also breaks down into subgroups: solids polishing, or edge finishing) and the amount of abrasion which
(such as nylon and urethanes); solid-like laminates such as occurs depend on the viscosity of the media; the abrasive size,
graphite-epoxy; and Kevlar@ laminates. Fine finishes are achiev- type, and concentration; the volume of flow, the extrusion
able with the solids 63 to 200 R=. Fibrous laminates such as pressure, and the workpiece and tooling configuration.
aramid/phenolic do not allow for good finishes because of the The media is comprised of a polymer material mixed with
stranding and fuzzing of the material; however, waterjet is far abrasive, usually silicon carbide, aluminum oxide, boron carbide
more effective than mechanical machining in producing a finished or diamond, Extrusion pressures range from 100 to 3,000 psi (0.7
surface. Factors that influence surface finish are: feed rates, to 20.7 MPa) with cycle times usually between 2 and 20 minutes.
pressures, garnet size, and garnet flow.
Applications and Capabilities
Allowable Geometries AFM was originally developed for deburring inaccessible
Depending upon the type of machine tool employed, the
internal intersections on aircraft hydraulic components. Polishing
geometries of parts that are waterjet machinable are extensive.
and deburring internal passages remain the primary applications
There are certain limitations. At this time (1991), the jet stream
for AFM today. Other applications in the aircraft industry include
must pass through the material cross-section to achieve critical
improving airfoil surface conditions on compressor and turbine
tolerances. Advanced research systems arc accomplishing turning,
section components following casting, profile milling, EDM or
drilling, and depth milling; however, these systems are not ready
ECM operations; edge finishing of holes and attachment features;
for the factory floor, and it has not yet been determined to what
removing thermal recast layers left by laser or EDM operations;
level of precision these ncw capabilities will rise. Given these
and reworking components to remove coke and carbon deposits.
stated conditions, certain geometries present serious problems.
Holes as small as 0,004 (O. 10 mm) can bc polished with this
When the exit stream cannot be captured or properly deflected due
technique. The process is used extensively in the die-making
to difficult part configuration (such as bosses or fold-backs), then
industry for polishing through-passage dies. Multiple passages can
the danger of surface erosion or destruction is very great.
be processed simultaneously. High production applications in-
The abrasive (or pure) waterjet may be thought of as a laser
chrde automotive fuel system and transmission components and
beam or a wire EDM with five-axis potential, and it is a very
improvement of cast passages in engine cylinder heads and
versatile tool. Some motion systems can rotate f 90 from vertical
manifolds. Other fields of use include pumps, valves, medical,
and rotate parallel to the Z axis two or more full rotations (720).
and semiconductor equipment. Surface finishes are generally
This flexibility of motion allows for a great variety of part
improved by 80% to 9WI0 with minimal dimensional change (see
surfaces. However, it puts extreme demands upon the cutting-
Table 11-18). As shown in Table 11-19, accuracies are held to
stream focusing mechanisms, and dictates nozzle and orifice
within 20% of the stock removed; if 0.001 (0.03 mm) per surface
technology that will keep the jet coherent and maintain a correct
of material is removed, it will be uniform to f 0.0002 ( *0.005
vector tool as it profiles through thick material surfaces at steep
mm). The process has also been found to impart residual com-
angles. For example, two-inch (51 mm) thick material contoured
pressive stresses to the workpiece surface.
at 45 produces a cut length of 2.828 (71.83 mm), and at 60 a
Special benefits of AFM include the ability to process all areas
4.000 (10 1.6 mm) cut length results. Other aspects of the waterjet
through which the flow would be restricted (or could be made to
process are:
be restricted with special tooling). The process is highly control-
. It is omnidirectional. lable and selective with work focused on the most restricted area
. Small cutter diameters, 0.002 to 0.008 (0.05 mm to 0.20 of the flow passage(s). Restriction tooling can be used to process
mm), are available. external areas or to focus work at selected areas.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING
TABLE 11-17
Abrasive Waterjet Machining Parameters for Selected Metals
Notes: 1. These guidelines apply only for flat material, two axis machining.
2. Surface finished are estimated.
3. Note corresponding feed rates and tolerance bands.
Special Considerations aerospace materials, carbide, hardened tool steel, and other
Media (although cohesive and generally clean and easily difficult-to-machine materials.
removed) must be expelled from workplaces after processing and
Design Recommendations
recovered for reuse. Special tooling is normally required (except
Since AFM requires the media to flow through the workpiece,
for most die-polishing applications), and both the media and
blind cavities are not normally practical for this process. Tooling
certain tooling elements are consumables.
is generally required to direct the media flow to the appropriate
areas on the workpiece or to restrict flow at areas where abrasion
Economic Production Quantities is desired. Areas where flow is not restricted normal] y remain
AFM can process many selected areas on a workpiece simul-
unaffected. Comer radii will be produced but can be minimized to
taneously. Fixtures can be designed to hold multiple parts for
0.001 (0.03 mm). The maximum achievable comer radius is
processing in one operation. Totally automated systems, equipped
0,060 (1.5 mm) with 0.005 to 0.015 (O. 13 mm to 0.38 mm)
with part loading, unloading, processing, and cleaning stations,
typical. The process can be used on a wide variety of workpiece
are being used in the automotive industry for meeting production
sizes. Very large components can be processed in sections or
rates of thousands of parts per day.
sometimes with mobile units. Part cleaning, either ultrasonically
or in a solvent bath or spray, will be required after AFM
Suitable Materials processing.
A variety of materials from aluminum to Inconel can be AFM is best suited to internal passages, although external areas
successfully processed with AFM. It is less frequently used with are sometimes appropriate where geometry is complex (airfoils,
plastics and softer ceramics. It is particularly useful on hard gears, etc.) or axial finish lay is desirable (for example, punches).
11-38
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING
TABLE 11-19 the mirror image of the contour desired in the workpiece, or 2) a
Abrasive Flow Machining Surface Finish Capabilities single point tool, such as a ball or cylinder, is used and the contour
is programmed and then executed via CNC table movement.
Dimensional Ultrasonic machining is suited for the machining of ceramic
Surface Tv~e Final Finish Change and glass, and has recently been adapted for the machining of
graphite to form electrodes for subsequent EDM. Of particular
Non-lay surfaces Final finishes are Typical dimensicm- advantage in this application is USMs capability to redress
(EDM, ECM, cast, 10% to 20% of al change will be electrodes after they have become worn during the EDM process.
etc. ) original roughness. 1,2 to 1.5 times R, This permits maximum EDM metal removal rates regardless of
per surface. wear to the electrode, since a fresh electrode can be produced from
a worn electrode in a matter of minutes.
Surface lay perpen- Final finishes are Typical dimensional Another adaptation of USM is ultrasonic polishing. The pro-
dicular to AFM 20% to 30% of change will be 1,5 cess utilizes a highly abradable tip on the sonotrode that rapidly
flow path (turned, original average to 2.0 times Rt per conforms to the workpiece shape, yielding significant surface
ground, etc. ) roughness. surface finish improvement and uniform stock removal within 10% to
Surface lay parallel Final finishes are Typical dimensional 2070; if 0.001 (0.03 mm) of stock is removed, it will be uniform
to AFM flow path 30% to 40% of change will be 2.0 to 0.0001 to 0.0002 (0.003 mm to 0.005 mm).
(broached, milled, miginal average to 2.5 times Rt per Ultrasonic polishing is particularly useful in the removal of
etc. ) roughness. surface. EDM recast and directional cutter marks from turning and milling.
It is ideal for molds and blind cavities which in the past could only
be polished by laborious manual techniques. It has also been found
that ultrasonic polishing imparts residual compressive stresses.
Passages with substantial differences in cross-sectional area will
Other advantages include:
see substantially less work on less restricted areas unless restrictor
tooling is used. (For example, the water passage in centrifugal . No specially preshaped took are required; consequently,
pump casings can be uniformly finished, but only with the use of even low volume components are applicable.
flow restrictor tooling. ) . No precision alignment of the polishing tool to the work-
Passages ranging from 0.003 (0.08 mm) diameter to over 3 piece is required.
(76 mm) in diameter can be finished using appropriate media and . Material removal is uniform across the workpiece surface.
process parameters, Parts can be very small, 0.060 (1.5 mm) . Surface improvement is 3 to 1 or more on machined, EDM,
diameter gears to large, several feet (meters) in diameter. Very and cast surfaces.
large parts, 10 to 20 (3 m to 6 m), in diameter can sometimes be . Edges can be deburred and lightly radiused.
processed in sections. NO special operator skills are required.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING
parts (1 to 5 pieces) are often not cost-effective. At times, The electrochemical machining process works in what is
however, a single piece may be feasible if it is easier to produce known as an electrolytic cell. The workpiece is connected to the
the mirror image of the desired shape onto the sonotrode than to positive side of a low voltage (7 V to 25 V) DC power supply and
conventionally machine the workpiece. In any case, contour the tool to the negative. An electrolyte, which is a conductive salt
machining may prove to be cost-effective since the tool being used solution such as sodium chloride (table salt) and water, is pumped
is an easily constructed generic shape that is moved via CNC. between the workpiece and tool, where a small gap is maintained
and the tool never touches the workpiece. The resulting current
Suitable Materials flow causes atoms to be removed from the workpiece only
Generally, USM is best employed when the material is brittle. (positive side) and enter the electrolytic solution. The metal ions
Softer materials such as copper or brass do not lend themselves quickly form neutral metal hydroxides that are filtered from the
well to USM because the abrasive particles in the slurry tend to recirculating electrolyte stream. Quick removal of the metal
become lodged in the workpiece. USM is especially useful in hydroxides from the gap by the electrolyte permits high removal
brittle materials that are not electrically conductive and so cannot rates.
be machined by processes such as EDM and ECM. A list of The factors influencing the ECM process include the electro-
materials suitable for ultrasonic machining is presented in Fig. chemical properties of both the workpiece material and the
11-41. electrolyte. Other aspects inchrde component geometry, process
parameters, tooling, and machine characteristics. These influences
on the machining results are diagramed in Fig. 11-42. Balancing
Design Recommendations the parameters provides an equilibrium electrochemical action
Total form machining by USM uses a vertical machining responsible for the machining results. In production machines
direction, so workplaces requiring undercuts are not practical.
these parameters are programmed and automatically controlled.
Ultrasonic machining by the total form method is limited to a
machining area of approximately 9 in. 2 to 10 in. 2 (58 cm2 to 65 Applications and Capabilities
cm2) of frontal area and 0.750 to 1.00 (19.1 mm to 25.4 mm) There are a number of factors that determine if an application
deep. In order to machine larger or deeper areas, it is necessary to is suited to the ECM process. Complex surface geometry or
use multiple total form tools or to use a single point tool and difficult to machine contours are usually good candidates. Com-
contour the workpiece via CNC movement. Deep vertical walls
are difficult to produce by USM because unwanted tapering of the
workpiece is likely to occur.
,-----------------------------------------------------
,
Dimensional Factors I Electrochemical Promwties
USM is capable of producing workpiece geometry accuracies
as close as &O. 0002 ( * 0.005 mm). The repeatability of the ,
process is t 0.0001 ( t 0.003 mm) when the process variables are #
maintained. ,
Uhrasonic polishing can improve surface finish by as much as ,
10 to 1 and maintain uniform stock removal within 10% to 20%. ,
,,
ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING ---.-.-----.-.-.--
Electrochemical machining (ECM) can be described as a
controlled rapid metal removal process with virtually no tool wear.
The surface metal of a workpiece is selectively removed by the
conversion of a metal atom bound to the surface to an ion in
solution as the result of an electrical current. This controlled \ qurdily
deplating of the surface occurs when a conductive tool surface
forms a small gap with the workpiece and an electrolytic solution
is forced through the gap allowing the electric current from a DC S
power supply to flow between the two surfaces.
contourgadied
radii, flow pnth,
b Cross-seclial,
Alumina Garnet Sapphire &c.
E o
Aluminum oxide Germanium Silicon b
Boron carbide Glass Silicon carbide
Calcium fluoride Graphite Silicon nitride Ad@Me
Carbide Laminates Stainless steel (hardened) parameters
Carbon Limestone Stellite Aklge,
feedrat.
Ceramic Lithium fluoride Titanium inlet/outld
Composite Molybdenum Titanium diboride pressure,
Europium Mother of pearl Tungsten etc.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING
ponent geometries indicative of this are turbine airfoils and forging Special Considerations
dies. Low machinability metals are also good candidates for ECM Tooling development can involve an iterative approach, there-
since the material removal mechanism of the process is very fore an ECM tool designer should be consulted as early as possible
different for the conventional mechanical machining process. The in the design process.
toughness of the material has very little influence over the material After the ECM operation, provision for washing electrolyte
removal rate. If cold working of the machined surface is unac- from the workpiece is advisable. Rust preventer should be applied
ceptable, then the stress-free, excellent surface finish produced by to materials that will corrode when exposed to salt water.
ECM is a distinct advantage. Bum-free machining is another
attribute of ECM that is often a requirement that will influence the Economical Quantities
choice for this process.
An important consideration in the selection of ECM is the
Depending on the type of equipment used, ECM can be used to
number of components or repetitive machining operations that are
perform broaching, turning, trepanning, deburring, radiusing, and required. The tooling necessary for the process requires that a
etching. Examples are ECM broaching of rifling in gun barrels,
special tool design and test effort be conducted to establish
trepanning of blades on the periphery of steam turbine discs,
production machining parameters. Therefore, a moderate to large
critical radiusing of jet engine discs, and controlled etching of flat quantity is usually required to justify the process. While this is
or contoured surfaces. usually true, it is not always the case because there are other
factors to be considered, such as the speed and repeatability of the
process. Also, since the tool is not consumed (that is, does not
Suitable Materials
wear like conventional tools or EDM electrodes), the investment
ECM requires materials that are electrically conductive. Most
in tooling development is often quickly offset by the recurring
metals can be machined by this process, including nickel based
tooling costs of other methods.
alloys, steel, aluminum, and titanium. Materials with lowconven-
In a study reported by Battelles Center for Metals Fabrication,
tional machinability ratings tend to exhibit the most advantages
a comparison was made between a three-axis single-spindle CNC
from the process because of therelatively high removal rates.
milling machine and a single-axis IOK ampere ECM machine. The
cost of the equipment on which the study was based was roughly
the same. The ECM metal-removal rates remained constant at
Design Recommendations
approximately 1 in. 3 (16.4 cm3) per minute, since metal removal
Electrochemical machining is usually a single step process
requiring a reasonably consistent initial stock condition. For by electrolytic action is largely unaffected by work material or part
complexity. On the other hand, the CNC mill showed variable
example, when machining forged components to final shape it is
metal-removal rates, which decreased as shapes became complex
desirable to provide at least 0.04 to 0.08 (1 mm to 2 mm) over
and as work material became difficult to machine, The results
final size, with each lot varying no more than 0.002 to 0.0 1 (0.05
mm to 0.3 mm) depending on the required final tolerance. indicated that as shapes became increasingly complex and cavity
When machining cavities it is preferred to allow a sidewall or pocket depth increased, ECM was more economical even
when materials were easy to machine. It was, however, more
taper of 0.1 Yoto O.3%. Smaller tapers are achievable depending on
economical to use CNC milling with simple shapes and easy-
the complexity and depth of the cavity. Cavities deeper than 2 to
to-machine materials. Figure 11-43 illustrates the comparison
3 (51 mm to 76 mm) require special design considerations.
The minimum intcmal radius for cavity machining is approx- presented by Battelle for a number of materials.
imate] y 0.007 (O. 18 mm) although smaller radii have been
achieved with shallow depths and with ECM pulse machining. PHOTOCHEMICAL MACHINING
External radii as small as 0,002 (O,05 mm) can be achieved with Photochemical machining (PCM) is a process of precisely
some tooling configurations, however, 0.007 to 0.0 15 (O.2 mm etching parts from flat metal sheets. Artwork is created from
to 0.4 mm) are more typical. engineering drawings which defke the part. The artwork is
Provisions for fixturing the workpiece and anode contact transferred photographically to both sides of a thin sheet of metal
surface should be taken into consideration. The ECM tooling coated with an etchant-resistant material called a photoresist.
designer will also be concerned with how to direct and contain When the sheet is placed in an etchant solution, all metal not
electrolyte flow to the machining gap, the total surface area, and covered by the photoresist is dissolved, in effect cutting out
its configuration. Current density will limit the maximum machin- the part.
ing area that a machine will accept. The typical range for current A definition of thin metals is anything from foils about 1 mil
density is 100 to 700 A/in. 2 (0, 15 to 1.1 A/mm*). (0.03 mm) to metals 0.062 ( 1.57 mm) thick, The thickness of the
metal is a major consideration in determining the limits on
dimensions and tolerances. This is a CIUC to the nature of
Surface Finish and Dimensional Factors photochemical machining, in which etchants attack the metal
Surface finish resulting from ECM is somewhat dependent on laterally as well as vertically. The specific metal being used, along
the material. High nickel and chrome content results in better with variables in the process, are also considerations, but to a
surface finish typically 8 to 16 microinches R, (0.2 to 0.4 microns lesser extent,
R,), while finishes, on steel normally range from 32 to 63 Figure 11-44 shows, in somewhat exaggerated form, most of
microinches R. (0.8 to 1.5 microns R.). the parameters appropriate for designing with photochemical
Dimensional tolerance range for most ECM applications is machining. However, demanding closer tolerances than those
fO.002 to *0.008 ( fO.05 mm to &O.2 mm). However, actually required (over-specifying) can increase cost and may
tolerance is related to workpiece geometry and final tooling lengthen production and delivery time. It is important to know
configuration. Tighter tolerances generally require more tooling what tolerances are available and develop specifications within the
development effort. limits of actual need.
11-41
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING
100
(1,639)
_ _ _ 10,000 ampere ECM
~
E
: (1638)
E
~,
<
Z
p
ECM
-g
(16.~)
;
!+
~
(;:)
Fig. 11-43 Comparison of metal removal rates for ECM and CNC milling. - (Center of Materials Fabricating, Cobrzbus, OH)
Advantages
The wide range of advantages for photochemical machining
Hole Size and Slot Width versus Metal
include: Thickness
Holes, slots, and radii have dimensional limits which are
. Low tooling costs. While stamping dies can run into related to the thickness of the material. As a general role, the
thousands ofdolkws, even tens of thousands ofdollars fora smallest diameter or slot width that can be produced by PCM
multi-stage die to make a complex part, artwork used as cannot be less than 1.2 times the thickness of the metal. Excep-
phototooling typically costs several hundred dollars. tions to this occur at the lower end of the scale: the minimum
Economical material use. Parts should be laid out in a practical diameter of a hole or slot in any thickness is 0.005
close-packed step and repeat pattern to ensure efficient use (0.13 mm).
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING
TABLE 11-20
Hole Size Tolerance
Alloy 42 Hymu 80
Thickness T, Practical Hole Tolerances Attainable,
Alloy 52 Hymu 800
in. (mm) Size. in. (mm) in. (mm)
Aluminum Invar 36
0.0020 0,0050 to.ool
Aluminum bronze Kovar (0.051) (0.127) (0.03)
Anodized alumlnum Soft magnetic alloys
0.0050 0.0060 to.oo15
ASTM F-15 alloy Magnesium (O.127) (0.152) (0.038)
Beryl!um copper Monel 0.0070 0.0080 fo.oo15
(O.178) (0.203) (0.038)
Brass Mumetal
r
metal thickness. 1
Q
7
Thickness Thickness
Bevel versus Metal Thickness
Etchants used in PCM attack the metal laterally as well as
vertically, undercutting the resist to a small degree. This is shown Q
in Fig. 11-46, which illustrates the effect of etching from one side
[a] [b)
only (see Fig. 11-46a) and of etching from both sides simulta-
neous y (see Fig. 11-46b), The etch factor is a percentage of metal
thickness described by the bevel or undercut. The etch factor for
parts etched from one side only is 0.4 times the metal thickness.
For parts etched from both sides simultaneous] y, the etch factor is Fig. 11-46 The effect of etching from one side only, (a), and of etching
0.2 times the metal thickness. from both sides simultaneously, (b). (Fotofabrication Corp.)
11-43
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING
Fig. 11-47 Corner radii defined for PCM. (Foto~abricatkm Corp.) Dial faces Rotor Iamlnatlans
6 to 10 *0,0030
(152.4 to 254.0) (0,076)
Fig. 11-48 Applications of PCM. (FotofabricaticmCorp.)
(Fotofabrication Corporation)
the removal or secondary operations of the parts. This also allows
shows some typical tolerances which may be expected in a normal simplifying inventory and initial handling. However, parts may
production run, given specific sheet and metal thicknesses. Pro- also be shipped detached, should that be desired. It is also
totype and short production runs can be held to closer tolerances. important to note that if plating or electropolishing is to be done,
having the parts in sheets is much more efficient.
Holding Tabs
Photochemical machining normally includes a final cleaning
step for removal of residual photoresist and other chemicals. This Applications
will usually be facilitated when the etched parts remain attached to Photochemical machining can be used to produce metal parts
the metal sheet from which they were made. As a rule, one or for a wide variety of uses. Figure 11-48 lists this range of
more small connecting tabs are located so as not to interfere with applications.
TABLE 11-22
Typical Tolerance Thickness, in. (mm)
Approximate 0.001 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.040
Flat Size, (0.03) (0.05) (o. 13) (0.25) (0.38) (0.51) (1.02)
in. (mm)
2X2 Empirical to. oolo *O, OO1O *0.0015 &o. 0020 50.0030 t 0.0050
(50.8 X 50.8) (0.025) (0.025) (0.038) (0.05 1) (0.076) (0.127)
8x1O Empirical to.oolo to.oo15 * 0.0020 * 0.0025 t 0.0040 t 0.0060
(203.2 X 254) (0.025) (0.038) (0.05 1) (0.064) (o. 102) (0.152)
12 X 18 Empirical *0.0015 * 0.0020 z 0.0025 t 0.0035 t 0.0045 t 0.0070
(304.8 X 457.2) (0.038) (0.051) (0.064) (0.089) (0.114) (0.178)
(Fotofabrication Corporation)
11-44
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING CELLS AND SYSTEMS
11-45
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING CELLS AND SYSTEMS
I Technabgykd
Manufacturing
$ingle-spindle drill press x
Milling machine x
Drilling machine x
CNC lathe x
CNC machining center x
CNC grinder x
Flexible manufacturing system x
Fabrication
saw x
Shear x
Brake press x
Punchpress x
C)ther
CNC punch center x
CNC waleriet x
CNC laser cutting x
Fig. ll-49Technology level-some typical prmesses for cellular manufacturing. (htgersoU Engirreers)
scope of work. This will ensure that the most appropriate technol- Self-guided vehicles. The precursors of self-guided vehicles
ogy to meet the business goal is employed. The next step is to (SGV~)~ automated-guided vehicles (AGVS) hav~ been a part of
identify the most appropriate level of technology. the manufacturing scene for several years with varying success.
What applies to FMCs now? A brief list of recent technolo- Typically used for part handling between cells, tbe results have
gies that may be appropriate in cellular applications is shown in been less than sensational. The most noted complexities with
Fig. 11-50 .6 These range from lowto high technology. AGVS have been the facility terrain, the in-floor guidance instal-
Lasers. At the recent trade shows lasers were the hottest topic lation, andsafetybazards.
inat the show, butdothey really apply to FMCs?They are getting Within the cell itself, part delivery between machines has
very close to becoming now technology and can usually be normally been accomplished with fixed handling devices like
integrated. Todays lasers are very articulated, with five- and conveyors or rail-guided carts which are inflexible and costly to
six-axis maneuverability y, power conservation, and precise control- change frequently. A new alternative for this application is the
lability. Their cost is still very high, but with increasing applica- SGV. This cart, a powered handling truck, does not follow a guide
tion and acceptance, lasers are expected to find increased indus- wire or painted path; instead, it navigates using internal naviga-
trial usage. tional controls, responding to signals from a computer. The
For FMCs, the most feasible laser use will be for marking, vehicle verifies its position from laser-detected bar-coded targets
etching, or part identification. Vision-equipped inspection lasers located along its path. The SGVs advantages include its ability to
will be valuable for maintaining accurate quality checks within the utilize existing floors, lower installation costs, and flexibility to
cellular environment. Traditionally, themost common application changes in path, parts, or locations.7
for lasers has been the cutting, welding, or fusion processes, Art@cial intelligence. Artificial intelligence (AI) is a technique
mostly in sheet metal or fabrication cells. A relatively new use for for emulating human thought through logic patterns which result in
laser technology in FMCS is in fine laser machining applications, action-based decision-making. This type of programming, based
where they frequently replace awkward electrical discharge ma- on realtime inputs, allows thecomputer totakeaction mpidly,
chining (EDM) equipment. but predictably. When itwasfirst introduced itwas oversold and
11-46
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING CELLS AND SYSTEMS
IOvels0[:
Handling
Automatic retried systems
Automatic guided vehicle systems
Self-guided vehicles
Robotics
Machine teds
Automatic tad s-ebction
Self-diagnostic programming
T5
2
4
2
1
1
A
4
4
6
1
4
10
8
7
10
5
3
Probing, offset selection I 1 4
Quick change/setup innwations 1 1 2
Self-programming/csrtificial intelligence 9 8 8
Custom, flexible special machirwsystems 6 10 10
Quality/in~tion
Automated coordinate measuring rncschinasystems 1 1 9
Vision inspection 4 7 6
Voice recognition systems 8 9 2
Loser inspection [metrobgy] 3 4 7
Afignment (for exompk, machine spindles} 1 3 3
Automatic identification systems 1 2 3
Lasers
Machining systems 6 8 9
Culling 2 3 4
Fusion/welding I 3 4
Drilfing 4 5 6
Marking/etching 1 3 1
EDM [electrical discharge machining) capability 7 7 10
Toafing
100 to 150 tool
changer systems(AS/RS] 1 1 5
Modular ding systems 1 1 4
Muhi-pdet changers 1 3 3
Auto d damping 1 1 2
Live tooling 1 3 2
Articulated baling 5 6 8
Diamand 3 3 4
High-speed steel cutters 4 1 3
Central software
EPrt [software) systems 10 10 7
%If-diagnostic software 3 3 5
Ebctronic data inlerchonge 3 3 4
Simple, twisted-pair cell controller (networking] 5 5 3
Simulation technobgy 2 4 3
Engineering
Integrated engineering (concurrent] 1 1 2
CAD/CAM @esign/modeling/twling/mfg.) 2 2 4
3D rrmdefing [prc+ping) 4 I 7
Stereafithogrcrphy(safid +ect modeling system) 8 9 9
F2zl
CASE (computer-aided software engineering) 6 7 4
CAPP (conywter-aided process pkmning) 1 I 3
. . .- .. . ..-
IJig. 11-5U technology/ristc/cost assessments. Ungersd[ Lngmeers)
11-47
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING CELLS AND SYSTEMS
underdesigned, resulting in an image that shunned practical Do they conform to state and federal requirements?
manufacturing. Today, the integration of normal language style Is there adequate power, water, and air?
inquiry makes it user-friendly and more acceptable. This evolution Is the location of power, air, and water lines suitable?
has led to a manufacturing expert systems application for Is there adequate floor loading capacity?
focused use; machine diagnosis is probably the most widely Are the surroundings suitable for electronic control
known application and it is used for automobile troubleshooting. systems?
Another common application for AI is with robotics and vision IS the factory in a location that will attract the required
systems to enable them to recognize patterns, paths, or model skill levels of employees, or where training is readily
comparisons and to make instant adjustments and changes in the available?
robotic actions. Expert systems are also effectively used for Is the lifestyle of the area around the factory desirable?
welding, assembly, and statistical process control applications.
3. Layout
Pick and place robots will use the logic decision-making capabil- Is the present flow of product and information designed
ities to analyze the part presented and place it reactively, according
to support cells?
to that input. 8 Are there monuments (major fixed barriers) in the way
Electronic data interchange. First introduced during the 1970s,
of improving material flow?
electronic data interchange (EDI) has begun to grow throughout Can cells be organized?
manufacturing. In everyday experience, EDI is used in banking,
Is there enough aisle space?
automatic payments, automatic deposits, etc. In manufacturing,
Is there room for expansion?
EDI is playing a major role in facilitating just in time (JIT)
planning between the FMCS material requirements and supplier 4. Equipment
planning. By linking the entire chainfrom the customer to . What is the present condition?
internal databases to supplier/vendor operations the information . What is the repair history?
flow has been accelerated and redundancies, errors, and paper Are support requirements adequate (maintenance, tool-
have been eliminated. ing, programming)?
The EDI evolution has enabled marry more manufacturers, . IS relocation (especially with regard to foundations)
suppliers, and customers to accomplish development of standards, complicated?
integrated information systems, and affordable software compati- . What is the equipments capacity?
bility. More than 3,000 North American manufacturing companies
5. Manpower
are using EDI on a daily basis. Having the ability to communicate . What training programs are locally available?
the daily/hourly material requirements instantly to suppliers, and
. How will training be funded? (Training may be as high
sharing real information through EDI, will enable companies to
as 20% of the cost of technology. )
remain competitive. One purchasing department, for example,
. What are the cut-rent hiring and interviewing practices?
claims that EDI has resulted in a 6CM0 reduction in the cost of a
. What skill levels exist (in all disciplines)?
purchase order, more than 35%. savings in buyers time, and a 25%
. What are the cultural attitudes and backgrounds of the
increase in efficiency of the administrative staff.9
employees, and how do they impact on company goals,
These are just a few of the latest innovations in the
measurements, rewards, customers, and the ability to
manufacturing technology field today. Although they have all
change?
been around for many years, new technology takes many years to
fully mature and become less risky. 6. Systems
. Arc systems set up to measure, monitor, and control
Where Should Investments Be Made? performance to the goal? Can they support the higher
After deciding that technology is feasible for the business and technology integration, especially within the confines of
the company is indeed ready to handle it, there are a number of a stand-alone FMC?
areas within the business that would probably benefh from an
Technology should be invested in only if it will be beneficial to
infusion of technology. The problem becomes one of identifying
attaining the goal of the business drivers. Unless the business is
which area gets the attention. Technology does cost money,
heavily driven by research and development, investment in tech-
usual] y scarce capital, and which area gets the attention is
nology for technologys sake is not recommended.
norrnall y reflected in the budgetary process. Of course, there is
Once the business drivers have been evaluated and the com-
always the option to improve all of them,
pany goal and master plan to achieve the goal have been
Determining where to apply technology requires objectivity.
established, the decision of whether or not to invest in technology
Everything that is involved in customer service, for both internal
can be made. The questions then become:
and external customers, must be evaluated to determine where the
What level of technology (low, now, or high) and how much of
most benefit can be attained. Here are some of the typical
each is appropriate?
considerations:
Where should this technology be applied?
1. Products Cells can be anything from simple to complex, and technology
. Which are most profitable? can be applied to any segment of the cell or to the entire cell.
. Which are the products of the future? This is where the company goal and master plan become
Which will benefit the most from technology?
important. During formulation of the master plan, it will become
2. Facilities apparent there are several alternative routes (strategic plans) that
. Is the condition acceptable? will achieve the goal. Each of these alternatives will require a set
. Are they repairable? of tactical plans and a complete costlbenefit analysis to determine
. Is there enough floor space and crane capacity? which alternative is foremost for business success.
11-48
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CHAPTER 11
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Some examples of typical technology investments include: Specific location within the factory and internal configuration
of the FMC are separate issues. Location selection isa function of
. Material handling/flow including raw material in the cell
macro or block layout evaluation. Individual cell arrangement
for internal handling as well as out of cell.
selection results from the evaluation of concept or detail layouts.
New equipment,
The evaluation methodology is the same for all levels of plant
. Group technology/pti familiesfor sorting characteristics
layout detail. The arrangement alternatives listed in Fig. 11-52
of product being manufacturedin the cell.
could be for any one of a series of content options that are as varied
A green field facilitywhere barriers (or monuments)
as the arrangement optionsand that carry a much greater
have not been established.
financial impact on a business. Theevahration process should be
Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM)tying the busi-
kept as simple as possible. It is awkward to perform an evaluation
ness and manufacturing closer with timely, real-time infor-
of both cell content and cell arrarwement in one steu unless the
mation to support cellular manufacturing.
machines and equipment are common to all alternatives
Investments in material handling always will benefit the cell for
less inventory, more speed, and ease of handling. New, but simple
equipment will result in more effective processing, less mainte-
nance downtime, and generally quicker processing times.
Technical objectives which include&v (of material I-!J Straight-1ine flow, manual handling.
3. The manifold assembly FMC will provide quick response Alternative C plus automation/material handling.
a
to final assembly and reduce work-in-process stock by an
NC lathe plus dial machine.
estimated $65,000. m
Special-purpose machining line.
Restating the FMCS purpose will provide an initial list of m
factors for the evaluation of alternatives. It also will test to ensure
that the original strategic drivers and technical objectives were not
lost or misinterpreted as alternative layouts were developed.
Each alternative will have specific identifying characteristics.
Using these to create a simple definition of each alternative (key
features) will aid communication and add clarity during the
evahration process (see Fig. 11-51). Fsg. 11-52 Typicrd content alternatives for FMCS. (lngersoll Engineers)
11-49
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING CELLS AND SYSTEMS
Factor evaluation or decision analysis techniques are used for and move characteristics need to be considered a pound of
location and arrangement evaluation. Organizing the evaluation feathers is a lot different from a pound of steel. This approach
process in steps will ensure apples to apples comparisons. provides a specific, weighted value which can be <scaled for
Minimizing the number of akematives to be evaluated at one time inclusion in a factor analysis exercise. The flow analysis identities
(select the best five, or less) will also simplify the process; more how well each cell layout alternative meets the primaty objectives
than five alternatives makes the decision-making process much of flow, density, and velocity (or more precisely, the ability to
more difficult. achieve them).
It is often necessary for some batch process and/or shared
Cell Content and Arrangement operations to be external to the cell. These could include activities
The first step in defining alternatives is to recognize which such as heat treat, plating, or painting. Since a cell by definition
planning phase is being addressed cell content or cell arrange- does not function in isolation, external operations need to be
ment. Cell content is essentially the equipment selection altern- evaluated for optimum location as a part of the macro layout
atives under consideration. The evaluation of these cell content evaluation, which looks at proximity between all plant areas. Cells
alternatives usually emphasizes the financial aspects, which may have operating relationships with many external activities and
include: areas; supporting services also must be included in the external and
internal planning and evaluation activities.
Using only existing equipment, which requires little capital Since material flow is usually the primary consideration in the
investment and can achieve quick results. development of proximity requirements within the cell, supporting
Purchasing sophisticated, new equipment that requires more services become more important at the factory level. In a plant
training, debugging, start-up time, and money to become environment where service relationships are especially important,
productive. those relationships should be surveyed and rated separately, and
Placing low-cost, stand-alone (existing or new) machines then merged with the flow relationships to establish an overall
into dedicated operation, which might yield a quick return proximity. A block layout should be created for each alternative.
on investment. The differences between block layouts should be quantified and
A number of other important issues may be affected by the used to rank the evaluation factors presented in the weighted factor
application of various content selections. These include labor analysis.
utilization, material control, changeover flexibility, operation
balance, and level of technical support. In addition, effective
evaluation requires thorough documentation of each alternative: Obstacles to FMC Installation
Several issues that should be addressed to determine readiness
Organize cost and benefit data for financial calculations and to invest in technology are the companys attitude, cost-
criteria for factor evaluation. effectiveness, competition, and human resources (people).
Prepare clear, scaled drawings. Attitude. Can a companys policies inhibit the successful
Begin listing and separating evaluation criteria or factors introduction of technology? Are the measurements, training pro-
those things the FMC must achieve and things it would be grams, accounting methods, systems, functional groups, standard
nice to achieve. operating procedures, processes, and pay scales set up to take
Organize evaluation formats, identify who will participate in advantage of technological improvements?
the evaluation process, and establish the time frame. Cost-effectiveness. Can a company obtain, install, and staff
Understand the methodology and obtain management ap- the level of technology required to achieve the necessary quality
proval for its usedo not hit-people cold with m-evaluation and capacity levels within the capital restraints imposed by the
technique that differs from traditional procedures. Commu- accounting structure or corporate policies? Technological im-
nicate the agreed procedure to individuals involved in the provements need to be viewed from their long-term contributions
evaluation process. to the business, not just from the short-term improvements.
Many of the U.S. cost accounting methodologies applied today
Evaluating Physical Arrangements actually undermine the perceived value of applied technology.
The Layout Seldom do they pick up the added actual expense incurred to
There are always alternative arrangements to be considered in support higher technology devices in a cell environment, as well as
planning FMCS and overall facilities. Effective evaluation toward the more expensive support. Subsequently, the cost structure will
subsequent selection will include a number of factors that influ- make the highly technological FMC look so attractive that it is
ence the layout. A list of typical factors is provided in Fig. 11-53, loaded with parts that do not fit the structure and bog down its
but each project will have its own, both in terms of content and effectiveness.
value. A key factor for evaluating FMC alternatives is the The drive to maximize short-term profits should be replaced
effectiveness of material flow. Ffow of material between work with the recognition that technology will sustain value for the
centers is developed to guide layout planning. However, each company over the long term. Any technology considered should
alternative will have differences which influence layout selection; correspond with the business drivers. For example, if applying
a means of measuring the differences is required for the evalua- high-tech solutions to an FMC where the FMCS projected life
tion process. span is limited will simply waste resources. Conversely, using
A unit of measure must be establishedtypically distance simple machines with a two-year life span in an FMC that is
times quantity per move during a selected time period-and the projected to operate for 10 years is also an inefficient use of the
quantity per move must be defined as a unit of measure with a cells resources.
common denominator (such as the most-used container size or Competition. Will the planned level of technology increase the
representative part size). Greater or lesser move quantities can be company competitiveness or just bring it even with the pack? One
expressed as fractions of the standard unit for calculation. Material of the major mistakes in the application of technology is to simply
11-50
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING CELLS AND SYSTEMS
. Configuration
Utilities kheduling
Building alterations
. Utilities
.-
Hig. 11-53 lftTective evaluation factors. (Ingersoll Engineers)
copy the competition. At best, this will put a company even with technological equipment installed. In reality, success is usually the
the competition, duplicating the competitions errors. The chances result of the planning and organizing that preceded the FMC
are that the competition is already on the way to further implementation. Technology applied within FMCS should also
improvements. address competitors who are working to:
Survival is a prevalent strategy for U. S. industrial marrufactur- . Concentrate on overhead reduction.
ing organizations. Increased foreign as well as domestic competi- . Reduce diversification of product lines (part design stan-
tion has propagated apprehension and concerns about Americas dardization/rationalization).
once formidable manufacturing facilities. For that reason, U.S. . Establish a niche (usually through product design).
manufacturers will often inappropriately assume that the reason for . Revise pay and incentive systems that reward team or cell
the foreign competitors success with cells was due to the higher productivity.
11-51
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CHAPTER 11
FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING CELLS AND SYSTEMS
1. Invest in employee involvement programs. consensus opinion over time as to the best method of manufacture.
2, Enter new markets (internally or externally motivated). Start with the LSR to find the best practice process. Capability
3. Develop new products. studies or controlled experiments can verify the LSR, suggest
modifications to it, or identify alternative methods.
Human resources. Involving the human resources function in
Make sure routings are standardized around statistically capa-
FMC planning, especially for the introduction of technology, is
ble processes that can be quickly set up. Remember that schedule
essential. Before adding new technologies, the following ques-
sequencing for minimum setup may be a no-cost means of setup
tions should be asked:
reduction.
. Are there enough people in the organization to assume all of No one knows the job like the person who does it. At a
the leadership roles necessary to ensure success? Minneapolis paint and fluid systems manufacturer, process flow
. Are the technical skills available to effectively employ analysis identified the LSR (one of two types of automatic screw
technology? machine) for a family of 300 turned parts. Although machine tools
. Have the gaps been identified? were consistent, cutting tools, turret station assignments, and cams
. Is there a recruitment program to fill the gaps? were not. Operators and setup personnel took capability studies,
Is there a training program? and standardized bar stock inventory, part tolerances, and tooling.
Set ups went from 8 hours to 30 minutes.
Control Design Proliferation and Consider cellular manufacturing. Both volume and utilization
may be improved by adding the next-most-similar family that can
Fear Tolerances.
Fewer parts mean proliferation is under control. Defect-free enter the cell without a setup penalty, Make sure work flows along
a balanced, unidirectional path. Unidirectional flow is required for
production means designs are producible and capable production
processes are used consistently. throughput maximization by sequencing techniques such as Shoti-
est Process Time (SPT) or demand-pull systems such as Kanban.
Do not let an avalanche of copy-and-edit CAD drawings bury
Remember, lead time evaporates when there is one path
the rest of the organization. Select a statistically random sample of
active products. Break them into families on the basis of critical through the shop. Consider the implications of design prolifera-
tion, inconsistent routings, and a functional (job shop) layout on
features. Critical features are those which must be designed and
production scheduling. If necessity is the mother of invention,
manufactured comectl y in order for the product to function. Part
families share a characteristic set of critical features. proliferation and functional layout are the parents of material
requirements planning (MRP).
Now focus on the critical features of the largest part families.
The m machine n jobs jobshop scheduling problem has not
Capture producible design standards for each family in parametric
been solved. Attempts at scheduling the bottleneck forever
CAD models. Use the CAD application language for all its worth.
Do not put in a tolerance when you can put in a formula for the chase moving targets. How many times are parts made in two days
that have MRP lead times of six weeks? Expedite suppliers,
tolerance. Then the parametric model can be shrunk, enlarged or
substitute raw material, use three machines instead of one, set up
modified without affecting producibility. Want to try Knowledge
Based Engineering? Build a knowledge base around the critical downstream operations in advance, work overtime, telescope
features of the largest part families. operations the list goes on.
For example, at a manufacturer of electrical contacts, a 1.5% Henry Ford understood the ease of scheduling a unidirectional
flow as well as Toyota does today. Tell MRP the cell is one work
sample of active parts revealed 660 duplications, triplications, or
functional duplications (nominal dimensions of one product falling center and sequence jobs for maximum throughput within it.
within the tolerance band of another) in one family of 3,000 simple Better yet, why not try demand-pull from assembly?
contacts, In a competitive market, the cost of unnecessary pro- See how it works on paper first. Simulate the cells perfor-
gressive dies and injection mold tooling was over ten million mance. Lumpy incoming sales may disrupt an otherwise balanced
dollars for contacts selling for 0.2 cents. At another plant flow. Use slack time for housekeeping and preventive mainte-
manufacturing aircraft hydraulics, thousands of configurations of nance to better balance human resources.
hydraulic ports were reduced to a handful. Engineers now click an
icon and obtain consistent geometry, NC tape image, and tooling.
Standardize raw material stock sizes (bar diameter, sheet
FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
gages, alloys, etc. ) Raw material proliferation not only increases
In a recent technical publication FMS was defined as Future
inventory, it is one of the biggest components of setup.
Manufacturing Survival. This unusual definition reflects the wide-
Do not let engineers who have not seen the inside of the factory
spread belief that flexible manufacturing will be the key to survival
design anything. Train them first. Avoid engineers who have
for many industries in the next decade. With increasing market
never seen the outside of a factory and the schools that pro-
fragmentation, more and more manufacturers will turn to flexible
duce them.
automation to attain cost efficiencies which were traditionally
associated with high volume production. The forecast is for the
Standard Manufacturing Processes Mean FMS market to expand to a multibillion dollar business by the year
Quality, Flexibility and Throughput 2000. In a declining machine tool industry, worldwide sales of
Use process flow analysis (PFA) to see if members of a family FMS are expected to reach $2.9 billion in 1992, up from $870
are made the same way. In any family of 100 similar parts, there million for 1987.
may be 80 different routings. The implications for quality, tooling, With increasing utilization of flexible manufacturing systems,
setup, machine tools, floor space, inventory, throughput, and lead the question arises whether product designers are taking full
time are predictable. Statistically capable methods may be hidden advantage of the versatility offered by FMS to develop new and
amid this clutter. The latent standard routing (LSR) refers to the more cost-effective products. On the other hand, the question can
most frequently used routing(s) within a family. LSRS represent a also be asked whether some of the problems experienced with
11-52
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING CELLS AND SYSTEMS
FMS installations were not caused or at least compounded by the ence system manufacturing holes and padsprovides a better
fact that parts designed for special machines were assigned to insight into the tolerances which must be held in production. It will
flexible production systems employing totally different tooling force product engineers to exercise sound judgement in choosing
concepts. To fully exploit the advantages of FMS, product and assigning feature control tolerances. In addition, it will
designers need to be aware of the tremendous new possibilities promote the application of a design approach which is in line with
created by FMS, but they must also know some of the limitations the manufacturing process. In a CIM environment it will facilitate
which can greatly reduce their effectiveness. Design for FMS bridging the gap between engineering and manufacturing. The
implies that engineers make use of the exceptional versatility of benefit to production operators is that they will be able to identify
flexible systems to create new cost-effective designs that meet immediately the causes of out-of-tolerance conditions. Anticipat-
customers demands. At the same time, engineers must move ing the potential causes of variation, adequate control plans can be
away from traditional engineering concepts which date back many established to prevent the occurrence of defects. Design for FMS
decades, and seek new design solutions which enhance machining is therefore a good starting base for developing failure mode and
feasibility in flexible systems. effect analysis studies in the framework of the advanced qual-
ity process.
Freedom of Design
The first advantage of flexible manufacturing is that it virtually Simultaneous Engineering
eliminates all the design constraints resulting from production The second main advantage of FMS technology is that it allows
equipment litnitations. The different part configurations which can the implementation of simultaneous engineering projects, thus
be machined on a 3-axis CNC machining center are almost greatly reducing the time required to launch new products.
endless, while part geometries which can be cut on 4- and 5-axis Simultaneous engineering is intended to bring new or improved
machines are on] y limited by the engineers imagination. With products on the market sooner, at lower cost, and with higher
FMS, engineering development work is greatly simplified. For quality. Practically speaking, it means that the product develop-
instance, maintaining minimum center distance between holes is ment process continues while the production facilities to make the
not required because holes are machined one by one with single new parts are being built. This is on]y possible with flexible
spindle tools. On special machines, center distances must meet production systems which are based on modular standard units,
minimum criteria in order to permit multispindle head machining. employing minimum numbers of special tooling. Conventional
Retooling of an existing transfer line for a new part can be a very transfer lines and dedicated machines require extensive engineer-
difficult and time-consuming task which requires the mobilization ing work and have lead times ranging from 18 to 24 months to
of numerous resources in engineering and manufacturing. Adding design and build special tools, multispindle heads, special boring
a new part to a flexible manufacturing system is a relatively simple units, part holding devices, and part handling automation. Design
task which can be accomplished in a short time frame and with changes occurring in the last 12 months prior to job one invariably
little engineering work. Product engineers have long since been result in delay and higher cost.
accustomed to making design compromises in order to accommo- Flexible manufacturing systems are affected to a much lesser
date the needs of manufacturing. With FMS, these constraints are extent by last-minute design changes. The basic machining unit in
eliminated. Product engineers can therefore concentrate their a flexible system is a standard 3-axis CNC machining center
efforts on developing optimum designs which meet the needs of capable of machining any type of component that fits in the
the customer. working cube of the machine. Part configuration changes often
Another area of major change is in the dimensioning and involve only software modifications which can be made in a short
tolerancing of parts intended for FMS production. In conventional time frame. More severe implications arise when design changes
design practice, the functional part characteristics are specified on affect the fixturing devices and the spindle tooling. However, with
the drawing with relationship tolerances. For instance, in a the proper approach these changes can also be managed in a timely
gearbox the location of one bore is defined relative to the location manner, while the risk of incurring scrap cost can be minimized.
of another bore. In conventional manufacturing technique, both
bores are finished in one operation on a special-purpose machine. Workholding Fixtures
The true position tolerance of the bores is guaranteed by the Flexible systems for the transportation industry (cars, trucks,
manufacturing tolerance of the special boring head. In a flexible farm and construction equipment) generally machine prismatic
manufacturing system, the two bores are finished in the same set- components on 3-axis horizontal CNC machining centers with
UP, but with separate tools and with axis movements and tool- single spindle tooling. This is the most versatile FMS concept,
change between cuts. The positional tolerance of one bore is which integrates standard machines and material handling sys-
therefore total] y unrelated to the positional tolerance of the other. tems, with standard spindle tooling in an automated system able to
Position tolerances on a CNC machining center are in fact only handle a wide variety of parts. In such a system, the amount of
related to the reference coordinate system of the machine. This money invested in special tooling is usually less than 10% of the
means that, in order to achieve the specified true position tolerance total system cost. Special tooling requirements are related to
between bores, each bore must be held within half that tolerance component fixturing, and nonstandard cutting tools such as boring
relative to the machine reference system. The same principle bars.
aPP1ies to linear tolerances. The tolerance between two mounting Clamping fixtures are tbe most expensive special tooling items
facescontrolling assembly stack-up is achieved by machining in a system. With lead times of six to nine months, they also
each face within half that tolerance relative to the machine represent the most significant timing risk. In a simultaneous
coordinate system. Figure 11-54 shows that the 238. 1/237.9 engineering project it is therefore of the utmost importance that
dimension between two faces in the transmission housing is product designers and manufacturing engineers work together on
obtained by machining one face to 584.65/584.55 and the other the development of fixturing concepts.
face to 346.65/346.55 relative to the manufacturing location hole. Except for compound angle holes, a prismatic component can
Dimensioning of parts according to the manufacturing refer- be machined completely on a horizontal CNC machining center in
11-53
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CHAPTER 11
FLEXiBLE MANUFACTURING CELLS AND SYSTEMS
n
11-54
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING CELLS AND SYSTEMS
two setups. Two different fixtures are therefore required for FMS second setup. More engineering work is required to develop this
machining. In the first setup the part is located and clamped on concept, but the payoff can be tremendous in lower investment
rough casting surfaces. The fixture is designed to center and align cost and higher operating efficiency.
the casting in three directions (X, Y, and Z) and to ensure equal
stock removal on machined surfaces, The second setup uses Spindle Tooling
normally a simpler fixture design because it can make use of The great majority of operations on CNC machining centers is
machined surfaces for locating and clamping. A very common performed with single-point tools. The advantages are obvious;
fixturing method consists of locating the part on a machined standardized tooling components which are readily available at
surface while centering in two accurately machined holes. low cost. Tools are typically assembled with standard tapered tool
Fixtures for CNC machines are designed to leave a maximum holders, collets, extensions, and commercially available drills,
amount of part surface accessible for machining. Because the reamers, taps, and milling cutters. The main difference with
rotary index table allows machining from any angle in the X-Y special machinery is that CNC machining centers use unsupported
plane, the position and size of clamps and locators becomes tools. Guide bushings are seldom used to support and stabilize
extreme] y important. No matter how ingenious the design, there tools while cutting. Short tools are sufficiently rigid to allow
will always be areas which are not accessible for machining. In cutting at high feeds and speeds without deflecting. This is an
these areas the tool path is obstructed by clamps and locating advantage because guide bushings have always been identified as
devices (see Fig. 11-55). major quality and maintenance problems in transfer line opera-
To avoid throwaway cost it is essential that before starting the tions. However, it can also be a disadvantage because of the poor
build phase, engineering and manufacturing review the proposed machining performance of long, unsupported tools. The size of
fixturing concepts and agree on the proposed clamping and tools that can be stored in the tool magazine and exchanged
location points. Product engineering should approve the fixture automaticallyy is restricted by weight and overall dimensions.
designs and confirm that no design changes are anticipated in areas Machine tool builders provide technical data relative to the
covered by clamps and locators. The fixture go-ahead can be maximum capacity of the automatic tool changer mechanism. A
planned relatively late into the project six to nine months prior to typical description for a large machining center includes the
delivery is normally sufficient for buildthus allowing maximum following data:
time for product development. Once the go-ahead is given, only a
. Maximum tool weight of 66 lb (30 kg).
small portion of the design is actually frozen, so that the
. Maximum tool length of 15,7 (400 mm).
simultaneous engineering process can continue unimpeded.
. Maximum tool diameter of 4.9 (125 mm).
Another point to consider when studying fixturing concepts is
Maximum tool diameter with two adjacent pockets empty
that investment cost can be reduced by restricting the number of
11.8 (300 mm).
different fixtures in a system. The investment saving is achieved
not on] y through smaller quantities, but also by downsized fixture Because of the inherent weakness of long, unsupported tools,
storage and retrieval systems. Flexible Manufacturing Systems are engineers must search for design solutions which avoid long tool
seldom designed to machine one or two different parts. On the overhang and unfavorable cutting conditions. Problems are usually
contrary, the number of different parts assigned to a system can be encountered when machining surfaces inside of housings. Poor
as high as 500. Most often, systems are purchased to machine a cutting performance is experienced with tools lacking sufficient
family of parts consisting of a few dozen parts with high degree of stiffness to withstand axial thrust loads, and when the main cutting
design commonality. Whereas CNC machining centers are versa- force is acting perpendicularly to a long tool. The following
tile enough to handle variations in geometry from part to part, it examples illustrate unfavorable machining situations frequently
should be kept in mind that fixtures are not easily adaptable to found in transmission cases and axle housings.
different part configurations. Product engineering can greatly
contribute to low fixturing cost by adopting the principle of Shifter Rail Holes
common clamping and location points, This requires part designs Rail holes are typically drilled and reamed through two or three
with common casting contours for clamping and location in the internal walls of a gearbox. Hole diameters range from 0.630 to
first setup, and common manufacturing location surfaces for the I ( 16 mm to 25 mm) and the total tool length required to drill all
-
..
1,
0
c1 . .
~ @ *
;
r
First sat up second s+ up
11-55
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING CELLS AND SYSTEMS
.-
the way through often exceeds 15.75 (400 mm). The drills lack
sufficient rigidity to permit unsupported cutting. The problem is
exacerbated by the fact that on inside walls the cut starts on a
rough casting surface. Drill point wander and tool deflection are
5R-
inevitable. On dedicated equipment the problem is solved with a
fixture which provides guide bushings inside the housing. But
.-
even with guide bushings, in-line drilling and reaming of rail holes
can be a continuous source of quality problems. To make the
design suitable for FMS machining, the rail holes can be relocated
in the cover which is bolted externally to the housing. On the
cover, the holes are located closer together and can be machined *
with shorter tools. In addition, tillling from opposite sides is Conventionol d-gn Design for FMS
possible, thus eliminating the need for bushing support. Assembly between
twolugs crmtilwar support
feasibility is also improved because the whole unit can be treated
as a bench subassembly (see Fig. 11-56).
Reverse Idler Gear Fig. 11-57 Reverse idler gear example showing conventional design of
between two lugs, (a), and FMS design using cantilever supports, (b).
Milling of the reverse idler gear lugs often represents a difficult
machining problem because it involves reaching deep inside the
housing with a long tool to mill the thrust faces. The main boring bar design and by reducing the machining stock. Diameter
component of the cutting force is perpendicular to the toolholder tolerance variation is the result of misalignment of the taper tool
and causes vibrations and poor surface quality. In a conventional shank in the machine spindle. With a boring bar overhang four to
machine line the thrust faces are milled on a machine with a five times longer than the portion of the tool inside the machine
special milling attachment. To improve machining feasibility in a spindle, misalignment errors are multiplied in the same ratio. The
flexible system, thedesign shown in Fig. 11-57 ispreferred. The resulting diameter variation at the tool tip can far exceed the bore
gear is supported ona cantilever shaft and held in place witha tolerance. This problem can be solved by using a quill-type CNC
retaining ring. The thrust face in the housing can be machined with machining center for finishing operations. The quill travel allows
a spotfacing tool cutting axially. Both the shaft bore and the reaching inside a component with a short boring tool. The
spotface are machined in the same index table position. alternative is to buy a special-build boring machine and integrate
it in the system. Besides raising investment cost, a special machine
Long Boring Tools defeats the purpose of flexibility. The objective of a FMS
Long boring tools are often required to machine precision bores installation should be to maintain 100% flexibility. All operations,
located deep inside housings. Chatter and loss of diameter toler- including finish boring, should be planned on CNC machining
ance control are the problems most frequently associated with long centers whenever possible. The first design objective should be to
boring tools. Tool chatter can be alleviated with a more rigid make the part configuration feasible for finish boring on CNC
machining centers, The finish boring situation of a component
designed for FMS should be examined very carefully, because it
could be the determining factor in making or breaking the quality
performance of a system.
One of the most demanding operations in powertrain technol-
ogy is the in-line boring of camshaft and crankshaft bores in an
engine block. Because of the length of the boring bars and the
accurate diameter tolerances, the operation is usually performed
on a special machine. On CNC machining centers, the operation is
4 J further complicated by the fact that the boring tool is too long to
be stored in the tool magazine. An alternate solution is storing the
tool in a separate compartment in the fixture, where it is retrieved
COrwantiOnol
design by the machine spindle. Successful applications of cam and crank
mil holes in housing
boring on CNC machining centers are found in low-volume
production of engine blocks.
11-56
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 11
FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING CELLS AND SYSTEMS
angular holes in a direction parallel to the machine spindle. The proach closely follows the machining sequence through every step
total system cost is raised by additional clamping fixtures, and of the process, with proper consideration for tool design and
system complexity is increased by added operations. Very often cutting conditions. Part dimensioning and tolerancing is based on
the cutting time required to machine angular holes on CNC the machine reference system rather than on assembly functional-
machining centers is only a small fraction of the total noncutting isty. Design for FMS is the logical step in implementing a customer
time for part handling, pallet shuttle, and tool change. One added oriented design and manufacturing service.
disadvantage of CNC machining centers is that the absence of
support bushings in fixtures often requires preparatory surface
operations prior to starting drilling cuts. In order to avoid drillpoint References
11-57
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER12
FORMING
METAL FORMING METHODS
Depending on part configuration, flexible manu- overlooked production method for trough-shaped CHAPTER
facturing requirements, and anticipated production parts requiring no punched holes is roll-forming the CONTENTS:
volume, the product designer should consider other section directly from coil stock and cutting the part
metal forming methods in addition to stamping. For off to the required length. METAL FORMING
METHODS 12-1
low-volume production, forming and punching parts Parting the roll-formed section to length can be
in a press brake is often more cost-effective than the done in a number of ways including parting with a
FINE-
use of dedicated pressworking tooling. die, abrasive cutoff devices, band sawing, frictional
BLANKING 12-24
For small lot, just-in-time (JIT) production of a sawing, laser cutting, and water jet cutting.
variety of stamped parts, a CNC turret punch press In general, any of the methods used to bend,
ROLL
may be the method of choice. Such machines can punch and sever tubing may be considered for FORMING 12-26
produce multiple nested parts from a single blank. application in producing parts from roll-formed sec-
The simplest method of separating the parts is to tions as an alternative to stamping. PRECISION
manually break the web retaining the parts in the FORMING 12-36
sheet. A flexible manufacturing cell (FMC) incorpo-
rating a CNC shear often can achieve much higher METAL
production efficiencies than a CNC turret punch SPINNING 12-42
alone if the part configuration permits the parts to bc STAMPING DESIGN FOR
severed from the matrix by shearing. ECONOMY OF TOOLING CONVENTIONAL
PIPING DESIGN
The flexibility of such manufacturing systems Complex stampings are incorporated into such
FOR BEND
can be further enhanced by incorporating laser cut- familiar assemblies as beverage cans and spin-on oil FABRICATION
ting for intricate work and shapes. Other forming filter housings. The canisters required for these 12-44
processes that are successfully used in conjunction products are produced by a variety of stamping
with conventional stamping include roll forming and processes, often including impact extruding, deep TUBE
edge bending. drawing and side-wall ironing. The canister ends FABRICATING AND
BENDING 12-48
The part illustrated in Fig. 12-1 can easily be require precise forming, including the use of com-
made in a forming die. AH bends are less than 90. pression and assembly dies that often employ in-die
For low-volume production lots, rectangular blanks force-sensing instruments for accurate process con- CAD
APPLICATIONS IN
can be cut from sheet or coil stock and manually trol. The high-volume production of such goods, SHEET METAL
loaded into the die. Automatic die loading and together with tight process control requirements, CUITING,
unloading usually become cost-effective at higher justifies the cost of complex tooling. PUNCHING AND
The Contributors of this chapter are: George L. Andersen, P. E., Consultant, Andersen Associates, Newtown
Square, PA; Terry FairIamb, CMfgT, Tooling/Manufacturing Engineer, Vancraff Manufacturing Corporation; Martin
Ford, Regional Sales Manager, Feintool Equipment Corporation; William Gaskin, Vice President, Precision
Metal forming Association; Don Gerhardt, Manager, Engineering and Development, lngerso//-Rand Construction
Equipment; John A. Gillanders, Consultant, Houston, TX; Michael A. Gwyn, Executive VP and COO, Pelton Casteel,
Inc.; George T. Halmos, Consulting Engineer and President, Delta Engineering Inc.; H. James Henning, Director of
Technology, Forging Industry Association; Joseph tvaska, CMfgE, Vita President, Engineering, Tower Oil &
Technology Company; Ted L. Payne, General Manager, Punchcraft Co.; Gerald A. Pool, Senior Manufacturing
Engineer, Cadillac Motor Car Division, General Motors Corporation; Fred P. Schleg, Vice President, Cast Metals
Institute; David A. Smith, President, Smith & Associates.
The Reviewers of this chapter are: James J. Albrecht, Sales Afanager, Dayton Progress; Taylan A/tan,
Professor and Director, Center for Net Shape Manufacturing, Ohio State University; Walter Davic, President,
Penntech Industrial Tools, Inc.; Richard G. Green, Editor, MetalForming magazine; Karl A. Keyes, President,
Feinblanking Ltd., Inc.; Daniei R. Leighton, Vice PresidentSales and Marketing, Orchid Automation Systems Inc.;
Charles Proehaska, President, Roli Design Services; Frank J. Zietowski, Tool Engineering Manager, Connecticut
Fineblanking Co.
12-1
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 12
METAL FORMING METHODS
..
Fig. 12-1 A typicat form-die part: this shape can be readily made by Fig. 12-2 A typical shallow part that can be drawn on simple toonng.
roll forming; for low volume applications, press-brake operations can (General Motors)
be utilized. (General Motors)
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CHAPTER 12
METAL FORMING METHODS
(a] UNACCEPTABLE
----- ---
Fig. 12-5 The deep drawn shape illustrated at (a) should be avoided if possible; the shallow shape illustrated at (b) can be made with ease on simple
tooling. (General Motors)
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER12
METAL FORMING METHODS
Fig. 12-6 (a) A part design to be avoided if possible; (b) a safe stamping with six-degree minimum side wall angles. (General Momrs)
Fig. 12-7 Recommended minimum corner radii relationships: corner radius A should be no more than one-third of the draw depth B; if possible
the relationship of A to B should be a one-to-one ratio. (General Motors)
Benefits of Avoiding Deep require a minimum amount of elongation in order to draw a tight
Drawing Conditions panel free from oil-canning effects. Such stretching also serves to
In addition to the additional cost of tooling and material for remove mill roller marks. A minimum elongation of three percent
deep drawing, there are benefits related to surface finish of the is a good rule of thumb.
parts. While surface finish problems are not inevitable, dies for
deep drawn parts require careful maintenance and operation to
avoid galling or metal pickup problems. In addition to increasing Preferred Flange Die Conditions
the possibility of fracture, metal pickup problems result in surface In practical stamping dies, it is not possible to locate a part to
imperfections that may not be acceptable without secondmy be flanged with absolute accuracy. Very short flanges will
finishing operations. therefore show a large percentage of height variation for a small
The preservation of the finished surface is essential if pre- locational error in the die. The flange should be long enough to
printed material is used. minimize this effect.
Figure 12-8a illustrates a flange that is too short. For process
Minimum Elongation Requirements stability, the straight portion of the flange should extend a
Large shallow-drawn parts having strict appearance require- minimum of two times metal thickness beyond the flange radius,
ments, such as automotive outer doors, roofs, and side panels, as illustrated in Fig. 12-8b.
12-4
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER12
METAL FORMING METHODS
+u
&!:;Tess a=.,
L
1 8 X meml
L
thickness
Too
minimum
short Too weak
T
(al UnacceptoNe [b] Acceptable [c] Unacceptable [~ Acceptable
Fkz. 12-8 Good versus bad flanpe conditions: (a) a tlamze that is too short: (b) the flarwe should extend a minimum of two times metal thickness
be~ond the flange radius; (c) a ~ondition that would resfilt in die sections that are too tfin to withstand side-thrust; (d) the width of the U-formed
portion of the flange should be a minimum of eight times metal thickness. (General Motor$)
The flanging condition illustrated in Fig. 12-SC would result in Coining the flange radius to control springback,
a die section that is too thin to withstand the side-thrust that occurs . Continuous material thickness monitoring, with alarm.
during pressworking operations. For safe, dependable operation, Adjustment of the radius coining force.
Frequent or continuous inspection.
the width of the U-formed portion of the flange should be a
Alignment of the die and press controlled within close
minimum of eight times metal thickness (see Fig. 12-8d).
limits.
Figure 12-9a illustrates a narrow deep flanged part which
results in a weak upper flange detail. It is desirable to make the A All of the above measures add to the cost of the part. If the
width twice the B height (see Fig. 12-9b). normal springback which occurs when the part is released from a
flanging die does not affect the function of the part, the product
designer should specify bends of less than 90. Figure 12-10lr
Designing for Springback
illustrates a U-shaped part with three degrees minimum springback
Some springback is inevitable when flanging metal; the actual
per side.3
amount is difficult to predict. Shape factors, tooling conditions,
press alignment, and material thickness variations are only a few
of the many factors that cause the amount of spring back to vary.
If it is possible to accept some springback in the design of the
Die-lock Conditions
Being able to form a part in a die is not the only requirement.
component or product, substantial manufacturing economies can
It must also be possible to get the part out of the die after it is
be realized.
formed. The pms illustrated in Fig. 12-11, a and b, can be made
Figure 12- 10a illustrates a flanged, U-shaped part having
in costly multiple-hit tooling, It is theoretical] y possible to form
parallel walls. This requires a nearly perfect 90 bend on either
these shapes in single station tooling having complicated cam-slide
side. While it is feasible to design a flanging process to maintain
mechanisms and sliding mandrels. Such dies require careful
the flange angle within close limits, doing so increases the cost of
design, construction and maintenance, especially as regards the
tooling and inspection procedures by requiring the following
timing of the cam-slides and dwell periods of the various
measures:
mechamsms.
. Maintaining material thickness within close limits. The tooling costs can exceed that of a simple U-forming die by
. Careful control of the materials physical properties. a factor of five or ten, The same is true of the tooling maintenance
Prefer A width to be
twice B height
Hmmmmmm
+A4
[al Not preferred (b) Preferred
Fig. 12-9 (a) Narrow, deep flanged parts result in a weak upper flange detail; (b) it is desirable to make A (width) twice B (height). (General Motors)
12-5
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER12
METAL FORMING METHODS
(0)
Fig. 12-10 (a) A flanged U-shaped part having parallel walls is diftlcult to produce; (b) an easy to produce U-shaped part with three degrees
minimum springback per side. (General Motors)
Back
Die lock
draft
condition
~
Part cannot be
unloaded *om
die steels
(a)
Avaid if passikde
Fig. 12-11 Avoid die-lock conditions where po=ible: thepart illustrated in(a) cwotbunloaded from thepstofa simple single-station die;(b)
illustrates a part condition that would result in fragile flange steels, and cannot be unloaded from a simple single-station die. (General Motors)
costs. The required skill Ievelsof the personnel who maintain the die. To withstand the side-thrust, the die may require large heel
tooling are often such that only asmall percentage of individuals blocks to align the upper and lower shoes. Guide pins usually will
in a typical shop are able to perform the task satisfactorily. not suffice to maintain alignment under high lateral force
conditions.
Another factor adding to tooling cost and complexity is the
Preferred Closed Corner Conditions requirement to hold the stock with a pressure pad during forming.
When material is flanged around a closed corner, the material
The forming punch for the part in Fig. 12-13a applies a downward
is driven into compression. This results in a thickening of the force (AA) against a pressure pad which applies an upward force
metal. Closed comer flanges longer than three times material (BB) to clamp the stock in position. As the high side-wall on the
thickness may have problems with wrinkling, scoring and tearing
left side of the part is formed, the stock will tend to slip to the left
of the metal. This problem is illustrated in Fig. 12-12, a and b.
(C) before the forming punch reaches the end of its travel.
To avoid this problem, a relief notch to limit the length of the
To prevent slippage, the upward force of the forming punch
comer flange to three times metal thickness can be provided as must be relative] y large, commonly 20% of the total downward
illustrated in Fig. 12-12, c and d. This part will require a die with
forming pressure. To further restrict stock side-slippage during
a cam slide, with critical timing requirements, if a single die is to
forming, hardened tool-steel inserts having serrated faces may be
be used. A simple die in which all flanging steels operate in the inserted in the forming pad, punch, or both. The inserts, called
vertical plane cart be used to flange the parts shown in Fig. 12-12,
cats paws, will cause marking of the surface of the metal which
e and f.
may be objectionable in the finished part.
Side-thrust generated by forming operations is not a problem
Die Side Thrust Conditions when forming symmetrical parts. Freedom from side-thrust and
The part illustrated in Fig. 12-13a is quite feasible to produce. lower forming pad pressures make possible the use of less costly
However, the part illustrated in Fig. 12- 13b can be produced on tooling than would otherwise be required. Symmetrically opposite
less costly tooling. This is because the lack of symmetry in the first parts can often be formed in a double die, thus avoiding the lateral
example inevitably results in an unbalanced lateral thrust in the force problem.
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CHAPTER 12
METAL FORMING METHODS
Closed corners
(c]
. -
I HU
[b]
d
Closed corner [d]
3 X material thickness
//
+
_.
I T~ I
Acceptable Preferred
Fig. 12-12 Material flanged around a closed corner is driven into compression, resulting in a thickening condition and wrinkting, (a) and (b); a relief
no~htolimit thelengtb of thecomer flange tothree times metilthickne~ can bprovidd (c)and (d); theprohlem is completely avoided with the
parts shown at(e) and(f). (Gerzeral Motors)
Flanged versus Recessed Holes this isnotpossible. Incases where the recessed hole, illustratedin
It is possible to produce the flanged hole illustrated in Fig. Fig. 12-14b, will serve thesame purpose astheflanged hole, the
12-14a in one die by combining drawing and pincb trimming, or recess can often be drawn in the first operation and tbe hole
by combining lancing and flanging, in a single operation. Both accurately punched on location in the second operation,
methods require close control of tooling alignment and geometry
aswellassbarpness. These factors increase thecost of the product Return Flanges
by increasing tooling costs and the possibility of quality problems. Figure 12-15 illustrates a return flange. For automotive and
The stability of the flanging process can be improved if the hole appliance applications, forming this configuration usually adds a
is msnched in a mior oueration. In cases where the flarwe is to be complicated extra die operation. In addition, the accuracy of the
fo~med in a trimming ~nd punching operation followin~ drawing, flange is not as good as a single bend flange,
~~
B B
B B
[b] Pretkrred
(o) Nat preferred
Fig. 12-13 The part illustrated in (a) is quite feasible to produce; however, the part illustrated in (b) can be produced on less costly tooting because
the symmetry in the second example balance lateral forces and permits the use of tighter tooling construction. (General Motors)
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CHAPTER 12
METAL FORMING METHODS
~=
[a] Not preferred (b) Preferred
Fig. 12-14 While the flanged hole illustrated in (a) can be made in one operation, the stability of tbe process can be improved if the hole is pierced
in a prior operation; in eases where the recessed hole witl serve the same purpose, the recess can often be drawn prior to the piercing operation,
(b). (General Motors)
Minimum Holding Requirements for Flanging savings over machining methods is more than sufficient to justify
Forming successful ~anges- with good repeatability re~uir~s the cost of the in-die hole sensing and part inspection methods that
that the metal be clamped tightly by a pressure pad. To keep the may be required for successful operation.
pressure within reasonable limits, the pad, (A), should have a
width twotimes thelength of the flange, @), asillustrated in Fig.
12-16. This will permit themetal to be ffanged without slipping. Guidelines for Low-cost
The required pad pressure will not mark the metal. A width- Punched Hole Production
to-length ratio of one-to-one is the minimum that is normally Rules have been developed in the automotive and appliance
feasible. industries to minimize the cost of producing punched holes. Cost
containment measures include:
PREFERRED CONDITIONS . Specifying hole sizes in standard increments.
FOR PUNCHED HOLES Commonality of hole sizes inafamily of parts.
Stamping ranks with machining as one of the most versatile of . Specifying punches made from standard tool-steel blanks.
manufacturing processes. There are few absolute rules as to what Standardization of punch length(s).
cannot be done when pressworking metal. It is feasible to punch . Avoiding sharp comers in punched holes.
holes in stainless steel, having diameters one-half the stock . Spacing holes away from the edge of the parts when
thickness at a cost many times lower than that of drilling. possible.
Elongated slots having widths one-half stock thickness are rou- Avoiding placing holes close together when possible.
tinely punched through tough copper strip at a much lower cost . Keeping punch travel in the same plane as that of blanking
than that of milling. and trim.
In both of the preceding examples, a seemingly marginal
punching condition is specified in order to avoid a secondary
operation and to reduce the amount of work in process. The
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CHAPTER12
METAL FORMING METHODS
Specify Hole Sizes in Standard Increments increase the skill factors required for correct assembly, and
Stocking large numbers of punches and die buttons is a thereby create a liability for added quality concerns.
never-ending expenditure for stamping facilities. The vast major- The same concern applies to providing a large range of
ity of punched holes in fabricated metal products are anything but adjustment for servicing the product in the field. For example, if
critical in diameter and tolerance. Many are simply clearance holes a large range of adjustment is anticipated in order to keep a drive
for screws. These hole sizes can be standardized and consolidated belt properly tensioned due to stretching, consideration should be
to a great extent without loss of screw retention. given to specifying a belt that stretches very little during its service
The key to efficiency is, of course, building hole-size consol- life. Another alternative would be to redesign the product to
idation programs around stmdard, readily available punch point incorporate automatic belt tensioning. In each case, the value of
sizes. When hole-size requirements are reduced to a minimum and the product to the user is enhanced by reduced maintenance
are based on standard tooling, and when product designers and requirements and increased dependability.
tool designers have a mutual understanding of hole requirements, As a general rule, the length to width ratio of an adjustment slot
real progress in tool economy can be made. should be no more than a 1.5 to 1 ratio, with a maximum of 2 to
The catalogs issued by punch manufacturers increasingly list 1 permissible.
metric size punches, buttons, and retainers as their standard or
preferred product line. In order to take advantage of the savings Allowable Contours of
possible through metric punch standardization, changes in product Surfaces to be Punched
and tool design practices should be considered by every company Figure 12-18 illustrates a cross-section through a part that can-
not presently using metric specifications. not be easily punched in one operation. One complex way of doing
so is to have a lance punch, mounted to the upper die shoe, first cut
the top portion in direction A, followed by a cam-pierce operation
Tooling Inventory cutting in direction 1?. In order to accomplish this, clearance for
Toavoid production delays, theusual practice for a stamping the cam-pierce punch must be provided in the first punch.
source is to keep at least one spare punch and die button on hand The timing of this combined operation would be critical.
for each size inapart or family of parts. Intheevent of tooling Should the cam slide fail to retract, the first punch would be
breakage, a replacement must be available at once. This is broken upon the ascent of the ram. Considerable skill and
especially important if a minimum inventory or amount of work in experience is required to build and maintain tooling of this type.
progress has been achieved. (In general, cutting operations that require carefully timed bypass-
ing of die components should be avoided. However, their use may
be necessitated in order to keep the total number of dies needed to
Hole Geometry Factors produce a part within perscribed limits.)
Figure 12- 17a illustrates an oblong hole having a length to Punching holes on surface angles greater than 30 should be
width ratio of 2 to 1. While much bigher ratios are feasible, the avoided. If possible, the maximum surface angle should not
cost of punches, punch retaining devices and conventional die exceed 15. Figure 12-19 illustrates an acceptable punching
buttons is considerably greater than the cost for lower ratios. A condition.
further consideration is that tooling to produce elongated holes
with high ratios of length to width tends to be more fragile than Punched Hole Locations in
would be the case with low-ratio tooling. The same considerations Relationship to Flange Walls
apply to the rectangular opening illustrated in Fig. 12- 17b. In order to punch holes, the material is held by a stripper pad.
If the purpose of an elongated slot is to provide adjustment This stripper may take the form of a metal plate to permit the part
during assembly, the product designer should reexamine why so
much adjustment is needed. Large adjustment ranges tend to
Avoid
Fig. 12-17 Hole geometry factors affect tooting casti as a generat rule,
the length-to-width ratio of an adjustment slot should be no more than Fig. 12-18 A cross-section through a part that is very difficult to pierce
a 1.5 to 1 ratio with a maximum of 2 to 1 permissible. (General Motor-s) in one operation. (General Motors)
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CHAPTER 12
METAL FORMING METHODS
1[,4
Accep~ble
Fig. 12-20 Avoid piercing holes close to flange walls. In order to avoid
a weak stripper pad cond]tion the (X) dimension shosdd be as generous
ss possible. (General Motors)
Fig. 12-21 A section through a part having four pierced holes A, B, C, and D: piercing the holes at A and D can be done in one operation with simple
tooling; the hole at B can be pierced in the same operation, but doiug so will increase the cast of the tooling; the hole at C will require a cam-slide
and perhaps an added operation. (General Motors)
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METAL FORMING METHODS
the deflection that is a normal result of punching on an angle. Angular differences of trim planes of over 30 (see Fig. 12-22c)
Often the working face of the punch must be ground to an can be expected to result in excessive die wear problems. The
experimentally derived angle or shape in order to reduce deflec- lateral forces cause the die clearances to open to the extent that
tion. The punch face configuration is difficult to reproduce on flanging rather than cutting can occur as the die becomes dull. To
replacement punches. avoid this, either a cam-die or an added operation may be required.
A good predictive die maintenance program will require that
the die be sharpened before a die component is worn to the point Provide for Adequate Trim Pad Strength
that unsatisfactory parts are produced. The punch used to produce Figure 12-23aillustrates across-section through apart that isa
the hole at B will wear out much more rapidly than those at A and poor design for manufacturability due to the shortness of the
D. The wear factor on the punch at B will in effect dictate how portion of the part being trimmed. Avery weak die-stripper-pad
often the die must be reworked, and thus become a limiting factor. condition results which will require frequent repair.
The hole at C will require a cam-slide in order to punch all four A part design such as that illustrated in Fig. 12-23b makes
holes in the same operation. As a rule of thumb, punching a hole possible astrong stripper-pad design. For automotive, appliance,
with a cam increases tooling costs per hole from five to ten times and similar applications, the pad should have a minimum of 0.375
that of a straight punching operation. Some factors that account for (9.53 mm)of bearing in order toholdthe part securely without
added costs are: excessive localized forces.
Added mechanical complexity required to construct the slide
and slide return mechanism. Trimming Flange Walls in One Operation
Flange walls should be open a minimum of 10 as illustrated in
Shock and impact problems associated with accelerating and
Fig. 12-24 for ease of trimming. This minimum angle is needed in
decelerating the dynamic mass of cams.
Increased difficulty in getting slugs to discharge correctly.
order to provide for proper shearing action.
. Additional maintenance expense in maintaining correct Trimming the vertical walls of a formed or drawn channel-
shaped part often requires a complicated cam-operated die having
punch location due to cam-slide wear.
cutting steels that must bypass each other during both the closing
and opening of the die. The timing and maintenance requirements
PREFERRED TRIM DIE CONDITIONS are critical to the successful operation of such a die.
The normal application of a trim die is to cut away or trim the An akemative, which increases costs, is to flare this surface in
excess metal from a drawn or formed shape, to establish the the draw or form operation to the minimum 10 side-wall angle,
finished perimeter of the finished part. Toobtain accurate consis- trim the part in a conventional manner, and then re-form the
tent results while avoiding excessive tooling costs, a few rules sidewalk in an added operation.
should be followed regarding the geometry of the part to be
trimmed. Trim Die Corner Conditions
Sharp inside comers such as that ilhrstrated in Fig. 12-25a
Maintain Trim Lines in the Same Plane should be avoided wherever possible. This design results in a
Trim lines should be maintained in the same plane wherever concentration of stresses in the sharp comer which can result in a
possible, as illustrated in Fig, 12-22, view a. A maximum of 30 fracture during the service life of the part.
should be the allowable limit (see Fig. 12-22b). As the angle It is technically impossible to produce a perfectly square comer
deviates from 90, the lateral forces which deflect die components in a one-piece die block by grinding or with the use of electrical
and change critical cutting clearances increase. The result is discharge machining (EDM). The sharp comer also results in a
excessive burr height and accelerated die wear. stress riser in the die block.
Requires either
,9
-;
Fig. 12-22 Trim lines should be maintained in the same plane (a) wherever poxsible: a maximum of 30 (b) is the allowable timit to assure successful
trimming; greater angles (c) result in excessive Iatcrot forces which dctlect die components and change critical cutting clearances. (General kforors)
12-11
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CHAPTER 12
METAL FORMING METHODS
.. ---.--.\...-
-it-
Fig. 12-23 The section illustrated at (a) results in a weak stripper-pad condition which will require frequent repair; the design illustrated in (b)
makes possible a strong stripper-pad design. (General kfofor~)
The sharp corner on the punch is subjected to much higher Figure 12-26b illustrates an acceptable solution for applications
localized pressure than is the case when punching round holes, all where the inner surface of the tab must lie in the same plane as the
other factors being equal. Such sharp corners result in accelerated edge of the part. However, the required tooling is both harder to
punch and die wear. A simple solution is to provide a generous build and maintain than the prefemed method illustrated in
radius in the comers whenever possible. Fig. 12-26c.
Outside trim comers also should have a generous radius (see
Fig. 12-25b) where possible. In addition to reducing die constric-
tion and maintenance costs, eliminating a sharp comer makes the
part safer to handle. For automotive and similar applications,
Trim Notches
0.250 (approximately 6 mm) radii are recommended. Notches in the edge of the part should be as wide as possible
Trim comer angles less than 90 (see Fig. 12-25c) should be compared to their depth. The configuration illustrated in Fig.
avoided wherever possible. The wear on die components is 12-27a should be avoided where possible. The punch required to
greater, resulting in increased die maintenance costs. Comer cut the notch would be fragile and subject to frequent breakage. In
angles of 90 or greater are preferred, as illustrated in Fig. 12-25d. addition, scrap would tend to hang-up in the die, delaying pro-
duction and possibly resulting in die breakage.
Flanged Tabs To avoid this problem, a configuration such as that illustrated
The flanged tab illustrated in Fig. 12-26u is apt to fail due to a in Fig. 12-27b should be specified. The radius should be a
fracture during its service life. This is due to a concentration of minimum of four times material thickness, and a minimum 5
stresses at the sharp comers. angle on each side of the notch should be employed.
Fig. 12-24 Flange watts should be open a minimum of 10 for ease of trimming; this minimum angle is needed in order to provide for proper shearing
action. (General Motors)
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CHAPTER 12
METAL FORMING METHODS
B
Plan view
0.24 [6.0 mm~ radii
-D [c]
Under
90
Not preferred
Avoid less than 90 trim corners
P
9W
more
[d]
or
Preferred
Fig. 12-25 Sharp inside corners (a) result in stress concentration and possible fractures in the part as well as accelerated die wear; provide a radius
in the corner where possible. Likewise, outside trim corners should have a radius (b); trim angles under 90 (c) should be avoided; angles of 90
or greater are preferred (d). (General Motors)
WELD FLANGES
For ease of spot-welding, weld flanges should be sufficiently with a straight weld gun tip. In order to weld this flange, a special
wide. A minimum width of 0.626-in (15.9 mm) should be offset tip would be required. In addition to the normal clamping
specitled where possible. Figure 12-28a illustrates a section force, a lateral positioning mechanism is reauired.
tfiough a part in position to be-spot welded to form an assembly. The assembiy ilkrstra~ed in Fig, 12-28~ performs the same
Not only are the flanges too short for ease of welding, the flange function as Fig. 12-28a, and has sufficiently wide flanges and no
on the left hand side of the section has a wal I that would interfere sidewall interference problem.
6s dzz?
Trim relief at flanges
,(7,))
Plan view
L
(a) Avoid {b) Acceptable [c] Preferrsd
Fig. 12-26 The flanged tab illustrated at (a) is apt to fail due to a concentration of stresses; (b) illustrates an acceptable solution, however method
(c) can be accomplished with lower cost tooling. (General Motors)
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CHAPTER12
METAL FORMING METHODS
T
Minimum 5 open
ewh side
Not prehrred
(b] Acceptable
[a] Nat preferred
Fig. 12-27 Notches in the edge of a part shoutd be wide compared to their depth; avoid the configuration (a) where possible. A notch such as (h)
should be sperified where possible. (General Motors)
.-...
\
Fig. 12-28 For ease of spot-welding, weld flanges should be sufiicientty wide and free from sidewall interference. (General Motors)
12-14
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CHAPTER12
METAL FORMING METHODS
~ *30Trimt01erJnce
~ v
,-
.- M.
Provide +2.0 on all surface
ioleronces wherevar faasible
!!
Ji%
Fig. 12-29 Excessively hirzh tolerances where thev are not reauired are costly; this structural component can function satisfactorily with litseral
to~rances onseveralnon&itical dimensions. (Ge~eral Motorsi
Finally, a tool designer carr decrease the potential misuse of and manufacturing traps. It is also important for the designer to
details byincorporating simple devices in a design. For example, consider how the detail may be built before starting the design.
a designer can prevent a tool from being mounted wrong simply by Once again, communication and familiarity with the manufactur-
adding a flat (see Fig. 12-30). ing people is key. Many times, a designer will be familiar with the
tmoblems and capabilities of the die builder who assembles details
Reduced Lead Time and does die try&st, but may be completely unfamiliar with and
Considering manufacturability during design will reduce the unaware of the problems of the detail builder.
time to build the tools. If tools are easier to build, they can be
made faster than complex, difficult tools.
After the tools are in production, if the replacement details can
be built faster, there will be less downtime and the requirement for
tool inventory will be decreasedreducing investment, freeing up
assets, and making accountants and bosses happier.
A decrease in the lead time to build tools is often an important
factor when time is critical. As mentioned earlier, the designer is
under pressure for time. However, if the designer is able to make
it possible for the tool builder to make the tooling faster, the total
time required can be reduced significantly.
Where to Start
Where do the improvements start in designing tools which can
be built more easily?
First, every effort should be made to have as much contact as
practical between the tool designer and the tool builder. Many
times there is no contact at all. The designer and the builder often
are separated by departments, by being in different locations, or by
being part of different companies; and as is happening more
frequently, they may be separated by country and language. Each
of these situations further exacerbates the problem.
It is best if the designer has had experience in building took,. Fig. 12-30 Designing in a flat to prevent incorrect tool mounting.
Such prior experience can make it easier to avoid design pitfalls (Punchcraji Co.)
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CHAPTER 12
METAL FORMING METHODS
It is very important for all tool designers to visit detail builders Tool Life
regularly. This will make communicating problems easier and will Consideration must be given to the anticipated life required for
improve the designers knowledge of tool manufacturers capabil- the tools. Tools designed forsaking prototypes obviously do not
ities. A minimum of one to two days a year should be set aside for need to have the durability of tools designed for high volume
visits to manufacturing facilities. application. This type of thinking should be further extended to
After a design is completed and being built, the detail builders consider different tool designs for tools which will be used for
and the designer must have the mutual trust to make and accept relatively short runs such as 5,000 to 25,000 pieces versus very
suggestions on improving the design and its manufacturability. high volume tools. Better materials and easier replacement of
Even when both functions are within the same organization, a worn details may justify higher tool manufacturing costs, espe-
multilayered organization can subvert this process of communica- cially in high volume production.
tion. Further, egos and the not-invented-here (NIH) factor enter in.
Management must take steps to avoid these problems. Design for Current Manufacturing
Finally, with regard to steps which can be taken before the Technology
design is begun, it is extremely important that good and accepted Once again, itisimportant that thetool designer be aware of
drawing practices be followed. This sounds painfully basic, but current manufacturing technology. This awareness will allow the
poor drdwings cause more problems to tool builders than poor utilization of all the available manufacturing capability. A de-
designs. At best, geometric tolerancing practice is used. At least, signer may impose unnecessary design constraints by not realizing
clearly drawn object and dimension lines are essential. Make that the capability of tool builders has changed.
specifications of size, finish, and tolerances clear. If there is some For example, wire electric discharge machining (WEDM) has
question as to the appropriate way to specify a requirement, ask greatly altered tool building capability, and designers shotddbe
the tool builder. aware of the possibilities it has created. The following are a few:
If form punches are designed with heads larger than the
Materials shank, wire EDM can produce them at lower cost than
Specify material andheat treat carefully. Usealloy steels such traditional surface orjig grinding.
as 6150, 4140, or 8620 when possible, rather than tool steels. Many new designs make it possible to wire EDM a punch
These are less expensive and easier to machine. If it is necessary and its retainer from the same piece of steel. This should
to use tool steels, consider the cost and machinability of each prior provide a major lead-time reduction as well as cost savings
to specifying them. (see Fig. 12-31).
Avoid using exotic materials, unless the manufacturers pro- Consider using tapered relief with no die land. WEDM
cess absolutely requires them. They are expensive and often allows small relief angles (0.5 Or less) which often provide
require a longer time to obtain. Furthermore, they are difficult to adequate shtg clearance. Doing this eliminates a pass on the
machine, especially so if themachinists areunfamiliar with them. WEDM and still allows sharpening without significant
Tungsten carbide often offers advantages in the manufacturing changes in size.
application. However, when specifying it, the designer must Tapered relief should be used (or at least offered as an
consider the trade-offsof added manufacturing costs, longer lead alternative) whenever possible. Only rarely is a constant
times, andthelimited number of carbide tool manufacturers. relief necessary for a severe slugging problem (see Fig.
Many times, prehardened materials can decrease cost and 12-32).
substantially improve delivery. The trade-off here is generally
whether lower hardness is acceptable in the design.
When specifying tool hardness, do not request a hardness
greater than necessag. A few points of hardness can often
drastically alter the manufacturing process. Many times, if the
hardness is not excessive, tools can be turned or milled using
carbide and ceramic tools rather than ground.
By unnecessarily specifying high hardness, the toughness of a
tool maybe sacrificed. Depending onthespecific alloy content of
aparticukirh eatof tool steel, thetool steel heat treater may not be
able to obtain the specification.
When the design is for round details, the designer should make
every attempt toallow the builder touse nominal sizes. Tool steels
in the United States are typically manufactured to nominal
fractions of an inch plus grind stock. For example, a detail with a
diameter of 5.088 (129.34 mm) would generally require turning
5-1/2 (139.7 mm) diameter stock to size. If a diameter of 5,000
(127 mm)had been specified, nomina15 plus grind stock could
have been purchased, andnotuming would have been required.
Specifying the 5.088 (129. 34 mm) diameter increased the mate-
rial cost by approximately 10Yo,for expensive material which has
to he removed and thrown away.
As with round material, when designing details which will be
made from flat stock, designers should attempt to call for Fig. 12-31 Producing apunchand itsretainer inwire EDM. (Iunch-
thicknesses inone-quarter inch increments. craft Co. )
12-16
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CHAPTER12
METAL FORMING METHODS
When designing forpossible wire EDM, donotuse radii less When a ground inside diameter is necessary, provide relief if
than O.015(38.l mm). Smaller radii can reaccommodated possible. This is especially important on ground holes which are
butthis will increase the details cost (aswell as increasing over one and one-half diameters deep.
the possibility of cracking).
Sharp Corners
Standardize Designers know that sharp inside comers, with less than 0.030
Standardize special details whenever possible. Hole patterns in (0.76 mm) radii, will decrease the strength of a detail. In addition,
similar details should be the same. This will facilitate quicker die however, the expense of manufacturing the part likely will
changes, anditmay allow the tool builder to prepare semifinished increase. The sharp corner will create heat treat stresses and
blanks which can quickly be turned into finished details. Addi- possible cracking. Additional operations will beadded in milling,
tionally, it reduces setup times for the tool builder. grinding, and/or wire EDM. If the mating detail makes it difficult
forthedesigner to eliminate the sharp inside comer, many times
Finish the same function can be achieved by using a relieved corner (see
Finish, if important, should be specified in microinches or Fig. 12-33).
microns. Calling fora ground finish is in fact specifying the
process rather than the functional requirement, and may cause the Coatings
manufacturer to eliminate certain process options. Process capa- There have been many advances in recent years in theappli-
bilities are constantly changing, and specifying the requirement cation of special coatings, such as titanium nitride, to die details.
rather than the process allows the builder to use the optimum In many cases, especially those with demanding forming or
finishing techniques. Specifying polish, when a 5-microinch drawing requirements, the coatings have dramatically improved
(0.13-micron) finish is desired, may result in a very shiny 20 detail life. Tool designers should beaware of the problems which
microinch (0.51 micron) detail. Using the correct specification may recreated whencoatings are specified, Thecoating in general
will eliminate this possibility. is applied after machining operations have been completed; if the
detail has a particularly tight tolerance, any size change may scrap
Holes the part.
In manufacturing tool details, holes require a great deal of Recent process changes and improved coating process control
time. Anything the designer can do to make it simpler for the have eased this problem, but designers should continue to use
manufacturer to drill, ream, tap, and grind holes will result in caution when considering coatings. They should be aware of the
substantially improved manufacturing costs as well as the machin- manufacturing application of the various coatings. Many times the
ists gratitude. application of the coating will result in a size change due to the
Threads anddowels should berelieved whenever possible, One coating process.
and one-half times the diameter of the thread or dowel is generally
adequate in steel. Specify inglonger lengths adds to the possibility Standard Details
of broken taps in threads and longer grind time for dowels, and Whenever possible, the designer should try to use standmd
adds nothing to the function, catalog punches and die buttons. The use of noncatalog items will,
Whenever possible, tapped holes and dowel holes should be as a rule, double the price and quadruple the delivery time.
tillled through the detail, unless the thickness of the detail If use of a catalog item is not possible, the designer should
precludes this. This reduces problems in drilling and tapping as attempt to make it feasible for the tool builder to alter a standard
well as grinding. item. This will decrease the expense as well as the delivery.
If possible, avoid small holes, Holes less than 0.375 (9.53 In many cases, standard punch retainers can be used. However,
mm) are more difficult (and more expensive) to drill and grind. care should be taken in their use. Recent studies indicate that the
Difficult y and cost continue to increase as the hole size decreases. savings gained through the use of standard retainers often is offset
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Summary
First, to improve the manufacturability of a tooling detail, the
tool designer must think about how the detail will be made.
Second, the designer must be familiar with the capabilities of
the tool builder. This is a continuous learning process which
requires the cooperation and effort of the designer, the manage-
ment, and the tool builder.
Finally, both the tool designer and the tool builder must be in
communication with the ultimate user of the detail the customer.
Calling for mukiple locating mechanisms for a detail unneces- Active Surfaces
sarily adds to its cost. For example, it is not necessary to specify An active material surface is one in which the strength of the
both ground edges and dowels to locate a detail. One or the other bond between the lubricant additive and metal atomic structure is
will in fact do the locating, and the effort to manufacture the other great. Because the attractive energy of the metallic surface is high,
will have been wasted. Doing this is like double-dimensioning surface chemical reactions are encouraged. This may explain why
a drawing. chemically active additives and wetting agents such as oleic acid,
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METAL FORMING METHODS
lard oil, emulsifiers, and extreme pressure agents are so effective primarily intended to serve as a galvanic protective layer for the
in lubricating such materials as brass, copper, and terneplate. main metal substrate. Zinc-coated steel is widely used where rust
However, in many instances, the use of chemically active protectionism required.
lubricants on active material surfaces can be troublesome. Often, Material pickup can occur when forming galvanized material.
reactive lubricants cause staining, etching, and blushing of copper Special water-soluble lubricants are available which can keep the
and brass piece parts, especially when they are nested and stored galvanized metal particles from building upon the tooling. Dry
under humid conditions. This problem is worsened if alkaline film and synthetic water-soluble lubricants can also be success-
vapor or degreaser fumes are present. fully used on galvanized stock.
Coatings can be classified as belonging to either the active or
inactive family, even though the supporting base metal for these Corrosion of Zinc Coatings
coatings is a normal cold rolled material. Any metal corrosion may be described as the chemical or
electrochemical attack by atmospheric moisture or other sub-
Inactive Surfaces stances hostile to the surface. Whiter nst is the destruction of
An inactive surface is one in which thestrength of the bond the surface of galvanized steel or zinc by oxygen or other chemical
between the lubricant additive and the metal atomic structure is elements. The reaction isaccelerated bythe presence of moisture.
low. ~eattractive energy of themetillic sutiace isalsolow. For Therate ofattack isrelated to temperature, pH, andcomposi-
these reasons, there is much less likelihood of chemical reactions tionof moisture, andthe concentration of dissolved gases within
with the lubricant or its chemical additives taking place on an the moisture. Thehigher theoxygen andcarbon dioxide content,
inactive surface. andthe softer the water, thegreater the rate of surface breakdown.
Typical inactive surfaces are those of stainless steel, alumi- The corrosion cycle starts with the formation of zinc oxide, which
num, and nickel. Commonly, thelubricant used on these materials in turn is converted to zinc hydroxide and then to basic zinc
has a high film strength which actually places a mechanical barrier carbonate in the presence of carbon dioxide. The final product
between the tool and the piece part to prevent a metal-to-metal prevents the onset of further corrosion at that particular area of
contact. High film strength can be obtained by using hrbricants attack, providing no highly acidic or alkaline contaminant be-
containing hydrocarbons, polymers, polar and wetting agents, or comes involved later.
extreme pressure agents. Under unventilated enclosed conditions such as blind angles
Quite often, lubricants containing extreme pressure agents are and box sections, rapid attack by the available oxygen gives rise to
used on inactive surfaces to provide a mechanical barrier rather a pitting condition as the exhausted gas is not replaced as fast as it
than an actual barrier. When working with inactive surfaces at low is used. The corrosion pattern, therefore, is non-uniform and
temperatures, there is very little chemical reactivity taking place typical of whiter ust conditions.
with the lubricant. If the lubricant is working properly, it may It is essential that piece parts with pockets be drained of as
simply be providing a sufficient mechanical barrier for the much coolant as possible. Parts in process should be used as
operation. rapidly as possible in order to avoid stagnation of any residual
Any lubricant formulation being used on an inactive surface fluid. Conditions of high relative humidity and temperature
must be compatible with the remainder of the manufacturing aggravate the condition. When the metal surface temperature drops
process, which may include cleaning, welding, and long- in the presence of high humidity, the condensed moisture on the
term storage. section is rich inoxygen because the thin water film is exposed to
a large volume of air. Conditions are then ideal for extensive
Hard-to-lubricate Surfaces uniform corrosion.
Sometimes the surface finish on a material to be formed will Zinc is rapidly attacked in acidic andalkaline aqueous condi-
not retain lubricant properly. This can apply to brightly polished tions. Storage and manufacture within thevicinity of fumes from
materials, stainless, tinplate, and bi-metals. Another culprit can be plating or pickling shops will accelerate metal surface breakdown.
the mill oil itself. Certain coatings may keep water solubles or
evaporating compounds from working properly. LUBRICANT CLEANING AND
Forming some steels can be tricky, especially bright or high- FINISHING REQUIREMENTS
finished stainless steel. The surface of most stainless does not The cleaning and finishing processes being used can determine
retain lubricant as readily as other metals. For this reason, the choice of a pressworking lubricant. For example, low-
emulsion-type lubricants with superwetting characteristics have temperature cleaning lines generally are not capable of removing
been formulated for forming stainless steels. Heavy-duty evapo- animal fats, residual oils, and certain extreme pressure agents. For
rating compounds contain extreme pressure agents and have good low-temperature cleaning, specially formulated water solubles are
anti-wipe properties. generally recommended.
Onappliance and automotive trim, felt wipers mayhave to be Hot alkaline wash systems can clean heavy residual oils and
used to remove any spotting left by either synthetic solubles or certain drawing compounds, but require careful maintenance. The
evaporative compounds. These bright surfaces will show any waste disposal costs for alkaline systems can be quite high if
residual deposits from Lubricants used. Even very light films may skimmers and clarification equipment are not used to lengthen the
have to be removed by wipers before the parts are wrapped life of the cleaner.
and packed. Solvent vapor decreasing is being phased out by many facilities
because of air quality and environmental regulations. If vapor
Coated Surfaces decreasing is used, water-based lubricants such as water-soluble
The most common coated forming stock is galvanized steel, oils, soaps, pastes, and dry films should not be used to form the
and the remainder consists of precoated materials. A zinc coating part; a lubricant compatible with a vapor system should be
may be applied by bet-dip galvanizing or electrodeposition, and is selected.
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METAL FORMING METHODS
There are certain restrictive or governing considerations that Heavy-duty emulsions contain emulsifiers, oils, wetting agents,
must be met by the pressworking lubricant for compatibility with extreme pressure agents, fats or polymers, and nonmisting
secondary operations. Suitability for use with finishing operations additives.
such as painting, powder coating, assembly, or joining is of prime In an invert emulsion formulation, the oil is the continuous
importance. phase and the water is the discontinuous phase. This type of
The use of some types of water-extendable pressworking emulsion is not ideal for drawing where a good physical barrier
lubricants (emulsions and chemical solutions) may allow welding is required.
without smoke and weld integrity problems. Painting can be
performed without prior cleaning in some cases. The need for Synthetic Solutions
long-term storage and/or long-term rust prevention may be another These are manmade, compounded pressworking lubricants
controlling factor. combining excellent high-temperature properties and good bound-
Many major manufacturers have established manufacturing ary lubrication. The main ingredients for these types of synthetics
standards for the type of pressworking lubricants to be used on are: synthesized hydrocarbons (polyalphaolefins) and polybutane
their respective components. Theultimate goal isto improve part derivatives. The polyalphaolefins are much like oil-based solu-
quality, secondary operations, andease of finishing. tions in their physical characteristics, but have a higher degree of
resistance to oxidation. The polygl ycols, polyesters, and dibasic
STRUCTURE OF PRESSWORKING acid esters have superior high-temperature stability. Synthetic
LUBRICANTS solutions are higher in cost than oil-based solutions.
Pressworking lubricants fall into three categories: fluids, paste-
soaps, anddry films. These families have varying combinations of Pastes, Coatings and Suspensions
chemical and physical constituents. When severe pressworking operations are encountered, such as
Fhsidsare the most widely used pressworking hrbricants. The drawing or cold forming, high film strength lubricants are neces-
twomajor classes of fluids used are solutions and emulsions. sary for successful operations. Under these conditions, pastes,
suspensions, and conversion coatings are often used.
Solutions Pastes can be made several ways; they can be formulated with
A solution is a fluid in which all of the ingredients are mutually oil or be water based. Pastes can also be pigmented or nonpig-
soluble. A typical oil-based solution may consist of a mineral-oil mented. The pigments used in pastes are much like the pigments
base, a wetting agent, a rust inhibitor, and an extreme pressure in paints; they are fine particles of solids which are insoluble in
agent. These are all oil-soluble constituents that can be properly water, fat, or oil. Some common pigments are talc, china clay, and
balanced and compounded into a solution. lithopone. Most pigmented pastes come in two forms:
There are three types of solutions: oil-based, water-based, and
synthetic. 1, Emulsion compounds consist of pastes composed of fats
and fatty oils and sometimes mineral oil-pigment, emulsi-
Oil-based Solutions fier, soap, and water. They can be used as supplied, or
These solutions use mineral oil as their base. Mineral oil diluted with water or oil for easier handling and applica-
solutions provide good fluid integrity and are generally safe from tion.
biological attack. Oil-based solutions can be recycled and clwi- 2, Oil comoounds are Dastes consisting of Di~ments disoersed
fied. They provide their own natural lubricant and have good in fatty ~ils and/or mineral oils wh~h rna~ be treated with
wetting properties. Oil-based solutions have some inherent degree extreme pressure agents (chlorine, sulfur, or phosphate).
of corrosion protection and can be provided witha wide range of These compounds are generally used straight or diluted
viscosities. with mineral oil. Dried-on lubricants and pigmented coat-
ings can be used in sheet metal, especially in heavy
Water-based Solutions forming and drawing.
Water-based solutions are true solutions consisting of water Nonpigmented pastes come in four different categories:
surfactants, soluble esters, soluble rust preventives, and in some
cases extreme pressure agents. These solutions differ greatly from 1. Emulsion drawing compounds are pastes composed of fats
oil-based solutions or emulsions. They need special handling and and fatty oils and their fatty acids, sometimes containing
some additional operating procedures, especially during change- free mineral oil, various emulsifiers, and water. These
over and startup from conventional fluids. products are diluted with water before use.
A detailed discussion of water based pressworking lubricants 2. Fatty oils and fatty acids are sometimes used straight, but
appears later in this chapter. usually are mixed with mineral oil for use.
3. Mineral oiI and greases can be used straight when
Emulsions necessary.
An emulsion is a fluid system where one immiscible fluid is 4. Emulsions are usually diluted with water.
suspended in another. A mixture with formed droplets is an
emulsion. In pressworking lubricants the continuous phase is Dry-processed Coatings
water, and the suspended phase is oil or a synthetic solution. The These coatings are coming rapidly into use because of their
continuous phase is very critical. Stable emulsions require surface easy and economic application, freedom from messy conditions at
active ingredients as well as special mixing devices and the press, and ease of handling and cleaning. For dry soap films,
techniques. stock or parts should be cleaned in decreasing solutions at about
There are two families of conventional emulsions, multipur- 190 F (88 C), rinsed at about 160 to 180 F (71 to 82 C), and
pose, and heavy-duty. Multipurpose emulsions generally consist water-soluble soap solution applied at temperatures on the order of
of an emulsifier, oil, a wetting agent, and a rust inhibitor. 180 to 200 F (82 to 93 C). For low production requirements,
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METAL FORMING METHODS
dip coating may be most economical. For high production, roller 1. Dry powders, which usually are sodium or other metallic
coating is preferred for sheet and coil stock. type soaps. They are generally furnished in powder form
Wax or wax-fatty coatings for light to medium drawing, for use in tube bending and wire drawing.
especially of nonferrous stock, may be applied by hot dipping at 2. Dried-film compounds, which are usually soluble soaps
120 to 150 F (49 to 66 C), by spraying the material hot, or by often mixed with soluble solids, for example: borax,
cold application in a solvent vehicle. In the latter method, the waxes, wetting agents, and other chemical ingredients.
vehicle evaporates, leaving a dry coating. These dry films are used for drawing and can be applied by
Phosphate coatings are properly chemical immersion coatings spraying or dipping with a 10% to 2090hot solution and
that provide a measure of lubricity. then tiled prior to the forming or drawing operation.
Graphite coatings are useful under high-temperature and 3. Sodium or potassium soluble soaps, which are diluted up to
heavy-unit-load conditions where it is infeasible to use water-base, 10% with water.
oil-base, or other solid lubricants. Graphite has the disadvantage 4, Metallic soaps such as aluminum stearate or calcium
of difficult removal, and is consequently used for drawing only stearate, which can be used alone or in combination with
when strictly necessary. In fact, the unauthorized use of graphite molybdenum dkulfide (MoS2) and/or graphite. This com-
in automotive body panel drawing dies has caused subsequent bination is used in wire drawing and warm forming.
paint adhesion problems that have resulted in customer
dissatisfaction. Hot Metalworking Lubricants
Graphite is used in a wide range of temperatures, anywhere
from 100 to 1,000 F (38 to 538 C) for the hot extrusion of
Suspensions tubing as well as drawing wire. It can also be used at temperatures
Suspensions in pressworking lubricants consist of fine particles from 900 to 1,300 F (482 to 704 C)the heat range where
of various solid lubricants dispersed throughout a carrier fluid. The tungsten and molybdenum can be worked.
particles generally vary in size. Quite often the particles being Graphite, when mixed with some metal oxides such as tin
used are insoluble within the suspensionthe carrier or vehicle oxide and copper oxide which act as the liquid carrier at elevated
fluid carries the particle in question. temperatures, has been used to extrude steel at temperatures up to
A dispersion may be considered stable when three processes 2,100 F (1,150 C). The easy cleavage of the structure of graphite
are accomplished successfully: is responsible for its excellent working properties. The presence of
1. Wetting of theparticle forthe carrier fluid. oil or water seems to improve its lubricating properties even
2. Reduction in the size of particle clusters. further. In order to use the advantages of graphite as a presswork-
3. Stabilization ofparticle suspension coagulation. ing lubricant, it is often blended into a paste or suspension form.
Molybdenum disulfide is another effective solid lubricant up to
Coagulation must be prevented if the suspension is to remain temperatures of 900 F (482 C), the temperature where it
stable for an extended period of time. A repulsive force must be oxidizes. When combined with other solids, molybdenum disul-
achieved by adding chemically absorbed layers to the dispersed fide is effective up to 1,800 F (982 C).
systems. Surface active agents are important in these systems. Glasses and copper coatings are other solid lubricants being
Each surface active agent is usually designed for a specific system. used for press working at high temperatures.
Surfactants maybe used to promote the wetting of a solid by a
liquid. These also act as dispersing agents, and must have the
ability to form energy barriers to prevent aggregation. Some of the
Additives
Most successful pressworking lubricants employ some form of
typical dispersing agents used in water-based solutions are Iignin,
additive to achieve better wetting and improved rust protection. In
sulfonates, acrylic acid-based copolymers, and copolymers of
severe forming and drawing operations, extreme pressure addi-
propylene oxide and ethylene oxide. Suspension ofsolid particles
tives can be very helpful.
in mineral oil has been achieved through the use of a number of
benzenes and long chain amines.
Warm and hot forging of steel and other metals relies on the use Emulsifiers
of graphite suspended in mineral oil or, more often, water. The When formulated into pressworking lubricants, emulsifiers
structure of graphite, its stability at temperatures over 1000 F perform a dual purpose. They promote a stable emulsion while
(538 C), and positive side effects of air and water vapor on its enhancing the cleanabilityy of oil-based solutions and emulsions.
lubricity favor the application of graphite with a carrier as a very Emulsifiers can be nonionic and anionic surfactants. The typical
cost-effective high-temperature lubricant. nonionic emulsifier can consist of complex esters, fatty acids plus
alcohols, mono-glycerides, and ethoxycated alcohols. Most
nonionic surfactants contain soaps with long-chain fatty acids,
Solid Lubricants alkyl aromatic emulsifiers, and phosphate esters. Soaps generally
Generally, solid lubricant systems are used in pressworking are the most widely used anionic emulsifiers. Sometimes the y can
operations, particularly where operations encounter high unit form hard water soaps in the presence of hard water; in this
pressures or high temperatures brought on by the deformation of situation, deionized water is recommended.
metal. Thetwomajor types ofsolid lubrication are: (I) soaps and
soap combinations, and (2) graphite and molybdenum disulfide, Extreme Pressure Agents
alone or in combination. An extreme pressure additive provides a second line of defense
to prevent scoring, galling, and rubbing between the piece part and
the tooling, especially in severe drawing and cold forming
Soap-type Pressworking Lubricants operations. The chemical reaction produced by the activity of the
There are four different types of soap lubricants: extreme pressure additive results in the formation of a protective
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METAL FORMING METHODS
film between the tooling and the part. Chlorine, phosphorus, and to mineral oil-based lubricants, the advantages include lower
sulfur-containing pressworking lubricants react upon contact with initial cost, more efficient secondary operations, and elimination
the metal surfaces to form chlorides, phosphides, and sulfides. or reduction of cleaning.
When using pressworking lubricant containing an extreme In some instances, portions of the production process must be
pressure additive, surface staining and corrosion may occur. modified to permit the use of water-based lubricants. For example,
Cleaning of stampings can be difficult when extreme pressure additional clarification and contamination control equipment may
agents have been used in the pressworking lubricant. be necessary to maintain lubricant stability and product quality.
Tooling Problems
Thickeners The maintenance and operation of tooling when working with
Thickeners can be of great value in heavy forming and drawing
water-based solutions requires several changes in operating and
operations. They resist lubricant thinning where high heats of
maintenance procedures. Most synthetics are alkaline in nature
deformation are present, and greatly improve pressworking lubri-
and act as detergent soaps. These solutions remove most conven-
cant performance. Polymers, organo-clays, and natural gum,
tional greases and machine oils. It may become necessary to
along with metal hydroxides, are used to improve the boundary
protect the tooling and related die components with rust preven-
and viscosity properties of lubricants. Cleaning of these special
tives. A simple floor tank, with a few baffles added to drop out
thickeners can be difficult, especially where low-temperature
metal fines and a skimmer to drag off the accumulations of tramp
cleaning or solvent-vapor decreasing is being used.
oil and greases, may be all that is necessay to lengthen lubricant
life, provide better finish to formed parts, and reduce the cost of
Antifoaming Agents secondary operations.
These agents can be very useful where pressworking lubricants There are, of course, exceptions. Some systems may generate
are used in recirculating systems. Foam prevents proper bondkg large amounts of metal fines. If this is the case, magnetic
of the lubricant to both the tooling and the components being separators or cyclonic units may be installed to remove metallic
worked. Addhives to reduce or prevent foam tend to lower the particles. Media filters are also an effective means of removing
surface energy of the lubricating film. Some of the additives used foreign particles.
are silicones, amides, glycols, and fine particles of solids
usually silica. System Start-up
Lowering the pump rate of the recirculating pump and mini- It is possible for contamination to occur during the initial
mizing the free fall of the lubricant into the tank are also helpful in start-up of operations. It is, therefore, important to make the
reducing foam formation. required adjustments for contamination control. There are three
considerations pertaining to system performance that need careful
Corrosion Inhibitors attention when starting up a pressworking operation using water-
These additives are used widely to ensure quality surface based solutions:
protection during storage and shipping. They are used in water and 1. Overall system cleanliness.
oil solutions. In warm-based systems, corrosion protection can 2. Machinelubricant compatibility.
become difficult. 3. Water source analysis.
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METAL FORMING METHODS
Skin Irritation cause fracture. The lubricant properties must provide sufficient
Dermatitis is a skin condition which can occur in manufactur- barrier or boundary lubrication.
ing operations, particularly where operators have poor personal
hygiene practices and where plant conditions are dirty. In some
instances, specific chemical components may be sensitizing to
FINISHING OPERATIONS
A stamped part or component is not really completed until all
some skin, causing inflammation and cracking of the skin. Care in
other subsequent operations have been performed. If there are
selection of fluid, good housekeeping practices, and an awareness
problems with cleaning, painting, brazing, welding, or other
of how different individuals respond to conditions provide a basis
secondary operations, the lubricant could be at fault. Substantial
for controlling dermatitis.
savings can be realized by understanding what part lubricant
properties actually play in secondary operations.
Corrosion Finishing is very important, where integrated forming and
Water-based solutions, unless properly controlled, may permit stamping operations are involved. The correct lubricant can reduce
corrosion of equipment and tooling, as well as formed parts. costs. This is especially true when special types of cleaning have
Solution concentration and hydrogen-ion concentration must be to be performed, or when annealing, stress relief, or deburring is
carefully controlled. Shop personnel should be trained in the required.
proper use of titration testing equipment. Regulm checks can
usually be conducted by the lubricant suppliers laboratory
fidcilities. Annealing
In many instances, annealing operations are performed on a
formed metal part before or during the finishing process. The
Lubricant Stability compatibility of the forming lubricant with the annealing operation
The stability of the fluid really is the result of choosing the
must not be overlooked.
proper chemical system, keeping the lubricant clean, checking the
Annealing is generally performed at temperatures of 1,400 F
microbiological balance and the water source, and maintaining the
to 1,700 F (760 C to 927 C) in a controlled atmosphere. The
concentration level recommended. Good operating practices are
forming lubricant must bum off clean to obtain a bright anneal.
required to maintain lubricant stability.
The ingredients in the forming lubricant must not contaminate the
part or the furnace atmosphere. Forming lubricants that contain
Solution pH sulfur, chlorine, animal fats, and pigments can cause adverse
Checking the hydrogen ion concentration (pH) of a synthetic surface reactions during annealing, and also contaminate the
solution is very important. If the solution becomes excessively furnace atmosphere. Before performing any annealing operation,
alkaline (high hydrogen ion concentration) due to contamination, it is good practice to first check the forming lubricant for overall
excessive drying of the operators skin may occur, facilitating compatibility in the furnace atmosphere and on the parts surface.
dermatitis. If the solution is normally basic and somehow becomes Sometimes, it may be necessary to clean the formed part of any
acidic (decreasing hydrogen ion concentration), corrosion of metal undesirable substances before the annealing can be done
surfaces may be accelerated. Reduction in basicity is frequently successfully.
caused by bacterial degradation of the solution chemicals, or it
may result from contamination. For these reasons, periodic checks
of pH and adjustment of hydrogen ion concentration to the proper Stress Relieving
levels are required. If gross changes in pH occur, the solution Stress relieving is another finishing process that requires a
should be discarded arrd the cause of the contamination should be careful choice of forming lubricant properties. Here again, the
investigated and eliminated. ultimate goal may be to achieve a clean part before relieving.
The temperatures required for stress relieving are usually in the
range of 600 F to 800 F (3 16 C to 427 C). This is substantially
Subsequent Operations lower than the temperature required for annealing. The lower
Some of the greatest benefits of using water-based solutions temperature means that lubricant residues do not completely bum
properly in pressworking application can be realized in the off, and can cause contamination problems. This can include
operations that must be performed after the metal forming opera- staining of parts, furnace atmosphere problems, or eventual
tion has been completed. damage to the furnace. Among the problem lubricants are sulfur-
Some typical examples are: possible elimination of decreasing ized and chlorinated oils, heavy residual oils, animal fats,
altogether, painting over the lubricant witbout prior cleaning, graphite, pigments, and soaps.
easier cleaning, and elimination of smoke in heat treating or
welding operations. Not only may smoke be reduced or elimi-
nated, the actual quality of the welding operation and/or the heat Deburring Formed Parts
treatment may be improved. Other advantages of water-based The choice of a pressworking lubricant can reduce the cost of
solutions are reduced maintenance of equipment and machines deburring stamped parts. The proper choice of lubricant can
because of cleaner operating conditions, and cleaner and safer reduce burrs by reducing tooling wear. Deburring costs include the
work areas. cost of any required cleaning prior to deburring. A hsbricant that
Incorrect material specifications and excessive amounts of does not interfere with the deburring operation can reduce costs.
lubricant, as well as excessive lubricant viscosity, can be factors in The economy of being able to use low-temperature cleaning
wrinkling. The lubricant may need to be thinned. The lubricant methods prior to deburring should be considered when choosing a
must also be applied evenly, and must be comect for the working lubricant. The use of synthetic forming lubricants or specially
temperature of the die. Insufficient lubricant, due to improper formulated lubricants to permit cold or low-temperature cleaning
application, poor wetting, or poor penetration of lubricant, can can reduce overall costs.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER12
FINEBLANKING
FINEBLANKING
Fineblanking is employed to produce parts with a greater Corner Radius
degree of accuracy and repeatability than can be accomplished in For right-angled comers, generally a radius of 10% of material
conventional presses and dies. The main advantages are: thickness will be sufficient. When working with acute angles, the
Cleanly sheared edges over the whole material thickness.
radius may have to be increased to 15% or 20%0.Obtuse angles
. Improved flatness (accuracy in a plane). may be reduced to 5% of material thickness. Also, the harder the
Maintenance of close tolerance dimensions. material, the larger the radius required for optimum production
. Part repeatability for the life of the tool. conditions.
It should be noted that the fineblanking process is not restricted Edge Roll
only to compound dies, but also utilizes progressive and transfer On straightedges, theedgeor die roll will be approximately
tooling technology. Forming, bending, and coining are some of 5% to 10% of material thickness. Themore acute the angle on a
the features that can be combined into fineblanking tools and given feature, thegreater thedie-roll (ordraw down) will be. In
applications. harder materials, the rollover will tend to be less than in soft
The advantages of, and need for fineblanking can be analyzed ductile materials.
from three distinct design perspectives Where these two factors are in any way critical to part function,
. Part design and function. they need to be evaluated in depth relative to the raw mate-
. product and process design. rials used.
. Inter-relation with making parts functional.
MATERIALS, THICKNESS AND
Where the part print specifies, and the product function dictates
square clean edges, flatness, sections of less than material thick-
SIZE OF PARTS
Steel parts are produced in a wide variety of materials, from
ness, accurate forms and bends, etc., fineblanklng may be
lowcarbon through alloy steel inthe4130and 8620 range. The
considered, to eliminate secondary operations and provide neces-
tougher the material, the more necessary it becomes to specify
sary quality and consistency.
hardness and temper, and to obtain spheroidlzed grain structure.
In production, the total product costs are not isolated entities
Stainless steel in the 300 series is suitable for fineblanking in an
within departments, such as stamping, subassembly, welding,
annealed condition. Nonferrous materials-aluminum, brass,
final machining, or assembly. Processes in any given area have an
bronze, copper-are all fineblarrkable in various grades and
effect on other operations and processes.
condkions.
Investigation by process engineers with responsibility for
Suitable material hardness for fineblanking ranges from Rock-
assembly and secondary operations may find advantages to fine-
well B50 through Rockwell B95. In some special applications,
blanking, even if the part function does not define this factor.
production materials upto Rockwell C25 have been worked.
Cleanly sheared edges, square to the material surface, can be
The actual choice of material, as well as its structure and
advantageous in welding operations, for accurate location of parts
hardness, must be analyzed with regard to the parts configuration
in an assembly fixture. Many conventional stampings undergo
and function as well as production volumes. An understanding of
grinding operations, not only to obtain functional flatness but to be
materials technology is becoming increasingly more important for
squared to provide a reference surface for further processing.
fineblanking, relating both to part function and production
Fineblanking can eliminate the need for in-process secondary
capability.
operations.
Fineblanked part thickness mayrange from 0.020 to 0.750
The advantages to fineblanking lie in both product and process
(0.51 mmto 19.1 mm)on aregulm production basis. Part size
functions. To tap the full technical and economic benefits requires
ranges from small instrument and watch components up to large
the investigation of all design aspects of the products function and
manufacture. engine seal plates measuring approximately 27by 27 (686 mm
Fineblmking requires a precision triple-action press to clamp by686 mm) instee10.280 (7.11 mm) thick.
the material during the shearing portion of the cycle. Shearing is
carried out at a speed of 0.16 to 0.59 (4 mm to 15 mm) per TOLERANCES, EDGE SURFACE
second, lower than in conventional stamping. Fineblanking tools CONDITIONS AND FLATNESS
also have lower punch die clearance than conventional press tools. Depending on the material used and its temper and thickness,
Details of the fineblanking process are available from many overall tolerances for fineblanked parts range from *O .0003 to
technical sources, and it is the combination of the press and tooling k 0.003 (+0.008 mm to *0.08 mm). This concerns periphery
features that allow the following features to be engineered into the dimensions as well as hole or slot sizes, and relative location
part design(s). distances.
Fineblanking typically provides a finish of 30 to 40 micro-
inches (O.76 to 1.02 microns) on the sheared edges of the parts,
and perpendicularity to top and bottom surfaces of 0.0005 to
CORNER RADII AND EDGE ROLL 0.0015 (0.013 mm to 0.038 mm), depending on the material and
CHARACTERISTICS its thickness. These results are obtained in one operation, without
These values are most difficult to categorize, and must be the secondary shaving that would be required in conventional press
analyzed onacase-by-case basis. The following are general roles. tool applications to achieve similar results.
12-24
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER12
FINEBLANKING
Typically, fineblanking will maintain part flatness of 0.001 thepunches have fully penetrated the stock thickness. This factor
inch per inch (mm per mm) when good coil-straightening equip- allows the use of shortened, or staggered, punches to provide
ment is employed. In certain cases this can be improved, depend- precise raised forms, within and integral to the part, for various
ing on the application and the tooling and equipment that is used. purposes. One example is a semi-pierced protrusion that could be
used for a riveting function, eliminating a separate component
HOLE DIAMETERS, CROSS- and simplifying locating and feeding functions in an assembly
SECTIONS AND OFFSETS system. These projections mayalso beused for feet, spacers, weld
Fineblanking allows holes, protrusions, and cross-sections to dimples, and so on.
be sheared to dimensions less than material thickness. On average, A protrusion might also be a ring used as a locator or cover
these values may beaslowas60%of material thickness. In gear function. Extruded gear teeth configurations, made from one piece
teeth applications, the tooth width at the pitch circle diameter may of material, can be used to integrate side bars into fully functional
also be as lowas 60% of material thickness (see Fig. 12-34). components.
Where parts have offset bends, all the advantages of fineblank- Various types ofextrusions areshown in Fig. 12-35.
ing accuracy can bemaintained in one press stroke. The tooling is
built to the finished part dimensions on each side of the bend. The PROGRESSIVE TOOLING
material is formed before the part is sheared, thus eliminating COINING AND FORMING
errors from spring-back or other distortions that could occur in In conjunction with the overall precision of fineblanked parts,
conventional processing. other features such as forming, bending, and coining have become
regular additions to parts applications. Incorporating these features
SEMI-PIERCING (EXTRUSIONS) into the fineblanking tooling further reduces secondary or addi-
FORMING AND BENDING tional operations in completing the part. Also, a feature in the
The slow, controlled action of the fineblanking press and fineblanked part, such as a semi-piercing, might eliminate another
tooling causes the material to flow into the die cavity. Through part, or simplify assembly in downstream processing. Fineblank-
the reduced speed of the press stroke, in the shear zone of the ing can utilize progressive tooling to accomplish some of these
cycle, the material being sheared is not structurally separated until more complex requ&ements. -
I
O. webs or protections the width
should be held to a minimum of 2/3
material thickness for most applica-
tions, although lower limits are
sometimes achievable, For example, m
the drawing at the right, 1/2 matetial
thickness if the length of prelection is
less than material thickness.
Gears
On
teeth
gears,
thickness
should
the largest
be prawded
Diameters,
may
for good results,
be no less than
(S) at their pitch
passible
at the tooth
sections,
be praduced
thickness.
radius
and
less than
the width
2/3
diameter
(R) shauld
root
taath
and
material
and
peak
widths
material
of
a\ Ilt
x Tooth width
Gears
in relatian
thickness
4xL-
to material
0
-IL
s
x = 60A minimum
---- ----- . .. .. .
tOg. 12-54 Hmeblanking 01holes, protrusions, and cross-sections. (Feintool Equipment Corporation)
12-25
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CHAPTER12
ROLL FORMING
ROLL FORMING
Roll forming is a continuous process for forming metal from BENDING RADIUS
sheet, strip, or coiled stock. The material is fed between succes- Cross-sections of roll-formed products can be divided into a
sive pairs of rolls, which progressively shape it until the desired series of straight and curved segments, as shown in Fig. 12-38.
cross-section is produced. While one end of the strip is flat, the Above a certain thickness/segment width ratio, the flat sections are
other end is completely formed (see Fig. 12-36). Stretching and not effective in carrying compressive load. To utilize the full
compressing of elements of the strip leave residual stresses in the cross-section, designers usually add more bend-lines to the sec-
product. Excessive residual stresses can result in bow, camber, tion, unless styling or other reasons prevent it.
twist, cross-bow, edge or center waviness, ripples, herringbone Roll designers prefer to form the bend-lines with a relatively
effect, or other deviations from straightness and flatness small radius. A large elongation at the outside fiber of the
(see Fig. 12-37).45 bend-line creates stresses well over the yield point and sets the
The deviation from straightness and flatness will depend on the shape by minimizing springback.
thickness, strength, width, straightness, and flatness of the starting The percentage of elongation, e, of the outside fiber can be
material, as well as on equipment, tooling, setup, operator calculated as:
know-how, and other factors. Product design also has a significant
rO r.
influence on the residual stresses, hence, it can increase or e=~, +eP. = ~ x 100% (1)
decrease manufacturing problems. rX 2rn
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 12
ROLL FORMING
[a] baw (b] sweep [c] twist [d] flare [e) crossbow
[longitudinal] (camber)
. . . . . .
Iig. lZ-37K~idml straws inmaWrialmay crea@und~Wable et~NW. (Deha Engineerirsg, Inc.)
12-27
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CHAPTER12
ROLL FORMING
r thickness
For example, if ri = 80t, then theoretically e = O.83%
(actually it will be less).
The O.83% elongation includes both the elastic and permanent
strains. In this case, deformation occurs just above the yield point
t (see Fig. 12-41). The resulting elongation is mainly elastic with
very little permanent elongation; therefore there will be a large
springback.
In general terms, it is difficult, if not impossible to roll form
uniform cross-sections with large bending radii (see Fig. 12-42).
As a rule, manufacturers prefer to roll form products with the safe
minimum or close to minimum bending radii.
7
l-! m
sharp radius
(aj (b)
F[g. 12-39 Special grooving or embossing methods help to form sharp inside corners. (Deka .Engineering, Inc.)
12-28
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER12
ROLL FORMING
+-t-q
..- ..- .
Fig. 12-40 Too small bending radti can have a detrimental effect on t!dckness at corners, fatigue strength, and continmty of surface. (fJeUa
Engineering, Inc. )
stress
yield . ,
strain
1 permanent elongation
Fig. 12-41 Bending of large radii results in smnll permanent deformation. (Delta Engineering, Inc. )
12-29
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER12
ROLL FORMING
Fig. 12-42 Large springback makes products with large radii diftlctdt to roll form. (Delta Engineering, Inc.)
WIDTH OF FLAT ELEMENTS Edge waviness created by either roll forming or wavy starting
The width of the flat elements, from the edge of the strip to the material can be minimized by adding additional bend-lines close to
fist bend and between bend-lines, has practical upper and lower the edge, as shown on Fig. 12-48.
limitations.
Narrow Flat Edge Element
Wide Flat Edge Element Too short an edge can create difficulties in manufacturing. It
During roll forming, different parts of the cross-section travel requires considerably larger force to bend a small leg than a
different distances from the flat strip to the finished shape. The long one (see Fig. 12-49), and the material can easily slip out from
edge of the strip travels a longer distance than the straight the roll during forming. It is also more difficult to compensate for
bend-line, as shown in Fig. 12-46. width and camber tolerances, wandering or moving of the coil in
In reality, the edge will strain even more than theoretically the mill, change in the section height, and equipment or tool
calculated from the smooth flow shown in Fig. 12-46, because the misalignment.
edge usually travels in a more jagged path (see Fig. 12-47). If the If necessary, it is possible to form short legs (length = 1.5
strain remains within the elastic range, then the finished section to 2 times material thickness); but for easy formability, the length
will have only insignificant residual stresses. However, if at any of a straight leg, adjacent to a radius, is preferred to be four to six
point during roll forming the strain became permanent, then it may times the material thickness (4t to 6$ (see Fig. 12-50).
not be possible to compress the stretched part back to its original
length. The elongated edge results in waviness or other deformat-
ions. The fewer the passes, the deeper the section, and the thinner Influence of Strip Width Tolerance
the material, the more likely it is to have a deformed fin- Mill edge coils used for wide panels have loose width toler-
ished section. ances, in the magnitude of + 3/16 to O (+4.76 mm to O mm). It
.- -. . . . . .. . . .. . .
Fig. 12-43 A straight bend tine distorted during curving (a), reduced strength by 40% (b). Keworked curving-embossmg die restorecl mu strength,
(c). (Delta Engineering, inc.)
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 12
ROLL FORMING
Fig. 12-44 Perforation at bend line can reduce the strength of a panel by 7fl~o. (Delta Engineering, Inc.)
is good practice to provide sufficient run-out in the design which gage materials. Glossy sur-t%ces and paint will accentuate the
will not interfere with the assembly of the panels but allows wider un~ightly effect shown-on the left side of the panel in Fig. 12-53.
coils to be used. The right side of the same panel shows typical grooves formed or
Slit edge coils usually have a tight width tolerance ( *0.005; stretched into the material to break the surface into smaller
+ O. 13 mm) but frequently even tighter strip width tolerance segments and dissipate the waviness. Embossing, or the occasion-
( & O.002; + 0.05 mm or less) is required to produce sections with al y used cross-ribbing, also alleviates the effect of oil canning.
tight tolerances. Forming round, V-shaped, or flat grooves into the section will
Legs being out of tolerance may create assembly or erection increase the starting blank (strip) width, but also adds to strength
problems as shown in Fig. 12-51. Problems sometimes can be at the section. Stretching-in the stiffener ribs does not increase
prevented by incorporating additional small legs. A small addition starting material width, but the depth of the ribs is limited. The
of material may eliminate the additional cost associated with tight maximum stretch-in rib depth depends on the radius, shape,
strip width tolerances, and will increase the strength of the section. width of strips adjacent to the bend line, angle of forming,
thickness, mechanical properties and coating of the material, tool
design, and shaft deflection. Residual stresses created by the strain
Narrow Flat Sections between Bend Lines
across the strip and in the direction of rolling will create deforma-
Since wide flat sections do not contribute fully to the compres-
tion, as previously shown in Fig. 12-37.
sive strength of the section, designers may, for this or other
Many of these deformations either are not detrimental or can be
functional purposes, incorporate additional bend lines to the
avoided by proper roll design.
product. If these bend lines are too close together, then a thin male
Architects or product designers sometimes specify large, wide,
forming roll may break. The breakage is most frequently caused
flat surfaces for appearance or functional purposes. If the strained
by side pressure generated by uneven material thickness, or an
edges shrink during roll forming, then the center of the panel will
uneven gap between rolls (see Fig. 12-52).
be compressed or wavy, creating an oil can appearance. In the case
of products with large flat surfaces, the proper tooling and mill
Wide Flat Sections between Bend Lines alignment, and suitable material, can be critical. Usually, edge-
Leaving a relatively wide strip between two bend lines does not wavy starting coils will provide better end products than continu-
present problems during roll forming, but the appearance of the OUSIy stretched (level led) material.
finished panels can be poor. A large percentage of commercially
available coils are not completely flat but have either a wavy edge
or a wavy center. The latter is called a full center or oil can EFFECT OF SECONDARY OPERATIONS IN
surface. These imperfections are induced during the rolling pro- THE ROLL FORMING LINE
cess at the mill, and cannot be removed by straighteners or Roll forming lines are extremely productive. Therefore, the
flatteners. trend is to include as many other operations in the line as
Roll forming can minimize the effect by distributing the economically and technically feasible. This method can signifi-
ripples, but there is a good chance that the oil can effect will be cantly reduce material handling, inventory, and labor costs. Some
visible in webs wider than 5 to 6 ( 127 mm to 152 mm), in light of the operations that can be included in the roll forming lines are
12-31
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER12
ROLL FORMING
)
)
m=====+!
11~111
A L \--_
L-------------------
-. ------- _----- _--_, ~ & ~
Fig. 1245Dlscontinued kndlin=, duetodesign ormiwlignment inmanufa@uring wlllnave less swen~ntn~.. ~v.~~.- . . ... ..... . ,-...-
Engineering, Inc.)
shown in Table 12-1. I%ose operations may be performed ahead must take into consideration that holes, cut-outs, dimples and
of, between, or after roll forming operations. Many of the welds will influence roll forming, sweeping, and other operations.
operations, such as piercing, notching, embossing, lancing, lou- The methods of manufacturing, such as roll forming from
vering and others, can be completed in a conventional way with pre-cut strips or from continuous coils; piercing or notching
presses or by using rotary stands in the mill. before, during, or after roll forming; method of gaging, length
Some roll forming lines may have several presses and mills in sensing, strip feeding or die accelerating; and other characteristic
one line to suit the best manufacturing technology. Computer or of the line will have a major influence on tolerances. Therefore,
programmable controller operated lines, with multiple press-mill the designer must consider the types of equipment and sequence of
arrangements, can produce several variations of the product in one operations, and should dimension and tolerance the drawings
line, with minimum changeover time. However, product designers accordingly. 9
12-32
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER12
ROLL FORMING
MATERIAL TO BE FORMED on part lengths up to 36 (915 mm), and the maximum tolerances
The material for a product is frequently selected on the basis of are based on lengths up to 144 (3,660 mm). Tolerances would
itsprice andthefunction of the product. It can bea mistake not to generally be greater on parts longer than those specified.
take the manufacturing methods into consideration. Formability, When considering roll forming, it is generally advisable to
springback characteristics, sur-ke sensitivity, thickness, width, order the material to be formed with somewhat tighter than
andcamber tolerances as well asavailability of material, common commercial quality tolerances. If this is done, a great many
stock sizes, and many other factors should be considered. in- dimensional problems can be eliminated. Failure to consider
creased demand for higher strength, better tolerance, and product material quality results in needless problems and frustrations,
quality places a tougher demand on material selection.
In many roll formed products, the cost of material represents
80%-90% of the total manufacturing cost. Designers should pay
considerable attention to selecting the most suitable and econom-
ical material. General terms such as mild steel, H. R.P.O.
steel, or just aluminum may be sufficient for a few second-
-rate products, but it is important to be more specific when material
is selected.
1spiral = straight + elongation
TOLERANCES
Cross-sectional tolerances on part dimensions are a result of
variations in material width and thickness, physical properties of
the material, quality of tooling, conditions of the machine, and
operator skill. Dimensional cross-sectional tolerances of ~0.010
to f0.031 (A0.25to ~0.78mm) andangular to1erancesof *l
are common. These tolerances are slightly greater when wide
building panels are being formed. If a closer tolerance, such as
*0.005 (*0.13 mm) is required, material will probably need to
be obtained that has a controlled tolerance of &O.002 (*0.05
mm) on the thickness and tO.004 (fO.10 mm) on the width.
Length tolerances are dependent on material thickness, part
length, line speed, equipment quality and condition, and type of
measuring and cutoff system used. For thin material, 0.015 to
0.025 (0.38 to 0.64 mm), tolerances of tO.020 to fO.093
(~0.51 to ~2.36 mm) are obtainable. Formatenal greater than
0.025 (0.63 mm) thick, tolerance of * 0.015 to ~ 0.060 (*0.38 Fig. 12-46 Strip edge elongation during forming. (Delta Engineering,
to &l.52 mm) are obtainable. Theminimum tolerances are based Inc.)
/
/
/,
\\
Fig. 12-471n most cases, theedg@ of thesection ~enottravelMng insmwth paths. (Delta Engirzeering, Inc.)
12-33
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 12
ROLL FORMING
INTERACTION OF ROLL DESIGN WITH hot rolled steel, with scale (not pickled and oiled) and with tools
FORMED MATERIAL not designed for this purpose, can destroy rolls within a few
Rolls are designed for a specific profile and made out of days. Preprinted material maynotbe formed with rolls designed
restricted types of materials. Roll forming some materials is either for cold rolled or galvanized products. High strength material,
not possible or will cause tool damage. For example, roll forming requiring larger bending radii and having larger springback,
Fig. 12-48 Waviness can be avoided by adding bend lines close to the edge. (Delta Engineering, Inc.)
[
1
1
Fig. 12-49 Bending short legs requires a larger force. (Deka Engineering, k.)
12-34
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 12
ROLL FORMING
TABLE 12-1
Operations That Can Be Included in a RoU Forsning Line
L
products can be produced faster; they can be automatically stacked
and shipped by weight. Nestable building panels and decks maybe
shipped by one truck to the job site, while the same product in
Fig. 12-50 It is hard to form a short leg. Distance from edge to first non-nestable design may require four to five trucks.
bend should be 4 to 6 times the material thickness. (Delta Engineering, Almost all roll formed products are either assembled in the
Inc. )
plant or erected in the field. Therefore, it is important to consider
all possible avenues for cost saving. Good fitting with some
may crack when formed with rolls designed for low strength, high flexibility for looser tolerances, a small taper or radius at the end
elongation material. On the other hand, the latter material usually of the section, direction of burr, or a few-degree change in
can be formed with rolls designed for high strength, low elonga- angles can make a significant difference in the time required to
tion material. assemble or erect products. The method of fastening, subsequent
welding, painting, or metallic coating must be taken into consid-
MATERIAL HANDLING, PACKAGING, eration during the design stage. The cost of the product and its
ASSEMBLY AND ERECTION final success often depends on the designers foresight when the
CONSIDERATIONS shape and manufacturing process are determined.
The shape of the product will influence material handling, Good communication between product designer, plant person-
packaging, transportation, erection, and assembly cost. Length, nel, tool designer, material handler, erector, marketing, and
width, weight, rigidity, nestability, and surface sensitivity are only customer is a critical factor to achieve the best combination of
a few items to be considered. Nestable panels, decks, and other product function and price.
<
Weld
Fig. 12-51 Legs too short or too long may create assembly or erection problems. (D.ha Engineering, Inc. )
12-35
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER12
PRECISION FORMING
.
I
Fig. 12-52Amows inticate where relatively thin rolls daybreak. (Delta Ersgineering, fnc.)
Fig. 12-53 Grooves or emlmssingcandlminisbof lcanning(f ullcenter) effects. (Delta Engineering, fnc. )
PRECISION FORMING
Precision forming is the manufacturing process that uses high DESIGN IMPLICATIONS OF THE PROCESS
pressure to form metal products in the solid phase. It includes a The main difference in designing products for forming rather
number of differing techniques, including cold and warm forming. than machining is a philosophical one. For machining, the concept
These processes are capable of forming net or near-net shapes very begins with a block of material, from which a minimum of
economically, though the original tool costs can sometimes be material is removed to achieve some functional shape. However,
high. The products formed have excellent structural integrity, and by visualizing the function first, as in a space diagram, it is
shapes that are difficult to obtain by machining are possible. possible to imagine adding material to a block to achieve a
Properly understood, these processes can allow the product engi- functional part. While sometimes the results are identical, quite
neer greater design freedom than ever before. often there are significant DFM benefits to the second approach.
12-36
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 12
PRECISION FORMING
On average, material savings are increased by using net-shape Such shape latitude also applies to axial section changes. The
forming. Additionally, process considerations are often highly use of a parabolic curve rather than a radius can improve fatigue
compatible with design objectives. For example, section changes strength by minimizing the notch effect within given clearance
that benefit forming often provide better fatigue strength. parameters. (While such shapes can also be machined in, there is
The additive design approach fits well with function analysis always the risk of tool marks, which are in exactly the worst
techniques. An example is shown in Fig. 12-54. Figure 12-54a orientation. ) This advantage has often been of sufficient value to
shows a part design that was proposed for forming. The part was allow the use of a cold-formed and stress-relieved part to replace
used to transmit torque from the spline to the gear section. The a machined and fully heat-treated part. DFM considerations, for a
shaded area of the drawing represents the intended material highly stressed part that is to be machined, often require the
saving. Figure 12-54b however, shows that further savings were specification of grinding critical section changes to erase turning
possible. The part could have been machined to this configuration, marks. By using precision forming as a process choice, such
but additional time and tool expense would be required. Figure expensive operations can be avoided.
12-54c shows another DFM suggested concept. This two-piece Cold forming of many alloys results in increased strength
approach was considered for its minimum weight potential. through hard-working hardening. Further, effective sequencing
Precision forming has great shape freedom. Conventional can leave a favorable residual stress pattern. These effects can
high-volume metal removal techniques are best at generating often eliminate any requirement for heat treatment. Work harden-
circles (turning and drilling) or flats (milling and shaping). Even ing values can be found in Table 12-2.
broaching, with a greater shape latitude, is severely restricted. Even in a product that is heat-treated, the stress distribution
Working to a blind hole bottom, or intersecting a flange or advantage, including the grain flow effect, remains, if there has
shoulder, is not possible. The undercuts that allow such proce- been no compromise of the section change by secondary machin-
dures are often stress risers at precisely the worst location on the ing. The geometrical freedom allowed parallels that of numerical
part. So-called cam shapes are often just offset radii, even when control. Precision forming allows this freedom to parts of medium
other shapes would be superior. Such other shapes include to high production volume at low cost. Castings and hot forgings
ellipses, epicycloid, and trochoids. Almost any shape that can be can produce similar shapes, but neither will hold size and surface
generated on a tool can be produced with precision forming. finish as well. Sometimes secondary forming of forgings or
castings can yield many production advantages, especially for
moderate volumes and/or large parts.
Typically, the surface finish of precision formed parts is
excellent, with advantages that go beyond mere profilometer
readings. For surfaces generated by flowing the material over a
die, the surface is significantly better for many applications than
the readings might indicate. Performance parameters based on
such readings were developed based on metal removal techniques.
Machined surfaces have both peaks and valleys, and in a sliding
bearing application it is the peaks that control performance. A
section of a cold-formed part reveals that there are essentially no
peaks, but only negative variations from a flat surface. Thus at
(a) identical readings, the cold formed part is vastly superior as a
bearing surface.
A specific illustration of this was a steering pivot shaft for
snowmobiles. The part was at first hot-forged, machined, heat-
treated and ground to a 15 microinch (O.38~m) finish. When the
part was converted to precision forming, the shaft was at 30 to 35
micro inches (O.76 to O.89pm) from the press. When the shaft was
tested as-formed, the result was an increase in the life of the nylon
bearing in which the shaft pivoted. This does not mean that 35 =
15, but that it will pay to consider function as part of any DFM
[b) study, and develop appropriate controls for the new process rather
than importing old parameters.
Another area of process-affected parameters involves the ma-
terial itself. Obviously, with less machining required, a free-
/ machining material may not be required. Such materials are often
\ a compromise of strength for machining, often being at least more
+-- -+ brittle. Also, if heat-treating steel parts is done to gain a yield
strength of 125 ksi (862 MPa) or less, such parts arc candidates for
work-hardening.
Elimination of heat-treatment has many advantages beyond that
[c) of eliminating the cost of the procedure. During heat treatment,
smooth as-formed surfaces become rougher, long parts may bow,
and thinwall-hollow product can go out of round.
Fig. 12-54 Incorporating function analysis with an additive design In some cases, there will be an advantage to using free-
approach: (a) proposed part, (h) machhed part, (c) DFM concept of machining material for a formed blank. The main method of
a two-piece part. (Ander.ren Engineering) increasing machinability is to introduce embrittling elements such
12-37
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 12
PRECISION FORMING
+.
-.
-.
--
12-38
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER12
PRECISION FORMING
as sulphur and silicon, and such materials are formable if they are For each mode of forming, there are patterns of secondary
kept in compression. Shapes that require excessive upsetting or stresses that limit the process. An understanding of such patterns
drawing should be avoided as both of these operations involve will allow the evaluation of the process and the part design.
significant tensile stresses. Modest and smooth section changes are
important in such parts.
For long hollow products, it is often best to start with tubing as
the raw material, Figure 12-55 shows a part that was first designed UPSETTING
as a solid shaft. A 1. 13 (28.7 mm) diameter hole was drilled in On the surface, upsetting is the simplest compressive forming
from one end for 6 (152 mm). Then, it was gun-tillled through operation. As such operations proceed, various factors become
for a fluid transfer function. As a cold-formed solid shaft, there increasingly significant. The most visible is the end effect (actu-
was some saving compared to a hot upset procedure, but the use of ally a boundary value problem) that leads to the barreling shape of
formed tubing as shown yielded a dramatic further saving. Even the OD. This effect is proportional to the restraint of the ends of
where a through hole is not needed, the use of tubing may be the upset zone. Such restraint is at a maximum when the
cost-effective and desirable. Weight reduction can be significant, contiguous material is fully supported by the tooling. This is the
for example. case when upsetting only a portion of the part, as when forming a
In Fig. 12-56, the tube is swaged closed at the end to the right; head on a shaft. The effect is at a minimum when upsetting occurs
while at the left, a phrg was inserted before nosing which locks the between flat, lubricated surfaces.
plug in place. Such inserts may be placed anywhere along the part If the cohrmn of material to be upset is long, there will be a
axis. Figure 12-57 shows another tubular concept including a tendency to buckling failure. Especially when upsetting in a closed
flare/draw to form an OD undercut. die, it is possible to have unobserved buckling which is covered up
as the die falls. In some cases there can be substantial cold shuts
METAL FLOW PRINCIPLES which can lead to part failure. Using multiple forming stages with
To proceed from specific examples to more general principles, cone-like interim steps can avoid such problems, but keeping the
it is important to understand the major forming operations and the part design to appropriate head-to-stem volume ratios can avoid
resulting effects on the material as the parts are progressively the problem and allow the simplest sequencing,
formed. In this way the DFM study can best achieve the optimum As upsetting proceeds to a thinner head of increasing diameter,
product design. another internal effect becomes significant. If an upset part is
If a particular material has an elongation value of 20%, how is sectioned through its centerline, and etched to show the grain flow
it that it can be extruded to an 80?t0 reduction in one pass? The (see Fig. 12-58), a number of differing patterns become apparent.
answer is, of course, that the first value is a measure of tensile From the end restraint A, proceeding inward at about 45, is a zone
properties, while extrusion results from compressive stresses. where the flow lines change in a pronounced manner. If a series of
Theoretically, metals do not fail in compression. They will fail such etched samples is prepared with parts sequentially more
under compressive loading, only if that loading is allowed to severely upset, an interesting phenomenon occurs. As forming
induce sufficient resu Itant tensile or shear stress levels. Thus, a severity increases, so does the etching effect of the 45 zone. This
simple upset operation will induce hoop tensile stresses on the is caused by the increasing level of residual stresses in the zone,
periphery of the part, which can cause splitting. enhancing the etching process. The thinner the head, the more the
3.090 Diam.
L
~.. .. ,, . ..
*
d. i -J
+
- - - -- ---- - --
-.. ..
+ +
45 v~
>
12-39
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 12
PRECISION FORMING
Fig. 12-56 A part similar to Fig. 12-55, but produced from a bellow tube, swaged at one end and plugged at tbe other. (Andersen Engineering)
material in this zone resists relative flow. This forces the external If the design includes such thin heads, it may require a larger press
material to undergo high shear stresses at the interface, and to act (at higher cost). An experiment, some years ago, showed that AISI
more as a separate ring. 1010 steel (CHQ) could be headed from 1 diameter to a 3
Thus, in addition to an upset ratio control, a thin-head factor diameter (25.4 to 76.2 mm). None of the parts split. However, the
should be included in any forming DFM review. As the thickness 1,800-ton (16 MN) hydraulic press stalled out. The pancakes were
goes below 0.1 times the instant diameter, the need for material about O. 15 (3.81 mm) thick. Unit stress to achieve this defor-
ductility increases rapidly, The force required also rises rapidly. mation exceeded 500 ksi (3.5 GPa), much too high for practical
<
1s
. - r-------- ,, ------ ._
~ mx - -: --- : ~--- 7
1.904 Diem. 1.290*.c@
1.912 DiOm.
.--- __ .____ _ _ __ __ _______
~..g....!l: ,.,
- ;,: -y ~k
: j .,m,: q
Fig. 12-57 Another variation of Fig. 12-55, including a flare/draw to form an OD undercut. (Andersen Engineering)
12-40
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 12
PRECISION FORMING
BACKWARD EXTRUSION
The clearest definition of backward extrusion is: an operation
that uses pure compressive forces in a closed die to make a hollow
part from a solid slug. The forces nccdcd are as high as, and often
Fig. 12-58 Section cut through an upset part showing flow line change. higher than in forward trap extrusion, Generally the outside of the
(Andersen Engineering) product remains constant, so that the area reduction is the area of
the punch compared to the original cross-sectional area of the slug.
tool life. Subsequent analysis showed that this high unit stress was This can range from 157. to 92%. Unlike forward extrusion, there
mainly due to the thinness ratio, rather than the upset ratio. is a lower limit on area reduction. This is a result of the sidewall
The upsetting or heading process can increase diameters from friction, which can be large compared to the small area of the
1.5 to 3 times depending on material. It can be combined in one punch. Overcoming internal friction in the large mass also builds
station with other forming means, such as free-forward extrusion, up a high unit stress on the punch. In low percentage reductions,
axis-offset, and limited embossing. it is possible to cause product ruptures by not having enough of the
material loaded compressively. This is especially true when the
bottom of the part is thin compared to the side-walls. Unlike
FORWARD EXTRUSION chevrons, such failures usually are visible. They can be seen at the
In this process, the material is forced through a die and its cross inside bottom of the cup, in the sidewall.
sectional area is reduced. Both solid and hollow shapes can be High (over 40%) reductions are more predictable. The upper
forward extruded. The two general categories are free and trap limit is material related. Possible shape variations are unlimited.
extrusion. The ID will be draft free. It is poor forming practice to extrude
In the free mode, the column strength of the material is with taper on the punch. If the part design requires it, tapers can
sufficient to resist upsetting or buckling. Thus, tooling that is be ironed in, in a secondary forming stage. Internal details that can
shorter than the workpiece is possible. This is useful in long shafts be extruded include: splines, cam forms, and polygons (regular
and tubular parts. Regardless of length, this free mode is restricted and irregular). Diametral tolerances of 0.0005 (O.013 mm) are
to about a 30% to 36% area reduction, and can be further restricted achievable both internally and externally.
by buckling considerations. There is one product integrity hazard It is also possible to change the outside shape simultaneously,
in such operations. Because of the low forces involved, it is with certain restrictions. As always, induced tensile stresses must
possible to induce substantial differential tensile stresses into the be avoided, or at least restricted. Combined back extrusion and
material. This happens when the material near the die surface is heading, for example, is usually folly. However, a round slug, that
compressed enough to exceed the yield, but without carrying fits across the flats of a hex die and is back extruded, will usually
sufficient compressive force to the part interior. Thus, the center fill the hex. Thus designs of parts with high internal detail and
of the part is pulled by tension alone. At severe levels, this can soft exteriors can be very economically produced. As in
result in tensile ruptures, usually called chevrons, The condition is forward extrusion, length variation is a result of slug volume
difficult to find, as the surface of such parts is usually unblem- variation, and again severe shape changes will induce wave forms
ished. The fractures are controllable by the use of sufficiently long at the open end. The bottom thickness, too, will vary due to the
extrusion zones. elastic behavior of the tooling. If close length control is needed at
Because of the relatively light pressures induced, the free mode either end, secondary machining will probably be required.
is restricted to modest shape changes. Ironing in flats, such as
forming hex sections from the round, are routine. DRAWING
In trap extrusion, all of the material up to the die orifice is Drawing has specific uses as a secondary forming after back
contained, Unit pressures are higher than for the free mode. There extrusion. Usually the process is used to increase the length-
can be substantial load implications due to the side loading and to-diameter ratio ancbor area reduction beyond any single-hit
resulting friction in this zone. operation. Restrictions are the same as for conventional drawing.
The upper limitation on reduction is controlled by material One variation is the so-called push draw. This is simply a free
properties. Up to 85% reductions can be achieved in steel, and forward extrusion of a cup-like part over a mandrel. It allows
over 90% in aluminum. Because of the high pressures, trap compressive stresses to do the reduction and is especially useful in
extrusion does not pose a chevron risk. Also, it is capable of allowing the forming of already work-hardened parts. In either
significant shape change, with excellent definition and close mode, secondary drawing is a low pressure operation with little die
tolerances. Involute and straight-side splines can be formed with flex. This allows halving of the diametral tolerances achievable
pitch diameters held to 0.001 (O.03 mm) across pins, and profile with back extrusion alone; with thin walls however, ovaling can be
error of 0.0005 (O.013 mm) maximum are possible. Under some introduced due to the high residual stresses. This technique also
conditions, helical lead can be accommodated. improves ID to OD concentricity.
12-41
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 12
METAL SPINNING
COINING NOSING/FLARING
Coining is used to create surface detail on one or both ends of Each of these operations is used to change both the OD and ID
a part. Depending on the fineness of detail needed, it is the ofahollow part atthe open end. Since nosing istheclosing in of
equivalent of a very high percentage reduction trap extrusion. As such a product, it is a compressive forming mode and therefore
a result, tool pressures can be very high. It has been found that capable ofsignificant deformation. Complete closure is possible in
allowing time for the metal to flow reduces this pressure. This is many instances. This technique has had broad application in
the reason that knuckle-joint presses are so often used. The ideal ordnance work, where itgained itsname from the forming of the
equipment choice is a controlled-flow hydraulic press, which noses ofmtillery shells. Theoutside of thepart is forrnedin by the
eliminates the hazard of extreme pressures as the die fills. tools and can be held to close limits. Inside, however, the
Because little gross movement of material occurs, there is dimensions are essentially the result of free flow. Also, the
normally no potential to negatively affect part integrity. Coining is material is being gathered, soittends toshow surface roughening.
often used as a secondary forming operation, such as forming Overall patterns are consistent, but internal tolerances cannot be
detail into the flange of a part, that could not be combined with the closely held. Of course, if the product is tubular and therefore
flange upset operation. open at both ends, such surfaces can be restored in a subsequent
operation.
Flaring is a tensile technique and is limited by material
properties. The process is especially sensitive to work-hardened
SHEAR FORMING stock. Still, with intermediate annealing, it can be the most cost-
This is another forminrz method based on the control of effective way of forming large integral flanges.
process-induced internal str&ses. Some years ago an experiment
wasconducted todevelop the ultimate shear. Itwasthought that if BENDING
the material was totally contained and preloaded compressively, a Bending is a secondary forming process most often used on
nondeformed square slug would be created. Such a die was built solid products. Looking at this process with a view to stress
and tried. What happened was that even when the piece to be cut management, awholenew approach can redeveloped that allows
off was displaced to 30% of the diameter, it did not break off. It asignificant increase inpart-design freedom. Classically, bending
was therefore a terrible shear, but showed that, under certain induces both compressive and tensile stresses about a neutral
conditions it is possible to use shear displacement as a forming axis. Actually, bending can reachieved bypuretensile or pure
means without degrading product integrity. compressive stress. Thetensile mode iscalledstretch bending.
The main appeal of the process is that it does not need to take Like all pure compressive forming, compressive bending
the full part beyond the yield point. This allows secondmy forming allows a dramatic increase in the severity of the operation. For
for detail with relatively small equipment; thus flanges and tabs are example, the rule of thumb in bending low carbon steel is to use
readily produced. The technique can also be used to restrike a as a minimum bending radius the diameter or thickness of the
forward extruded flow angle to forma 90% step, as a bearing stop stock. With compression bending this can be reduced to zero, or
for example. Since controlled bulging canalso reachieved, OD actually below zero. This has been achievedin many applications
undercuts can be formed that are sufficient to use as boot retainers, where the part is bent back and coined into itself simultaneously.
etc. Tolerances are worse than with extrusion. Product integrity is usually good, though care must be taken to
Shear forming can beusedintemally as well. Ithas been used avoid cold-shuts. Such products should be checked by a cross-
to form an internal pipe stop in a pipeline coupling. It is also useful sectional etch to confirm the operation sequence. Since all of the
in assembly. It isa simple means of using aportion ofone part to material has been stressed inthe same mode, there tends to be less
trap another. springback than with conventional bending.
METAL SPINNING
Every day people use or come in contact with something that applied to the face of a spinning metal blank with sufficient
was made through the metal spinning process: light fixtures, pressure to form the metal over a chuck or mandrel, which
bowls, automobile parts, even toys. Metal spinning is also corresponds to the inside dimensions of the part being formed.
responsible for producing many things rarely seen or thought Parts can range in size from a fraction of an inch (millimeters)
about: nose cones of missiles, surgical supplies, artillery shell to over 25 feet (7.6 m) in diameter. Metal thickness can range
casings, engine parts, agricultural products. Without metal spin- from wafer thin to three inches (76 mm). Many different types of
ning, some of these items simply could not be produced. metals can be formed by metal spinning.
Metal spinning is a forming process that shapes flat discs of
sheet metal or preformed metal workplaces into conical, parabolic,
hemispherical, or cylindrical shapes. It can be combined with ADVANTAGES OF METAL SPINNING
other metalworking processes, such as stamping, perforating, deep Metal spinning offers many advantages to the design engineer
drawing, machining ,fabricating, welding, and finishing. and component parts buyer, including:
Efficient use of raw materials. Spinning permits part con-
THE SPINNING PROCESS tours to be formed with little or no machining. Most if not all
Because of the nature of the spinning process, the spun part is the blank material is used in a spun part. &d most metals
almost always a circular shape. A tool or combination of tools is can be spun, so the lowest-cost alternative can be specified.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 12
METAL SPINNING
Fewer steps to the finished product. Spun parts are usually Be sure to identify critical points for tolerances, not just an
formed in one operation on a metal spinning lathe. Multiple overall dimension on the print.
setups and tools, often needed for deep drawn parts, are What tolerance can be held? This depends on cost.
not needed. t O.()10 (0.25 mm) is normal on most sizes, diameters,
Lower cost tooling. Produced by simple turning and machin-
and materials; Y 0.005 (O.13 mm) or better is possible.
ing operations, tooling ranges from simple wooden or
. High tolerance for short runs is a specialty of metal spinning.
composite forms for low volume production, to high-
This is not true, cost-effectively, with other alternative
precision forms made from hardened tool steel that will
processes.
produce thousands of parts. . Consult with the supplier.
Shortened delivery times. Because tooling is relatively
simple, lead times for designing and building tooling can be Total indicated roundness (TIR) and concentricity are affected
short (typically four to six weeks). The advantage is short- by diameter and material thickness. Up to 8 (2.4 m) diameter, in
ened delivery times to the customer. lighter materials, there may be a 0.5 (13 mm) variation in
Improved tensile strength. Metal spinning actually improves unrestrained TIR. The buyer needs to advise if the part TIR is
the raw material metallurgically by realigning grain struc- important and whether measurement is to be restrained or
tures. Tensile strength is increased, allowing thinner mate- unrestrained.
rials to be used. Part integrity is actually better with spinning Be sure to evaluate the cost versus tolerance. For example,deep
thdn with other processes. drawing may be capable of a tighter tolerance, but the tooling cost
Metal spinning work hardens material less rapidly than deep is much higher. If the exacting tolerance is not necessary,
drawing. This means fewer anneals are necessary on se- especially for shorter runs, metal spinning can save money. Table
verel y formed parts. 12-3 shows typical dimensional tolerances that can be attained
Wide range of part sizes. Part size can range from a fraction with the spinning process.
of an inch to over 25 feet (7.6 m) in diameter. Material
thickness can be up to three inches (76.2 mm) with some
rmdterials. SURFACE FINISH
Highly precise tolerances. Metal spinning can achieve Surface finish for spinning depends on material, thickness, and
highly precise, repeatable part tolerances. Wall thickness, diameter of part. It can also depend on the spinning technique used
ID, and OD can be precisely controlled. and the machine on which it is done. An automatic machine can
Ease of design change, especially if changes are dimension- generally produce better finishes than hydraulic or hand spun
ally smaller, since the original tool can be machined as parts. A finish of 125 microinches (3. 175 microns) is the normal
needed. The adaptability of the metal spinning process forming best on many parts, while 32 microinches (O.813
allows design changes to be handled more easily. Changes
making part diameters smaller are especially quick and TABLE 12-3
cost-effective due to the tooling process. Dimensional Tolerance Guide
The advent of new CNC and CNC playback technology with
automatic metal spinning machines now allows high volume As SpunFor Most
production, with high tolerances and consistent repeatabil- Commercial Special
ity. Metal spinning is not just a short run process any Diameter, Applications, Applications,
more. in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm)
Metal spinning can be combined with other technologies.
Preforms are often produced by deep drawing, forging, or Up to 24 ~ 1/64 to 1/32 to.ool to 0.005
rolled and welded cylinders. (610) (0.40 to 0.79) (0.03 to 0.13)
Toolirw costs less due to its simplicity. It can be machined 25 to 36 ~ 1/32 to 3164 *0.005 to 0.010
from s~eel, tool steel, or mehan~e. F& shorter runs, maple (635 to 914) (0.79 to 1.19) (0.13 to 0.25)
blocks or composite materials can be used for tooling.
37 to 48 k3/64 to 1/16 *O.O1O to 0.015
(940 to 1,220) (1.19 to 1.59) (0.25 to 0.38)
TOLERANCES
49 to 72 ? 1/16 to 3/32 fo.o15 to 0.020
ID tolerance is preferred. If OD tolerance is given, up to 25%
(1,245 to 1,830) (1.59 to 2.38) (0.38 to 0.51)
material thin out is typical.
Sidewall and bottom material thickness will vary up to 25%. 73 to 96 * 3/32 to 1/8 tO.020 to 0.025
The bottom stays at the thickness of the original blank. The (1,854 to 2,438) (2.38 to 3.18) (0.51 to 0.64)
sidewall thins depending on pressure and speed of forming.
97 to 120 f 1/8 to 5132 tO.025 to 0.030
Do not overspecify tolerances.
(2,464 to 3,048) (3.18 to 3.97) (0.64 to 0.76)
If uniform wall thickness is critical, secondary machining may
be necessary. 121 to 210 Y 5/32 to 3/16 to.030 to 0.040
A specific thickness or dimension, needed on part of a (3,073 to 5,334) (3.97 to 4.76) (0.76 to 1.02)
sidewall, should not be specified on the whole part.
211 to 260 &3/16 to 5/16 to.040 to 0.050
Avoid sharp comers. Formed radii should be specified as not
(5,359 to 6,604) (4.76 to 7.94) (1.02 to 1.27)
less than two to three times material thickness, if possible. Up to
one times material thickness is possible, especially on thicker 261 to 312 *5116 to 1/2 *0.050 to 0.060
materials. Secondary machining can sharpen the radius if (6,630 to 7,925) (7.94 to 12.7) (1.27 to 1.52)
necessary.
12-43
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER12
CONVENTIONAL PIPING DESIGN FOR BEND FABRICATION
microns) or better is possible in special situations. Polishing or Conical, hemispherical, cylindrical, reentrant, parabolic, ven-
machining secondary operations can be performed to obtain a turi, flanged, and dished shapes are specialties.
better finish if desired. Figure 12-59 illustrates the basic metal-spun shapes.
GEOMETRIES MATERIALS
As previously pointed out, the spinning process is generally Any formable alloy of metal can be spun, especially arty
limited to symmetrical shapes of circular cross-section. However, material that can be formed by deep drawing or forming on a
welding and machining techniques can be combined with spinning press, hydroform, or press brake.
to achieve a broad variety of configurations. Flowing contours are The size of spun parts can range from a fraction of an inch up
preferred, since sharp comers and extremely small radii cannot be to 25 feet (7.6 m) in diameter.
achieved without further machining, if at all. A good rule of thumb The thickness of materials ranges from 0.0015 (0.038 mm) for
for designers is to allow 1 to 1-1/2 times the metal thickness as a most materials, up to 3 (76 mm) for aluminum or 1.5 (38 mm)
minimum radius for spun parts. for steel
Cone Parabollc
Flanged cover
nose shape
Fig. 12-59 Basic metal-spun shapes. (Metal Spinning Division, Precision Meta~orming Association)
12-44
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 12
CONVENTIONAL PIPING DESIGN FOR BEND FABRICATION
For a long time, bending technology itself was unable to offer upon how the bend is made. Cold-bending machines can make
any substantial alternative to the use of the welded fitting, so 1-l/2D bends in most materials. Unfortunately, the allowable
designers continued, and still continue, to design piping systems tolerance that applies to the fitting 12-1/2% wall thinning in the
along traditional lines. But, in the last decade, bending machinery extrados of the bendcannot be met by cold bending methods; the
has been improved to the point that great opportunities now exist thinning of 1-l/2D bends generally is in the 18% to 2070 range or
for the designer to take a different approach, one that allows more higher (depending on the type of machine used to make the bend).
flexibility and which will also provide considerable cost savings, On the other hand, certain types of induction bending machines
not only in the fabrication of a piping system, but also in its can make 1- l/2D bends while maintaining wall thinning to well
operation, maintenance, and overall safety. within the permissible tolerance; but the intrados, for which there
Conventional design requires not only use of the butt-weld is no specified limitation, is thickened considerably. The designer,
elbow, but also cutting and end preparation of the pipe at each end, therefore, needs to know how much reduction of the ID will take
fit and tack of the assembly, welding and, frequently, radiographic place and whether that will affect whatever is going through
examination of the two welds. Figure 12-60 shows a fabricated the system.
spool using three weld elbows. Regarding this 1-l/2D capability, the designer must also be
Figure 12-61 shows the same basic configuration, using bends aware that such tight radii cannot be made in thinwall material by
with a radius of 2-1 /2D made from a single length of pipe, thereby the induction bending process.
eliminating the fittings, welds, end-prep, and possibly the X-ray It is important, therefore, that the designer be very familiar
examination requirement. Note that although a larger radius has with the advantages and disadvantages of both processes. In
been used for the changes of direction, tbe critical center-to-center addition, critical data is needed concerning such matters as
dimensions have been maintained. Depending on the material minimum clamping and pressure die or pushway lengths for the
used, the time and cost factors will vary. Nevertheless, the bent distances between tangent points of successive bends. There are
spool can be produced in less than thirty minutes, compared to two other factors as well, particularly in the case of induction bending
to three hours for the fabricated one. where the heat effect of the process on the pipe material plays a
Unfortunately, bending is not simply a matter of having a bend critical role.
made in a length of pipe. Many factors have to be considered, few Nevertheless, given all the pertinent information and data, by
of which are common knowledge to the piping designer or electing to design a system for bend fabrication, the designer is
available in the form of printed data. allowed much greater scope and flexibilityy, far beyond the
limitations imposed by use of the standard butt-weld elbow,
BENDING APPROACH The first requirement is to understand and appreciate the degree
Although modem machinery is quite capable of making a of flexibility permissible, and this is best illustrated by the simple
1-l/2D bend equivalent in appearance to a standard butt-weld configuration shown in Fig. 12-62. This is the conven-
elbow, it may not be exactly the same as the fitting, depending tional approach.
15
(33.2 cm)
(229!; mm]
4 k--
+*
~ 46? ->
1> 4 468 ~ (1.37m]
(1.37m]
T 1
y T I 1 O [0.30 m] 3 6 (1.07 m)
20 (0.61 m] 3 6 [1.07 m]
L
I
l+- ,;;;:l +
Fig. 12-61 Same configuration as in Fig. 12-60, but using bends with
Fig. 12-60 Fabricated spool using three weld elbows. (John Gi[kmders) a radius of 2-1/2D from a single length of pipe. (John Gilkzrrders)
12-45
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 12
CONVENTIONAL PIPING DESIGN FOR BEND FABRICATION
Fig. 12-62 A conventional approach for piping design using welded Fig. 12-63 Redesign of Fig. 12-62 using one length of pipe with bends.
sections. (John GWanders) (John GiIkznders)
Figure 12-63 would be the logical alternative, using bends types and capabilities of the machinery that each bender has. Few,
instead of welded elbows to eliminate the associated cutting, end if any, will have a complete range of bending capabilities for both
preparation, and welding. This would achieve considerable cold and induction bending for all sizes of pipe from 1/2 (12.7
cost savings. mm) to as much as 30 (762 mm).
By repositioning the valve, however, further improvement can Information and data are needed on such factors as the required
be made as shown in Fig. 12-64, where the number of bends has minimums of clamp lengths, pressure die or pushway lengths,
been reduced to only two. Thus, the designer has not only compound tooling availability, lubricant compatibility, and other
achieved greater cost reduction, but has also been able to improve factors which will have a bearing on how the system is designed.
flow characteristics, particularly if the optimum radius for each of
the two bends is selected.
However, it is important that the designer know how the bends
should be made, because this will be determined primarily by the MATERIAL
type, size, and wall thickness of the pipe material. If it should he The type of material, its size, and wall thickness will usually
a 4 (101.6 mm) Schedule 40 A 106 Grade-B carbon steel bent on determine how it should be bent, from both a technical and a cost
a 3D radius, it could be done by either process and wall-thinning aspect. Generally speaking, most pipe materials up to 6 (152.4
maintained within the 12- 1/270 limitation. But if T304 Schedule mm) in diameter can be cold bent. A few benders have cold-
10 stainless steel is specified for the material, it would have to be bending machinery for 8 (203.2 mm) and even 12 (304.8 mm)
bent cold; induction bending cannot respond at anything less than pipe. However, the wall thickness has a bearing on this because
a 5D radius for a quality bend. Nor would the designer be able to machines have a limit of wall thickness that can be accommod-
consider an optimum radius for cold bends, except at considerable ated. This is usually Schedule 80 in carbon steel for the
additional cost; few, if any, cold benders have dies for other than maximum size of pipe. This means that Schedule 80 stainless steel
standard radii. would be bent on a larger machine or bent by induction.
Clearly the designer must know, when the drawings are made, If the material is aluminum in T6 condition or hard drawn
exactly what each of the two processes can and, more important, copper, it must be annealed before bending and may also have to
cannot do. be restored to original temper after bending, thus involving
additional cost factors.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Much will depend on the desired radius of the bends. If the
For the designer considering the use of bends instead of welded designer calls for tight radii, a heavier wall thickness may be
elbows, there are many factors that must be taken into account, all required to maintain an acceptable wall thickness. If the designer
of which will influence the design particularly when dealing with can use a more generous radius than the usual 1-l/2D, probably
a variety of different pipe materials, sizes, and wall thicknesses. 70% of all the comers can be bent by either or both processes. In
Much of the information is not readily available and must be terms of space, a 3D bend takes about half a pipe diameter inward
obtained from the bender; much of it will vary according to the but the tangents, of course, will extend further.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER12
CONVENTIONAL PIPING DESIGN FOR BEND FABRICATION
COMPOUND BENDS
Compound bends that start at the tangent point of a previous
I bend (usually with a change of plane) can be done by cold bending
provided that the bender has the necessary tooling. This is rarely
1 possible with induction bending. For boiler tube work, compound
bending is commonplace, but for piping it can involve consider-
able extra cost if the bender does not have the tooling and must
make separate bends and cut, bevel, and weld them together as
with a fitting. If there are only one or two such bends in a system,
t I either cut and weld or using fittings is a logical choice. If there are
Total ktbrieationtimeincluding many compound bends in the system, it could be more cost
2 bends and butt+veld flanges = 30 minutes
effective for the bender to get the necessary tooling and charge
some or all of the cost to the job.
OPTIMUM RADII
Fig. 12-64 Optimal design of Fig. 12-62 has lower cost and better flow Cold benders can seldom consider using other than standard
characteristics. (John Gillanders) radii of 1- l/2D, 2D, 3D, and 5D because of the costs involved and
the downtime required for tooling changes. Induction bending, on
CLAMPING LENGTHS the other hand, can usually achieve any radius called for within the
To make a bend, the material must be clamped ahead of the limitations of the machine, with very little downtime required. A
starting tangent point. The length required for clamping will vary requirement for optimum radii, however, is rare indeed, because
according to the type of machine used, the size and wall thickness the industry has yet to reach this level of sophistication in its
of material, and, to some extent, the radius of the bend, This approach to design even though it would provide for energy
information should be readily available from the benders, but it savings in the operation of a system.
will vary according to the machines they have.
Cold draw bending machines are not all alike, even though they POST-BEND TREATMENT
are all based on the same principle of operation. In essence there Depending on the material, radius, and type of bending
are four different types: those with a static pressure die, those with machine, post-bend treatment may be required which will add to
a traveling pressure die, those with pressure die assist, and those the cost factors. The designer must know and take into consider-
with a boosted pressure die. The latter will produce the best quality ation the effects of both processes, cold working by the one and
bends with respect to shape and wall-thinning. heat effect by the other. In either case, the mechanical property
Pipe fabricators with bending equipment will usually have one values may be affected and post-bend treatment required. In cold
of the latter two types. On the other hand, because of the very bending, the designer is usually well aware of what may be
nature of their business, job shop benders generally have older, required, but induction bending is not as well known.
less sophisticated machinery. Few, if any, have the very latest Because of the variables of bending speed, bending tempera-
types of cold bending machinery. There are two compelling ture, and air and water quench rates applicable to induction
reasons for this: one is cost, since a new CNC fully boosted 6 bending, it is usually the metallurgist who determines exactly how
(152.4 mm) draw bender costs over half a million dollars. The the bend is to be made in terms of speed, temperature, and quench.
other reason is that the operator can more easily modify an older, For some materials, the bender may already have the pertinent
simpler machine to meet a specific job requirement than a highly information and can use it for the required settings to make the
sophisticated and complex one. bend. In many instances, however, a pre-production test bend may
With induction-bending machines, the required minimum be called for, not just for the whole job, but for each pipe bent.
clamping length is usually a constant, regardless of pipe size, The stipulations that the metallurgist makes, based on detailed
although for smaller diameter material it is possible to reduce the examination of the bend qualification, must be supported by
distance slightly by not using the full length of the clamp. But, documentary evidence that the operator has complied with the
unlike cold bending where the clamp end is at the starting point of requirements throughout the bending cycle. This, in itself, does
the tangent, there is a gap between the inner side of the clamp and not present a problem, but it dots add to the cost. The important
the inductor coil where the starting tangent is located. point is that the bender operator should always be able to supply
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CHAPTER12
TUBE FABRICATING AND BENDING
such documentation. Without it, the customer has absohstel y no easier for field construction crews than weldlng pipe to fittings. If
idea of what effect the process has had on the material. It is the spools are dimensionally exact and the ends bevelled, the
possible to make an induction bend at an incorrect temperature amount of cutting and end preparation at the job site can
throughout the bend cycle, or at different temperatures that maybe be reduced.
above or below the critical range, thus seriously affecting the
metallurgy; this may, in turn, be affected by the service condi- LUBRICANTS
tions, possibly with disastrous results. No customer should ever Cold bending requires the use of a mandrel which must be
accept an induction-made bend without the supporting documen- removed after bending and dictates the need for lubrication of the
tary evidence relating to how the material has been bent. pipes intenor during the bending process. It is important that the
lubricant be compatible with the material. The chemical compo-
EQUIPMENT SPACING sition of the lubricant that the bender proposes to use should be
Bends with anyradius larger than l-1/2D(the equivalent ofa made known to the designer so that acceptability can be deter-
butt-weld elbow) require the adjustment of clamping lengths mined, It may also be important that all traces of the lubricant be
between successive bends. Some equipment may have to be completely removed after bending; since this is not easy to do,
respaced and more room allowed for control stations. To do this, particularly for spools with more than two bends. it will add to the
the designer must know the respective clamping lengths applicable cost factors.
to the pipe sizes and schedule thicknesses. To circumvent this problem, the designer should try to use
bends with a radius that does not require the use of a mandrel. If
the bends are induction made, of course, the question of a
PIPE RACK SPACING
lubricant does not arise.
The designer will also have to look at the configurations for
entering and leaving a pipe rack. It may bepossible to reduce the ANCHORS
number of welded elbows that would normally be required, Since bends with radii larger than 1-l/2D exert more force than
because bending can free the designer from the limits of standard comers using standard fittings, larger expansion loops or longer
45 and 90 configurations. One need only to look at a number of legs may be needed. Larger-bend radii than the standard l-1/2D
conventionally designed pipe racks to see places where only three have less stress intensification and less flexibility, but can with-
bends would be needed to replace five welded elbows. stand greater stresses, thus exerting more force on the anchors.
Most expansion loops are either in a square, rectangular or
PIPE HANGER LOCATIONS omega configuration. Depending on the size of the loop, the first
The use of bends with a radius greater than 1- l/2D will call for two can usually be made, using bends, from a single length of
relocation of most pipe hangers. This may be a major problem. It pipe. The omega loop, however, usually is made in two sections
may also dictate the radius to be used rather than any other with one weld in the middle to join them.
considerations because relocation may be difficult or impossible, Interestingly, a Japanese company, Dai-Ichi, which is the
or incur considerable extra cost. worlds largest supplier of induction-made bends, is now recom-
mending a somewhat different configuration for expansion loops.
FIELD WELDS This has four comers of 112 degrees each and the company, which
The location of field welds also plays a critical role. Bent pipe has done a large amount of research into bending, claims that the
spools will have tangents at each end, usual] y at least two or three 112 configuration is more efficient than any of the other
pipe diameters in length. However, welding straight pipe ends is three types.
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CHAPTER12
TUBE FABRICATING AND BENDING
ff
9
/
/
/ +
Compressive stress,
/
wall thickness increases
A J
o
Section A-A
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CHAPTER12
TUBE FABRICATING AND BENDING
must be concentric, not only with one another but with the bead
and length of tube behind the bead, and this must be accomplished
through material displacement without per-forming any material
removal. In the case of the first punch, the primary point of tool
wear will be on the pilot, which is the most stressed part of this
operation; it is performing the task of expanding the end of the
tube. The shell insert of the first punch will be subjected to less
wear, primarily because, at this stage of the process, the operation
fo.ool
(0.03 mm]
A is not subjected to close tolerances. The on] y significant require-
ment is to produce a bead on location and to work the tube beyond
its elastic limit so as to reduce springback and produce a shape that
may be further manipulated. In the case of the second punch, the
primary point of tool wear is the mouth of the shell insert, as it is
the initial point of contact during the process of reducing the
diameter of the end of the tube to that required by blueprint
specifications. There is a pilotimandrel inside the tube, which will
Fig. 12-67 Close tolerancing specifications on both the inside and also be working to prevent the tube from nose-diving during the
outside diameters of an endform. (Vancrafr Manufacturing Corp. ) reduction process to a diameter less than that which is desirable.
The pilot also serves to alleviate any waviness over the surface of
The second set of tolerances to be considered when designing the endform.
an endforru are those of the end product. Careful consideration In each of these cases of tool wear, the tool wear will not be
needs to be given to the raw material tolerances when assigning produced solely by the abrasiveness of the material being worked,
tolerances to the end product during its design. There are many but also by the polishing of the tooling that will be required to
ways to achieve close tolerances; however, these methods are remove material buildup at the points of wear (otherwise known as
generally slower than production requirements might dictate, galling). Needless to say, after repeated polishing a tool will no
particularly in a high-volume environment. Therefore, the de- longer meet its dimensional requirements. Coatings such as
signer should pay close attention to what the production require- titanium nitride serve to reduce the effect; they do not totally
ments will be on the particular part being designed. Some alleviate it. This repeated abrasion and polishing results in tool
manufacturing limitations are imposed on close tolerance end- replacement. In the case of high volume production, the tool
forrning, from a tooling perspective. When inside diameters are maintenance and tool replacement requirements introduce process
assigned close tolerances, it is recommended that drawn over down-time which often hinders the product delivery requirements
mandrel (DOM) tubing be specified, as there is no weld flash to of the supplier particularly in the case of just in time
contend with during manufacturing. manufacturing.
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CHAPTER12
TUBE FABRICATING AND BENDING
/
Y 1 Dimension
1.5
Atobeappoximote~0.0310
mm) greater finished diameter
than
theoretical inside diameter.
0.06 in. [0.8
of andform
b
I I Note
p.nc,,o,d~:::::n)mn
Dimaruion A [nominal] to be mean theareticai ID of endform
(b)
Fig. 12-68 Tooling configuration required to produce an endform; (a) shows how tube is expanded beyond blueprint specifications to reduce
out-of-round, height of weld flash, and material springback, (b) shows how tbe tubes outside diameter is reduced back to blueprint specifications
(Vancraft Manufacturing Corp.)
attempting to produce this endform, the manufacturer is required are many sources for this type of coating that are capable of
to transform raw material that falls well short of the required C.P~ controlling their application process reasonably well, the degree of
(or statistical process capability) into an end product that wdl difficulty involved in applying a coating uniformly, with a
satisfy customer requirements. While process capability poses deposition thickness tolerance of * 0.0005 (O.013 mm) which
little concern to manufacturers engaged in metal cutting, it would be required to be process capable given the end product
introduces to the material displacement process a set of circum- dimensional requirement is extremely high and would more than
stances that cause reason for concern. likely increase the cost of manufacturing the part by as much as
Adding one more characteristic to the part to be produced can 200% (to include increased cost of quality control, material
further complicate the process. For example, the part may be handling, shipping, and rework). This is in addition to the impact
dimensioned with the aforementioned tolerances being specified on delivering the product, on time and at the required volume to
after the part is powder coated with an epoxy paint. While there the customer.
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TUBE FABRICATING AND BENDING
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TUBE FABRICATING AND BENDING
Fi% 12-71 Bracket resting tlat awdnst and welded to a tube (not an
op&nal design). (Vancraf~Manuf~cturing Corp. )
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TUBE FABRICATING AND BENDING
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CHAPTER12
CAD APPLICATIONS IN SHEET METAL CUTTING, PUNCHING AND BENDING
6 (152.4 mm) in Schedule 120 material, were replaced by 3D cost-savings figures are based on the true cost since no provision
bends, thereby reducing the number of welds required from 274 to is made for any profit factors. Also, a considerable number of
149 at a considerable cost savings. welds associated with butt-weld elbows must be subjected to
In a recent case history, presented by a domestic fabricator, radiographic examination every year for the entire life of the plant
approximate y 70 to 75910of the Schedule 40 carbon steel pipe (estimated at a minimum of 25 years); much of this cost can be
required for the job was bent, for an estimated 15% cost savings. eliminated by the use of bends.
The conchrsion reached in a study of bending conducted by a In Germany, over the past several years, all BWR-power plants
piping engineer for the Construction Industry Institute was that the of the 600-900 MW type have been retrofitted with new main
real cost savings of bending over welding was in the region steam and feedwater piping within the containment, and in some
of 70%. cases in the area of the containment penetration. The now
Because pipe fabrication is usually subcontracted, the real preferred use of bent-pipe spools has led to a considerable
cost-saving figures rarely come to light; only the bender operators reduction in the number of welds required. In the case of the
know the true figures. However, the most convincing figures are feedwater lines, the reduction comes to about 60%,
coming from a major study by a large North American utility In France, which has about 70% nuclear power, one fabricator
company. The study is reviewing the potential cost savings has supplied bent pipe for more than 50 nuclear plants, with cold
involved in designing future power plants for bend fabrication bending to 8 (203.2 mm) and induction to 54 (1371.6 mm).
rather than the welding that is presently used. The study will cover In Japan, Dai-Ichi has been supplying bent pipe for all types of
all pipe sizes from I/2 (12.7 mm) through 30 (762 mm). By power plants for almost 20 years. Initially, large diameter material
using bends instead of welded elbows for up to 90~0 of all corners was made, but recently it has produced pipe as small as 3 (76.2
in a single generating station, cost savings can reach $17 million, mm) in diameter.
just in the 1/2 to 4 (12.7 to 101.6 mm) pipe size range. With the Clearly, other countries have found that bending has much
completion of the study covering the remaining pipe sizes, it is more to offer than weld fabrication. Even the U.S. Navy requires
estimated that the overall savings will be in excess of $30 to bends for most of the piping in its vessels. Some shipyards, all of
$35 million. which have cold bending capability, have machines that can bend
This figure may seem to be incredible, but this company up to 14 (355.6 mm) pipe to radii of 2D, 3D, 5D, and 8D with
designs, fabricates, erects, and operates its own power plants. The most of the bending done at 2D radius.
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CHAPTER 12
CAD APPLICATIONS IN SHEET METAL CUTTING, PUNCHING AND BENDING
Finite
Material
element DFMA
JIT delivery
analysis
GD&T
FMEA t
tolerances
Material
handling
CAM software
4
YY?P Culting
Scheduling
Planning
Cutting
/ +
Nesting
Team selection
Unfolding
Customer input CAD
Punching
3-D model Fixture design
QFD
Punching
Supplier input
k 4
Rending
Quality requirement
Optimization
Specifications
Oparatar viewing
Ins@ion
0 c)
MOterial
selaetion
I
Cast
estimating
Fig. 12-73 The process of designing sheet metal for manufacturability. (IngersoU-Rarsd Construction Equipment)
ing of the curves and surfaces used to describe sheet metal parts is Splines. Each control point is located on the curve itself. The
essential to proper selection of the optimum software and hardware d~signer indicates as many points as are necessary, and then
to design and manufacture these parts. the computer connects the points to create the curve. Splines
are useful for creating curves from digitized input.
Two-dimensional CAD Models
Simple parts can be described by line segments, circles, and B-splines. The B-spline is fixed with end points and influ-
arcs. More sophisticated curve formulas are required for complex enced by control points not on the curve itself, similar to
or free-flowing shapes. The most widely used higher-level forrrsu- Bezier curves. The control points are used to define a series
las include Bezier curves, splines, B-splines, and rational of line segments joined end to end. The curve tends to be
B-splines. pulled near or through the line segments at their center
points.
. Bezier curves. The Bezier curve is defined with four control
points-two end points and two handle points. The handle Rational B-splines. Rational B-splines add one more degree
points are not on the curve itself, but function like gravity, of control compared to the traditional B-spline. The weight
pulling the curve in their direction. The mathematical of the pull is specified with rational B-splines. CAD systems
formula can handle any number of control points, but most with rational B-splines represent a complex form as a single
CAD systems create complicated forms by blending together curve rather than numerous blended segments. Moving a
numerous simple curves end to end. This technique can single control point only affects the portion of the curve
produce very smooth curves, and the forms are easy to close to it. The designer is given a great degree of control
manipulate in the editing stage. over complex forms.
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CAD APPLICATIONS IN SHEET METAL CUTTING, PUNCHING AND BENDING
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CHAPTER 12
tooling can be made at the beginning phase of programs instead of . Back-gage delay timer.
at the end. The tool data can be accessed from the library during . Bending speed, horizontal gage finger position.
programming without having to re-enter parameters. . Vertical gage finger position.
Punch shapes. Punch press software typically supports eight
Back-gage position. Back-gages were the first items on a press
standard punch shapes. These include the circle, square, rectangle,
brake that were computer controlled. The back-gage is a stop
filleted square, filleted rectangle, flat oval, dee, and double-dee.
device located behind the press brake that locates how far a sheet
The punch shapes and tool attributes are used to calculate nibbling,
can be inserted into the press brake. The location of the back-gage
recognize boundaries, perform tonnage calculations, calculate area
determines the flange lengths of the bent parts. Computer software
clearance, and determine individual hit support for user-defined
that determines the position of the back-gage also calculates the
shapes. The punch shapes automatically control tool-path displays
proper bend allowance. Bend allowance is the dimensional amount
which indicate positioning, nibbling, and cyclic moves.
added to a part through elongation during the bending process. The
Vkual verification. The software graphically shows both the
back-gages are typically positioned by AC servo motors. The
punching tool and the tool path as commands are entered and
position accuracy is &O .001 (tO.025 mm). The height of the
verified. Geometry representing the shape of the tool is displayed
back-gage can be programmed to contact various offset flanges on
as the tool path is defined by motion commands. Both punch paths
a part with multiple bends. The inner pairs of back-gage fingers
and punch shapes are displayed automatically as new commands
can be programmed to flip out of the way when not in use. The
are entered. Real-time visual verification helps ensure error-
back-gage fingers can be positioned anywhere horizontally along
free programs.
the entire length of the gage bar to allow for easy stage bending of
Post processing. The punch press software produces binary
small parts.
cutter location files (CL files). Post processing software generates
Ram position. Software to control the vertical ram position is
machine control data for numerically controlled machine tools
important to obtain high quality parts with minimum variation.
from the CL files. Post processor output includes an ASCII file
Most parts produced on press brakes are made with a process
containing machine control data for the target machine and
called air bending. In air bending the punch does not seat fully in
controller, an operator listing, and a machine-specific para-
the die. There is an air gap between the sheet metal part and the
meter file.
bottom of the female die. Air bending is very versatile. A large
Press Brake Software variety of parts can be made from a single set of dies. Angular
NC press brake controllers can typically accept input data from accuracy is obtained in air bending by overbending and then
two methods, numerical data from drawing or CAD model, or data permitting the material to spring back to the desired angle. The
from actual operation. Part dimensions, bend angles, and bend sharpness of a bend is a function of the distance between the two
length are normally entered from the drawing or CAD model. The edges of the female die and the distance that the punch top travels
part profile and dimensions are graphically displayed for easy into the die. The repeatable accuracy of bending each successive
operator confirmation. The operator then inputs the gaging point piece part is determined by how consistently the punch tip
and bending point for each bend. The part shape prior to bending penetrates the die. As an example, a punch position variation of
and after bending of each bend will be displayed. The software 0.005 (O.13 mm) while forming 0.063 ( 1.&l mm) mild steel may
will then automatically develop the following functions: result in angular deviations of up to 7 when making 90 bends.
Retract. CNC software typically positions the punch ram (D-axis) to
. Lower table limit. tO.0004 (t O.010 mm).
FORGINGS
WHY SELECT FORGINGS? box-end wrench widely used by virtually all mechanics. These
wrenches are often the favorite choice for tightening bolts because
Seasoned product designers have come to recognize the benefit
of designing critical parts from forgings because of forgings they provide the highest torque on the bolt or nut.
superior mechanical properties and durability compared to parts Box-end wrenches are always made from forgings. They are
made by other means. <When designing critical parts, be sure its often subjected to far more stress than normal hand torquing due to
forged is a slogan fostered by the Forging Industry Association hammering or adding a pipe to increase the torque on nuts or bolts.
(FIA) in its efforts to teach young engineers about the benefits of Cast-steel box-end wrenches of comparable size and weight would
designing parts for forgings. Yet forging is a manufacturing not survive such abuse due to the low impact strength and lower
process that gets very little attention among educational establish- shear strength of castings.
ments teaching about parts-making processes. This is an easy choice. There are also easy choices in the
selection of forgings for such safety-critical parts as aircraft
For applications involving high shear and/or tensile stresses, landing gear cylinders; carry-through beams for aircraft wing
forgings usually surpass the performance of castings, weldments, supports; steering parts for cars, trucks and busses; and such
powder-metal parts, or parts machined directly from plate or billet. safety-critical hardware as crane hooks, landing hooks, and
When the dominant stresses are compressive, these other manu- electrical pole line-support hardware.
facturing processes are often as practical and economical There are some hardware applications where forgings cost
as forging. more than castings and where the stresses are lower; in these
Specifically, a good example of where forgings surpass cast- applications castings can do the job as long as the shear stresses
ings is found among the familiar hand tools in everyday use the and impact stresses are not critical requirements.
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CHAPTER12
This section deals with the manufacturability of forgings of Impression die forgings range in size from a few ounces to over
all types. 2,000 lb (900 kg) and vary in length from a fraction of an inch to
over 26 (8 m) long depending on the forging equipment being
Forgings versus Other Processes used.
Just about any metallic structural shape than can be drawn up
in object form can becastfrom liquid metal inchrding ferrous and
nonferrous metals and alloys. Very small and very large parts are
castable within certain guidelines for aiding the flow of liquid Open Die Forgings
metal in the mold. This type of forging represents parts that are forged on dies
Thus, totheinexperienced engineer, casting could be the first which are either flat, round, or V-shaped to form a virtually
choice for many metallic hardware items because of the relative limitless range of part sizes from a few pounds to over 150 tons
ease of manufacturing castings. Casting is the most important (136,000 kg).
parts-making process competitive to forgings. Some of the latest automatic-programmable press controls are
Next in competition to forgings comes direct machining from being used for controlling the open-die forging sequences at many
bar, billet, or plate, where wrought material ismachined to final shops. This provides for greater accuracy hence less wasted
configuration on increasingly more efficient computer controlled metal on the open-die forgings. The advantages listed above apply
machining centers. Depending on the number of parts required, to open die forgings, except that they require much more machin-
this manufacturing process is more likely than castings to provide ing than impression die forgings.
safety-quality parts, with success approaching that of forgings.
However, thechip-forming processes often waste much material,
and such near-chipless forming processes as hot, warm, or cold
forging are more often pursued, especially ifquantities merit. Seamless Rolled Rings
Products made from weldments, sheet andplate, andcompos- Seamless rolled rings are ring-shaped forgings which usually
ites offer some limited competition, but these types of hardware arc forged by upsetting and piercing followed by ring rolling on a
parts-especially welded componentsare rarely a match for special mill designed for this purpose. The limits on face heights
properly forged parts. Sheet andplate forms areusuallycont%red (or lengths) are approaching 9 (2.7 m) for the larger diameter
to simple shapes. The rapid advances in composite technology seamless rings. Diameters of over 27 (8 m) can be rolled on the
represent more competition to stampings and sheet products than largest ring rolling machines.
to forged structural shapes.
TYPES OF FORGINGS
Forgings are classified according to the processes used. Considerations
Design guid~lines published by the Forging Industry Associa-
Impression Die Forgings tion are generally quite generic that is, they represent design
Parts from metal alloys forged in a wide variety of closed or principles that can be adopted by virtually all suppliers of custom
impression dies are installed in art equally wide variety of forging forgings. These guidelines include such design features as 5 to 7
equipment. The typical impression-die forging is produced by two of draft, large fillet radii, 1/8 to 1/4 (3.18 mm to 6.35 mm) of
opposed dies which come together, forming a flash where the overall finish allowances on parts, flashline locations for easy
excess metal escapes through the surrounding gap between the trimming, and the like. The designs range from parts having
dies. In the impression, sufficient pressure is exerted to force the extensive machining allowance to those having very close to finish
metal to fill the cavities in the die details. The flash is later allowances or near net shapes. Brief definitions of the various
removed by trimming. design classifications for impression die forgings follow.
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CHAPTER 12
FORGINGS
Blocker forgings are generally forged in a single closed die, TABLE 12-4
with a generous finish allowance suitable for moderate Preelection of Hot Forging Processes Based on Quantities
quantities of parts. A very rough rule of thumb is to allow,
for finishing, at least 0.200 (5.08 mm) of machining Higher ~ Processing Costs per Part + Lower
envelope for each foot of dimension on blocker forgings Lower - Tool Costs, Capital Costs + Higher
from steel. For aluminum, the allowance can be less; for
heat-resistant alloys the allowance might be 25% to 50% Quantities 1oo- Over
more. of Part: 1-1oo 1000 lK-IOOK lOOK
Finished forgings are generally forged to closer finishing Xxxx
Open Die Forgings
allowances for most industrial forging equipment. They are
suitable for production quantities; typical FIA handbook Blocker-type Design Xxxxx
dimensions and tolerances apply.
No-draft or near-net forgings are forged with some surfaces Conventional Finish
requiring little or no machining, similar to finish die designs Design Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
except they are held much closer to final configurations.
Close Finish Design xxx
Some surfaces are left as forged. FIA guidelines apply.
True-precision forgings are forged to net and near-net shapes Near-net Design
with many functi~nal surface; forged to tolerances su~fi-
ciently close that no further machining is required. Toler- Hot die
ance ranges close to * 0.0 10 ( * 0.25 mm) are typical for (Ti, Ni base) Xxxxxxxxx
precision forgings with a longest dimension of 12 (305 mm)
Isothermal
or less. For each additional 12 of length, additional toler-
ances are generally required for good manufacturability.
Ni base Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Precision forged gears of up to 5 (127 mm) diameter are Aluminum Parts
sometimes capable of tolerances close to 0.004 (O.10 mm)
on the tooth forms. These are often close enough to Precision Design
eliminate gear cutting altogether. Ilick Parts Xxxxxxxx
The general rule of thumb to follow in evaluating each of these Precision Design
progressively closer-to-finish design classifications is to consider Thin Parts Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
closer-to-finish if the parts are to be made over a period of several
Steel Parts
months or years and in significantly large quantities. In other
words, as part quantities increase, the forging company can add Precision Design
operations, controls, and more complex tooling to reduce the Thick Parts Xxxx
finishing allowances significantly. This is where the development
efforts are usually more intense and require longer lead times to Precision Design
assure good manufacturability. Large quantities of parts can Thin Parts Xxxxxxxxx
become a driver toward near-net shape forging, especially if
the forging company is made aware of such quantities early in the
negotiation phases of procurement.
The cost of material being removed by machining is also a Example C: Small crankshafts for high performance automo-
major factor in this design selection process. While there are not tive engines are to be produced in quantities of 100,000 per year.
firm rules regarding the best design for each part, there are many Selection would be a hot forging process with added operations to
generalizations which provide ample guidelines for the process achieve near net configuration. This could be the choice because
selections. there is a strong likelihood of forging close enough to the final
A very expensive, difficult-to-machine raw material might bearing sizes as to permit direct grinding onlyno turning on
draw attention to the most chipless forging process, and even a these details.
small quantity of parts might best be precision forged. But if the Example D: Bicycle pedal cranks are forged in differing sizes
material is inexpensive and readily machined, it may be that open and styles, thus hot forging on headers and hammers is an
die forging in small quantities is the best choice for the forg- acceptable process. However, if the deformations are not severe
ing process. and the steel is a mild lower carbon grade, then cold forging can
Tables 12-4 through 12-7 show some very basic guidelines offer some unique capabilities and tolerances. Most domestically
which may prove helpful in the initial decision-making processes forged one-piece pedal cranks are now cold forged instead of
of when closer-tolerance or precision forging should be consid- hot forging.
ered. A review of these guidelines should help in evaluating how
far to go in designing for forging manufacturability. Shape and Size Considerations in Design
Example A: Large crankshafts purchased at 10-15 ships per The shape and size of forgings have influences on design
year. In this case, the selection would be open die forging rather capabilities. For example, very long airframe-type stmcturals
than impression since the tooling would be otherwise prohibitive (over about 5.5 (1.7 m) long) are not forgeable on most large drop
to spread out over 10-15 parts. hammers or mechanical presses because the press beds (needed to
Example B: A medium crankshaft purchased in quantities of hold the tools) are not large enough. Exceptions to this are large
15,000 to 30,000 per year. Selection would be impression die counterblow hammers which can handle parts up to 7 (2.1 m)
forgings since the tooling costs can be spread out over a larger run. long on a long, narrow tool holder.
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TABLE 12-6
Material-related Effects in the Preseleetion of Precision Hot Forging Processes
Aluminum Alloys Moderate cost, readily hot forged; tool materials are able to withstand temperatures near the forging
temperatures for aluminum alloys. Precision forging processes reasonably well developed. Guidelines for
design are getting better. Precision forging sizes approaching 400 in. 2 (2,600 cmz) of plan view area.
Carbon and Alloy Steel Low to moderate cost, readily hot forged; some shapes are cold forgeable. The main cost contributors are
in processing and machining. Purchase quantities should exceed 200,000 lb (90,700 kg) of parts per year
to consider precision hot forging (unless families of similar parts are involved).
Stainless Steels Higher cost; most alloys are hot forgeable into simple shapes and low profile structural shapes, but the
high forging pressures required make precision forging restrictive to simpler shapes. The process of hot-
die forging is worthy of review for more complex shapes and more difficult-to-forge stainless steels.
Superalloys Some of the highest cost materials; most alloys are very strong at elevated temperatures, thus difficult to
forge in normal equipment and tooling. This is why isothermal forging in slow programmable presses is
often the best choice for larger quantities of parts. For quantities over 10,000 lb (4,535 kg) of parts, this
more tool-intensive process should be considered, or when material exceeds $15 per pound (1991). Also,
isothermal forging is the only method for forging some powder-metal alloys.
Titanium Alloys High cost material; alloys are difficult to forge into refined shape details with conventional equipment and
tooling. The use of high speed forging machinery is effective in forging many low profile shapes from
titanium alloys. Hot-die forging processes are effective in forging some titanium grades. Allowance for
machining clean-up is usual except for some airfoil shapes.
Copper Alloys Moderate to high cost, readily hot forged at modest forging temperatures. Precision forging processes are
similar to those for aluminum alloys
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Mandrel forged hollows. rapid forging presses and fast die-changing capability to permit
Forged circles or disks with long or short center shafts. forging with fewer, if any, reheating operations. The future of this
Figure 12-75 shows various shapes forged in open dies. segment of the forging industry continues to be very promising.
- \
1130 (Alloy steel) Type 321 (Stainless) In 100
Resulfurized steels 15-7 Mo (Stainless) Ren6 41 (Ni alloy)
Ren6 95
\
1-
Fig. 12-74 Interaction of workahitity, flow strength, and die-filling capacity in forging. Arrow denotes increasing ease of die filling. 10 (Forging
Handbook)
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I
Multi-diameter shafts /23a)
Stepped slabs
a
Mandrel-forged hollows
Fig. 12-75 Various shapes forged in open dies. (Forging Industry Association)
SEAMLESS ROLLED RINGS addition to the contours of the main rolls. These machines are not
Several firms offer seamless rolled rings which are forged on a as common as those for straight-sided rings but they do offer some
two-roll mill and range in size from a few inches in diameter to unique part shape capabilities. During the process, these ring
over 300 (7. 6 m). rolling machines continue to roll (expand) the ring until it reaches
The seamless ring rolling process involves rolling donut- the desired diameter. There is very little axial growth but the pinch
shaped blanks which are usually forged on either open-die forging rolls tend to maintain squareness and alignment of the rings
presses or in impression dies. In both cases, a relatively thick- (avoiding skewness). Figure 12-76 illustrates the evolution of ring
walledblank is rolled between what is called an idler or mandrel shapes for straight-sided, contoured ID; contoured ID and OD; and
roll (which goes through the center hole of the donut blank) and contoured ID, top, and bottom.
the main drive roll. Size ranges are described in the Capability Chart, for diameters
For small ring rolling mills, the drive roll and idler rolls are of over 300 (762 cm) and face heights approaching 10 feet
generally horizontal in orientation and the ring rolls vertically as it (3.05 m).
expands. Forlarger rings, themost common mills are horizontal in Ring forgings forged on smaller ring rolling machines may
orientation. have horizontal drive and mandrel rolls where the rings rotate
There are modifications of these mills varying in capabilities vertically as they are rolled. The principles of operation are the
for rolling strictly rectangular or straight-sided rings, or contoured same. However, it is much easier to automate these ring rolling
rings with contours only on the ID orOD, or both. machines than the larger types.
Finally, there are some recently developed ring mills which roll It is important for designers to know that the power of the
with what arecalled radial-axial rolls, where upper or lower rolls rolling mill determines how much deformation reaches the center
are used to impart contours on the top or bottom of the rings in of the wall during ring rolling. Excessively light reductions for
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i (c)
(a)
Ezz
(d)
(b)
Fig. 12-76 Evolution of ring shapes: (a) straight-sided, (b) contoured ID only, (c) contoured ID and OD, and (d) contoured ID, top, and bottom.
(Forging Industry Association).
each ring-rolling pass can create internal defects known as metal ing provided that the tempering temperature is sufficiently high.
separations. These occur when the compressive deformation is These practices assure that the final roundness is maintained.
confined to the surfaces and not reaching the wall centers. Value-added operations. Other auxiliary equipment often
Essentially, the centers are stretched in tension and can lead to includes large boring machines, lathes, and other prefinishing
internal fractures if the metal being rolled is not fully densified equipment to partially or completely finish the rings. Some ring
prior to the ring rolling operations. rolling shops have extensive heat treating facilities for hardening
The FIA Capability Chart provides capabilities for each of the and tempering as well as for solution treatment and aging cycles
member companies having ring forging and/or ring rolling capac- for superalloy.
ities. This is worth reviewing for those interested in seamless rings
and/or cylinders. SPECIAL PROCESSES FOR
NEAR NET SHAPE FORGING
Supplementary Equipment in Five recently developed methods of forging very close to
Ring Forging Shops finished contoursor near-net shapes-are in current use:
Typical forgers of seamless rolled rings have open-die forging . Close to finish hot forging in high-speed parts forrners.
presses or hammers for preparing donuts, and they may have a . Hot forging to near net shapes in forging presses.
variety of other equipment aimed at supplying finished or semi-
. Hot forging to near net shape in controlled impact hammers.
finished products. Examples of additional equipment are des-
. Hot die and isothermal forging of near net shapes in
cribed below.
hydraulic presses.
Expanding mandrels. Firms which roll rings to minimum
. Cold and warm forging to near net shape.
machine clean-up will usually have sizing tools or expanding
mandrels. These begin with a ring which is first rolled undersized, These processes are described briefly in Table 12-8.
followed by an expansion of a few percent to gain not only size
control but roundness as well, Close to Finish Hot Forging
The sizing machines are generally equipped with removable in High-speed Formers
segments to permit adjustment to various ring sizes. This practice Some of the earliest high-production machines in this category
will generally assure good size control and roundness. For heat were developed in Basel, Switzerland, at Hadebur Co. These
treatable alloys, it is not uncommon to roll the rings to the slightly machines are capable of forging at production rates of well over 80
smaller size, cool to transform the steel, and then heat the rings to parts per minute (sometimes approaching 160 parts per minute).
the normalizing temperature followed by the sizing operation. Because these machines are so specialized and expensive to
Even more accurate size control comes from sizing after temper- install, there is only a small number of them available.
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TABLE 12-8
Close ToleranceJNear-net Shape Forging Processes Compared for Possible Selection
The part design often has virtually no draft and very little finish The custom-built high-speed presses are built around a hori-
allowance. The machines apply mostly to the automotive quanti- zontal stroke (much like headers) with built-in features for rapid
ties of parts from carbon and low-alloy steels for gear blanks, heating, cutoff, transfer, multistation forging, and finally a trim-
steering joints, shafted flanges, and other generally axisym- ming operation. There are many features which make them
metric shapes. attractive production systems:
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Special kick-outs located in the press ram and base will allow
designs with no draft in many of these presses.
m An important success factor for precision in press forging is the
ram speed at the bottom of the pressing stroke. For example,
consider the crank-type presses. where the ram speed decreases
exponentially and is zero at the bottom of the stroke just before
reversing, causing a dwell at the bottom of the stroke.
This dwell time at the bottom of the stroke can result in
significant heat transfer from the workpiece to the dies which can
influence the part repeatability and tool life.
As illustrated in Figure 12-78, the crank-type mechanical press
reaches its peak slide velocity at a midpoint between the top and
bottom of the working stroke and then begins to slow. By contrast,
the screw press begins slowly but accelerates continuously until it
reaches the part and then decelerates, reaching zero when the
dies contact each other.
For shallow, thin, rapidly-cooling configurations, the screw-
type mechanical presses have some significant advantages in this
regard because of the higher impact speed at the bottom of the
stroke. However, screw presses are not as tolerant of off-center
loading as crank or offset-type presses; and the thickness accuracy
of screw presses is dependent on the tools kksing out rather
than at the end of a crank stroke. This is when the crank or offset
Fig. 12-77 Basic shapes forged to near net in parts formers. (Forging press can actually stretch elastically under load and cause dimen-
Industry Association) sional variations in thickness if the load varies from part to part.
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Slide
Vb
Pig. 12-78 Representation ot slide velocities for mechanical and screw presses in forging a thick or thin part. (Forging Industry Association)
This means a larger die set is needed for the screw presses of Improved blow energy controls on the hammers allow for
comparable capacity capable of withstanding the high impact energy metering, which &-rnits forging to very close thickness
loads at the bottom of the stroke. They are energy-bound; in this tolerances. Furthermore, the hammer has the advantage of ex-
respect, the machines are not unlike drop hammers. tremel y low die contact time, which prevents excessive heat
It should be noted that crank-type mechanical presses are often buildup in the tooling.
the preferred choice for high-volume conventional forging de- In this sense, the impact hammer, whether vertical or horizon-
signs, too not only for the precision forgings. This is because tal, can be viewed as an impact press. To be successful with this
they are more readily automated than hammers or screw presses. forging technology requires detailed attention to equipment guid-
Even if purchased new, the capital expense related to mechan- ance and repeatability of stroke energy. Modem hammers meet
ical or screw presses is much less than for parts forrners, and many this requirement. It is for this reason that the designer should look
custom forgers have a number of such forging machines already upon forging hammers as being capable of forging to close
installed and in place. Thus, startup costs for press forgings are tolerances, too.
usually much less than for parts forrners (at comparable part sizes). While part shapes suitable for precision forging with hammers
Crankshafts, connecting rods, track links, compressor blades, are more limited, the part quantities needed to get started in
and turbine blades are among the parts typically forged on precision forging are much lower than for presses. Figure 12-80
mechanical presses. Figure 12-79 shows some examples of parts illustrates some typical parts forged to net or near-net shapes in
forged to neat-net shape in mechanical presses. hammers. Some companies are taking advantage of very accurate
Regardless of the equipment used, expensive materials such as tolerances on relatively low volumes of parts.
titanium and nickel-base alloys or stainless steels can show much Because of the rapid strain rates associated with hammer
quicker returns through material savings, for the near-net shape forging, it is not suitable for forging some high alloy aluminum
capability. alloys (7075/7079/7050) or magnesium alloys.
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~:
u.-..; (a)
(b)
Fig. 12-80 Typical parts forged to near net or net in hammer% (a) end
wrenches, (b) crankshafts for smafl compressors, (c) hooks for cranes
and other lifting devices, and (d) hammer heads. (Forging Induw-y
Association)
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. Induction-heated dies with special temperature controls. The steel grades used for cold forging generally range from the
. Dies from Mo-TZM or Mo-TZC alloy (molybdenum based). lowest carbon grades (such as 1010 steel) to medium carbon
. Cooling chambers with atmosphere controls and suitable grades (such as 1541) and some lower alloy steels like 4130,4140,
interlocking arrangements. and 4037. Successful cold forging of bronzes, aluminum alloys,
. Special facilities for coating preforms and lubricants. and stainless steels is readily accomplished with the proper control
. Die-making facilities for preparing dies and tools from of the prior thermal conditions and proper attention to the work
refractory materials. hardening levels for each of these grades.
. Atmosphere or vacuum facilities for the chambers using Part shapes are more limited for the harder alloys because of
inert gas (argon, nitrogen, or mixtures). restrictions in reductions and bends. Cold forging is perhaps the
most wide] y used chipless forming process no machining, other
Forging die temperatures are often in the range of 1,850 F
than drilling, is needed in many cases.
(1 ,010 C) or higher, where refractory metal die materials oxidize
The process involves many different types of equipment for:
very rapidly. It is for this reason that inert gases are needed in the
forging area of the presses. Impact extrusion.
This process was developed several years ago by Pratt and Heading.
Whitney Aircraft in their research facility in Florida under gov- Bending.
ernment contracts. The name they gave the process was Forward and/or backward extrusion.
Gatorizing. There are about 14 true isothermal forging press Coining (flattening).
facilities around the world, with 10 in North America. Punching.
Processing of the more widely used vacuum melted alloys for Thread rolling.
commercial jet engines is done with comparative ease in either the Spline rolling.
hot die or the isothermal forging processes. Such alloys are Knurling.
Waspaloy, Astroloy, and Into 718.
Some of the earliest cold forgings were in the fastener industry
The materials most often forged by isothermal forging are the
(bolts, nails, screws, U-bolts, U-clips, and the like). Over the last
powder-based grades like IN1OO, Rent 95, and Merl 76 alloys
20 years or so, the cold forging industry has extended to a much
used in the most advanced turbine engines. These alloys are
wider variety of part shapes and sizes. Many of the new cold-
initially consolidated from high purity pre-alloyed powders,
forged products were converted from stampings, screw-machine
compacted, sintered, and hot isostatically processed (HIP) be-
products, and even hot forgings.
fore forging.
There are no simple ways to chose the most economical method
This may be the only way these super-superalloys can be
for manufacturing a part. Often, the designer chooses the most
manufactured for large forgings, because the alloys are rich in
expedient route rather than going through an objective analysis of
additions that tend to segregate out on solidification in normal
manufacturing systems available. Furthermore, there is a more
vacuum-arc remelted ingots. The powder metallurgy route pro-
abundant supply of textbooks, references, and handbooks avail-
vides for finer distribution of the metallurgical phases and helps to
able for castings, stampings, and hot forgings than for cold
assure the finest grain sizes in the finished parts.
forgings. Thus, the choice between the processes is often based on
For powder based grades like IN 100, Ren& 95, and Merl 76,
what information is available to the designer who simply may
the control of very slow deformation rates and metal temperatures
not have enough information about cold forging to consider it as a
is vital for controlling grain size and final substructures for
viable option.
maximum creep resistance and toughness in the final parts. During
isothermal forging, deformation takes place at such low strain
rates that pressing cycles of over 15 minutes are not uncommon for
When Should Cold Forging Be Considered?
a single part. Production rates of two to three parts per hour is
There are many basic shapes which lend themselves to cold
considered normal. This practice assures the lowest possible die forging. For example, long shaft-like parts or strut shapes are
stresses as well as microstructural control.
excellent candidates for cold forging. Parts with features in the
While this brief review only scratches the surface of the
center can be headed on progressive headers and then formed in
technology associated with hot-die and true isothermal forging, it
progressive dies to take the shape of some unusual parts.
should illustrate that the forging industry has gained much capa-
A variety of headed, bent, and coined configurations can be
bility beyond what it had a few years ago.
cold forged. Virtually all cup and double-ended cup configura-
What this all means to the designer is that isothermal forging
tions can be cold extruded from the lower carbon grades of steel.
offers shape capability and part properties that are simply not
producible by more conventional forging practices.
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FORGINGS
Triangles the machining steps eliminated are dramatic. This is why automo-
Polygons tive, truck, and ordnance applications of cold forgings are so
Splines and gear forms successful.
Hollows Forward Extrusion It should be added that the high break-even quantity holds
Rounds and polygons reasonably well for carbon and low alloy steels, but for more
Splines expensive materials (stainless steels) (he quantities may be some-
what lower.
Combinations of Forward and Backward Extrusion
Bar sizes suitable for cold forging of long, slender parts are
Shaft gearssolid heads
about 1.5 (38 mm) diameter, or about the upper limits for
Shaft gearscup heads
hot-rolled bar in coil form.
Splined shafts
There are simply no known large parts purchased in sufficiently
Threaded shafts
large quantities to make cold forging an attractive option. Larger
Headed Shapes parts are generally purchased in smaller quantities, and the
T-, L-heads trade-off of shape capability of hot forging is also a factor.
Ball heads While tbcrc arc practical limits on the sizes where the quantities
Square heads justify the added tooling, it is important to recognize that the state
Socket heads of the art of cold forging and extrusion is far enough along to
Nonsymmetrical Shapes permit the manufacture of larger parts than those shown in Table
Rod/bar shapes with and without heads 12-11, should the need arise.
U-, W-, Z-bends; J-, S-bends
Multiple pass forming (4-slide formed parts) Tolerances in Cold Forging
Part tolerances represent another factor in the choice of cold
forging. Parts can be cold formed to very close tolerances,
headers because the higher tool forces tend to break the grip dies; especially in areas of diameter control and in control of heights
and there are some practical limits for upsetting nonsymmetric between cold-forged features (such as struts and relay rods). Table
heads in solid-die headers. 12-12 provides a brief summary of tolerances which are consid-
Earlier literature on cold forging and cold extrusion dealt ered normal for cold forgings.
extensively with parts of axial symmetry with many combinations There are times when even closer tolerances are needed. In
of diameters and flanges. Much of the literature among universi- such cases, the normal practice is either to use carbide inserts in
ties in the late 1950s and 1960s began describing the effects of the areas requiring precise dimensional controls; or to replace
reductions and composition on punch pressures and formability. selected tooling details more frequent] y than normal to approach
This data was put to good use in the development of larger and the needed tolerance improvements.
larger impact extrusions. The important point is that the tolerances are usually adequate
The successful forward and backward extrusion of constant to eliminate the need for further machining steps, other than
velocity joints for front wheel drive cars is an excellent example of simple drilling, tapping, and/or punching.
how far the cold extrusion industry has progressed. Another point is that the equipment used by the various
Very little has been written about long, slender parts, except suppliers of cold forgings is not always the same type; the
those prepared and formed on multislide machines and for small tolerances achievable by one supplier may be very difficult for
diameter rod and wire. Several companies have become proficient the next.
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TABLE 12-10
Typical Shapes Forged on A High Volume Basis
Cup-like parts These are generally impact extruded and nearly symmetrical hollow parts having a web ononeend or at the
base. Examples ofcombined parts are the constant velocity joint/shafts, bearing sleeves, and starter clutch
shafts with inner race/toggle assemblies.
Tube-like parts Many of these are combinations of impact extrusion followed by drawing and reforming to achieve several
stepson the parts, such as ball joint housings, They are generally short, being less than 6 (152 mm)in
length (except for ordnance applications such as shell drawing).
Shafts, struts Rounds, with multiple steps and with threads rolled onand/or splines either rolled onor extruded directly.
Such shafts can have bends and flattened sections-for example, upper control arm shafts, Struts are headed
and threaded on one end and flattened on the other, followed by punching to form the attachment features.
Pins, fasteners U-bolts, headed bolts, single- anddouble-ended rods with threads ononeor both ends.
Various bent rod Long slender parts features, having oneormore bends between the attachment points. Abicycle pedal crank
is a good example of a cold forged shape which took the place of a hot forging. Transmission control rods
are also good examples. Centerlines and relay rods for passenger cars and trucks are other examples of some
of the products which are cold forged from bar steel of up to 1-1/8 (28.58 mm) diameter. Upper control
arms for some of the most recent trucks represent another example of larger cold forgings being used in criti-
cal applications. Part weights of nearly 10 lb (4.5 kg) are producible by cold forging.
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CASTING
of cold forging are limited more by the preconceived guidelines for brasses. There are more limits on reductions for the higher carbon
parts-making methods than by true process restrictions. The wide and alloy steels.
variety of part shapes discussed in these sections should indi-
cate that this process requires consideration by designers of high SUMMARY
volume parts. True design for manufacturability takes a team effort between
The design engineer has a tough job when faced with decisions the product designer, the forging designer, and their corresponding
concerning how best to make a part for a specific application. metallurgical staffs. The background provided here helps to
Much depends on the engineers personal experience with part- explain how design options vary widely depending on so many
making methods. An engineer experienced in castings will often variables. It becomes apparent that there is no absolute right
turn to castings where shape capability is almost unlimited. way to design forgings.
Similarly, the same is true for engineers experienced in the use and The customers usually want a product that is reliable, repeat-
design of parts machined from bar stock, powder metal parts, able, and has ideal properties in all directions due to the nature of
starnpings, weldments, hot forgings, or cold forgings. forging and its inherent grainflow-the perfect part. To this end,
Part configurations are about as varied as the imagination will the forging processes described here are making excellent progress
allow. However, there are increasing restrictions as the material in this direction.
becomes progressively stronger. For example, the largest extm- In spite of the fact that true net shape forging of all materials is
sion reductions, the greatest thickness reductions, and the tightest not yet possible, the fact still remains that if life and limb depend
bends are achievable from the lowest carbon steels and the soft on it, it is usually a forging.
CASTING
In developing a conceptual framework required to arrive at a from other alloys. There are, however, casting design principles
truly cost-effective casting design, both the design and foundry that can readily compensate for these differences.
engineer must overcome two traditional barriers. The first: both Much of the confusion for casting designers has been a result of
groups normally consider two separate and distinct sets of criteria the proliferation of rules of thumb for casting design. They are
or standards. The second involves the age-old problem of effective found in handbooks and machine design textbooks, The trouble is,
communication. that many rules of thumb are often conflicting.
The areas of criteria and standards are usually the start of a In some cases, foundry engineers do recommend and explain
problem. Looking at the same design, the foundry man and design guidelines and principles to their customers. However, this
designer see radically different things. The design engineer typi- information is, in most cases, applicable only to the alloys and
cally considers functional mechanical elements, loads, functional casting processes used in a particular foundry. The problem
environment, failure modes, mechanical and physical properties, usually starts when the designer fails to ask about critical differ-
fabricated-type shapes, automated secondary operations, and ences in casting new and different alloys, or when the metal caster
cosmetics. fails to alert the designer about these differences or is not specific
The foundry, pattern, and die engineer, on the other hand, sees about an alloys castability.
fluid flow, heat transfer and solidification patterns, infinite vari-
ability in shape, hot spots, cold spots, shrinkage, parting lines, and
cores. He or she also sees patterns or dies that are critical to CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
dimensional accuracy and consistency, machined and fixturing Develo~ing
.- a conceptual framework for cost-effective casting
surfaces, specific alloy and heat treatment, cosmetics and, in the design is not difficult and involves the following six-step process:
case of design castability oversights, thermal trickery (use of
1. Understand that four important physical characteristics
chills, insulating, or exotherrnic materials to set up proper solid-
affect the castability and performance of any given casting
ification patterns in the casting).
alloy. These are:
Comparing the design viewpoints of these two engineering
groups, it becomes obvious that there is a need for an encompass- . Fluid life.
ing framework. This need becomes more pertinent considering . Solidification shrinkage.
that most casting users generally use a variety of alloys that are . Slag/dross formation.
often cast by a variety of methods, from sand to diecasting. . Temperature.
It would be typical for the user to have excellent, cost-effective
These vary widely among alloys and can be significantly
results from the alloys with which he or she has had experience.
different between two seemingly similar alloys. Proper
But for reasons of mechanical or physical properties, for example,
design and planning can overcome the variances often
a different alloy is added to the group. For reasons not understood
encountered in working with several different alloys.
by the user and not explained well by the foundry, castings made
2. Recognize that these four physical properties affect impor-
from that alloy have been disappointing. Typically, the difficult
tant variables in designing, producing, and using metal
casting performs well, but there are man y rejections in machining
castings, including:
or assembly. Therefore, the casting is not as cost-effective as it
could be. . Casting method.
In these cases, the different alloy often has foundry-related Design of casting sections.
physical characteristics that make it pour and solidify differently Design of junctions in casting sections.
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CASTING
. Internal integrity. Iiquidus). However, fluid life does not necessarily increase equally
Near net shape. with temperature.
Cosmetic appearance. For example, some aluminum alloys at 1,200F to 1,400F
3. Understand that casting geometry is the most powerful tool (648.8C to 760C) have excellent fluid life. However, some
available to improve molten steels at 3,00WF (1 ,650 C) have much less fluid life. In
other words, fluid life of a molten metal alloy is more dependent
. Mechanical stiffness of the casting.
on chemical and metallurgical factors than temperature.
. Castability of the alloy.
Fluid life will affect the design characteristics of a casting. By
Carefully planned geome~ can offset alloy problems understanding the nature of an alloys fluidity, the designer will
in modulus of elasticity, fluid life, solidification recognize several important design criteria. Some of these are the
shrinkage, etc. minimum section thickness that can be attained with a certain
4. In developing a sound conceptual framework for casting alloy; the maximum length of a thin section; and the fineness of
design work, it also is important to avoid reliance on cosmetic detail that is possible.
traditional concepts and tools, such as: It is essential to understand that moderate or poor fluid life does
not limit the cost-effectiveness of design. Knowing that an alloy
. Rules of thumb.
has limited fluid life tells the designer that the part should feature
. General Dos and Donts typical of design hand-
softer shapes, larger lettering, finer detail in the bottom portion of
books.
the mold (the drag), coarser detail in the upper portions of the
. T-squares and triangles.
. CAD softwwe that cannot draw a taper or variable mold (the cope), more taper leading to thin sections, etc.
Some casting processes feature molds that are very dry or hot.
radius.
These processes minimize the effects of poor fluid life. Even in
. Standard mill shapes like plates, bars, cylinders, tubes,
green sand casting processes, design consideration for an alloys
extrusions of constant cross section, etc. These limit
poor fluid life can produce excellent results.
metalcastings infinite shape variability.
5. Just as important as avoiding these traditional tendencies in
design engineering is to know and understmd the nature of
molten metal and use it to advantage. Embrace the idea of
infinitely variable shape. Use free-hand sketches for all Solidification Shrinkage
conceptual designing. Move mass around. Take it out There are three distinct stages of shrhkage as molten metal
where it is not needed; put it in where its necessary. Use alloys solidify: liquid shrinkage, liquid-to-solid shrinkage, and
variability of section modulus over length. If you cannot solid shrinkage.
draw a straight line, you have an advantage. Liquid shrinkage is the contraction of the liquid before solidi-
6. Develop system-wide approaches to design thinking. Such fication begins. While this is important to the foundryman, it is not
an approach encompasses everything, from the original an important design consideration.
need for a mechanical or structural element and molten
Liquid-to-solid shrinkage is the shrinkage of the metal as it
metal flowing into a shape, to the rough casting right out of goes from the liquids disconnected atoms and molecules to the
a mold or die. Casting finishing requirements, secondmy formation of crystals of atoms and chemical compounds, the
processing in the plant, assembly, testing, and final use building blocks of solid metal. The amount of solidification
and abuse are also part of the system-wide approach. shrinkage varies a great deal from alloy to alloy. Table 12-14
The only way to resolve conflicting requirements without a provides a general guide to the shrinkage of the most common
Rube Goldberg result is to conceive the system needs at the ferrous and nonferrous alloys. As shown, shrinkage can vary from
outset. When applied, this type of thinking results in truly very little to high shrinkage rates. Alloys can be further classified
cost-effective, simple, elegant design. into three groups based on their freezing range: narrow, medium,
and wide freezing range.
Liquid-to-solid shrinkage is an extremely important consider-
ALLOY CHARACTERISTICS AND DESIGN ation for the designer. In some alloys, disregard for this type of
As mentioned earlier, four important alloy characteristics can shrinkage results in voids in castings. Both the design and foundry
significantly affect the castability and performance of any alloy. engineer have tools to combat this problem, but the designer has
Recognizing the impact of each of these at the outset will help the the most cost-effective tool. These are the three concepts for
design engineer avoid many of the pitfalls that can be created by designing sections and junctions, depending on the alloy type. The
assuming that one alloy can be treated like any other. A further foundry engineer, on the other hand, has the principles of risering,
discussion of each of these characteristics follows. gating, and thermal trickery, but these are more costly approaches.
Failure to recognize the impact of solidification shrinkage is
one of the worst errors that design handbooks make.
Fluid Life Solid shrinkage (often called patternmakers shrink) occurs
A molten metals fluid life is more than its ability to fill the after the metal has solidified in the mold. This shtinkage changes
mold cavity. It also determines how easily and how long the metal the dimensions of the casting from those of the mold to those
flows through narrow channels to form thin sections, and how dictated by the rate of solid shrinkage.
readily it conforms to fine surface detail. Table 12-14 compares In other words, as the solid casting shrinks away from the mold
various alloys and fluid life. walls, it assumes final dimensions that must be predicted, usually
The temperature of the molten metal is not the only factor that by the patternmaker or the diemaker. This variability of patter-
affects the metals fluid life. For a given alloy, fluid life does nmakers shrink is a very important design consideration. Some
increase with supertemperature (excess temperature above the dimensions are harder to predict than others, depending on parting
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 12
CASTING
TABLE 12-14
A Qualitative Guide to Solidification Shrinkage, Fluid Life, Slag/Dross Formation
and Pouring Temperature for Several Common Foundry Alloys
Ferrous:
Gray Iron Eutectic-type Very little Excellent Little Very warm
Ductile Iron Eutectic-type Little* -Moderate Good Little-Moderate Very warm
Carbon and Low Directional Large Poor Moderate Hot
Alloy Steel
High Alloy Steel Directional Moderate Fair Moderate Hot
*Solidification shrinkage type is based on how the alloy solidifies metallurgically. Definition of three types for casting design
geometry is helpful:
Eutectic-type Being in fact eutectic alloys or behaving like them, these alloys remain liquid in the mold for a brief period,
cooling; then they solidify very quickly all over. This phenomenon minimizes internal shrinkage and the need
for risers.
Directional These alloys begin solidifying quickly, perpendicular to mold walls. Solidification direction and pathways
are predictable from casting geometry and thermal patterns in the mold walls. Without proper pathway
geometry, isolated internal shrinkage can result.
Equiaxed These alloys not only begin solidifying perpendicular to mold walls but also begin to solidify in the midst of
the liquid, forming equiaxed islands of solid. Solidification pathways are interrupted by the equiaxed islands,
making these alloys difficult to feed.
lines, cores, dimension length, mold restrictions, etc. Even in Slag/Dross Formation
casting processes like investment casting, which has no parting According to the dictionary, slag and dross are synonyms
line, there are assemblies of wax sub-patterns and ceramic cores meaning the refuse from melting of metal s. No one wants
that can add uncertainty to the solid shrinkage behavior. refuse in castings. Among foundry men, slag and dross have
This is why foundrymen normally recommend producing afirst slightly different meanings.
article (sometimes called sample casting) to establish what the Slag is usually associated with the high melting point metals
final dimensions really are before going into production. and is composed of liquid nonmetallic compounds (usually fluxed
The behavior of patternmakers shrink is especially important refractories), products of alloying, and products of oxidation.
to secondary operations like fixturing, machining, and assembly. Dross, on the other hand, is usually associated with lower melting
Today, achieving just like the blueprint, means that the point metals, generally nonferrous; it often means the nonmetallic
patternmaker and diemaker need to be included in system-wide compounds produced by the molten metal reacting with air.
approaches. Even then, adjustments will probably be necessary Some molten metal alloys are much more sensitive to slag/
on the pattern or die equipment to achieve the proper dross formation than others. Castings made from these alloys are
final dimensions. much more prone to contain nonmetallic inclusions. There are
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CHAPTER12
CASTING
casting processes, quality control techniques, and design consid- This model should have no quantitative values assigned to it. It
erations that can dramatically reduce this problem. should be a qualitative concept of the casting design sensitivity
using the four alloy characteristics previously discussed.
It is no secret that some alloys are very forgiving. Good results
Temperature can bc obtained with very little system-wide design thinking.
Metal castings are poured into molds that must withstand the
However, because some applications call for a variety of difficult
extremely high temperature of liquid metal. As a point of fact,
properties like resistance to high stress, high pressure, corrosion,
there really arenotmany choices ofrefiactories todo the job. As
or highflow temperature requirements, alloys that are not quite so
a result, increasing molten metal temperatures is very important
forgiving must be utilized.
in how the casting is designed as well as what process should
The first step for the designer is to consider each alloys
be used.
characteristics as a continuum which would graphically demon-
For practical purposes, sand and ceramic materials with their
strate each alloys characteristics on a favorable/unfavorable basis.
refractory limits of 3,000F to 3,300F (1,650C to 1,820C) are
Graphically depicted, this continuum model may be illustrated as
the most common mold materials used today.
shown in Fig. 12-81.
Metal molds, such as used in diecasting and permanent
By developing such a model, the design engineer can easily see
molding, also have temperature limitations. Asthe temperature of
the relative position of a particular alloy when considering each of
the molten metal alloy increases, design consideration must be
the four characteristics that have been deemed essential for proper
given to heat transfer problems and thermal abuse of the mold
casting design and ultimate application. Such a model can help the
itself.
designer make a relative judgment about how carefully the
Of the alloys shown in Table 12-15, only titanium alloys are
system-wide approach needs to be applied. For example, referring
routinely poured in graphite molds. So, it is easy to see the abuse
to Fig. 12-81:
that sand and ceramic molds are subjected to as pouring temper-
Alloy 1: Excellent fluid life for fine detail and thin Sf3CtiOIW
ature approaches the refractory limit. The same holds true for
lower temperature molten metal alloys that approach the refractory moderate to high temperature means care should be taken to
limit of plaster or metal molds. avoid narrow, sharp pockets. Little care is required in
Again, there are design considerations that will compensate for transitions from heavy to thick sections or at heavy junctions
thermal abuse and hot-spot problems in the mold. These are because of low solidification shrhrk. This alloy is forgiving
covered in more detail later in this section. and offers large design geometry latitude.
Alloy 2: Excellent properties except for fairly high sensitiv-
ity to slagkh-oss. Very fine detail and thin sections possible
DEVELOPING A MODEL all over. No significant gating or risering contact areas on
While it is important to evaluate each of the four physical the casting surface are likely. Excellent candidate for preci-
characteristics of metal alloys and their individual impact on sion casting because of low temperature.
design, it is also essential totakea look at all four together. . Alloy 3: Unfavorable in all properties except for slagkiross;
If a model can bedeviled of these four characteristics as they even that is moderate to high. Critical to apply system-wide
work together, the development of afiamework o~casfabili~cm thinking on this one; cost-effectiveness will be excellent if
be approached. Before going any further, it is important to clarify conceived properly. Because of poor fluid life and high
this concept so to avoid creating another misleading castability temperature, do not attempt to use fine detail and thin
index value that could be just as bad, orworse than the conflicting sections unless the casting is small and the need for detail
rules of thumb discussed earlier. justifies that it be investment cast.
Because of the large amount of solidification shrinkage in
TABLE 12-15 this alloy, for sand casting use soft shapes, tapered transi-
Metal Alloys and Their Approximate Pouring Temperatures tions from heavy to thinner sections. Plan on risers being
located on heavy sections and heavy junctions. These risers
Alloy F c will be removed and riser contacts will require heavy
grinding, so the flatter the surface, the better.
Solder approx. 450 approx. 230
Locate the finest detail or the most critical machined surfaces in
Tin approx. 600 approx. 315
the drag. Use coarser detail in the cope where lack of fluid life will
Lead approx. 650 approx. 345
not permit a lot of detail.
Zinc alloys 650850 345 455
Aluminum alloys 1,1501,350 620735 SOLIDIFICATION SHRINKAGE
Magnesium alloys 1,1501,350 620735 Considering only the solidification shrinkage characteristic of
Copper-base alloys 1,6502,150 900-1,180 three different alloys, for example, note in Fig. 12-82 the
Cast irons; gray, 2,4502,700 1,340 1,480 sbrhkage behavior of three alloys with different freezing ranges in
ductile, malleable the same simple gear blank casting.
High manganese steel 2,5502,650 l,400 ,455 There are specific design techniques that can effectively control
Monel (70~o Ni, 30% Cu) 2,5002,800 l,370 ,540 these three internal shrinkage problems. To apply these design
Nickel-base superalloy 2,6002,800 l,430 ,540 techniques, it is important to understand how the three different
High alloy steels 2,7002,900 1,480 ,600 kids of shrinkage actually occur during solidification.
High alloy irons 2,8003,000 l,540 ,650 The type of solidification shrinkage in a casting is just as
Carbon and low alloy steels 2,8503,100 1,565 ,700 important as the amount of shrinkage. Basically there are three
Titanium alloys 3,1003,300 1,700 1,820 types of solidification shrinkage. Summarized in Figs. 12-83,
Zirconium alloys 3,3503,450 1,8451,900 12-84, and 12-85 are the three types of shrinkage in a plate
casting. Note, for example, that although the narrow freezing
12-77
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER12
12 3
Fluid life n
Fovorable Unfovorabls
1 2 3
SOIidificoticm
shrink:
Fuvombfe Urrfavomlde
1 3 2
slog/dra= n n n A
u
Fovombfe Unfavombfe
2 1 3
Tsmpsrolurw n
FuvambJe Unfcwomble
Me: fie + refers ~ a porticulor alby% For exanpk Alloy 1- groy imn
psbion on eoch continuum. &msroffy, .Ibys do Alloy 2-356 aluminum
not q-par in ths some rsfotiw position on dl 4 Alby 3- carbon steal
property continua.
range alloys require extensive risenng and tapering, they do have solidification shrinkage volume to cause shrinkage voids in cast-
the capability for excellent internal soundness when solidification ings. The key difference is in how the solidification takes place.
patterns are designed properly. This calls for a significant difference in design strategy.
The vertical mass to the left of the plate casting in each case is First, directionally solidifying alloys solidify in two ways,
a riser-the foundry term for a reservoir of molten metal alloy. depending on the geometry of the casting, but not necessarily the
The need for risers on castings depends completely on the metallurgy of the casting. First is progressive solidification from
solidification shrinkage characteristics of the molten metal. Some the mold walls inward. Second is directional solidification from
alloys require no risers, some require very few or small risers, and the end of the casting section toward the source of liquid feed
some require several large risers attached to the casting. The metal (a riser or an adjacent heavier section).
number of risers on a casting depends entirely on the amount and If progressive solidification closes the feed path for directional
type of solidification shrinkage that the alloy exhibits. solidification, gross shrinkage will occur in the casting from lack
The number and size of risers required on a casting is a very of feed metal. However, if directional solidification successfully
important design consideration. Both the designer and the tooling passes by the progressive front, then the casting will be inter-
engineer must be aware of the surfaces where risers, when nall y sound.
required, will have to be attached. The removal of risers and the The metallurgical quality and mechanical properties of direc-
subsequent grinding of their contact areas has an effect on casting tional solidification are outstanding, but it must be designed into
dimensions. Surfaces that have had risers on them should not be the casting. In Fig. 12-83, the taper added to the plate is the key.
used for tooling targets because they have been hand-ground and Note also that the size of the riser for this directionally solidifying
are not as consistent as as-cast surfaces. The eutectic alloy is the alloy is much bigger than the riser for either eutectic-type or
most forgiving case of the three shown. Some alloys, that have equiaxed solidifying alloys. The reasons for this are that the riser
very little solidification shrinkage volume, require no risering at itself and the riser contact are trying to freeze off progressively,
all. In Fig. 12-85, the riser is quite small compared to those in the too. They have to be considerably bigger to stay liquid long
other two figures. enough to do the job of feeding the castings shrinkage.
This is important to the designer because very little of the The unique difficulty of equiaxed solidifying alloys is that it is
casting surface will bc affected by grinding riser contacts. This not always possible to feed the solidification shrinkage sufficiently
gives these alloys an advantage in cosmetics and dimensional to totally eliminate shrinkage in the casting. Solidification not only
consistency. occurs progressively and directionally from mold walls, but also
The key feature to be observed in eutectic-type solidifying irrespective of mold walls, called equiaxed solidification. In other
alloys is that the avenue of liquid feed metal through the center of words, grains of solidification begin to form in the middle of a
the plate stays open and functioning all the way to final solidifi- section without the help of a mold-wall thermal gradient.
cation. Figure 12-85 shows this effect well. No matter how large the
Many alloys demand equal levels of system-wide design riser or how many of them are put on some castings, the feed metal
thinking, but for different reasons. Some alloys can have sufficient avenues will be shut off by the irrespective solidification.
12-78
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER12
CASTING
P (a)
(b)
shrinkage shrinkage
(a)
(c)
(b) . ..-
F]g. 12-83* Illustrated here are the two types of Srdidilication and
shrinkage that can occur in a directionally solidifying alloy (approxi-
mately 25 to 75F, -4 to 24 C). (a) Both progressive (P) and
directional (D) sotitilcation are taking place. (b) Centerline and gross
shrinkage has occurred. (c) Proper directional sotidMication has taken
place, forcing shrinkage from the plate casting to the riser.
JUNCTION DESIGNS
Junctions are the intersection of two or more casting sections.
Fig. 12-82(a,h,cM Considering a simple gear blank casting made from The geometry of a junction can be very important to casting design
three different alloy types, each of which exhibits a large amount of in some alloys, particularly those that have considerable solidifi-
shrinkage. Note the different shrinkage behavior of each. (a) A cation shrinkage. The consequences of bad junction design for a
directionally solidifying alloy extdbits a large shrinkage volume where particular alloy can be internal shrinkage voids, hot tears, cracks,
shrinkage voids occur. (b) A eutectic-type solidifying alloy also
produces a large shrinkage volume, but, in this case, shrinkage and distortion.
depression occurs. (c) An equiaxed solidifying alloy also produces a Figure 12-86 shows the consequences of junction design for
large volume of shrinkage, but it appears as small voids and dispersed three degrees of solidification shrinkage volume. Note that alloys
shrinkage. that have very little solidification shrinkage volume are not
sensitive tojunction design. Onthe other hand, alloys that exhibit
The design concept on equiaxed alloys is to spread out large extreme solidification shrinkage volume can have very serious
thermal masses in the casting. The objective is to have the casting voids and hot tears at seemingly ordinary junctions. While the
sections as thermally equal as possible. This technique distributes thermally neutral design works inmost cases, itismosthelpftd in
the shrinkage microscopically over the inside of the casting. equiaxed solidifying alloys.
Although this may sound undesirable (to have microscopic In the case of directionally solidifying alloys, some junctions
holes throughout the casting), it is very effective. The microscopic will require risers despite thermally neutral design. This is a
holes have only a minimal effect on the mechanical properties of consequence of feeding distance. Among these alloys, directional
the alloy because of their size and dispersion. If the design is not solidification canonly reachieved over relatively short distances,
thermally neutral, the foundryman will be forced to make exten- unless there is considerable taper designed into the section.
sive usc of chills to help accomplish this dispersion. This can Therefore, risers will be required at some junctions for feeding
produce detrimental cosmetic effects. distance reasons. When a junction is planned to have a riser
This thermally equal design concept is the reason some connected to it, there isnoneed toadjust its mass. The riser will
handbooks recommend avoiding heavy casting sections, empha- feed the mass of the junction.
12-79
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 12
CASTING
I (b)
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CHAPTER12
CASTING
,.
Poor fluldlty
Very fluid Carbon steel Large shrink volume
Gray iron
Little shrink volume \ Moderate slog
~ t Little slag
m-
II [ 1
Fig. 12-87 The bearing guide block (a) was designed for a warm alloy with excellent fluid life and littte sotidificatism shrinkage. This produces fine
detail and eliminates the need to provide for large riser contact surfaces. The same part (b) was designed in a hot alloy with poor fluid life and
shrinkage. Notice its soft, rounded shape, large lettering, and absence of sharp detail.
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CHAPTER12
Fig. 12-89 To minimize the occurrence of nonmetallic inclusions appearing in critical mackined surfaces of castings, it is recommended that these
surfaces be designed in the drag portion of the mold, which allows nonmetallic to float up and away from the important surfaces.
12-82
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 12
CASTING
Fig. 12-90 Designing parts as castings provides the opportunity to minimize residual stress and stress concentration. As illustrated in these two
designs, rigid mill shapes can often he produced more effectively as a casting.
0)
{0,o,
Bending
) x
moment l-l-
Tension/compressIon
shear
Bending moment
Y Y?-
Torsion ?
Fig. 12-91 This design of a cast wall-mounted bracket illustrates the capability of a metal casting, versus other fabricating processes, to improve
strength-to-weight ratio by putting mass exactly where it is needed.
12-83
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 12
@/
/p@
r
One riser onl
Riser 1 --->
Ri5ar 3 \
,.,
,
\
/ ------
.- -.
I T<\ \-\ {
:n
+:%>>..\\
________
----
-~.,-
\ .W
1,
1,
I
1 &/
~ / k &
Riser 2
(b)
(0)
g. 12-92 TWOdesigns for the same part but for different tioys. (a) is a design concept for a directionally solidifying alloy which will require risering
of heaw sections and taDer from heaw sections to thin sections. (b) is a similar design for a eouiaxed sotidifvine alloy. It has many thermallv neutral
section; and only one riser (on the centerjunction) will be required. Note the difference in-sections, jun~tions, and risering. -
Whatever the case may be, foundry toolingpatterns, dies, alloy. For the same type of alloy, Fig. 12-93b shows a similar
coieboxes, and so on is expensive because they are one-of-a-kbrd redesign that eliminates cores and maintains a relatively simple
items made by highly skilled craftsmen. Designs that eliminate parting line. The key design feature to keep in mind here is that the
unnecessary complexity can save many dollars from the total project casting must maintain its thermally neutral sections wherever
cost. Considering again Fig. 12-92a and b, how would it be possible to minimize risering equiaxed solidifying alloy castings.
possible to use system-wide thinking to simplify the tooling? In the case of the design shown in Fig. 12-92b, the torsion-
Figure 12-93a shows a comparable design for a directionally resisting advantage of the box section was lost because the main
solidifying alloy that completely eliminates the need for cores and body core was eliminated. To minimize stress at A, generous
has a relatively simple offset parting line. Note that the proportion curvature has been provided in the redesign (see Fig. 12-93b).
of the length and the width of the main body has been changed to The core inside the ball tip has also been eliminated in favor of
prevent deep pockets in the mold. Although the box section (best a spherical X section which will support socket rotation and still
for eliminating torsion) was originally made with a core as shown eliminate mass. This section can be molded without the use of a
in Fig. 12-93a, itwas lost with the elimination of the core. Stress core. This is the consequence of thermally equal design at
concentration at a is avoided with curvature and mass. Risering junctions away from the riser contact surface. Only the metal
will be reauired. casting process will allow such variability in shape, asymmetry,
The de~ign for Fig. 12-92b was for an equiaxed solidifying and re~uction in mass while cutting costs: - - -
R
Riser 1
llL
(a)
Fig. 12-93 These drawings show the same part and alloys illustrated in Fig. 12-92, but are redesigned to simplify patterns and die equipment. (a)
depicts a comparable design for a directionally solidifying alloy that completely eliminates the need for cores and has a relatively simple offset
parting line. Three risers will be required. (b) shows a redesign similar to the equiaxed solidifying alloy in Fig. 12-92(b), but eliminates cores and
maintains a relatively simple parting line. With this design, generous curvature has been provided to minimize stress concentration from torsion
at A and the core inside the ball tip has been eliminated in favor of a spherical X section that will support socket rotation and still etiminate
mass. The only riser required will be on surface B because of the thermally equal design at junctions away from B.
12-84
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER12
CASTING
DESIGN AND SECONDARY OPERATIONS influence on tolerance capability. Within any given molding
System-wide thinking also must include the secondary opera- process, the methodologyy and the pattern/die equipment also
tions that a casting will undergo. Secondaty operations might affect tolerance capability.
include a variety of processes such as machining, welding and Weight of the casting and its longest dimensions. Logically,
joining, heat treating, painting, and plating. Each one of these can heavier castings with longer dimensions require more
have a significant effect on casting design and must be considered tolerance.
at the conceptual stages of casting design. Since nearly every Mold degrees of freedom. This parameter is least under-
casting is machined in some fashion, it is important enough to stood. Some molding processes have more mold compo-
deserve special comment. nents than others. Some casting designs require more mold
Machining is extremely critical because it involves j-ixtur-ing the components. All of the components have their own toler-
casting. Usually, machining and fixturing are the responsibility of ances and they stack their tolerances as the mold is assem-
the manufacturing engineer. These engineers typically work in bled. More mold components mean more degrees of free-
different departments than the design engineers, so more than a dom and more tolerance.
little effort is required to include them in the conceptual stages of Draft. It is the norm for casting designs to ignore the
design. However, this step is critical. certainty of draft, both mold draft and core draft. Since 1
If the designer has knowledge of the four important physical draft adds up to 0.0 17 of offset per inch of draw (almost 0.5
properties of the alloy, he or she knows the likely surfaces for riser mrn Per25 mm), draft can quickly use up all and more of a
contacts, gate contacts, and parting lines. The manufacturing tolerance zone.
engineer and the design engineer can then debate about fixture Cleaning and heat treating. Many casting dimensions are
design and targeticlamp locations. touched by downstream processing. Atthe very least, most
The location of these fixture targets (buttons and stops) should castings are touched by grindingeven precision castings,
then be indicated on the final casting drawing, as shown in Fig. Many castings are heat treated, which can affect straightness
12-94. This information is critical to the foundry engineer, who, and flatness.
with this information can avoid placing parting lines, risers, or Another major factor in casting tolerance capability is center-
gates where they might affect the pattern or die. ing the dimension within the tolerance zone. This is more subtle
Doing this properly is system-wide thinking at its cost-effective
than itmights eenlbecause ofpattemmaker's shrink. Table 12-16
best. Furthermore, there is nothing more critical to successful
shows how much larger a 12 (305 mm) dimension nominally
CNC machining of castings than dimensionally consistent fixtur- should be on the patterddie equipment to result in a 12 (305 mm)
ing targets. dimension on the casting. The word nominally qualifies this
statement because the listed patternmakers shrinkage allowances
are averages.
CASTING DRAWINGS, DIMENSIONS AND This variation makes pattem/diemaking an art and it prevents
TOLERANCES pattems/coreboxes/dies from being accurate enough to avoid
A significant element in leading-edge product development adjustments. The only way to be sure a casting dimension will be
is improved convergence of designed versus actual dimensional centered within its tolerance range is to initially make the tooling
tolerances. Manufacturing components from prototyping, through full (that is, sothatthe casting dimension can be adjusted by
capability runs, to production which are in tolerance dimension- t&ingalittle stock offthepattem/corebox/die sutiaces). Capabil-
ally are prized because they save assembly cost variances and they
reduce the product development time. TABLE 12-16
Notice that the key phrase is in tolerance. That does not Foundry AUoy Shrinkage Allowances,
necessarily mean that the tolerances are extremely tight. It means inches per foot (mm per 305 mm) 11
that there isanenvelope ofallowable dimensional vmiation. Parts
must fit within their allowable envelopes so that they will fit Aluminum 0.156 (3.97)
together quickly and functionally. Aluminum bronze 0.313 (7.94)
The secret to dimensional success with castings is to under- Brass and bronze 0.188 to 0.156 (4.78 to 3.97)
stand why any given casting cannot have the same tolerance for all
Iron, gray* 0.318 (8.06)
of its dimensions. Specific casting dimensions have wide or
Iron, ductile* O to 0.063 (O to 1.60)
narrow tolerances for logical reasons; however, these reasons have
not been well explained by the foundry industry. Most design Iron, malleable 0.318 (8.06)
engineers have a much clearer understanding of tolerance capabil- Lead 0.313 (7.94)
ity for various kinds of dimensions for machined parts. Monel 0.250 (6.35)
For example, it is widely understood that amachined dimen- Nickel 0.250 (6.35)
sion between two features that are formed from two setups will not Ni-Resist 1 and 2 0.188 (4.78)
have as narrow tolerance capability as a dimension formed within Steel carbon 0.250 (6.35)
a single setup. In the same way, it is understood that the position Stainless alloys
tolerance between two holes cut on the same piece of steel plate by CA-15, CA-40 0.250 (6.35)
aCNCplasma torch willbetighter than asimilm pair of holes, cut
CF-8, CF-8M 0.281 (7. 14)
into separate plates which are later welded together.
CN-7M (Alloy 20) 0.281 (7. 14)
Figure 12-95prioritizes fivepmameters thatsignificantly affect
casting tolerance capability. In order of precedence, they are: Gray iron shrinkage varies with tensile strength.
*Consult foundry on ductile iron shrinkage allowances.
Molding process. Thetype ofmolding process (forexample,
green sand, shell, or investment), has the greatest single (Courtesy The Fundamentals of Metal Castings)
12-85
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 12
CASTING
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GXB c
Datum targets on pkme B
Fig. 12-94 The information provided in a datum target system, like the one shown here, is invaluable in helping the foundry engineer properly locate
gate and riser contacts on the casting so that the manufacturing engineer tinds consistency in the way castings repeat in processing fixtures.
ity castings are made to statistically determine what the adjustment anticipate which dimensions are really not critical and which have
should be to move the center of the dimensional distribution to the narrow tolerances for the sake of all other convenience?
center of the tolerance range. Through concurrent engineering and advance quality planning,
The conclusion is that casting tolerances respond well to choices among molding processes, molding methodology, pattern/
advance quality planning through concurrent engineering that corebox/die design, draft orientation, etc,, can be made which
involves input from the foundry engineer. How can any design minimize the degrees of freedom for the tightest tolerances that are
engineer anticipate the possibilities for degrees of freedom that really functionally required. Less functionally critical tolerances
coarsen tolerance capability? How can any foundry engineer can be set to match the capability of the process.
12-86
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER12
CASTING
H
mling:
Bench Plastic Ceramic
J
Jolt-squeeze Meted
_ kil T.line:
High pressure Plastic Plastic permanent n-old Investment
Tading: Wclod
r
Impact Machined Metal Metal
Cast iron Pksstic
metal Casting size: Die cast Casting size:
ll!l~~~=~dSmat
Medium ]oo-2oolb
_ Machined Machined Casting size
Metal (45 -91 kg)
metal metal Small
~
501b
1 v
smaller
(23 kg)
25b
(11 kg)
,+
2. Weight af casting/langest dimension 9<5ib
(2.3 kg)
)&Id wall movementistheprchlem;
Factorsare:
A. Metalbstatic assures;mare dense cslbp dwelop higher
pressures wltITm the kquid
~ whichpushon maid walls
Heaviercastingsand/or largeroverallcastingdimermians
cause
thew factorsto k mare significant
Decreasing tolerancsccpobilily . *
3. Hckk &grees of freadam
4. Draft
Gate/riser removal
. ~~inding of gate/riser contact surfaces
Grinding of parting lines and nmtch lines
Heat treating (distartian)
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER12
References 5. George T. Halmos, Practical Design Guide for Brake & Roll
Formed Products, Fabricator (July/August 1982).
1. David A. Smith, Die Design Handbook, Compound and Com- 6. Mechanical Testing of Steel Products, A370 (Philadelphia, PA:
bination Dies, Chapter 18 (Dearborn, Ml: Society of Manufac- American Society for Testing and Materials).
turing Engineers, 1990). 7. Propetiies and Se/ectiorr: kens and Sfeels, Metals Handbook
2. David A. Smith, cd., Die Design /-/and600/r, Joe Ivaska, Lubri- Volume 1, 9th ed. (Metals Park, OH: American Society for
cants for Pressworking Operations, Chapter 25, (Dearborn, Ml: Metals).
Society of Manufacturing Engineers, 1990). 8. A/uminum Standards and Data (Washington, D.C.: The Alumi-
3. David A. Smith, Quick Die Change, Process Variability Reduc- num Association, 1990).
tion, Chapter 25 (Dearborn, Ml: Society of Manufacturing .- Enc!i- 9. George T. Halmos, Roll Forming to Tight Tolerances (SME
neers, 1 991). Conference Proceedings, September 1986).
4. George T. Halmos, Ro// Forming I%SLA SteeLs, American Society 10. A.M. Sabroff, F.W. Boulger, and H.J. Hennin ~ Forging Materials
for Metals International Conference Proceedings, (October and Practices (New York: Rheinhold Book orp., 1968).
1982), p. 100. 11. John L. Campbell, Fundamentals of Mets/ Castings (Waukesha,
Wl: Casting Consultants, Inc., 1983).
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER13
POWDER
Before beginning a discussion of design specifics or mottled surfaces. Also, appearance is determined COATING 13-10
for painting, it is important that the designer have a by the coating; generally, variations in the alloy used
basic understanding of the technology in order to in the substrate will have no effect. (They often do in ELECTRO-
CHEMICAL
have some insight into the rationale behind the design chemical conversion coatings. ) For instance, 2024 METALLIZING 13-11
guidelines. and 6061 aluminum parts can be painted to match,
while color anodizing is very difficult to control.
PAINTING TECHNOLOGY THERMAL
Spray painting also offers easier color change and SPRAY
There are two principal classes of surface finish: better control of coating thickness when compared to COATING 13-14
decorative and functional. Decorative coatings are other methods of applying paint such as dipping or
applied for appearance or for identification, such as roller coating. HEAT
the color coat on an automobile or the colored bands In general, industrial painting in this context TREATING 13-18
on an oil drum. Functional coatings are used for refers to metal finishing, and in particular ferrous
protection, usually from chemical attack or from metals, although zinc-coated metals (automotive),
wear; for lubrication; to modify absorptivity or emis- aluminum, plastics, and composites are becoming
sivity to control temperature; for electrical insulation; increasingly prevalent in the industrial environment.
or to modify or control the surface friction coeffi-
cient. The two functions are often combined since the
colored bands on the oil drum also provide corrosion
protection. Cost is another motivation for coatings. It The Paint Line
is usually cheaper to paint a surface than to use a Figure 13-1 depicts a typical industrial painting
corrosion-resistant alloy, for instance. Also, the re- line showing loading, cleaning and pre-treatment,
quired physical properties may not be obtainable in a dry-off, masking, painting, curing, and unloading.
corrosion-resistant alloy. Thus, painting becomes a In a production line or volume custom coating
consideration in the choice of materials. environment, the parts to be painted will usually be
There are, of course, many options in surface hung from a conveyor and transported through the
coatings. Why select spray painting over the others? tinishing process. Parts are also commonly supported
In general, spray painting has an advantage in cost from below on some type of conveyor, or loaded
over plating and chemical conversion coatings such onto dollies or cradles and pulled along. However it
as anodizing. Since the typical industrial paint coat- is accomplished, the part being painted must be
ing is from 0.7 roils to 2.0 roils (0.018 mm to 0.051 supported in some way while it is being painted, and
mm) in thickness, painting also has better hiding the points of contact with the support must be
power so that surface finish need not be so critical, considered. In an integrated manufacturing environ-
further reducing costs. This advantage can be further ment, the parts may be loaded onto the conveyor
enhanced by selecting textured coatings. Paint is directly from an upstream manufacturing process
opaque and can be applied over stained, discolored, such as a stamping or spot-welding operation.
The Contributors of this chapter are: Gerald W. Crum, Manager of Engineering, Powder Business Group,
Nordson Corporation; Mike Faber, Project Engineer Supervisor, Heat Treat, Ajax Magnethermic; M. Lance Miller,
Executive Director, Metal Treating Institute; Edwin W. Newton, Application Engineer, Heany Industries, Inc.; Don
Novorsky, Staff Metallurgist, Ajax Magnethermic; Eric E. Serrite\\a, Promotion and Marketing Manager, Selections,
Ltd.; Rodger Taibert, Sales Engineer, Industrial Finishing Group, Rapid Engineering, Inc.; George P. Welchj Sales
Manager, Industrial Electric Heating, Inc.
The Reviewers of this chapter are: Charles Aldridge, Vice PresidentSales, Heany Industries, Inc.; Fred
Cainan, Chief Engineer, Heany Industries, Inc.; Robert D. Graar, CMfgE, CM, Consultant to the Finishing Industry,
Springfield, OH; James L. Miller, Vice President, Sales and Marketing, ABB F/akt Ransburg; Vishu Reddy,
Marketing Manager, Powder Systems Group, Nordson Corporation; George L. Tupper, Vice PresidentlTechnical
Director, Coral International, Inc.; Walt J. Yahn, CMfgE, President, Erie Advanced Manufacturing; Jeffery S. Yahn,
Vice President, Erie Advanced Manufacturing; Scott Zolnier, President, Heany Industries, Inc.
13-1
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER13
DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR PAINTED PARTS
Washer
L
loading
Station
Oven
1k
Drpff
. >
\ .
Unloading
siation )
.
Curing Masking
[ 4
. 11
Point booth
)
-
13-2
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER13
DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR PAINTED PARTS
-. . ..- .
r lg. 13-2 Kepresentatlon ot tne electrlc neld between a cnargmg electrode and a grounded part. (Nordwm Corp.)
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,..
13-3
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 13
DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR PAINTED PARTS
No field penetrates
the raeess
Spray gun
13-4
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER13
DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR PAINTED PARTS
13-5
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 13
DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR PAINTED PARTS
Poor practice
incansislent distance
mt
open
Poor practice
side dawn requires
from spray guns undesi&able verticle gun orientation
. Gsign the structure without traps. used to increase the heating rate of heavy sections, as is some
. Hang the part so that traps are drained correctly, degree of preheating. Although modem coatings have good
. Specify a dry-off cycle long enough to evaporate the Iatitude with respect to cure time, itisstill possible to have color
moisture. shifts. However, if preheated, powder buildup may vary according
. Provide drain holes. tothe different masses. Foruse on heated parts, specialty fusion
. Specify water removable fluxes, if possible, otherwise bond powders are available.
special cleaning processes may be required.
Painting of Castings
Problems of this type are often not evident until the item is in While castings present some problems in dry-off and curing
full production, when it is too costly to go back and revise the
because of their high mass, they also present some opportunities
design and tooling. The on-line cures are higher dry-off
for increased productivity. Castings may repainted either before
temperatures and/or lower line speeds, or adchtional equipment
orafter they are finish machined. Ifpainted after machining, they
such as air blow-off or infrared heater bankany of which will
must be thoroughly cleaned; if they have been stored for any
add cost to the finishing process either directly or through lost
length of time there will often be rust or corrosion to clean off. The
productivity.
finished sorfaces must becarefully masked before painting, and
the masking removed afterward. However, if the castings are
Effect of Part Mass cleaned and painted immediately after coming from the foundry,
Themass of parts, particularly non-uniform mass, can havea they can be stored without forther protection until machining. This
negative effect on painting. Moistore retention is one aspect of may be particukuly useful for short-ron operations where castings
mass effects. Particularly massive sections, such as plate fabrica- are ordered in batches and then stored until an order comes in for
tions, barstock machined patw, or sand castings, will heat much a particular version. Machining of a painted casting does require
more slowly than sheet metal orthin-wall castings. The results of the use of soft-jawed chucks and soft-faced clamps, but no
this may be lower than expected part temperatures and insufficient masking is required and the painted surfaces are easily degreased
cure on the coating, or in powder, poor surface finish and gloss for assembly. Generally this process requires preheating and the
due to slow rate of rise and poor flow-out. In non-uniform use of epoxy, epoxy-polyester hybrids, or nylon coatings for
sections, the color of the coating may differ from high to low mass toughness to withstand the clamping and handling. These are
areas if the low mass areas are at cure temperature too long and the usually applied by powder coating rather than liquid spray.
coating begins to yellow or darken from overcuring. High-velocity These comments apply equally to heavy plate and bar stock
convection ovens and supplementary infrared heaters are often fabrications and machined parts as well as to castings. One key
13-6
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER13
DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR PAINTED PARTS
\
Gaod
side
E
areas
Hard
side
4
Fig. 13-6 Part profiles representing ease of paint coverage. (Noniwn Corp.)
difference, however, is that castings need a preheating stage for warning labels, or instruction tags can be placed over the weld area
outgassing, and that temperature must be above the cure temper- tohidethe read-through. Textu~ed finishes, iftheir appearance is
ature. Without this step, trapped gases may be driven off in the acceptable in the marketplace, can relieve the situation consider-
curing oven, causing surface defects in the coating. Casting ably. Also, countersunk fastener heads (screws or rivets) are an
porosity can also entrap pretreatment solution; this may be &lven alternative to the read-through of welds; they convey a different
off in curing and cause surface defects, or may dry leaving salt impression totheendcustomer. Thus, inthearena of the Industrial
crystals which can cause premature failure of the finish from Designer (as opposed to the Design Engineer) discreetly placed
underneath. When specifying materials for casting, attention fastener heads can convey a sense of bolted together for
should be paid to outgassing, particulady if recyclable materials maintainability and strength as opposed to spot welded for
are to be used. It may be advisable to consult with the casting cost to ease finishing problem areas (see Fig. 13-8). Spot welds
supplier. can also be hidden by flanging. A careful study of the assembly
techniques usedon theexterior panels of automobiles provides a
Joining and Fasteners textbook on designing welded assemblies with hidden welds and
Processes used for joining parts together require extra thought finishes of the highest quality.
in painted parts. Threads, both male and female, require masking, Exposed electric arc or gas welds are not considered acceptable
or clean-off after painting if unmasked. Post-painting clean-off in many areas, andgrinding toaflush condhion is often specified.
usually means chasing the threads with a tap or die and is very This is a relatively costly hand operation, and the weld must
costly. The use of self-tapping or self-drilling and tapping fasten- provide full design strength after grinding. The material of the rod
ers will eliminate masking completely, as will formed steel usedin weldlng the seam should be compatible with the pretreat-
nuts added after painting. Such fasteners should beofcorrosion ment chemistry, so that proper paint adhesion is obtained in the
resistant materials. Rivets also can be used for permanent assem- weld area. Even if the rod material is corrosion resistant, if the
blies. If lower retention forces will suffice, molded plastic or paint flakes from the weld area it will expose the heat-affected
robber ssnap-in retainers, fasteners, and nuts are available, base material at the edges of the joint, and accelerated corrosion
some with molded-in metal thread inserts or studs. will occur.
13-7
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 13
DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR PAINTED PARTS
Spo+welded seam
are restricted to noncosmetic surfaces since there is no opportunity subjective evaluation of color. For instance, parts which match
after welding to hide any read-through except for labels. Any when viewed under daylight may not match when viewed under
hole-punching operations on precoated stock leave a raw, un- fluorescent or sodium lights. When specifying color and finish, the
painted edge as a potential corrosion point. Color match may also designer should work to control or standardize as many of these
be a problem if the precoated stock is painted at a different location factors as possible. It is often easier to paint different parts of an
using a different process than the parts added to the final assembly. assembly in contrasting or complementary colors and use this as
part of the styling of the assembly, rather than try to get exact color
Color Match match on parts from several sources or with different surface
The issue of color match and coating performance in painted textures. Paint and powder suppliers can provide significant
surfaces is a consideration for the designer no matter how or where assistance in setting up a system of specifications which is
the painted parts are fabricated or assembled. Larger industial appropriate for a specific product or environment. However, using
any proprietary specifications, or color designations unique to a
organizations such as the appliance or automotive companies have
elaborate facilities for evaluating coatings and complete specifica- specific paint supplier, should be avoided since it limits future
tions for the materials. Smaller organizations, or those new to options.
spray painting, will not have the benefit of this experience. Even
if all parts of an assembly are painted in a single facility just prior
Paint Terminology
to final assembly, there is still the issue of color match on
In dealing with either the paint companies or the process
replacement parts or follow-on orders from an existing customer.
engineers in a companys own paint line, it is important for the
It is desirable to have a color standard which can be related to
designer to understand some of the jargon commonly used in this
a recognized industry standard. The two most common for paint
industry.
match are the Pantone Matching System (developed for printing
inks, but widely used for other materials as well) and the Munsell Orange peel is a term descriptive of a surface finish
System which forms the basis for the color standards of most where the coating has not flowed out or leveled to a
nations bureaus of standards. It is important to understand that perfectly smooth finish, leaving the paint with the pebbled
lighting, viewing angle, surface texture, and gloss all affect the appearance of the skin of an orange.
13-8
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER13
DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR PAINTED PARTS
13-9
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER13
POWDER COATING
POWDER COATING
Electrostatically applied thermosetting powders have a variety Parts with movable components are typically not good appli-
of traditional and nontraditional applications. Properties that make cations for powder, because the moving parts can be bound
powder desirable include a very hard, scratch-resistant surface, together by the cured paint film.
excellent corrosion resistance, a large variety of colors, and the Masking areas of the part that must be free of coating can be
ability to apply thick films. These properties make powder an difficult, because the mask may bond with the part. Nonmetallic
excellent finish for appliances, outdoor furniture, bicycles, lawn masks will not bond, but may not withstand the necessary bake
equipment, and office furniture. It is also used regularly for certain temperatures of 300 F ( 149 C) or greater.
automotive applications such as wheels, oil filters, door handles, The easiest shape part to powder coat is tubing. The more
coil springs, and trim. Typical applications of various thermoset- complex the shape of the part, the more difficult it will be to coat
ting powders is shown in Table 13-1. it evenly. However, with the proper equipment, almost any shape
Ease of application, high material utilization, and environmen- can be powder coated.
tal compliance have chiven an increase in powder coating growth.
Powder coatings are available in a wide variety of decorative
FIXTURING REQUIREMENTS
colors. With its exceptional functional properties, economies,
Success in powder coating depends on the part being positively
environmental acceptance, and attractive appearance, serious con-
earth grounded. Therefore, the part must have a location that can
sideration should be given to powder in the finishing of manufac-
be contacted by the rack fixture. This contact point will leave a
tured goods. It also has excellent consistency with texture and
hook scar, so the part must have a hidden area that will be
wrinkle finishes.
acceptable with a coating scar.
13-10
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER13
ELECTROCHEMICAL METALLIZING
ELECTROCHEMICAL METALLIZING
Developing production methods for applying metal to Electrochemical metallizing has evolved from a small-scale
industrial components to change surface characteristics is not a rework and repair metal build-up tool to an engineered, high-
new challenge to the design engineer. Coatings may be necessary vohrme production system capable of full automation.
to extend corrosion resistance, increase surface hardness, improve Several years ago, a European automobile manufacturer was
solderability or brazeabilit y, or increase electrical current transfer troubled with corrosion on wheel hubs fitted with aluminum
capabilities, among others. In considering a choice of base metal wheels. The corrosion was making removal of the wheel from the
material and coating options for a part, engineers must be familiar hub difficult. Several solutions were examined, and the one that
with the different methods available for applying metal to proved best for inclusion in the hub manufacturing process was
metal. The four most common are bath electroplating, thermal electrochemical metallizing. An automated robotic machine, to
spray metallizing, welding, and electrochemical metallizing, ~PPIY corrosion-resistant zinc to selected areas of the hub, was
although others do exist. Of the four, bath electroplating is installed and performed with great success.
probably the most frequent choice. Knowledge of selective metal A manufacturer of small electrical brass tmnnions was spend-
deposition techniques is most valuable during the initial layout of ing large sums of money to mask complex shaped parts prior to
new projects, opening new doors to part design and fabrication bath electroplating with silver. The silver was needed only in small
possibilities. areas for improved contact conductivity. To improve the manu-
This section sets out to explore how electrochemical metalliz- facture of the part, a linear motion machine utilizing electrochem-
ing can be incorporated into product design when a select area of ical metallizing technology applied silver coatings with speed and
a component needs to be surfaced. Electrochemical metallizing is precision, saved masking time, and significantly reduced manu-
compared to the most common metal buildup systems. Each ones facturing costs.
niche in industry will be reviewed.
13-11
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 13
ELECTROCHEMICAL METALLIZING
Specialty aircraft superalloy have long been used to manufac- applied. On large or complex shaped parts, masking can become
ture jet aircraft engines. Many engine components are joined by both time-consuming and expensive. Parts have to be cleaned,
brazing. Unfortunately, the superalloy ideal for stringent stress then masked, then plated, then unmasked. Additionally, solution
and thermal cycles of engine operation exhibit poor joinability may become trapped in complex shaped recesses and inner comers
characteristics. Selective application of pure nickel to braze joint andlead to later corrosion. Finally, large sized parts are not always
surfaces solves the problem. Electrochemical metallizings excel- able to fit into standard sized tanks. Special units must be
lent adhesion and deposit selectivity make it an ideal choice. fabricated. Alternatively, work maybe subcontracted, sometimes
Aircraft engineers now plan new parts designed with electrochem- at exorbitant expense. Baths also require chemical maintenance
ical metdlizing in mind. and need trained chemists to monitor their operation. As require-
When designing parts for either high or low volume manufac- ments for selective deposition, part complexity, and part size
turers, it is important to be familiar with available metal put-on incrcasc, theadvantages of bath plating decrease. When producing
techniques that can be incorporated into production. The more apart of this nature, alternative metal buildup systems should be
metal finishing options an engineer has available, the fewer considered.
restrictions on part design. Electrochemical metallizing offers
excellent adhesion to most base metals, precise deposit thickness
control with most plateable metals, and selective coating capabil- THERMAL SPRAY METALLIZING
ity resulting in minimal masking and handling. In appearance, thermal spray metallizing and its derivative,
Before further detailing electrochemical metallizing capabili- plasma spray metallizing, resemble a paint spray gun finish-
ties, it is important to review briefly the major types of metal ing process. Instead of spraying paint, a special gun sprays
put-on took used in manufacturing, namely bath electroplating, molten metal.
thermal spray, metallizing, and welding. Although many others In thermal spray metallizing, a metal wire or powder is fed
exist, these three along with electrochemical metallizing are through an oxyacetylene torch which has an inside chamber with
probably the most widely used for manufacturing, applying a temperature ranging between 600 F and 8,000 F (3 15 C to
deposits of reasonable thickness, strong bond strength, and good 4,430 C). The material fed into the gun is made of the desired
mechanical characteristics. When to use each system, as well as coating material. It impinges onto the parts surface in a semimol-
when not, are key ingredients toward setting design criteria. ten state. With plasma systems, the gun temperature ranges up to
and exceeding 20,000 F (11, 100 C). Molten powder of the
BATH ELECTROPLATING chosen material is applied to the needed surface.
Bath or tank electroplating is one of the most popular and Of the systems in this section, thermal spray metallizing
extensively used manufacturing systems for applying metal coat- provides the fastest rate of deposition. It is good for applying
ings. Its ability to deposit a coating over the entire surface of a heavy coatings of 0.020 (O.51 mm) or more over extensive areas.
part, for corrosion resistance, wearability, electrical conductivity, Many metals can be applied, including difficult to plate
or cosmetic appearance, gives it many advantages. On the Uther materials such as aluminum, tantalum, and molybdenum. High
hand, when coatings need be applied only to selected or localized temperature plasma systems allow for high melting point metals
areas of an industrial component, bath electroplating does not and alloys such as chromium, cobalt, nickel, tungsten, alumina,
always provide the best means. and tungsten-carbide. Some of these cannot be deposited any other
In electroplating, the part to be coated is immersed into a way. Unfortunately, it is difficult to spray coating in thin layers,
bath made from dissolved salts of the metal to be deposited. A and thickness control is not as accurate as in bath electroplating or
DC rectifiers connected to the part catholically. Anodes made electrochemical metallizing. Postmachining or grinding is almost
from metal are positively connected to the DC power supply. always necessary. This is important, since it adds an extra step to
When the rectifier is turned on and current flows, the metallic ions the manufacturing process.
are reduced out of the solution and metal deposits on the Thermal spray coatings do not impart hydrogen embrittlement
workpiece. or fatigue strength loss to base materials. On the other hand, high
Deposition rate and deposit characteristics vary from metal to temperature application can cause heat distortion to sensitive or
metal, but are directly affected by solution composition, current precision parts, especially those with thin cross-sections.
density, temperature, concentration, pH, and agitation. Typical Thermal processes can be readily worked into manufacturing
application rate is about 0.001 (0.03 mm) per hour. While this is operations, and systems can be made portable. In many manufac-
relatively slow, many small parts can be submerged into the bath turing applications a dedicated booth is used, as overspray can
simultaneously. This is done by tlxtunng components to a com- create problems in an open environment. While spray can be
mon current bus, a technique known as racking. Many metals directionalized, some masking is necessary to avoid coating
can be applied with bath electroplating, includhtg cadmium, zinc, adjacent surfaces.
tin, copper, nickel, gold, silver, and alloys such as tin-lead and By far the greatest disadvantage of thermal systems is inferior
zinc-nickel. Themost recognized bath electrodeposit for industrial adhesion, as compared to the other systems. Tests have confirmed
applications is hard chrome. Ithashighhardness, a low coefficient that the best adhesion comes from welding systems which melt
of friction, excellent abrasion resistance, bright finish, and good both the base metal and the coating metal together. Welding is
release characteristics. followed by electrochemical metallizing and closely thereafter by
Since bath electroplated parts are fully immersed into solution bath electroplating. Both systems provide a molecular bond.
(although certain racking practices allow for partial immersion), The borders of the metallized crystals bond to and then build upon
areas of components not to be coated or which need a coating of the exposed crystalline structure of the base metal. Spray metal-
adifferent material must be masked. Several methods are available lizing requires a rough, abraded or knurled surface to which it
and include specially designed, chemical resistant platers tapes, provides a mechanical bond. This is particularly relevant when
spray -onandbmsh-on paints and lacquers, andinsome cases wax. spraying onto thin or small cross-sections where area for mechan-
All of these methods prevent deposition on areas where they are ical gripping is minimal.
13-12
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER13
ELECTROCHEMICAL METALLIZING
Spray metallizing is a versatile technology, with many appli- tool can be held steady and the part moved or rotated. Metal is
cations when a heavy, moderately localized metal is needed on a deposited only where the tool makes contact, so coatings are very
relatively large surface. Newer spray systems are progressively selective and masking minimal. For heavier deposits, those in
eliminating the porosity and thermal distortion problems past excess of 0.003(0.08 mm), or forcontinuous production coating,
associated with this process. Steps are also being taken to improve solution is pumped to the work surface and recirculated. This
adhesion beyond what is already an acceptable level for many method is called flow-through. Special pumps are readily
applications. available to warm, fi!ter, and pump the solution.
Electrochemical metallizing is a cold process. Metallizing is
normally performed at room temperatures, though for deposition
WELDING to certain ferrous metals and alloys, solutions perform best
Electric arc welding as discussed in this context is not the
belween 100 F to 160 F (38 Cto71 C). Temperature controlled
traditional welding used to join two surfaces together, but welding
heaters are often built into flow-through pump units to accommo-
for adding metal to metal surfaces to change dimension or surface
date heating needs. Solution temperatures never exceed these
characteristics. Welding utilizes a DC power supply to provide
limits, so heat distortion is not a concern. On very large jobs which
current for an arc between either two electrodes or the workpiece
may generate heat during metal deposition, a solution cooler is
and an electrode. The arc generates heat as high as 10,000 F
used to keep solution temperature within recommended ranges.
(5,540 C) and melts both the base metal and the metal filler.
Second only to welding, EM provides excellent adhesion to
Since both metals are melted and flowed together, they solidify
most base metals, including some refractories. It is believed that
and create a superior bond. Welding deposits metal more slowly
the higher current densities associated with EM give deposits
than thermal metallizing, but faster than electrochemical metalliz-
adhesion superior to electroplating. High current densities are a
ing or bath electroplating. Heavy deposits of metal are easy to
result of EM solutions being extremely high in metal concentra-
apply, and the process is mobile or portable, which means it can tion. This inttrrn also makes EMdeposit much more rapidly than
be brought to the site of large components. Additionally, most
bath electroplating, akhough itisslower than welding or thermal
shops have welding equipment and qualified welders available.
spiny metallizing. While a typical bdth may take up to one hour
Finally, welding often offers the lowest overall coating costs.
per O.OOI(O.03mm) of coating, certain EM sohrtions approach
On the other hand, welding almost always requires postma-
0.003 (0.08 mm) per minute. Most range between 0.0003 and
chining or postgrinding, as thickness control is limited. The
0.0015 (0.008 and0.038mm) per minute.
intennetallic compounds and oxides formed can result in impurity,
EM is mobile and can be brought to the part for application.
brittleness, and porosity known as blow holes. Welding is not
Not only does this give design engineers more freedom in coating
well suited to thin deposits and is Iimited primarily to ferrous
selected areas of extremely large parts, but also helps determine
metals. It would not be well suited to the thin coatings used to
when parts get coated. Many areas may be better coated after
improve a metals solderability or brazeabilit y, corrosion protec-
assembly, not before, Large and complicated parts can be put
tion, and conductivity. Applying soft ductile materials is also not
together andlocal areas coated ata later time, inplace. This often
its forte.
saves rework of metallized areas damaged during assembly.
The biggest drawback to welding is the high heat generated.
Thickness control is very precise with EM. In most cases no
This can lead to distortion and stressing of the base metal and
post-machining or postgrinding is necessary, HM tolerances are
adjacent surfaces. With small parts, parts with thin cross-sections,
usually within 10% of the overall coating thickness. EM deposits
andthose with sharp edges, points, or flanges that may concentrate
arc both dense and pure. Industrial gold, for example, measures
heat, welding should be avoided.
99.99 %pure24 karat. Most placeable metals can be applied with
Finally, welding isnotapplicable toparts requiring an overall
EM. Quality manufacturers offer over 100 different metal and
metallic resurfacing; this scenario is of course dominated by bath
alloy solutions, with several variations of many materials. For
electroplatings capabilities. On the other hand, welding can be
example, acid nickel, neutral nickel, alkaline nickel, dense nickel,
applied selectively and is certainly an excellent buildup technique
porous nickel, bright nickel, high speed nickel, heavy build
under the right circumstances. Like thermal metallizing, recent
nickel, and sulfamate nickel are all available, All deposit pure
welding developments strive to reduce blowholes and heat distor-
nickel, but deposit characteristics vary to suit application needs.
tion limitations, while increasing the number of materials available
Hardness, stress corrosion resistance, heavy build-up capability,
for coating. Unfortunately, shops with older equipment already in
wear resistance, and porosity all vary, based upon chemical
place are not always able to take advantage of recent break-
makeup. Manufacturers are best able toadvise which solution will
throughs.
fitanengineers application needs. Alloy sare also available, for
example cobalt-tungsten, nickel-tungsten, and black nickel coat-
ELECTROCHEMICAL METALLIZING ings (used for light and heat absorption).
Electrochemical metallizing (EM) is the selective deposition of Other metals that can be deposited with EM include cadmium,
metal to a metal substrate with a system most closely related in copper, gold, silver, tin, zinc, iron, rhodium, and palladium.
theory to bath electroplating. The negative lead of a DC power Alloys include zinc-nickel, tin-lead, brass, and babbht, among
supply is attached to the component to be coated (cathode), and the others. EM is also capable of selectively applying type I chromic
positive (anode) lead is connected to a stylus handle and special anodize, type II sulfuric anodize, type 111hardcoat anodize, and
metallizing anode. The anode is an inert material such as high- phosphoric anodize coatings. Hundreds of commercial specifica-
purity carbon graphite or a platinum-clad niobium mesh. It is tionsexist covering EM applications. Many aregovemedby U.S.
shaped tomatch thecontour of theareato be coated, and covered Air Force Mil-Std-865 and U.S. Navy Mil-Std-2197, both of
with an absorbent wrap. The wrapped anode is dipped into the which outline EM facilitation.
aPPrOPSlate metal electrolyte and moved across the surface to lx EM is low in hydrogen embrittlement, as are welding and
coated. As current is completed, metal is reduced from the thermal spray metallizing. One EM coating, aproprietary LHE@
solution and deposited onto the work surface. Alternatively, the cadmium, is approved by major aircraft manufacturers and the
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THERMAL SPRAY COATING
United States Air Force for application to ultra-high-strength electrochemical metallizing process came into existence during the
steels, such as landing gear, without the need to postbakc for last 45 years. Development of highly concentrated solutions,
hydrogen embrittlement relief. This can be valuable to design improved tooling techniques, and specialized power supplies
engineers requiring cadmium corrosion protection to be applied to advanced touch-up brush plating to an engineered, reliable metal
parts during the later stages of manufacture. Availability of large buildup system. Still known occasionally as engineered brush
ovens to postbake massive parts is limited. Handling and labor plating and selective plating, electrochemical metallizing
time are also reduced. is the best descriptive terminology.
Finally, EM requires little operator training. Unlike bath EM was developed and promoted through most of its recent
electroplating, there is no chemical maintenance required. With history as a repair and maintenance tool. It is only lately that
EM, chemistry background is not a prerequisite to success. In fact, innovative EM manufacturers have coordinated with knowledge-
the best EM operators are hands on maintenance, production, able manufacturing engineers to create production systems. These
or machinist personnel. Progressive EM manufacturers offer team endeavors have resulted in successful implementations of
ongoing training, advising, and technical support to customers free cost-reducing coating systems and greater design freedom.
of charge.
EM also has disadvantages when compared to other systems. It
is slower than welding and thermal spray. It is usually not the best SUMMARY
system when an entire part needs to be coated. When large No one metal surfacing technology is applicable to all produc-
surfaces require heavy coating, 0.040 (1.02 mm) or more, EM is tion metal deposition. Of the four major systems, welding proves
usually not the optimum method. It is important to recognize that best where superior adhesion is needed; thermal spray metallizing
EM, and the other systems are not ideal for every circumstance; is ideal for heavy metal buildup; bath electroplating dominates
they all have pros and cons. Design engineers knowledge of each parts needing complete coating; and electrochemical metallizing
systems capability affords them the luxury to choose the best best serves selective metal deposition applications. The design
system to meet individual product manufacturing criteria. engineer with knowledge of these systems has an advantage over
So why, of the four systems, is EM the least known to design less informed colleagues. By understanding how metals can be
engineers? The answer is simple. EM originated around the turn of deposited during the manufacturing process, part design dilemmas
the century when bath platers would dip into their tanks with hand can be alleviated.
held applicators and swab or brush them across a parts surface to Electrochemical metallizing is capable of applying metal coat-
touch up areas not sufficiently plated. This technique held ings for corrosion protection, hardness, joinability, conductivity,
several names including <brush plating, swab plating, se- and wearability to select areas of large and small components. It is
lective plating, and, in Europe, doctoring. The modem ideal for short-run and prototype work.
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THERMAL SPRAY COATING
TABLE 13-3
Plasma Spray Coatings and Properties
(Heany Industries)
MATERIALS COMMONLY COATED are coated to provide improved wear resistance and thermal
Thermal spray coatings can be applied to all ferrous and protection. Stainless steel parts can be coated with ceramic
nonferrous metals, to some high-melting-point plastics, and to materials to provide improved wear resistance and retain the
phenolics. Commonly coated commercial materials are aluminum, materials inherent corrosion resistance. Cast iron machinery and
cast iron, and steel. Gas and steam turbine high-temperature alloys pump parts can be selectively coated to provide wear surfaces.
TABLE 13-4
HVOF Coatings and Properties
Surface Finish, R,
As Coated Ground,
Material Hardness, Rc win (&m) pin (p,m) Applications
(Heany Industries)
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THERMAL SPRAY COATING
Cast iron and aluminum engine parts can he coated with a ther- SHAPE CAPABILITIES
mal barrier coating to prevent heat damage and help increase Superior coatings are obtained when the thermal spray is
horsepower. applied at right angles to the substrate surface. A 20 (51 cm) line
The bond strength of thermal spray coatings is quite good when of sight is necessary to accommodate the combined length of the
applied to the above-mentioned materials. Typical values ~e in thermal spray gun and its flame. Therefore, any surface-either
the 5,000 psi to 10,000 psi (35 MPa to 69 MPa) range. Two flat or curved which can be viewed from this distance can be
materials which exhibit lower bond strengths are brass and bronze. coated. Angles of incidence down to 45 will provide deposition of
The inherent lubricity of these materials prevents the coating from material with some loss of bond strength and density.
obtaining bond strengths comparable to steel or aluminum. How- Substrate thickness under 0.125 (3.18 mm) may present
ever, it is possible to successfully coat these materials by using w~mg problems due to either heat induced stress relief or
appropriate bond coatings. differential thermal contraction as the part cools. Special precau-
tions can be taken to minimize warpage on thin sections, but good
design practice provides thicknesses in excess of 0.125 (3.18
mm). Wall thickness on tubes can be less than 0.125 (3.18 mm)
FINISHING AND SEALING due to the inherent rigidity of a tube. Stress relieving or annealing
The surface finish of a coating as sprayed is a function of parts prior to coating will minimize or eliminate distortion after
particle size, porosity, and coating process parameters. The coating. Although overall part temperature can be maintained at
combination of these variables can produce surface finishes 200 F to 250 F (93 C to 1210 C) during coating, localized
ranging from 100 to 600 microinches (2.5 to 15.2 microns) R,. temperature at the point of flame impingement can be high enough
Metallizing wire processes result in the coarser surfaces: the to relieve stresses.
powder raw material processes provide the finest surface finishes. With the use of bore guns it is possible to coat holes as small
Due to the smaller grain size powders used in the HVOF process, as 3 (76 mm) in diameter. It is possible to coat into a hole a
the surface finishes range from 100 to 250 microinches (2.5 to 6.5 distance equal to one diameter using standard thermal spray
microns) as sprayed. Some of thesmall particle size oxide ceramic equipment.
powders applied by plasma spraying can also yield these levels of Thermal spray coatings reproduce the surface topography upon
surface finish. which they are sprayed. The one exception is sharp outside
The best dimensional accuracy of a spray coating is obtained corners. After coating, the comer will be round as illustrated in
when the gun is controlled automatically by either a traverse ora Fig. 13-9. The coating of sharp outside comers should be avoided
robot. The coating thickness of a part after spraying can be if possible by providing a radius. Potential problems are:
controlled by these methods to 0.001 to 0.002 (O.03 mm to 0.05
mm) and can be controlled by hand spraying from 0.003 to 0.004 . Poor bond strength due to lack of mass to chill the coating
(0.08 mm to O.10 mm). If greater accuracies and finer surface droplets.
finishes are required, thecoated ferrous andnonferrous rrmterials . Overheating due to lack of mass under the coating.
can be machined using conventional machine tools. The resultant . ~~ing of coating due to large thermal contractions.
accuracies and surface finishes will closely approximate those
obtained with wrought materials. It is possible to machine, grind, ADVANTAGES OF
hone, lap, and polish thermal sprayed coatings. The harder THERMAL SPRAY COATINGS
coatings, such as carbides and oxide ceramics, require diamond Metallic and ceramic coatings provide design opportunities and
grinding wheels for efficient finishing. Plasma sprayed tungsten solve manufacturing and operation problems for many types of
carbide can be ground with either aluminum oxide or silicon equipment. They can provide superior abrasion resistance, thermal
carbide grinding wheels, but the same material applied with protection, corrosion resistance, electrical isolation, electrical
HVOF equipment will require diamond grinding due to the conductivity, improved appearance, or a combination of these
increased density and hardness of the coating. The oxide ceramics, properties.
such as aluminum oxide and chrome oxide, require diamond The use of coatings can permit a designer to specify lower cost
grinding wheels for finishing. Likewise, efficient polishing of raw material and selectively coat areas of a part to satisfy a specific
these hard coatings is accomplished by using diamond polishing need. Parts can be encapsulated in either corrosion resistant
cloth or diamond paste. These coatings of the oxide family can be coatings, thermal barrier coatings, or electrical resistance coatings
polished to less than 5 microinches (O. 13 microns) surface finish which completely seal the part. Soft, lightweight, easy to machine
when the coatings are properly applied for maximum density. materials like aluminum can be selectively coated to provide better
In certain applications it is either desirable or necessary to seal wear properties than the hardest steel. And finally, coatings can be
the coating to prevent moisture or a chemical from penetrating the removed and replaced to restore parts to their original new
coating and causing a corrosive reaction with the substrate. condition, substantially reducing repair and maintenance costs.
Coatings can be porous, and capillary action can permit liquids to
APPLICATIONS
reach the substrate, Sealing with a material like Teflon can provide
There are many commercial applications for thermal spray
a nonstick surface. Other sealing materials commonly used are
coatings including:
glyceride resins, phenolic varnish, and thermoset plastics. The
sealants can be applied while the coating is still warm and then 1. Pulleys and capstans. V-groove, U-groove, and flat-
absorbed into the pores as the coating cools. After sealing, the bottom pulleys are coated with tungsten carbide or chrome
allowable stock removal is limited to several thousandths of an oxide to provide a highly wear-resistant groove. After
inch without eliminating the sealing properties. If it is necessary to coating, the groove can be ground or polished to any
remove more material to achieve final size, the sealing material desired surface finish. Pulleys can be made from light-
can be applied after finishing. Table 13-5 lists the properties of weight material such as phenolic or aluminum to reduce
commonly used sealers. cost and provide low inertia.
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THERMAL SPRAY COATING
TABLE 13-5
Sealers for Thermal Spray Coatings
Operating
Material Temp., F (C) Application Process Properties and Uses
Anaerobic Sealer 300 to 400 Brush or spray at 60 to Seal large, 0.005 (O.13 mm) pores.
(150 to 200) 180F ( 16 to 82C) Resists petroleum products.
part temperature. Cures in 1 to 2
hours.
Phenolic Sealer 400 (200) Brush or spray at room temperature. Resists acids, salt,
Dries in 1 to 2 hours. and petroleum products.
Glyceride Resin 300 ( 150) Brush, dip, or spray at room Seals thick coatings by
temperature. Dries in 1 hour, superior penetration of deep
complete cure in 1 week. pores. For pump and machine parts.
Vinyl Copolymer- 180 (82) Brush or spray at room Zinc and aluminum corrosion
Aluminum Composite temperature. Dries in 1 hour. resistant.
Silicone Aluminum 900 (480) Brush or spray at room High temperature corrosion
tempemture. Dries in 1/2 hour. protection over aluminum coating.
Teflon 400 (200) Spray and bake. Seals coating and provides
nonstick, slippery surface.
(Heany Industries)
2. Capstans used in the wire manufacturing industry have For journals which have the inner race of an antifriction
stepped, flat-bottom grooves with fused coatings. The wire bearing pressed on, a stainless steel coating is recom-
will wear a groove in hardened steel, but a coating such as mended. This inexpensive material can be applied as thick
chrome oxide will prevent the formation of a groove. After as 0.050 (1.27 mm) and can be machined on a lathe to
coating, capstans are typically ground to precise diameter restore the proper press fit.
so that wire tension can be maintained during the drawing 4. Rolls. Many sizes and types of rolls are coated over their
operation. entire length to provide special properties. Steel mill or
3. Shafts. The bearing surfaces on shafts can be selectively strip mill rolls are coated with HVOF tungsten carbide to
coated with abrasion-resistant materials which will outwear provide maximum wear resistance. Printing press rolls are
hardened steel. If the shaft runs in bushings, either tung- coated with copper or stainless steel to provide ink transfer
sten carbide or chrome oxide will provide excellent wear and adherence. Emulsion coating rolls are coated with pure
and can be ground to tight tolerances. Chrome oxide is the stainless steel for corrosion resistance. Compressor piston
hardest of the two materials. If the atmlication ex~eriences rods are coated with various tungsten carbide alloys to
hieh vibration or shock loadimz, tun~sten carbid~ autrlied provide both corrosion resistance and wear. Carbide coat-
by-the HVOF process would b; recommended. - ings have harnesses ranging from 65 to 72 Rc and can be
ground to 5 microinches (O. 13 microns) surface finish.
Polishing can further refine the surface if required.
5. Pumps and valves. The corrosive and erosive actions of
fluids can prematurely wear internal parts of pumps and
valves. Carbide-based coatings can prolong the life of
coatingOns side cooling r+centsides expensive internal parts, For wear, tungsten carbide pro-
vides suitable hardness and resistance to particle erosion. If
a corrosive fluid is being pumped, a tungsten carbide
chrome carbide alloy will provide both wear and corrosion
resistance. Corrosion resistance can also be accomplished
by coating with stainless steel, aluminum, or nickel.
6. Heat insulation applications. Coatings of zirconium oxide
or magnesium zirconate can be applied to parts to provide
resistance to the flow of heat. The thermal conductivity of
zirconium oxide is only 1.3 watts/mK, compared to 47
watts/mK for steel. In gas turbine and jet engines, these
coatings protect vital engine parts from thermal degrada-
tion and erosion. High-performance gasoline and diesel
engines may have piston domes, heads, valves, and ex-
haust manifolds coated to protect against heat damage and
help provide increased power. These coatings are applied.
Fig. 13-9 Coating sharp corners. (Heany Indu.wrtes) 0.015 to 0.025 (0.38 mm to 0.64 mm) thick.
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HEAT TREATING
7 Vibrato~ feeder bowls and tracks. Aluminum vibratory 4. Machine tight tolerance surfaces after coating. Most parts
feeder bowls experience wear when handling fasteners and can be kept under 250 F (121 C) during cooling.
other parts with sharp comers. A thin coating of tungsten However, the localized temperature at the point of flame
carbide provides wear resistance. A coating surface finish impact will be higher. If there is any change or thermal
of 200 microinches (5.08 microns) gives improved traction distortion, final machining after coating is recommended.
for more consistent feeding of parts. If the coating requires machining, it maybe more econom-
8 Replacement of hard chrome plating. Several thermal ical to machine the final surfaces and the coating in one
sp~ayed materials can replace h-ard c-home plating (this setup.
refers to chrome plating for industrial applications rather 5. If possible, trim or buttress the coating as shown in Fig.
than decorative plating). Materials usually replacing hard 13-10. This eliminates any possibility of edge chipping and
chrome are aluminum oxide for hard, corrosion resistant is strongly recommended forwarder, more brittle coatings
surfaces; molybdenum for low coefficient of friction beat- such as the carbides and oxide ceramics.
ing surfaces; and tungsten carbide for wear resistant 6. Coatings need be only thick enough to accommodate
surfaces. allowable wear. If the wear Iimit on a surface is 0.001
(0.03 mm) it is wasteful to apply a 0,015 (0.38 mm) thick
DESIGNING PARTS FOR coating. Cost does vary with-coating thickness and many
THERMAL SPRAY COATINGS coatings can reapplied asthinas O.003(O.O8 mm).
Maximum advantages can be realized from thermal spray
coatings by the appropriate design of parts. The following guide-
lines should be considered:
1. The useofacoating toprovide a specific property incme
area of a part can permit the use of a less expensive
material for the part. For example, if only the bearing
journals on a shaft need to be hard, the shaft can be made
of low carbon steel or other soft, easy-to-machine metal
and the journals can be coated to provide suitable wear
resistance. Theseconda~ advantage isthatawom coating
can be removed andthepart recrated, and then machined
to original specifications. For many applications, this is
less expensive than replacing the part.
2. Avoid sharp outside comers. Where possible, aradiused
comer can reduce the possibility of coat chipping.
3. Avoid thin sections. Adherence of the molten particles to
the substrate depends upon chilling at impact. A thin
section may overheat and result in an overheated coating
which may be subject to cracking. The substrate may also
experience metallurgical damage or warpage. In general, a
minimum wall thickness of 0.125 (3.18 mm) is recom-
mended. Fig. 13-10 Recommended edge buttress. (Hecmyhuiustries)
HEAT TREATING
Designers direct their efforts toward the production of a resulting stress is minor. But when the shape of a part is such that
functional part requiring minimum machine time and labor. one area cools faster and becomes hard before a thicker area,
Frequently, the part requires heat treating at some stage of its which still is in the process of cooling, stress becomes high in
production. Heat treating is actually a tool to aid the designer in many cases high enough to pull apart the piece.
achieving the goal. This kind of cracking can be minimized by modifying the
This section looks at the effect of quenching on steel that has design to balance the sections, thus improving the uniformity of
been heated to its austenitizing temperature and held sufficient cooling and hardening. Figures 13- 11a and b show how this can be
time to allow full solution. It examines what makes a design good done without changing the basic design of the die.
or bad in relation to the heat treating required.
The source of the stresses acting at various times in the heat Stress Centers
treating cycle is twofold: stresses resulting from the mere appli- Sharp or re-entrant angles act as stress concentration centers,
cation or removal of heat, and those resulting from changes in the and if possible, should be avoided in parts that require heat
steels crystalline structure. treating. Cracks very likely will develop in the comers during
Simple cooling causes a piece to shrink, but the structure quenching, but if the design permits a generous fillet, trouble may
change that develops hardness results in an increase in volume. As be minimized. Fig. 13- 12b shows a small but important improve-
long as these changes occur uniformly throughout a piece, the ment over Fig. 13-12a. In many cases, though, it is impossible to
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HEAT TREATING
Eimzi!l &&
(a) (b) (a] {b]
Fig. 13-11 Without changing the basic design of the die, (b) shows how Fig. 13-13 Generous tlllets, shown in (b), improve the part in (a), in
(a)s desires can be madMed to balance the sections for imrwoved which tight and heavy sections must be near each other. (Metal
cooling a;d hardening uniformity. (Mefal Treating Institute) Treating Institute)
Fig. 13-14 The sleeve in (a) tikely will crack at the sharp corners at the
. . . .- . bottom of the keyway, and the ring almost certainly will take an oval
Fig. 13-12 Sharp or re-entrant angles, shown in (a), act as stress shape when quenching. FWeting the corners and cutting the key ways
concentration centers prone to crackksg. The generous fillet shown in ~pwsite and at 90 to each other (b) will avoid the swoblems. (Metal
(b) is a small but important improvement. (Metal Treating Institute) I%ating Institute)
F?!H!!
The sleeve with single keyway in Fig. 13-14a, although very
common, is a poor design from the heat treaters point of view. In
the first place, there is a good chance for cracking at the sharp
comers at the bottom of the keyway, and the ring is almost certain
to take an oval shape when quenching because of the unbal-
anced section.
Figure 13- 14b illustrates the corrections in design that should
be made. The comers of the keyways should be filleted to pre- (a) (b)
vent cracks, and the keyways should be cut opposite and at
90 to each other to balance the piece so it will stay round
when quenched.
In Fig. 13-15a, the illustration shows the improper design in a Fig. 13-15 The badly balanced part, (a), is tikely to crack. Staggering
double-ended side-mill or spotfacer. Each side of this tool has the teeth and etinrinating the sharp corner at the base of each tooth
corrects the condition, (b). (Metal Treating Institute)
three teeth placed opposite each other. This is a badly balanced
condition in the cross-section of the piece, which is made more
serious by a sharp comer at the base of the teeth. Such a tool is The design of the blanking die in Fig. 13-16a is poor. The
most likely to crack at the junction between the light and set-screw holes, which are in direct line with the sharp angles of
heavy sections. the blanking section, likely will cause a crack. This condition also
This condition may be corrected by staggering the teeth on reduces the land in that area, making the die unbalanced. Figure
opposite sides of the tool and eliminating the sharp comer at the 13- 16b shows a design that is much better.
base of each tooth as shown in Fig. 13-15b. Thousands of dollars are spent each year on the straightening of
Designers of cutting tools should keep the hub and cutting keywayed shafts. The shaft represented in Fig. 13-17a will have a
edge as near to the same thickness as possible. The heavy mass in great tendency to warp when quenched, whereas the shaft shown
the hub will tend to warp and buckle, if not crack, the lighter in Fig. 13- 17b will stay more nearly straight because of the
cutting section. balanced section.
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HEAT TREATING
(a] (b)
Fig. 13-16 Set-screw holes in fine with the sharp angles of the blanking Fig 13-17 The shaft in (a) will have a tendency to warp when
section in (a) probably will crack; (b) contains a better design. (Metal quenched. For the more balanced section, (b), the shaft will help keep
Treating Institute) it straight. (Metal Treating Institute)
PART DESIGN FOR maintaining constant pattern depth, reducing stress risers, and
INDUCTION HEAT TREAT minimizing quenching.
Dimensions of heat treat patterns can be confusing and lead to Patterns ending on the end of a part or in a groove will vary in
difficulty interpreting the desired patterus. depth depending on the induction technique used, scanning or
When the part being heat treated is in the machined condition single shot. The lack of adjacent mass can cause the pattern to curl
shownon the part print, and this same print defines the heat treat around the end and result in a deeper pattern.
requirements, the expected result is clear. However, in many
cases, the part is heat treated in the as-forged, as-sintered, rough Undercut
machined, eras-castcondition with minimal machining. The heat When a pattern is required in an undercut, the undercut depth
treat pattemis shown onthefinished part print, but determininga should not exceed 30Y0 to 50Y0 of the desired case depth. The
surface to reference the heat treat area is often speculation. If depth required in the undercut is generally less than that required
possible, thedimensions referencing thepattem should be froma on the areas adjacent to it. In most cases the case depth will be the
sutiace which can beusedto locate theptiduring heat treat. Any case depth of the adjacent area minus the depth of the undercut.
allowed tolerances must be tighter than the heat treat pattern Undercuts, if too wide and too deep, can pose problems
dimension tolerances. quenching; rounding the inner comers and chamfering the outer
corners can help reduce these problems.
Case Depth
Case depth should be defined in terms of minimum pattern Wall Thickness
length tominimum required case depth. Amaximum case depth Wall thickness should be at least four times the mini-
should be as generous as possible, such as Do Not through mum desired depth, particularly on case depths under 0.125
harden. In cases when it is determined that a maximum case (3.18 mm).
depth is required, a maximum case depth or a maximum heat
affect depth will define the depth. Case depth is generally Holes
determined when the microstructure is 50% martensite. Heat effect Longitudinal holes or hollow areas should have a cross section
depth is measured to where the microstructure is not affected. of at least four times the minimum case depth,
Again, dimensions can be confusing; if the case depth is Transverse holes will generally result in overheating of the
defined on the finished part print and the part is treated before edge parallel to the current flow and underheating of the edges
machining, the heat treat depth must include the material being perpendicular to current flow. The larger the hole, the worse the
removed in subsequent operations. Its important to realize that effect. Also the induction frequency used has a great effect. The
variances of dimensions in the heat treat condition can have an higher the frequency, the worse the effect. The higher frequencies
affect on the final product in two ways. are required for shallower case depths as shown in Table 13-6. A
1. Severe changes can result in an actual depth change since smooth chamfer on the edge of the hole helps this greatly. Holes
the induced energy into the par&and thus the temperature that are angled should not exceed 30 since the reduced mass on
as well as quenchcan vary. one side could cause severe overheating and even melting.
2. The difference after machining of perhaps 0.020 (0.51
mm) and 0.030 (0.76 mm) off a part will result in that Corners and Edges
difference in case depth. Hardening sharp comers and edges should be avoided as
these will tend to overheat, particularly at higher frequencies. A
End Patterns chamfer or radius, the greater the better, will reduce overheating
Ending scanning patterns on straight surfaces will generally on comers.
require about two to three times the case depth. Higher production
rates (that is, faster scan speeds) will produce longer run-outs. Fillets
Ending patterns in discontinuities of surfaces should be avoided. Patterns should be defined to end hefore the fillet radius or to
Changes in shape or diameter should be gradual. Areas such as include the radius. A more generous radius is generally easier to
fillets should have as large a radius as possible. These aid in heat treat.
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HEAT TREATING
TABLE 13-6
Induction Hardening 1045 Steel
Annealed 0.178 0.152 0.126 0.143 0.125 0.096 7.0 7.6 10.5
Normalized 0.144 0.137 0.110 0.108 0.096 0.088 6.4 7.5 10.5
Quench and Temper 0.116 0.103 0.048 0.096 0.070 0.042 6.3 7.3 7.8
Annealed 0.157 0.125 0.063 0.114 0.104 0.057 3.3 2.6 3,5
Normalized 0.122 0.105 0.062 0.093 0.089 0.057 3.2 2.6 4.0
Quench and Temper 0.096 0.074 0.029 0.080 0.066 0.026 3.2 2.4 2.5
*Depth at hardness RC 50
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CHAPTER 13
HEAT TREATING
induction hardeners. As a result, the shorter heat time (time at . The locating surface should be machined to a close toler-
temperature) requires a high temperature to yield similar results. ance.
. Centers and axis must be symmetrical to the heat treat
Part Handling pattern being considered.
The part handli~g considerations for induction heat treating that . Sharp comers can often cause hang-ups on conveyors;
a designer should keep in mind include: breaking these will avoid this problem.
13-22
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER14
ADHESIVE
ASSEMBLY 14-10
FASTENERS WELDED
ASSEMBLIES 14-24
The first step that both parties, user and producer, 3, Is the operator at a workstation or on an
need to take in successful implementation of DFM is assembly line? Moving assembly lines may
to understand each others issues, products, con- require a person to drive fasteners into a
cerns, and capabilities, and to incorporate the other moving target. This can complicate the as-
guy s needs into their planning. If one or the other sembly of complex components, resulting in
party is not knowledgeable of the other side, they fasteners that are improperly installed or
must spend some time learning the other point missing altogether.
of view. 4. Is the drive tool being used hand-held or
From a suppliers perspective that means going to fixtured? Fixtured drive tools drive fasteners
the customer, spending time learning about product better than hand-held ones. Fixtured drive
requirements and assembly procedures, and becom- tools help ensure that fasteners are tightened
ing acquainted with the personnel. In return, the properly and seated square to the work sur-
manufacturer needs to visit the suppliers, gain an face, and result in less worker fatigue.
understanding of their capability, and get to know the 5 Is the drive tool a hand tool, electric, or
personnel. hydrudic? All of the types of drive tooLs
A list of concepts that need to be reviewed and deliver different levels of tightening preci-
considered would include shared design took,, joint sion. Hydraulic drivers offer less precision
milestones, attention to each others processes, than do DC electric drive guns. On the other
shared goals, and finally as much direct interaction as hand, precision electric drive guns can cost
possible. considerably more money.
DFM/DFA relies on cross-functional knowledge. 6, Is the fastener being driven into the work-
In dealing with fasteners, questions such as these piece, or does the operator assemble several
need to be addressed from an assembly point of view: loose pieces with the fastener? Handling sev-
1. Will the fastener be used in an automated eral loose pieces during assembly carries the
assembly? If it is, particular attention must be risk that a component will not be assembled
paid so that parts received at the workstation correctly or in the proper order. Combining
are not contaminated. This may require elec- loose pieces off-line, or as a purchased syn-
tronic sorting by the manufacturer or the end ergistic component, offers the manufacturer
user. Attention must also be paid to the lower inventory COS1and the operator a more
protective cwatings that are put on fasteners. efficient way to assemble.
Some coatings, such as phosphate and oil or 7 What kind of clearance dews the assembly
leaky organics, can foul feed lines causing allow for drive tools? Planning in advance for
shutdowns. ti]ve tool clearance results in a more efficient
2. If assembly is not automated will the work- assembly technique, lessens worker fatigue,
places be fixtured? Fixtured workplaces help and facilitates a better assembled product.
the operator to drive fasteners more easily 8 What type of joining is the fastener expected
during assembly, because the fixturing keeps to do? Fasteners being tightened to yield
the target piece from moving during fastener require a positive drive system that is not
installation. Fi xtured workplaces can also subject to tool slippage. Fasteners being used
help reduce worker fatigue and maladies such on work surfaces where a cosmetic finish is
as carpal tunnel syndrome. required need to be smooth-looking, and must
The Contributors of this chapter are: John H. Bicfdord, P. E., Consultant, Raymond Engineering, Inc.,
Middletown, CT; William F. Barrington, President, Adhesive Information Services, Inc.; Tim McGuire, Manager of
Product Engineering, Camcar/Textron; Michael Mowins, Executive Vice President, Phillips Screw Company; Mark
Rosa, Welding Engineer, Midway Products Corporation; George Sivy, Ph. D., Senior Adhesive Technology
Specialist, ITW Adhesive Systems, A Division of Illinois Tool Works; Thomas H. Via, CMfgE, President, Via
Technologies, Fairfield, CA; Gene J. White, Laser Material Processing Group Leader, Edison Welding Institute.
14-1
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 14
FASTENERS
retain the drive tool during tightening to prevent the tool team from the fastener company was sent in to review the situation
from disengaging the fastener and scratching the work and make recommendations.
surface. A DFM/DFA approach was used to solve the various problems.
9. Is the joint a hard joint that will retain clampload, as in an Seminars were held to teach the nail gun engineers how fasteners
engine block, or is it a soft joint where after a short period function. In return, the fastener personnel were brought up to
of time the clampload will be lost, as is seen in gasketed or speed on the complete assembly procedure for nail guns.
plastic engagement materials? If the joint is subject to loss It became obvious to both parties that as plastic was introduced
of clampload, then a designer needs to consider the use of into various joints that previously were hard joints, clamploads
thread-locking methods, interference-fit class 5 threads, or were not being maintained. The plastic was creeping and allowing
lock nuts. the joint to relax. Also, the seating torques of various fasteners
10. Will the fastener beloaded intention orinshear? The head remained unchanged even after some of the pieces being clamped
strength requirements of a fastener loaded in shear are were converted to plastic causing the parts to crack
much less than afastener loaded in tension. Proper design during assembly.
in various applications needs to consider failure modes. Each joint was reviewed by the DFM/DFA group and eventu-
11. How many pounds of clampload must be generated to ally the manufacturing and post-assembly problems were resolved.
maintain joint integrity during peak service loads? Service Now when a design is proposed, it is only put into place after
load is the force, generated during the use of a product, that review by the involved parties.
must be compensated for with the size and strength In another case, an air conditioning compressor builder was
selection of the fasteners. Many times, knowing this having problems on the line with bolts breaking, and with the
information can allow the use of fewer or smaller fasten- compressor housing being deformed to such a degree that the
ersreducing manufacturing costs. compressors leaked after assembly. The mystery here was that
12. Does the pattern of clampload generated need to be only a very small percentage of the products showed these defects.
localized, or spread over a specific area? Clampload As before, both the compressor company and the fastener
distribution is one of the elements that should be studied to supplier got together and pursued the problems using the DFIW
determine the number of fasteners usedin manufacturing DFA philosophy, It appeared initial] y that the manufacturing
products such as compressors, engines, and soon. process was in control. It was also evident that a good job had been
This type of planning can resuh in a product that is efficiently done of designing the bolts.
manufactured, reduces cost, and gives the consumer a quality Working together, the team devised a test plan that involved
product. Also, CADsoftware isavailahle from fastener manufac- input from all engineering and manufacturing parties. All fastened
turers which allows designers to see how fasteners will fit in an joints were tested and the results indicated that there should be
assembly during the design stage, reducing theneed to prototype. no problems.
A review of some actual case histories will illustrate this. The team got together again and started reviewing the pro-
Over the years, a leading producer of industrial nailing guns cesses. It was during this second review that it was discovered that
had produced a product that was truly second to none. In the spirit something on the assembly line periodically dripped oil on the
of continuous improvement, the company started to incorporate compressors. The problems occurred when the oil flowed into
engineering plastics into its new designs. The hope was to reduce tapped holes. The added lubrication allowed the clamploads to go
part costs, reduce maintenance time, andmore orlessmodemize so far beyond expectations, that either the bolts failed or the
the look of the product. compressor housing was deformed. A 20% (approximate) reduc-
Little attention was paid to what effect these changes would tion in the percent of torque required to overcome friction (head
have in manufacturing and quality as perceived by the consumer. and thread) will result in a 10(WOincrease in the percent of torque
As more and more of individual parts were changed from metal which induces preload.
parts to plastic parts, problems in manufacturing occurred. During early design stages, the question of standard fasteners
These problems included the fact that, in the field, these versus proprietq fasteners usually comes up, Early in the design
hydraulic guns started to leak fluid; several plastic components stage, a decision needs to be made regarding which type to use.
cracked in a relatively short time, and fasteners were loosening Standard fasteners are generic in design, are supplied by a variety
and falling outof various assemblies. Ontheassembly line, plastic of manufacturers, are used in large quantities industry-wide, and
parts were breaking, and it became more difficult to pass the are warehoused to provide large economies of scale resuhing in
various sealing tests that were required. low prices, Proprietary fasteners are typically engineered fasteners
After fighting the problem internally for some time, the designed to do very specific jobs. They are usually manufactured
company asked for help from their fastener supplier. A design on demand to detailed specifications. By definition, proprietary
The Reviewers of this chapter are: Frank Akstens, Director of Communications, Industrial Fasteners Institute; Bud Baeslack, Ph. D.,
Depatiment of Welding Engineering, Ohio State University; John A. Buda, Product Engineer, Unbrako Division, SPS Technologies, ktc,; Hun R.
Choung, Vice President, Technology & Manufacturing, Schnee-Morehead; Ken Dickson, Executive Director, National Fastener Distributors
Association; Kathryn Domenick, Adhesive and Sealant Council Newsletter; Van R. Foster, Manager, Adhesives and Sealants, DAP, Inc.; Paul
R. France, Product Engineering Manager, Unbrako Division, SPS Technologies, Inc.; Dean W. Lamb, Camcar Textron; Robert L. OBrien,
Director, Technical Publications, Technical Department, American Welding Society; Joseph W. Prane, Industrial Consultant, Elkirrs Park, PA;
Jack Sullivan, Accurate Fasteners, National Fastener Distributors Association Technical Committee; Bruce Swacina, Vice President of
Engineering, Corporate Engineering, Camcar Textron.
14-2
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER14
FASTENERS
fasteners are patented, licensed, and/or trademarked by a small ing operations while lowering costs. By utilizing an integrated
group of suppliers. Since proprietary fasteners are nongenetic, approach to fastening, engineers and designers can reduce the
their use increases piece cost; yet the end-use fastening cost may number of assembly operations, the number of components, and
decrease dramatically (see Fig. 14- 1). The true end-use fastening the assembly time required in the manufacturing of new and
cost, rather than the cost of the individual fastener, should be the existing products. Through the use of computer-aided design,
criterion used in formulating a fastening strategy. fasteners can be selected from a library of pre-approved styles,
Proprietary fasteners arc proprietary because they are unique, thus eliminating one-of-a-kind parts and associated inventories.
and perform some task better than a standard fastener. Performing Critical to these efforts is the proper selection of fasteners based on
some tasks better with a slightly more expensive fastener may capability and state of the art fastening technology.
allow for faster installation, resulting in greater productivityy. Today there are numerous techniques available for joining the
Proprietary fasteners may provide a more consistent fastening job separate parts that make up a complete appliance. Selection of the
with less variabilityy, resulting in an increase in quality that is optimum technique is based on an analysis of the joint require-
worth the additional fastener cost. Proprietary fasteners may allow ments during product design. Factors such as clampload, vibra-
for the use of fewer on-line people, by using supplementary tion, maintenance, corrosion, joint geometry, and cost all influ-
automation or less-complicated assembly. ence the selection process. This process is the essence of design
Another area of concern that may help give direction as to for manufacturability theory as it is applied to joints. By critically
whether or not to use a standard fastener is that of product liability. evaluating the capability and flexibility of each joining method it
Manufacturers of proprietary products know specifically what is possible to generate a hierarchy of fastening selection. Figure
their products do and do not do. They can instruct on proper use 14-2 depicts a selection hierarchy based on flexibility. In this
and can provide design and product testing assistance. Knowledge instance, flexibility is a combination of the fastening systems
of how a fastener will react in a specific application is of strength, its ability to be opened and closed, and the required
paramount importance in risk management and liability issues. number of components.
By far, more standard than proprietary fasteners are used by While the use of rivets, tapes, adhesives, fusion bonds and
manufacturers. This trend relates very closely to the critical nature snap fits has steadily increased in recent years, there is an inherent
of the joining being done. A good example of this is automotive weakness in these methods which prevent them from being the
assembly. The fastening of a tail-light lens certainly is not as sole joining technique utilized. They cannot, in most cases, be
critical as the fastening of air-bag components. Also, within an opened and reclosed repeated] y, a common requirement for
automobile there are many times more noncritical joints than appliance maintenance. While these techniques are cost-effective
critical ones. On the other hand, fasteners used in some small they lack the flexibility needed in the assembly of complex
niche markets are highly engineered and made with very special appliances with responsible service lives.
materials and manufacturing techniques. Hook and eye joints have the capability of being opened and
To sum up this discussion on standard versus proprietary closed, but lack structural strength and have poor vibration
fasteners, it should be noted that as more up-front planning is resistance. Latches embody the optimum technology for joints that
done, the need for proprietary fasteners may decrease. require repeated entry but are not cost-effective for universal
application. The result is that threaded joints, with their inherent
FASTENER SELECTION flexibility and moderate cost, are capable of filling the require-
Armlication
.. of modem desirer for manufacturability , theorv. to ments of most joint designs. In Fig. 14-3, the concept of flexibilityy
threaded joints can greatly improve the efficiency of manufactur- es applied to the family of threaded joints.
Fastener Fastening
Proprietary
cost cost
4 P
Number of fasteners used w Industw
Fig. 14-1 Graphic showing how as the proprietary nature of a fastener increases, the piece cost may increase, but the end-use fastening cost may
decrease dramatically. (Carncar/Texmm)
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 14
Fig. 14-2 The fastener selection hierarchy based on flexibility. (PhiUip$ Fig. 14-3 The flexibility ofthreaded joints. (f%illips Screw Co.)
Sciew Co.)
Reduction in the number of required parts is the obvious benefit Selection of a specific drive system is also influenced by
associated with a change from a common bolt/washer/nut assem- factors that are both internal to the manufacturing firm and
bly to a thread forming SEMS (SEMS are unitized assemblies of external. Among the internal factors are previous tilve systems
screws and washers that are supplied as a single component). used, worker familiarity, current part compatibility, and inventory
Recent improvements in the capability of thread forms and drive capacity. Extemaf factors include system availability, end user
systems have made thread forming SEMS even more valuable as acceptance, and system cost.
a cost-effective method for improving joint integrity. In addition to all of the fastener &lve system attributes already
presented, there has been recent research indicating that the
SYSTEM SELECTION incidence of carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) can be reduced through
Once the required characteristics of the joint have been the use ofcertain drive systems. The ability of the fastener to be
established it is necessary to choose a fastening system capable of driven off-angle at low end loads appears to have a pronounced
meeting these requirements. By breaking down a fastener into two effect in lowering the incidence of CTS in workers.
distinct parts, drive system and thread configuration, it is possible While it should be possible to select one drive system that
to optimize each part. Particular attention must also be paid to does it all this is still not a reality. Vertical walled drive
real world considerations that design engineers typically do not systems supply very high torque capability at the expense of
evahsate. Assembly lines often place increased requirements on off-angle drivability. Conversely, the cruciform systems provide
fastener system performance. Typically screws are driven into the enhanced off-angle performance but are prone to the phenomenon
assembly as it moves past a worker. This necessitates the use of a ofcam-out atelevated torque levels. Theengineering team, design
drive system capable of being driven off-angle at relatively low and manufacturing, must still weigh the pros and cons of
end load. Design engineers isolated from the manufacturing floor each system.
typically overlook this type of fastening requirement. Company-wide standardization on several well defined fasten-
To simplify the process even further, selection charts can be ing systems can generate great cost savings as well as improved
prepared that compare various typical application criteria. Table manufacturing efficiencies. The process must be an evolutionary
14-1 contains selection charts for several common drive systems one, however, to avoid potential stagnation of the assembly
comparing various performance criteria. process.
TABLE 14-1
Drive System Comparison
Common
Phillips Poor Good Poor Good Excellent Low No
Pozidriv@ Good Good Good Good Good Medium Yes
SupatiW@ Good Good Good Good Poor Medium No
Robertson
(Square) Excellent 1 Poor Excellent Poor Poor Medium-high No
Allen@ (Hex) Excellent 1 Goodz Good Poor Excellent High No
Torx@ Excellent 1 Poor Excellent3 Good Good High Yes
ARC@
Phillips@ Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent 4 Medium-high Yes
14-4
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 14
FASTENERS
THE IMPORTANCE OF THREADED JOINT of the manufacturing process, but care must be taken to ensure that
QUALITY IN DESIGN FOR SERVICEABILITY the screws can be removed and reinserted during maintenance.
In the last decade, as manufacturers adapted to a truly global The use of engineered plastics as primary materials of construction
market, sweeping changes occurred in design and manufacturing has placed greater demands on the design engineer attempting to
philosophies. Time from initial concept to final production became ensure serviceability. When designing with both filled and unfilled
critical as producers battled to be first in the marketplace. The materials, special care must be taken to ensure adequate stress
result was the widespread adoption of concurrent engineering distribution in the joint area. This necessitates the incorporation of
strategies. Most notable of these was design for manufacturability/ adequate radial relief of holes and often additional material in the
assembly (DFM/A) pioneered by University of Rhode Island areas surrounding screws. Thread forms become critical and
professors Geoffrey Boothroyd and Peter Dewhurst. Their com- special attention must be paid to the interaction of the threads with
puter-interactive approach challenged the design engineer to create the base material. Special relieved thread forms have been
products that optimized design efficiency by minimizing parts dcvclopcd that allow improved clampload in resilient material
connt and maximizing ease of assembly. without generating excessive burst stress. Care should also be
Application of DFM/A resulted in products that had fewer taken to ensure that environmental aging of material does not
threaded fasteners than their predecessors. In some cases the use of affect long term joint integrity. In areas prone to aging and in some
threaded fasteners was eliminated altogether in favor of mechan- of the softer unfilled materials, the incorporation of molded-in
ical snap-fits (primarily used in assembly of flexible plastics) or metal threaded inserts can solve most problems.
permanent adhesive bonds. While these methods were economical
and yielded modest improvements in manufacturing efficiency,
they were not capable of the repeated openings that are required Tool Availability
for service. The capability of snap-fits improved as they became Tooling used in the assembly of the product is often considered
more widely used and understood, but they are still not a reliable by the design engineer. However, when designing for serviceabil-
joining method for products with extended service life or mainte- ity, attention must be paid to the types of tools available to repair
nance requirements. personnel and, in some cases, consumers. Typically, major
The limited capability of snap-fit joints, combined with the appliances and other complicated machines are repaired by trained
inability of adhesives to be reopened, led to the emergence of technicians. These individuals frequently carry tool kits that are
design for serviceability (DFS). The primary tenet of this design stocked with all of the fastener removal tools that may be required.
strategy is that the engineer should not only consider how the When new products are designed, the engineer concerned with
product is assembled but also how the product is disassembled and repairability should choose a fastener drive system compatible
re-assembled during expected maintenance. Major components with the tools already carried by service engineers and repair
must be either repairable in place or easily removable for replace- shops. If the decision is made to adopt a new drive system, the
ment or repair. This necessitates the use of joining methods that engineer should be held responsible for ensuring that the repair
are capable of repeated disassembly/assembly cycles without network is equipped with the required tools.
degradation of structural integrity. This becomes unmanageable when there is the potential for
Arguably there are numerous joining techniques that meet these consumers to perform repairs. In this case the design engineer is
requirements, but none so well suited as the threaded joint. restricted in the choices of fastener drive systems available. The
Advances in thread forms and drive systems have expanded the average consumer in the United States can be expected to have a
range of capabilities of screws as well as the types of materials that common flat-bladed screwtilver for slotted screws, one or two
can be effectively joined. By carefully selecting fastener features, sizes of Phillips screwdrivers, and a small selection of hex or
joint integrity can be assured throughout the life of the product in open-end wrenches. If the product is destined for Europe the
spite of repeated maintenance. designer must be aware that the typical home tool kit will contain
Factors that must be considered when selecting the right Pozidnv@ screwdrivers in place of, or in addition to, the Phillips
fastener and joint geometry for DFS include: drivers, and that the wrenches will be metric.
Design engineers can overcome these constraints by specifying
. Materials to be joined. fasteners with multiple drive mechanisms. A good example of this
. Availabilityy of tooling. would be an indented hex head screw with a Phillips recess. This
. Fastener accessibility. would allow removal with either a hex socket wrench or Phillips
Potential substitute fasteners. screwdriver. Combination recesses (often a common slot com-
Method of assembly.
bined with a high performance &]ve system) are another approach
. Anticipated removal torque. to the compatibility problem. However, the capabilities of the
Careful consideration must be given to each of these areas in special drive system are often compromised by the removal of
order to assure that the joint meets the anticipated service life material to form the added slot.
requirements.
Joint Accessibility
Materials In order for the joint to be disassembled the screw head must be
Advances in thread forms now allow the use of screws in accessible. If the primary drive system for the screw is a recess,
almost any material. In the past, when machined or cast metal was then straight-line access to the screw head is required unless
the primary base material used in the manufacturing process, special provisions have been made to accommodate angular
common machine screws were widely used. Application of thread misalignment of the removing screwdriver. Similar considerations
forming screws eliminates the need to drill and tap holes required hold true for hex head fasteners designed to be removed with
by machine screws, while providing high strip-out resistance. socket wrenches. Angled box end wrenches can be substituted in
Elimination of these additional operations improves the efficiency some cases if sufficient clearance is available for tool movement.
14-5
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER14
FASTENERS
Accessibility of the joint must also be considered when variables. The traditional response to the resulting uncertainties in
positioning other components. Subassemblies with the shortest joint performance has been to grossly overdesign the joint.
anticipated service life should be the most easily removed. Designers specify more bolts, and/or larger bolts, and heavier joint
Threaded joints that secure these parts should have a minimum members, than would be required if they could more accurately
number of operations involved in their disassembly. If the service predict the behavior of the joint and the magnitude of the more
technician has to remove four other components before he can important variables it will face during assembly and in service.
easily access the two screws that secure a replaceable filter, then Overdesign, while an acceptable answer to most bolted joint
the design engineer did a poor job. design problems, is not sufficient when product performance
and/or safety must be optimized. In these situations it is important
Substitute Fasteners for the joint designer to know the key factors which determine
Occasionally substitution of fasteners occurs on the production bolted joint behavior, and therefore to know some of the things
line. Stock outages, unanticipated demand, or vendors failing to that can improve the chances for successful behavior. These
deliver ontime can all lead tomamtfacturing floor substitutions. factors are discussed below.
Often a similar fastener that is slightly different in length or head
style is used to replace the missing item. Design engineers often BASIC CHARACTERISTICS
are never involved in, nor do they anticipate these types OF THE BOLTED JOINT
of problems. The bolted joint should be seen as a system of springs, with a
However, if the engineer is designing the product for field number of little springs (the bolts) acting to clamp together two or
service requirements some consideration must be given to the more larger springs (the joint members). When properly tightened,
potential substitution of alternate fasteners for lost or misplaced the bolt springs are in static equilibrium with the joint springs;
original parts. This is especially true of products that are poten- each applies force to the other.
tially consumer repairable. The average home owner cannot be
expected to have a supply of the latest state-of-the-art thread Two Types of Bolted Joints
forming screws forglass fiber reinforced ABS. A quick analysis Bohed joints are usually divided into two classifications,
by the design engineer of the impact of substituting a common depending on service loading. If the service loads (created by
wood screw for the original high performance screw can improve weight, pressure, impact, etc. ) are applied more or less parallel to
the products serviceability dramatically. the axes of the bobs, the joints are said to be loaded in tension.
Joints of this sort probably make up the majority of bolted joints.
If the external loads on the joints are applied more or less at
Method of Assembly
right angles to the axes of the bolts, the joints are said to be
While design for manufacturability stressed that products
loaded in shear. Such joints are most commonly found in
should go together easily and efficiently, design for serviceability
structural steel assemblies, and in airframe construction. There are
stresses that once together the same products should also come
significant reasons why airframe manufacturers, in particular,
apart easily. The method used to assemble a product can have a
prefer shear-loaded joints; these are discussed later. Some joints,
dramatic impact on how easily the product is disassembled in the
of course, see a combination of shear and tensile loads. If their
field. A pro&ct that is fastened with high strength through bolted
tensile loads predominate, they are classed as tensile joints; if
joints that are torqued to 75% of yield is not going to be
shear predominates, they are called shear joints. The factors which
disassembled by a technician with a box end wrench. While this
affect the assembly, behavior, and life of tension-loaded joints
example may be extreme it is typical of the design engineering
differ from the factors affecting those loaded primarily in shear.
philosophy that bigger is better.
Products designed for serviceability require closer monitoring
Most Bolts are Clamps
of actual installation torque on the assembly line. Keeping the
The purpose of most bolts is to clamp two or more joint
assembly process in control will assure that screws that were
members together. This is always true for joints loaded in tension,
intended to beremoved forservicing can be removed. Screws that
and is also true for any shear-loaded joint whose integrity depends,
are required to withstand vibration present a special challenge
in part, upon friction forces between joint surfaces (the so-called
since the use of chemical thread locking compounds can prevent
faying surfaces of the joint). In general, the life and behavior of
field removal.
tension joints depends to a large extent upon the magnitude and
stability of the clamping force exerted by the bolts on the joint.
Removal Torque This is also true but to a lesser extentof friction-type shear
Design engineers commonly calculate the torque required to joints. Even in friction-type shear joints, however, the bolts act in
effectively achieve desired clampload in threaded joints. Removal part as shear pins, and their shear strength determines the ultimate
torque required is a much harder number to anticipate. A screw strength of the joint. Pure bearing-type shear joints depend entirely
that required 15 pound-inches (1.69 N.m) of insertion torque may on boh and joint shear strength. Clamping force in these joints is
require as much as 60 pound-inches (6.76 N-m) or more for relatively unhnportant.
removal if it has been subjected to stress, corrosion, or other
adverse environmental conditions. To assure fastener removal, Joint Behavior Depends Upon Stored Energy
chive systems should be utilized that are capable of achieving these When the bolt springs are tightened, they are stretched, and
elevated removal torques. The joint should also be designed to the joint springs are compressed. A distorted spring stores
minimize detrimental factors that may cause the screw to bind. potential energy, so an assembled bolted joint is an energy storage
device. The clamping force exerted by the bolts on the jointand
THE BOLTED JOINT vice versa is created by this stored energy. Unlike the bonded
The bolted joint is a surprisingly complex machine element, or welded joint, therefore, the bolted joint might be considered
whose behavior and life are affected by literally hundreds of to be alive.
14-6
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 14
FASTENERS
Crushed gaskets
Damaged Ioint members.
Braken or yielded baits.
Stress corrosion cracking
Hydragen embrittlement,
Brittle fracture.
Fatigue.
lb]
Failures encouraged by insufficient clamplng farce:
Self -loosening
Joint slip.
Fig. 14-4 An assembled bolt and joint whkh an store a lot of potential Leakage.
enerev is more aDt to have a Iorw and trouble-free tife than one which Fatigue.
can ;nly store a-little energy. ~he short, stubby bolt and thin joint
members of(a), ahove, will asuatty cause more problems than the less
stiff bolt and joint springs in (b). Fig. 14-6 Joint failure modes.
14-7
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER14
FASTENERS
Failures Caused by Excessive Clamping corrosive environment then the bolts may fail by stress corrosion
Force cracking. The common weapons against SCC are proper selection
Excessive clamping force can grossly embed nuts and bolt of bolt material and restrictions on the stress levels within the bolt.
heads in joint surfaces, can crush gaskets, warp or rotate joint Identifying safe, maximum stress levels safe bolt preloads, for
members, or lead to bolt failure when service loads are added to example will often involve fracture mechanics and laboratory
assembly preloads. experiments. An expert should be consulted.
High stress levels in the bolts can also encourage stress Another form of stress cracking, hydrogen embrittlement, is
corrosion cracking or hydrogen embrittlement. If working loads also encouraged by high stress levels. The most common way to
are cyclical, a high alternating load can encourage fatigue failure combat embrittlement, however, is not to limit clamping forces
as well. Insufficient clamping force is often to blame, because the (stress levels) but, rather, to prevent hydrogen from being trapped
external load can completely unload the joint, thereby causing the in the crystal lattice of the bolts. Proper selection of bolt coating
fastener to take excessive stress. materials and manufacturing procedures will normally achieve
this. However, the designer should also consider the potential for
application-induced atomic hydrogen (that is, environment or
corrosion) and take necessary precautions.
Failures Caused by Insufficient Clamping Shear loaded joints. Most joints loaded primarily in shear are
Force less dependent upon correct bolt tension or preload than are
Because there are more mechanisms which decrease stored tension joints. The bolts are more important as shear pins than as
energy levels than increase them, failures caused or encouraged by clamps. Bolt tension, preload, and stored energy levels are
too little clamping force are far more common than those caused required primarily to retain the bolts, rather than to provide a
by excessive force. Major failure modes in this category include: particular amount of clamping force. As a result, such joints are
. Self-loosening. High friction forces between male and fe- less sensitive to many of the factors which make correct assembly
male bolt threads, between bolts and joint members, and and behavior of tension-loaded joints so difficult to predict or
between joint members themselves, help the system resist achieve (see Fig. 14-7).
the vibratory, thermal, or shock loads which cause self- This is especially true if the bolts are used in interference fit
loosening. If stored energy levels and clamping forces are holes, as is common in airframe construction. Airframe designers,
low, friction forces will also be low. This is probably the in fact, have done a remarkable job of eliminating many of the
most common form of joint failure. variables and problems affecting bolted joints, through their
Joint slip. Low faying surface friction also allows joint extensive use of interference fit shear joints.
misalignment or slip. This can cramp bearings, lead to This does not mean that shear joints are totally immune to the
fretting corrosion, cause uneven distribution of stress within problems which plague tension joints. Cyclic shear loads, accom-
a structure, or cause fatigue failure of joint members under panied by insufficient preload, can lead to self-loosening of the
shear loads. fasteners or to fatigue failure; but this is a failure of the joint
. Gasketed joints will leak if clamping forces are too low. plates, rather than of the bolts. Stress corrosion cracking and
Fatigue failure is more likely if the bolts are subjected to an
hydrogen embnttlement can also be encountered in shear joints,
alternating load, often called a large excursion in load. For and can influence the upper limits placed on preloads.
complex reasons, high bolt stresses usually reduce load
excursion and therefore extend fatigue life. There are times,
however, when higher bolt tension merely increases the
stresses in the bolt without decreasing the maximum- THE IMPORTANCE AND DIFFICULTY OF
minimum swing in the load. Higher bolt stress in this case CORRECT ASSEMBLY
would be detrimental if total loads on the fastener exceed its The behavior and life of a bolted joint depend to a large extent
capability. upon the amount of preload exerted by the bolts on the joint, and
that, in tom, depends upon the amount of potential energy stored
in the joint. Too much force/energy leads to one group of failure
Optimum Clamping Force modes; too little leads to another group,
Optimum clamping force is affected by tensile and shear
loading of joints.
Tension loaded joints. In general, joints under tensile load
will perform better, and live longer, if the bolts exert the The Preload is Created During Assembly
maximum clamping force the parts bolts, joint members, gas- These all-important preloads are not created by high-qualhy,
kets, etc.can stand. The higher the bolt stresses created during properly designed parts, although those things are important. The
assembly, the more energy the system can lose before its remain- forces themselves are created, in large part, during assembly, by
ing clamping forces are too low to resist self-loosening, leakage, the mechanic or production line operator using the tools and
fatigue, and/or failure. procedures defined by the designer or manufacturing engineer.
Deciding how much clamp force the parts can stand is often Creating an exact amount of preload, time after time, is virtually
difficult. The static strength of the bolts, bolt threads, and joint impossible, because of the large number of variables which affect
members is fairly easy to estimate. The crush strength of a gasket, the assembly process.
however, can be a function of operating temperatures, contained Sophisticated experiments have identified 74 variables, each of
pressure, type of contained fluid, or materials. which has a statistically significant effect upon the relationship
If high strength, highly stressed bolt materials are used in a between the torque applied to an individual bolt and the resulting
corrosive environment and even humid air may qualify as a tension or preload (stored energy) created in that bolt. These
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER14
FASTENERS
LX
LX
LX
}d
(a) (b)
Fig. 14-7 (a) Bolted joint loaded in shear; (b) bolted joints loaded in tension.
variables include such things as the finishes of the bolts, nuts, and Using poor bolt andjoint springs canalso make assembly
other parts involved; the hardness of each, the lubricity of each much more difficult and make ioint and moduct misbehavior or
part, the speed with which the parts are tightened, fits, contact failure more likely. A short, stu~by bolt, f~r example, with a small
pressures, and so forth. length-to-diameter ratio, can store only a little potential energy. It
Additional variables, often hundreds of them, affect the results does not take much vibration or embedment or thermal cycling to
when a group of bolts is tightened in a given joint. Variables here dump the energy and leave the bolt unstressed and without
include the stiffness and flexibility of the parts involved, the clamp force.
sequence in which the bolts are tightened, the tightening proce- A very thin, stiff joint member is an equally poor energy
dure, the type of tool used, the skill of the mechanic, the storage device. This is why sheet-metal joints are so apt to rattle
parallelism of joint members, the perpendicularity of bolt holes to loose. Composite materials, whose behavior is not fully elastic,
joint surfaces, whether or not the fasteners are new or reused, etc. are also poor springs and increase assembly difficulties.
Factors such as hole misalignment, purposeful bolt-hole interfer- The designer must give extra attention to the assembly proce-
ence, or distorted joint members can have an especially large dure if poor springs of this sort are involved. In many such
effect on results. situations it might be advisable to use special vibration-resistant
fasteners, nonthreaded fasteners such as lock bolts or rivets, or
welded or bonded joints whose behavior does not depend upon
The Designers Role stored energy.
Because of the difficulties involved, very sophisticated equip-
ment has been developed for the assembly of those critical joints
whose behavior will affect product performance or safety. Most of
this equipment uses torque and/or turn-of-fastener information in a SUMMARY
variety of ingenious ways, toimprove theaccuracy of thepreloads This section has emphasized proper design of the fastened joint
created during assembly. Ultrasonic equipment is also emerging and subsequent selection of the necessary fastener. With the
which can directly measure changes in length or tension in constant desire to maintain customer satisfaction, and the increas-
fasteners, and is already being used for production equipment ing attention of manufacturers to product liability, the designer
calibration and forquality audits. Thedesigner should be aware of should also consider the importance of procuring quality fasteners.
the capabilities and limitations of the available options, and should Sometimesit may be necessary to spec in particular fastener
design critical joints, at least, with the assembly uncertainties manufacturers who have reputations for supplying consistent,
firmly in mind. quality parts. This can provide advantages beyond ensuring
The designer should be especially conscious of the difficulty of product integrity. Specifying quality manufactured fasteners can
tightening bolts correctly if they are located in difficult-to-reach reduce the need for incoming inspection, thus reducing lead and
pockets or comers. Inaccessibility is often a major factor in assembly time, and can also reduce the potential for fastener
failures caused by too little preload. related problems during the actual installation/assembly process.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER14
ADHESIVE ASSEMBLY
ADHESIVE ASSEMBLY
One of the oldest technologies is the use of adhesives for Where possible, full-scale testing is appropriate; where it is not
joining two or more materials together. While early man drew possible, fractional scale model testing can provide relevant data.
upon the surrounding environment for raw materials with which to Factory trials with anticipated production equipment are neces-
make adhesives, todays engineering and manufacturing special- s~dependence on laboratory or workshop bench trials may
ists can choose from an ever-expanding cross section of natural have disastrous consequences.
and synthetic compounds. However, while the choice of adhesives Adhesive bonding is not a direct substitute for other assembly
available for manufacturing increases, so does the complexity in methods. Thorough analysis of component requirements and
choosing the appropriate adhesive for a given component design. testing will determine the effectiveness of any joining or fastening
Tens of thousands of adhesive formulas are available for product process, once individual characteristics are factored into the
assembly, each with its own advantages and disadvantages for the equation for each alternative.
manufacturing process.
Inherent in the decision to use adhesives for product assembly ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF
is the need to design the component and production process for ADHESIVES
adhesive bonding rather than adapt from another fastening Both advantages and disadvantages accrue to the manufacturer
method. Basic characteristics of the surfaces to be bonded, the who chooses to use adhesives in tbe assembly process. Many of
type of adhesive chosen, production facility limitations, the cost of the factors must be considered early in the design stage, to
materials and processes, final product appearance, anticipated properly account for the variables introduced into the process.
mechanical stresses, and environmental exposure constrain the use Failure to design a product specifically for adhesive bonding often
of adhesives in manufacturing. In some cases, adhesives should results in a poorly constructed product that does not incorporate
not be used, or should not be used as the only attachment the advantages that adhesives offer. These advantages include:
mechanism (aircraft skins, for example). In other cases, adhesives
are the only practical method of product assembly. Only a l. Better stress distribution. Applied stress to an assembled
complete design and stress analysis of the component, assembly component is spread over the entire bonded surface as
process, and working environment can provide answers on the compared to a concentration of stress with a mechanical
suitability of a proposed construction. fastener.
2. Larger stress bearing area. Adhesives typically bond the
Many factors influence the successful application of adhesives
entire contact area between two surfaces, whereas mechan-
in product assembly. Foremost among these factors is the choice
ical fasteners hold together only a small portion of the
of an adhesive (or group of adhesives) that will effectively bond interface.
component materials. For any given set of paired substrates, there
3. Superior fatigue resistance. Under dynamic load, the
are often several adhesive types and, within a defined type of
polymer chain structure of an adhesive readily absorbs and
adhesive, several formula variations from a variety of suppliers
releases energy better than other forms of fastening.
that will provide adhesion to those substrates. The determination
Frequently, a screw or bolt may have a higher hardness
of the appropriateness of any adhesive bond requires correlation to
than the substrates being fastened. Vibrational fatigue will
previously established design parameters.
focus around such a fastener, and often causes a localized
The level of surface preparation of the substrates almost always distortion or destruction of the substrate.
has a significant impact on adhesion properties. Minor variations 4. Smooth-surface assemblies. Noprotrusions of mechanical
in adhesive and adherend modulus, changes in joint design, fasteners occur with adhesive bonding, permitting the
adhesive film thickness, the precision with which assembly is design ofmore aerodynamic shapes.
conducted, the completeness of product cure (if required), and the 5. Sealed joints. An adhesive bond line acts as a natural
presence or absence of bond-line defects all have a bearing on the barrier tothe passage of moisture, gas, orothercontami-
success or failure of an adhered assembly. The choice of a type of nants. Mechanical fasteners require holes between sur-
adhesive often limits the available assembly methods, even though faces, which often expose edges to galvanic action or other
many adhesive types can be modified to encompass several deteriorating environments.
production procedures. The choice of certain methods of produc- 6. High strength-to-weight ratio. Even though adhesives are
tion can impose limitations on the types or grades of adhesives that spread over a large area to bond surfaces together, the
can be used. Further, the choice of a certain adhesive type often quantity ofadhesive providing performance strength sim-
may require additional capital expenditures to accommodate the ilar to a mechanical fastener is quite small (usually mea-
unique product characteristics. sured in grams per square foot or meter). Better stress
The design process necessitates a level of testing to verify that distribution often can allow lighter weight substrates to be
a given adhesive will bond two chosen surfaces together. Testing incorporated into the design.
should simulate, as close] y as is feasible, the anticipated stresses 7. Easy assembly .Manyadhesive operations areadaptableto
an end-product will experience. It is important to note that partial or complete use of automation and robotics. Certain
calculated stresses and reported properties of adhesives and adhesive types allow for quick handling strength toperrnit
substrates may not accurately reflect performance under dynamic continuous operations or packaging and shipping.
conditions. Even though adhesive yield points may be higher than 8. Improved dimensional stability. Where substantial differ-
the calculated bond-line stresses, certain dynamic situations can ences exist in the coefficients of thermal expansion of
and will cause product failure at levels well below those values. jointed substrates, aproperly chosen adhesive will absorb
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER14
ADHESIVE ASSEMBLY
the generated stresses and help maintain the integrity of the 8. Assembly life limitations. Environmental exposure can and
assembly. will impact the longevity of the bond line. Each adhesive
9. Lower cost. The cost of many adhesives is quite low, as are type exhibits varying degrees of resistance to different
several application processes, such as brushing, roll coat- operating conditions; matching the adhesive to those con-
ing, or extrusion. The use of lighter weight materials ditions is vital.
(because of better stress distribution) and high-speed op- 9. Limited temperature range. Most adhesives are confined to
erations (with quick-setting adhesives) usually saves ma- functioning within the -50 F to 350 F (-46 C to 177 C)
terial costs, production time, and labor costs. range. Some, such as the thermoplastics, operate within an
10. Joining dissimilar materials. Variations in substrate thick- even tighter range. Other specialty adhesives provide wider
ness and composition are easily accommodated with adhe- ranges of resistance but are often limited in terms of
sive bonding. Some products cannot be produced in any bonding properties.
other way. 10. Operations can be expensive. Capital expenditures for jigs
11. Modifiable for specific properties. Electrical conductivity and fixtures and ovens can be more expensive than for
or insulation and thermal conductivity or insulation are other fastening methods. In addition, higher paid skilled
examples of the wide latitude available in compounding a operators may be necessary along with specialized training
single adhesive polymer. Changes in viscosity (solution programs. Disposal of hazardous wastes is becoming more
thickness), color, hardness, cure time, and other properties expensive.
are the types of fine-tuning necessary to fit an adhesive to 11 Government regulations. Federal, state, and local agencies
a set of substrates and into a production process. impose a variety of restrictions on the shipment, use,
As may be anticipated, where there are substantial advantages storage, handling, and disposal of hazardous and toxic
to using adhesives, there will also be limitations to their use. The substances.
design process must include an analysis of the limitations of each
adhesive or adhesive process being considered, to minimize SURFACE PREPARATION
production and product problems. To optimize the advantages and minimize the limitations when
1. No universal adhesive. Although many adhesive types are using adhesives necessitates the involvement of adhesive profes-
quite versatiie, no single answer exists to solve every sionals early in the design process. Adhesives of almost every type
adhesive application. Most adhesives are substrate specific are substrate specific, some more than others, and an adhesive
and process dependent. Each manufacturing process and expert can provide guidance on which types of adhesive may be
defined set of substrates determine which adhesive is most suitable for a given application. Materials are chosen in the
required. design process to accomplish specific end-use objectives. Often,
material choice is limited by the adhesive available to join parts
2. Adhesive strength is directional. Generally, adhesive
together in the chosen application and bonding method. Con-
bonds are stronger in shear than in peel, stronger in tension
versely, locking in the materials to be used in the product will
than in cleavage. Special design considerations are neces-
often limit adhesive and process choice. Proper consideration of
sary to accommodate these properties.
EPA and OSHA regulations imposes further restrictions on adhe-
3. Surface preparation is essential. Good and consistent
sive choice.
adhesion of the substrates depends on the use of an
In some cases, certain materials must be chosen for end-use
appropriate surface treatment. The amount of surface
product performance. To overcome some of the limitations im-
preparation required is determined by the amount of
posed by this early choice, a variety of surface preparation
contamination, the difficulty in obtaining adhesion (due to
techniques are available to improve bond line characteristics.
the nature of the substrate), and the reliability required of
Other than the choice of the right adhesive for a given pair of
the finished assembly.
substrates, no single step in the bonding process has more impact
4. Special tooling requirements. Fixtures and jigs, mixing on adhesive effectiveness than surface preparation. It is important
equipment, presses, tilers, and curing ovens may be to note that inadequate or nonexistent surface preparation neces-
necessaq to allow for adhesive strength development. sitates the use of stronger, and usually more expensive, adhesives
5. Drying or gel time factors. Some adhesive types, such as to develop the desired performance level. A small investment at
solvent and water based, require a waiting time to evapo- this level of product fabrication often saves in total cost through a
rate volatiles. Multiple-component and moisture-activated reduction in rejected parts and warranty claims, and by allowing
products require a time allowance for gel time or set time. the use of less expensive adhesives. An illustration of this was
6. Cure time. Most thermosetting adhesives require time, provided several years ago when various levels of surface prepa-
heat, and pressure to achieve full strength. Time can be mtion were evaluated on a standardized set of substrates and a
measured in seconds to weeks, temperature from ambient single adhesive. In lap shear, the adhesive yielded approximately
to elevated, and pressure can be hand contact to heavy 450 psi (3. I MPa) on the substrates as received. By varying the
presses. Each adhesive type, and several within a type, has type of surface preparation techniques employed, and by combin-
a distinct set of process parameters that must be included in ing several different techniques, the same adhesive attained over
a process design. 3,000 psi (207 MPa) lap shear strength. 1
7. Bond inspection is difficult. The bond line and the adhe-
sive are hidden from view in the typical overlap constmc- Functions of Surface Preparation
tion. While some nondestructive tests exist which provide The various procedures employed in surface preparation de-
a determination of adhesive film continuity, none provide pend, to a great extent, on the surfaces or materials being treated.
an accurate analysis of strength properties. Physical testing The primary reason for using any cleaning procedure is to remove
of completed products on a sampling basis can prove existing contamination which may be on the substrate. Process
expensive. oils, dirt, wax, mold releases, atmospheric contamination, and
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CHAPTER14
ADHESIVE ASSEMBLY
surface oxidation may have to be removed to enable the adhesive are sources of information on many processes. The American
to properly wet out the surface. In some procedures for certain Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) provides several
materials, the intent is to deposit a controlled oxide layer (anodize) recommended techniques for cleaning materials.
or provide a boundmy layer of primer or other coating that There are four basic categories of surface treatment: washing,
provides a more compatible surface for the chosen adhesive to mechanical removal, chemical, and other. Each category is briefly
bond. With other materials, such as plastic, wood, or masonry, described. In all cases, testing for adhesive performance-before
control of absorbed moisture is necessary to achieve the lCVC1of and after surface preparation techniques are employed is recom-
adhesion desired. mended to verify the effectiveness and completeness of the
Often, it is appropriate to change the nature of the surface to be individual process. Many processes are involved and require close
bonded, to improve bonding characteristics. Low polarity and control of specific details, such as temperature, time, and concen-
relatively inert materials, such as polyethylene, require processes tration of treatment solutions. Training workers to conduct these
which increase surface activity. Controlling the surface finish processes properly and safely is highly recommended. In addition,
through abrasion or grit blasting can match the roughness of the many processes use highly toxic, corrosive, or hazardous ingre-
substrate to the viscosity of the adhesive, which improves cover- dients which require compliance with EPA and OSHA regulations.
age. Many chemical treatments change the nature and character- Washing. The use of flammable or nonflammable solvents,
istics of the surface to be bonded. water, or detergent solutions can effectively clean most surfaces.
Solvents and water dissolve contaminants, while detergent and
soap solutions emulsify the contaminants. In both cases, monitor-
Intensity of Surface Preparation
ing the wash solution is necessary to prevent possible recontami-
The type and degree of surface preparation used depend on a
nation from a dkty solution or cloth. Methods of washing inchrde
variety of factors, many of which are interrelated, and all of which
a simple dampened cloth wipe, immersion baths in ambient or
must be considered in the design stage. First and foremost is the
warmed solutions, spray or vapor, and ultrasonic decreasing.
question of which process will be compatible with the chosen set
Detergent- and soap-cleaned surfaces require a clean water rinse to
of substrates. Many plastics are sensitive to specific solvents, but
remove soap residues.
inert to others. Paper, wood, and fabrics are sensitive to water, as
Mechanical removal. Physical scrubbing of part surfaces
are some plastics. Abrasive techniques are generally not recom-
removes scale, rust, oxides, and contaminated layers. A surface
mended for very thin or plated materials. Many substrate/adhesive
wash is generally recommended prior to the use of a mechanical
combinations require nothing more than a dust-free surface, since
treatment, to avoid scouring gross contaminants into the rough-
the strength of the adhesive far surpasses the strength of the
ened surface. Abrasion is accomplished by sanding, grit blasting,
substrate (for example, paper, foam, and fabric). Some adhesives
or wire brushing. The degree of finish desired, substrate thickness,
have the capability to penetrate normal contamination.
A second area for consideration is to determine the type of and substrate type determine the grit size and may require
successive treatments with several grit sizes. Machining the old
contamination most often experienced with the surfaces to be
finish to expose fresh layers of substrate can also be effective. Air
bonded, and the ease with which that contamination may be
blasting, dusting, or washing after mechanical treatment removes
removed. Machine oils found on metal, plastic, and ceramic parts
any residual ground surface contaminants that may interfere with
often require decreasing by solvent or detergent solutions. Mold
subsequent treatments and bonding.
releases for plastic and rubber can be difficult to remove and can
Chemical treatment. One effective surface preparation tech-
cause significant bonding problems.
The initial bond strength required of an adhesive is determined nique is a chemical etch or treatment of the substrate to be bonded.
Both physical and chemical properties of the substrate can be
by how well the assembled product has to hold together to reach
altered to improve adhesive wetting and bondability. Most chem-
the next fabrication step, or to withstand the rigors of travel for
ical treatments require one or more cleaning operations, to remove
end-use application. Clean and prepared surfaces promote faster
adhesive wet out, and usually develop strength faster, thus contamination, to prevent degradation of the solution, and to
enabling quicker cycle times. If a higher ultimate bond strength or insure optimum interaction between solution and substrate. Most
better durability is needed, properly prepared surfaces will help often, the surface is washed or immersed in a bath containing an
achieve these goals. Certain preparations and treatments permit acid, base, oxidizing agent, chlorinating agent, or other highly
sensitive surfaces and adhesives to withstand specific end-use active chemicals. Virtually all of the chemical treatments require a
conditions better. stop bath or a clean water rinse after processing.
Obviously, surface preparation techniques currently available Other treatments. A wide variety of treatments are specific to
cannot solve all existing bonding problems, nor can these tech- certain substrate types, such as drying for wood and plastic. Flame
niques make the wrong adhesive work where it was not formulated treatment, high-intensity UV exposure, and plasma treatment are
for working. Costs are also a major factor to consider, since there generally used on numerous types of plastic to increase surface
will always be limitations as to what is achievable and practical activity. Several electrical processes are available, including
within a given manufacturing process. Component size and the corona discharge, anodizing, and electroplating. Newer tech-
quantity to produce may limit the techniques available for use. niques include ion implantation, laser scouring, chemical vapor
Sometimes, the alternative choice is a stronger or superior adhe- deposition, and thermal spraying.
sive with limited surface preparation, rather than a suitable
BOND LINE DESIGN
adhesive with involved and expensive preparation processing.
The strength of an assembled product is dependent on a
multitude of factors, but one of the most significant is the design
Surface Preparation Methods of the adhesive bond line. While the choice of substrates, part
Methods available for treating specific substrates are far too geometry, surface preparation, manufacturing procedures, and
numerous to be discussed in detail in this chapter. In addition, new quality control play a role in adhesive performance, designing for
technology is being developed at a rapid pace. References 2 and 3 adhesive assembly is of utmost importance. The design must
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER14
ADHESIVE ASSEMBLY
factor in any and all stresses generated by part configuration and stress cancause thethinner substrate topeel. Impact anddead load
the manufacturing procedure. However, the basic characteristics are additional forms of stress loading, but are usually considered
of the chosen adhesive play an overriding role in the final design. variations in form of lap or tensile shear.
Good product design practice will minimize any stresses that Impact stress has the load applied virtually instantaneously,
the assembled product may experience. Proper choice of joint while dead load stress is a constancy applied load over time.
design, anticipation of end-use environmental exposure condi- Fatigue is a measure of the ability of a component to resist
tions, and an understanding of the necessary damage tolerance cyclical conditions such as tension and release or flex and release.
limits are required to complete the design process. All of this must Virtually all components and products experience a cyclical
be accomplished within the targeted time frame at the established loading of some sort in end-use applications, if only from
production cost goals. temperature variations. It is important to note the frequency and
There are some differences in designing joints for rigid and intensity ofthose applied stresses. Cyclical loading generates heat
flexible bonds, although many general rules will apply. In the atthe stressed area, causing an adhesive to warm. Most adhesives
sections which follow, if flexibility of the adhesive is a factor in soften as heat is absorbed, and lose marginal strength; however,
performance, it will be noted. Significantly, the flexibility of the flexibility increases asthe adhesive softens, thus better absorbing
adhesive and the substrates is a major determinant of stress some of the applied stress. Since each adhesive has a different
distribution in the final product. Raw test data from coupons can softening point and a different flexibility factor, a determination
only provide comparative data, rather than a true indication of should be made of the potential heat generated during cyclical
performance in use or durability. Therefore, a balance of strength loading and the resulting impact on adhesive performance. It is
properties, flexibility, and resistance characteristics is more criti- worth noting that adhesive bonded structures are generally far
cal than finding the adhesive that possesses the highest lap superior in fatigue resistance to structures joined with mechan-
shear vahre. ical fasteners.
a
t
-- I
a
lap shear cleavage +
t Peel
Tension
i -1
Compression
-.
mlg.
..-..
14-5 mwe
. .
Da.mc types
. .
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER14
ADHESIVE ASSEMBLY
time. Water will be absorbed, to a degree, by virtually every shown should be avoided since any sideways or flexing motion
known organic compound. Fluid absorption, at a sufficiently high places excessive stress directly on the bond line. Depending on the
level, can lead to a degradation of adhesive properties and eventual rigidity of the substrates and adhesive, this motion forms a peel or
failure. Even at relatively low levels of water absorption, basic cleavage stress at the substrate interface which can cause bond line
properties of the adhesive will be altered. In addition, moisture failure. If a butt joint is unavoidable due to other design or process
vapor transmission rates vary greatly between adhesive types. If considerations, several techniques are available to reinforce the
the vapor pressure is high enough, water vapor which passes bond line:
through an adhesive may collect at the adhesive/substrate interface Increase surface area. Where possible, the area to be adhered
and cause corrosion of metal surfaces, loss of adhesion (delami- should have increased surface area. This can be accomplished by
nation), or absorption of moisture by the substrate. increasing the thickness of one or both substrates to reduce
The effects of temperature on adhesives were noted in the flexibility. Using higher modulus substrates will also serve to
previous section. As a general role, adhesive materials will reduce flexibilityy. Another method involves a T or <L shape
increase in hardness and stiffness as temperature falls and vice at the interface. A satisfactory improvement can be obtained by
versa. At a cold enough temperature (glass transition temperature), changing the angle of the interface away from perpendicular,
the adhesive will become brittle and somewhat fragile. At a high providing a scarf joint. These modified butt joints are shown in
enough temperature, the molecular structure of the adhesive Fig. 14-10.
undergoes chain scission and loses resilience (reversion). Cyclical Provide reinforcement. Comer joints can be improved by using
stress, as noted, can cause similar phenomena at a temperature a block or wedge reinforcement. Strap covers, used over, under,
below that which is normally required for reversion to occur. or on both sides of a butt joint, help dissipate stress from the bond
Exposure to a variety of chemical environments requires line. Strap covers may even be recessed into the surface of the
choosing an adhesive which possesses properties of resistance to substrate(s) to provide a smooth finish. Dowels and splines are
such environments. Many adhesives provide a wide range of interior to the bond line and provide strength across the interface
chemical resistance on an intermittent exposure basis, but lack to prevent fracture (see Fig. 14-11).
permanence if immersed for extended periods in certain fluids. Countersink the bond. By using a dado cut or by drilling a
Resistance to weathering, aging, UV light, sunlight, and radiation socket, one substrate can be nested into the other to increase
of various sorts can be compounded into many adhesives to surface area and minimize bond line stress, as shown in
improve performance. Choosing an adhesive that has a natural Fig. 14-12.
resistance to the anticipated environmental stress improves com- Lap joints. Wherever possible, joint design should be oriented
ponent longevity. to a lap seam configuration, since this style maximizes stress
distribution. Lap joints are easy to assemble in most manufactur-
Joint Design ing operations. While part positioning is always important for
Products using adhesives can be assembled in a number of accurate assembly, lap seams do not require the same degree of
different ways. Many design configurations are simply variations accuracy as a butt seam to perform well. Typical lap seams are
of two basic styles, lap seam and butt seam. Some joint styles are illustrated in Fig. 14-13.
easy to use and fabricate, while others are impractical, expensive Even though lap seams generally utilize a larger surface area
to process, or require a great deal of care to align properly. The for bonding strength than do other seam configurations, strength is
objective, however, is to orient the stress load in the direction of not uniform across the face of the seam. Figure 14-14 shows a
highest adhesive strength and to minimize stress on the bond line. standard lap seam with normal stress distribution shown graphi-
Butt joints. Figure 14-9 illustrates a few variations for a simple cally above the seam. The highest stress concentration is located at
butt joint configuration. While easy to make, butt joints of the type the ends of the bond line, with a substantially lower level of stress
IL?
Fig. 14-9 Typical butt joint configurations.
El
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CHAPTER14
ADHESIVE ASSEMBLY
L Block
Strap
strap
Socket
Spline
Fig. 14-11 Methods of butt joint reinforcement. Fig. 14-12 Recessed butt joints.
absorbed by the center of the lap seam. Depending on the tensile cause the substrates to peel apart or fracture, particulady if one
and modulus strength of the substrates, a continued stress on the substrdte is thinner or lower strength than the other.
bond line can cause bending or distortion of the assembly, such as Lap seam strength can be improved by a number of design
is shown in Fig. 14-15. Stress application beyond this stage will changes, some of which are shown in Fig. 14-16.
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ADHESIVE ASSEMBLY
Standard
Corner
Jcggle
Increase surface area. By increasing the length of the overlap of the substrates. Generally, increasing modulus andlor thickness
of one substrate onto the other, stress is distributed over a larger improves stress resistance. The use of a double lap joint, where
surface area. However, for each set of substrates and adhesives an feasible, also will improve stress distribution. Panel reinforcement
optimum overlap length exists, since the incremental increase in helps reduce flexing and stress on the bond line.
performance declines after a certain point. Increasing the width of Change configuration. Sharp step-offs in the substrate can be
a lap seam achieves a proportional increase in strength, whatever focal points for stress concentration. Using bevelled edges will
that width may be. redistribute stress more evenly across the face of the lap area and,
Provide reinforcement. Changing the modulus of the substrates in effect, flatten the stress load line shown in Fig. 14-14. The use
will change the resistance to stress, as will changing the thickness of a double stepped lap seam or a double scarf seam also
Stress load
IJ
Fig. 14-14 Standard lap seam with normal stress distribution.
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ADHESIVE ASSEMBLY
Double lap
II!?=Double corner lap
-..
Klg.
. . . Improved-strength
14-16
. lap joints.
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ADHESIVE ASSEMBLY
and impact very well, but often are low in tensile and shear
performance. Typically, high modulus adhesives do well over
short periods of static load but tend to perform less well under
conditions of dynamic load such as vibration and flexing, or where
the static load is extended over longer periods of time. Ductile 1 ////
adhesives provide resilience to resist stress from flexing, stretch- [
ing, and vibration, but are more susceptible to creep deformation.
Bond line thickness of the adhesive plays an important role in
absorbing stress. The more ductile the adhesive is, the better it is
suited for stress absorption. Consequently, increasing the thick-
ness of flexible adhesives reduces overall stress. It is important Fig. 14-17 Adhesive filet reinforcement,
that the adhesive be more flexible than the substrates, and uniform
in film thickness throughout the bond line. Conversely, hard and Contact Bond
brittle adhesives require a thin bond line; reducing the film Adhesive is applied to each of the two surfaces, and is almost
thickness can improve overall strength characteristics. Brittle always water or solvent based. When the carrier has evaporated
adhesives are more subject to fracture in thicker cross-sections, and flashed off, the adhesive-coated surface is nearly tack-free to
and susceptible to vibrational, impact, and flexural load. other materials but sticks quite readily to itself. Mating the two
The ambient temperature of the work place, the adhesive, and surfaces together with pressure completes the bond. Strength
the substrates will impact properties of the final assembly. development is very fast in most cases, particularly so with rubber
Basically, at higher temperatures adhesives have a lower viscosity polymers such as polychloroprene and nitrile. Different polymers
and flow better to coat surfaces. Differences are often noted and resin mixtures provide differing degrees of tack, open time,
between summer and winter adhesion characteristics, particularly and rate of strength buildup.
if materials are stored outside the factory. High humidity can
retard drying of water-base adhesives, affect the cure characteris- Solvent Reactivation
tics of certain reactive adhesives, and cause solvent-base adhesives A modified form of contact bond or wet bond in which the
to blush or develop a coating of dew on the surface. Humidity adhesive is completely tack free (nonblocking) in the dry state,
changes rapidly as temperature changes, with wide fluctuations even to itself. This enables coated parts to be stacked or nested
noted in the spring and fall. without adhesion occurring. Bonding tack is achieved by wetting
Many substrate materials are anisotropic, such as wood, some the adhesive with an appropriate solvent, including water. Upon
elastomeric compounds, composite plastics, and some laminated reactivation, assembly is completed by mating the two surfaces
materials. Care must be taken to orient joint configuration to together while still wet, like a wet bond, or when the tackiness has
optimize strength properties of both adhesive and substrate. achieved the right aggressiveness, like a contact bond. Postage
Deformation or failure of the substrate during testing is not stamps and envelopes are examples of this assembly method.
necessarily an indication of adhesive performance in the end-use
application. In many cases, testing to failure only indicates that the Heat Activation
strength of the adhesive exceeds that of the substrate. There should Adhesives which develop tack or strength in the presence of
be a balance of adhesive strength properties and end-use require- elevated heat can be either thermoplastic or thermosetting. Solvent
ments. Damage tolerance limits and safety factors must be or water based adhesives, such as nitrile and polyurethane, which
accounted for in the design stage. are coated and dried onto the substrate; some precast films; and
most hot melts are examples of the thermoplastic type. Therrno-
setting types have a curing mechanism which is activated or
ASSEMBLY METHODS accelerated by applied heat. Reactive hot melts, B -stage epoxy
Beyond the determination of adhesive compatibility with the resins, and vulcanizing rubber polymers are good examples of
substrates and suitability for product end use, proper consideration therrnoset systems. Like solvent-activated adhesives, these com-
must be given to the manufacturing process and associated pounds have little or no adhesion to themselves or other surfaces
assembly techniques. These considerations must occur in the when dry or at ambient temperatures. Adhesion increases as the
design phase and can often be a limiting factor in the choice of an parts cool, and pressure must be maintained until adhesion reaches
adhesive. By the same token, the very process that isolates the the appropriate level.
appropriate adhesive to use may limit the assembly methods
available for product manufacture. Pressure Sensitivity
Although adhesives are supplied in a variety of forms and in an Adhesive is generally preapplied to one of the surfaces to be
ever-changing variety of materials, the choice of assembly tech- bonded, or to a carrier film, and is usually a very soft polymer
niques is limited. This does not imply that the number of matrix with a highly tacky consistency. Adhesion develops by
mechanisms with which to apply adhesive is limited; in fact, that pressing the coated surface to the uncoated surface with sufficient
number seems to grow with the number of adhesives available. pressure to effect transfer. Even though the adhesive is not liquid,
The adhesive must, at some point in the fabrication process, be the polymer matrix is soft enough to flow with pressure and wet
fluid enough to flow onto and wet the substrate completely. the other substrate. In most cases, the pressure-sensitive nature of
Insufficient wetting of either surface will trap air or volatiles at the the adhesive is retained permanently, although some do dry up
interface and allow voids to develop, which reduces strength over time and lose tack. Most tapes, such as duct and medical
accordingly. Conversely, an adhesive which is too thin may not tapes, and products like peel-and-stick wallpaper, possess this
provide sufficient film thickness or may even penetrate into porous pressure-sensitive property. Pressure-sensitive adhesives most of-
substrates and starve the bond line. Adhesive bonding processes ten are used in applications requiring low tensile and shear strength
incorporate one or more of the following assembly methods. and are not normally considered a permanent bond.
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be determined. Alternative design configurations can be tested most cases the materials of choice were metals. And for joining
against each other for performance, including testing for variables these metals, manufacturers relied on established methods such as
generated by different bond line designs, surface preparation mechanical fasteners or welding.
techniques, curing conditions, and substrates. With the advent of lightweight metal alloys, corrosion resistant
coatings, and advanced plastics, came a new design freedom.
Monitor Incoming Materials These materials allowed engineers and manufacturers to create and
A standardized test can and should be conducted on all assemble aesthetically unique and energy-saving designs. How-
materials used in the product assembly as received from vendors. ever, many designs still fell short of realizing the new materials
This establishes a level of performance that the adhesive (and other potential, because of the method of joining still relying on
materials) must achieve. It is imperative, however, that the vendor mechanical fasteners or welding.
agrees with the test procedure and required properties. Many Now, factors such as stricter fuel economy requirements in the
vendors will provide certification to specific properties. automotive industry are mandating designers and manufacturers to
Monitor Process Effectiveness derive part performance not solely from material properties but
At the end of the production line, the completed assembly can rather from a balance of design, material properties, and joining
be subjected to a variety of tests. In some cases a complete product methods. Structural adhesives are now recognized as the joining
will be cut into test specimens for testing. If the part size, method to complete this balance. Adhesives offer process and
configuration, or value makes this approach impractical, test performance benefits not possible with fasteners or welding.
coupons or panels can accompany the assembly through the In general, adhesives offer the following advantages:
process, or nondestructive testing can be conducted.
1. Process convenience. No holes need to be drilled and
CONCLUSIONS tapped. As a consequence, the materials integrity is not
Designing for adhesive assembly is acomplicated and some- breached. Exact mating of parts is not critical.
times arduous process involving many levels of detail andanaly - 2. Adhesive dispensing is easily automated. An increasing
sis. The use of adhesives requires an integration of material number of companies manufacture automated dispensing
selection, component design, manufacturing process, and testing and/or mixing equipment. These companies work very
to be successful. This is particularly so when adhesives are closely with the adhesive manufacturers to ensure total
replacing, partly or completely, another fastening or joining compatibility between adhesive, equipment, and process.
method. Adhesives offer many advantages for both end-use 3. Adhesives permit greater design flexibility and allow for
performance and manufacturing, but these advantages are less than the use of dissimilar materials. Adhesives are ideal for
fully realized if the design process does not evaluate all of the substrates of differing coefficients of linear thermal expan-
pertinent factors. sion, since they can flex and move with both substrates.
The selection and use of adhesives for manufacturing is still Stress-sensitive materials such as glass and ceramics,
very much an art, even though considerable progress has been which are not easily drilled, are ideally suited for adhesive
accomplished in recent years toward making the process more of bonding.
a science. Theinvolvement ofadhesive professionals is warranted 4. Adhesives do not corrode. They also act as both sealants
early inthe design program, tolimit thenumber ofvariables in the and insulators.
selection process. Many manufacturing companies appoint a 5. Adhesives save weight, provide efficient distribution of
member of the engineering or production staff to be an in-house stresses, and reinforce the overall structure.
adhesive expert. In addition, virtually all adhesive manufacturing 6. Adhesives are cost-effective, due to labor saving and better
companies have key members of the laboratory or technical overall part performance.
service staffs who can provide guidance and assistance.
A successful adhesive bonded product represents a set of This section emphasizes structural adhesives. There is no
design compromises. Every adhesive choice requires trading universally accepted definition of a structural adhesive. Cagle
certain characteristics to achieve desired performance or process- defines it as an adhesive having sufficiently high mechanical
ability. Asolvent base adhesive may bcpetiect forthe application, properties when cured that it may safely be used for bonding parts
but may require solvent recovery equipment to reduce emissions. in assemblies where human lives, valuable equipment, or both are
A two-component epoxy adhesive may have better coverage per involved. Another definition requires at least 2,000 psi (1 3.8 MPa)
gallon, but requires investment in mixing and dispensing devices. strength on steel/steel lap shear joints.
A water base adhesive may meet most end-use requirements and The first definition would cover all types of adhesives, includ-
have no emission problems, but requires longer drying times or ing contact adhesives, pressure sensitive adhesives, silicones, and
purchase of drying tunnels and increased energy cost. Adhesive A others. Using the second definition, these adhesives would be
may be less expensive per gallon than adhesive B, but require omitted. However, the increasing use of plastics for structural
more intensive surface preparation to consistently meet perfor- assembly is helping to redefine structural adhesives. These new
mance criteria. While there may be valid reasons for early lightweight materials are now used in many applications previ-
establishment of certain criteria and even substrates, locking in the ously dominated by metals. This shift to plastics demonstrates the
adhesive choice too soon may prevent optimization of product and design and material balance mentioned earlier. No longer is high
process design. Only a thoroughly objective analysis of the bulk tensile strength the only property of primary concern. The
compromises involved with each adhesive choice can provide a flexibility and resilience of plastics, coupled with higher strength-
rational decision base. to-weight ratios than most metals, enable them to compete
effectively with metals. In terms of bonding, the 2,000 psi (13.8
DFM AND STRUCTURAL ADHESIVES MPa) lap shear strength is sometimes not possible with plastics
In the past, most engineers and manufacturers relied primarily (using the same test configuration). Many adhesives will form
on the integrity of construction materials for part performance. In bonds to plastics that are equal to or greater than the plastics
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ADHESIVE ASSEMBLY
tensile strength. Also, adhesives can be formulated to consistently Primers or Primerless: Tolerance
give cohesive failure at a designated load, enabling the engineer to of Surface Contamination
design in a failure value. With these factors, adhesives that were Metals such as steel are often received with rolling oils on the
previously not considered structural now are. This section concen- surface. Most adhesives require that this oil be solvent-removed
trates on those adhesives that have been and are currently used in before bonding. Epoxies, anaerobic, cyanoacrylates, acrylics,
OEM applications where strength and durability are essentials. aerobics, and methacrylates are all well suited for steel. Oily
These adhesives include: galvanized steel can be bonded as received with special epoxy
1. One component. adhesives designed to bond through the oil film. Cleaned galva-
. Cyanoacrylates (CAS). nized steel is best bonded with these epoxies or acrylics, meth-
. Heat-activated or UV curable systems. acrylates, CAS, aerobics, or anaerobic. Aluminum and alloys
Hot melts.
present a constant challenge to adhesive manufacturers. Much has
Silicones.
been written concerning the surface of ahrminum and how to
Solvent cements.
prepare it. Acid etching is considered the best method of surface
2. Plural component (mix or surface activated). preparation, but more and more manufacturers are bonding alu-
. Acrylics (mix and surface activated). minum as-received. Epoxies, acrylics, methacrylates, CAS, aero-
. Aerobic acrylic (surface activated). bics, and anaerobic are capable of bonding as-received alumi-
. Anaerobic (surface activated). num; however, durability of bonds under humidity or saltspray is
. Epoxies (mix). generally poor.
. Methacrylates, advanced generation acrylics (mix). Coated metals such as E-coat steel are easily bonded with
Silicones (mix). epoxy, urethanes, acrylics, and methacrylates. Usually E-coat
. Urethanes (mix). pull-off is the dominate mode of failure. Plastics bonding is the
newest challenge to manufacturers and adhesive suppliers.
A number of new thermoplastics and thermoses are currently
on the market. Many of these plastics are designed for strength,
MANUFACTURING WITH ADHESIVES impact resistance, flexibility, and durability; many have low
This section presents and describes processing factors that will surface energies and require primers. Unforttrnatel y, for thermo-
aid the manufacturer in selecting and working with structural plastics, many of the above properties are obtained at the expense
adhesives. The performance benefits offered by adhesives, which of solvent resistance. Current acrylic (not aerobic acrylics) and
are of greater concern when actually choosing an adhesive, will be methacrylate systems are generally capable of very high bond
the subject of a future article. strengths on these plastics without primers; but some of the
The benefits of adhesives for manufacturing are accompanied acrylics do attack the plastics. Urethanes, silicones, and several
by process considerations radically different from those for me- toughened epoxies are also used, but the bonds achieved are
chanical fasteners. These considerations, and how well they fit generally weaker.
with existing factors such as available floor space, production Many of the solvent resistant crystalline thermoplastics are
output, required manpower, and required ventilation, must be bondable as received with methacrylates. Primers are usually
taken into account when using adhesives. required for these materials when using other adhesives. Thermo-
From a processing standpoint the key considerations are: ses such as SMC or RTM are readily bonded with epoxies.
1. cost. Urethanes and methacrylates generally require sanding or primers
2. Primer or primerless. or heat treatment.
3. Gravity feed or transfer pumps.
4. Heated versus ambient feedlines. Gravity Feedable
5. Viscosity variation with temperature. Once the adhesives are received, how does the manufacturer
6, Mix ratio dependence; tolerance to mixing errors. get the material to the mixing and dispensing head? For large
7. Static versus dynamic mixing. applications, many adhesives must be pumped directly from the
8. Rheology; sag versus nonsag. shipping container with transfer pumps. These costly pumps are
9. Gap-filling capabilities. required when the viscosity of the adhesives or adhesive compo-
10. Cure speed. nents is too high to permit them to flow by gravity only. Several
11. Are rejects recyclable? gravity feedable epoxies, urethanes, and acrylics are now avail-
12. Compatibility with subsequent processes. able. These systems have been formulated as free-flowing indi-
vidual components that form a nonsagging, pumpable gel
upon mixing.
cost
Adhesive prices vary from pennies per pound for solvent-borne Heated versus Ambient Feed
systems to as high as $75.00 per pound for cyanoactylate. Many adhesives such as high-viscosity urethanes (for example
Generally speaking, adhesives, regardless of type, that will fill windshield adhesives) are often too thick to be pumped at room
performance requirements, are competitively priced. But price of temperature. In these instances, the transfer pumps and the transfer
the adhesive is only one cost factor; costs for dispensing and hoses must be heated to thin the material. To provide for a faster
application equipment are a major portion of the overall cost. cure, many adhesives require heating before mixing and dispens-
Dispensing/mixing equipment is costly; however, the capital ing. This is often accomplished with heated hoses. Hot melts, as
investment can be justified by the benefits of using adhesives. their name states, require a special melting unit in addition to
Other costs that must be included, such as primer cost, heated heated hoses. Reactive hot melts require an additional air drier,
hoses, price of mixing beads, will be discussed in later sections. since these system cure by reaction with moisture.
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Viscosity Variation with Temperature production bottlenecks, because the parts cannot be moved to the
This is critical for those adhesives that are pumpable at ambient next station for paint or trim or other subsequent operations. Too
conditions. Since assembly plant temperatures vary slightly from fast an adhesive may result in poor alignment of parts during
day to day and greatly from season to season, how an adhesives assembly, since cure is so fast. Also, fast adhesives used with
flow is influenced by these temperature variations must be known. static or dynamic mixem require frequent purges during shift
This information allows pumping pressures to be adjusted to changes or breaks so that the material does not cure in the mixer.
account for these changes, and thereby insures proper mix ratio This saves the cost of the mixer, but increases the amount of
and dispensing times. adhesive wasted.
The term <cure speed is actually a composite term that is
made up of four important curing parameters: pot life or working
Mix Ratio Dependence: Tolerance to
time; open time; set or fixture time; and full cure. Pot life is the
Off-ratio Mixing Errors amount of time a user has to work with or apply the adhesive after
Epoxies and urethanes require a high degree of mix-ratio
it has been mixed; or, for single component systems that react with
accuracy. Because of the reaction chemistry, stoichiometry is
air or moisture, after initial contact with air is made. This property
critical; hence, these systems will not tolerate mix-ratio errors.
is of greater concern to non-automated shops where workers
Insufficient cure and serious loss of properties can result from
generally hand mix and apply adhesive. The term is not applicable
these errors. Conversely, the free-radical cure chemistry of acryl-
to surface cure systems, CAS or hot melts. Heat activated systems
ics and methacrylates permits off-ratio mixing by as much as 2070 will have a longer pot life at room temperature than when hot. A
without serious loss of properties. Obviously this factor is of no
wide range of pot life is possible, from seconds to hours.
consequence for the single-component and surface-cure systems.
Open time is applicable to all adhesives. It refers to the amount
of time available, after the adhesive has been dispensed onto one
Static versus Dynamic Mixing surface of the part, to mate the other surface to be bonded. If the
For the plural component systems, once the two parts are open time is exceeded, the adhesive will have skinned or gelled to
brought to the dispensing head they must be mixed. This is a point where the other surface, when mated, will not be
accomplished with static or dynamic mixing nozzles. Most adhe- sufficiently wetted out. This will result in greatly diminished
sives can be mixed sufficiently with cheap, disposable static adhesive performance. Open time is most important where large
mixers. However, some urethanes and epoxies still require vigor- assemblies are involved. For example, several recreational boats
ous mixing with the more costly dynamic mixers. are now assembled with adhesives, the entire deck of the boat
being bonded to the hull. For this job an adhesive bead is
Rheology; Sag versus Nonsag dispensed along the entire 13 (4 m) perimeter of the hull. This
After mixing, the adhesive bead is dispensed onto the parts to dispensing operation takes approximately two to three minutes. If
be bonded. For many applications, particularly those involving the adhesives open time is only one minute, the first part of the
intricate contours and overhead bead placement, nonsagging bead will have exceeded the open time before the entire applica-
thixotropic rheology is critical. Most structural adhesives are tion is complete. As with pot life, a wide range of open time is
nonsagging. Cyanoacrylates and some anaerobic are generally available. Hot melt formulations have open times of 60 seconds or
not thixotropic and usually will flow and sag. Several thixotropic less. Methacrylates and acrylics open times range from three
cyanoacrylate formulations are available; however, to achie~-e this minutes to 30 minutes. Room temperature vulcanizing (RTV)
property, speed has been compromised. silicones also claim open times of 30 minutes. Surface activated
adhesives such as anaerobic and aerobic acrylics claim unlimited
open time, since curing only commences once the surfaces are
Gap-filling Capabilities mated. However, it is recommended that once the activator
A primary advantage of adhesives over mechanical fasteners or component is applied to a substrate it is used within eight hours.
welds is their ability to fill gaps that may arise from mismatch of Heat or UV cure systems may provide the user with several hours
parts. This mismatch is common with many plastic assemblies.
of open time at room temperature, followed by mating and then
Many structural adhesives are capable of filling and curing through
application of heat or UV.
gaps of up to 0.125 (3.18 mm). It should be emphasized that Fixture time is sometimes defined as the time required for an
optimum adhesive performance is achieved when gap sizes are assembled lap shear sample to support a two-pound dead weight.
kept between 0.002 and 0.050 (0.05 mm to 1.27 mm). The However, users are more often concerned with how quickly they
minimum gaps are critical for surface activated systems and even can remove the recently bonded parts from the holding fixture and
more so for CAS. Also, gaps must be minimal for nonthixotropic
move the assembly to another station, or run a quality test, or
adhesives, since the y may run out of the bondline before curing
package for shipment. As usual, the many structural adhesives
and result in a starved joint. For solvent-borne systems and
provide the manufacturer with great variety. Since load require-
adhesives that cure by interaction with air or moisture, larger gaps ments vary with the size and nature of the assembly, and the
mean longer cure times.
amount of handling it may receive after bonding, it would be
Adhesives that generate heat (exotherm) as they cure may
misleading to make any recommendations regarding this property.
cause some distortion of the substrates, particularly plastics, if the However, a simple comparison of the overall curing rates of the
gap is too big: the more adhesive, the hotter the exotherm. This is structural adhesives may help when choosing an adhesive. In
one cause of <read-through. Read-through may be minimized by increasing order (fastest to slowest) CAS are the fastest, fixturing
reducing the gap size. in seconds; followed by anaerobic and aerobic acrylics. Meth-
acrylates and acrylics can vary from two minutes to 45 minutes;
Cure Speed epoxies, urethanes and two-component silicones also vary; one-
This is probabl y the single most important adhesive property to component silicones, urethanes, and solvent cements can take
consider for manufacture. An adhesive that is too slow may cause hours. For adhesives, heating will reduce fixture times.
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CHAPTER14
WELDED ASSEMBLIES
Full cure is the time required for the adhesive to reach its full regrind. Some methacrylate adhesives can be reprocessed with
bond strength. This time is usually stated on the adhesive product little or no influence on properties.
data sheet and is generally eight to 24 hours, with the latter being
preferred. Compatibility with Subsequent Process
After the parts have been bonded, they will probably be
painted, or become part of an assembly that is to be painted. For
Regrind Compatibility example, in the automotive industry many parts are dipped in an
This is a relatively new concern for manufacturers using E-coat (electrophoretic) primer tank and then dried at temperatures
adhesives for plastics bonding. Mistakes are inevitable, even with as high as 400F (204C). The adhesive must be able to withstand
adhesive bonding. Off-specification or badly assembled parts may this temperature for a short period of time. The adhesive must also
result from misalignment during bonding, badly molded parts that cope with the expansion of the materials during heating and
were still bonded, parts that were damaged during subsequent contraction during cool down. Most structural adhesives can
handling steps, etc. With the increasing concern over what is withstand such a high temperature for periods of time up to one
thrown away, how to recycle what is no longer used, and the hour. However, at these high temperatures some of the more
increasing disposal costs at decreasing number of landfills, it is flexible adhesives will soften during the heating and enable the
most advantageous to simply regrind the bad parts and remold bonded parts to move or creep. Prior to painting, some areas
them. Problem: If the parts are bonded, what happens to the where the adhesive has oozed out of the bondline (called a fillet)
adhesive? The current answer is to cut out the bonded areas before may need to be sanded away. Many adhesives, especially those
reprocessing. Unfortunately this is a labor intensive process and that contain inorganic fillers, are easily sandable, but soft adhe-
generates waste. Adhesives such as epoxies, urethanes, silicones, sives such as silicones or unfilled acrylics tend to clog up
and acrylics are not compatible with the plastic regrind, and will sandpaper when sanded. The fillets of the surface activated
not reprocess with it. ITW Adhesive Systems has presented data systems generally remain uncured for a while and cannot
which demonstrates compatibility of adhesives with thermoplastic be sanded.
WELDED ASSEMBLIES
Proper product design for welding applications will reduce 14- 18) will avoid expulsion or low strengthhndersized welds.
piece price and increase product quality. When designing a part Flange clearances must allow for the use of standard electrode caps
that will require welding, several factors should be considered to and standard gun buildups. Spot-welds placed in an area of the
improve the quality of the final assembly and to help contain panel where the flatness is easy to maintain in the dies (good
tooling cost. The size, quantity, and type of welds should be based fit-up) will not require excessive weld pressures to overcome
on the function of the final assembly. Weld quality standards part geometry.
(physical part destruction) and test frequency standards should be Locating spots too far inboard from tbe edge of the panel
developed jointly by the Product Design Team, the Welding causes excessive throat depths and greater power demands. If this
Engineer, and the Quality Control Department. Proactive commu- cannot be avoided, access holes provided through the panel for
nication should be encouraged between the Product Design Team contact (dummy) guns in the general area of the welds will help to
and the Manufacturing Engineering Department and/or the outside avoid the higher tooling cost of push-pull welding.
part supplier (if used). Triple thickness welds should be avoided whenever possible.
Often the results are a good weld between two of the sheets and an
RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING undersize weld between the other two sheets. If triple thickness
In resistance spot welding applications, care should be taken to welds must be used, one remedy is to locally scallop the outer
place the welds close enough together to provide the required sheets, to allow for some two-thickness welds in the pattern (see
strength and yet not so close as to introduce current shunting from Fig. 14-19).
the adjacent welds. Tooling cost savings can often be realized by Weld designers must always provide tooling holes. These holes
using uniform spot spacing to allow for the indexing of weld guns. should be the same size in both panels; one set should be round and
When there is to be a right-hand and a left-hand side of the part the other set slots. To avert pin breakage, 0.39 (1.0 mm) is the
being designed, the spot pattern should allow for as much common minimum hole size. Locator holes must be out of the weld field if
tooling as possible, With good planning, the machine frame, possible, and must provide clearance for the locator pin package to
controls, weld guns, and weld transformers can be used for either the lower (backup) electrodes.
hand part and only require a lower tooling package and part fixture The selection of material can have an effect on tooling cost.
changeover. This not only eliminates the cost of a second machine Some materials will require larger gun sizes or higher current
but also saves floor space in the production facility. values than bare steel. When specifying a coated steel, electro-
Welds must be designated as general, important, or safety coated is preferable to hot-dipped. Electrocoating provides a more
(Delta) class. Spot location tolerances should be developed for even coating thickness which produces more consistent welding
each class of welds. When establishing weld groupings, the results and higher weld quality. Coated materials can also add to
designer must consider the associated allowances for undersize or the piccc price due to more frequent electrode dressing and
missing welds per grouping and class of weld. shortened electrode life from coating pickup.
When determining weld spot locations, maintaining proper If the product has low production demands, it should be
minimum contact overlap and minimum edge dktances (see Fig. designed for ease of welding on single-point equipment or portable
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WELDED ASSEMBLIES
Avoid specifying a weld nut where the projections are pushed off
from the edge of the nut. These projections tend to skate across
the face of the steel they are to be welded to, rather than fuse into
it. Physical part destruction tests (push out, torque test, etc. ) and
allowable minimum values of test criteria are based on the function
of the fastener.
As in spot welding, locating items to be projection welded too
far inboard from the edge of the panel causes excessive throat
depths and greater power demands. If this cannot be avoided,
access holes for contact (dummy) guns should be provided in the
general area of the welds. Examine flange clearances to allow for
the use of standard electrode caps and standard gun buildups.
Items to be projection welded should be placed in an area of the
panel where the flatness is easy to maintain. This is very important
in projection welding, as current demands change as the projec-
tions melt into the steel. All projections should be at the same
phase of this process at all times.
Tooling holes, similar tothose described for spot welding, are
required when projection welding a plate to another item.
ARC WELDING
In arc welding applications the amount, spacing, and length of
weld segments should provide the required strength, but not be so
close or long as to introduce heat distortion into the part. The arc
welding process and joint design should bedeterrnined with both
the required assembly strength and the manufacturing process
(hand, automated, or robotic welding) in mind. Physical part
destruction standards (leg length, root dimension, depth of pene-
tration, etc.) and test frequency standards shotddbe developed.
When determining arc weld locations, part clearances must
allow for the use of standard torches and robotic end-of-arm
tooling (inapplicable). Atooling cost savings canoften be realized
by using even arc spacings and lengths to allow for hard automa-
tion of the indexing of the weld guns (torches).
Fig. 14-18 Weld expulsion (blowout) from spot located near edge of Keep in mind the effect of part dimension tolerances on the gap
sheet. between pruts to be assembled. For example, in welding a 0.004
(O, 10 mm) thick bracket to a round tube, a critically dimensioned
welding gun stations. If several parts of the same general design (a point is an attachment hole on a flange on the bracket. The
assembly process requires the use of 0.035 (0.89 mm) wire and
family of parts) are to be produced, designing for flexible
the part tolerance is <0.010 (*0.25 mm). The parts are
automation or a robotic process should be considered. As volume
demands increase, the product may be designed to be produced on dimensioned in such a manner that when thetubeis at maximum
outside radius of +0.010 (+0.25 mm) and the bracket at
dedicated single-station equipment. When production require-
minimum inside radius, 0.010 (0.25 mm), the two parts will
ments necessitate a fast cycle time and the use of several
touch. It is possible, with the tube outside radius at minimum
subassembly operations, the design may include a transfer system.
tolerance 0,010 (0.25 mm) and the bracket inside radius at
Additional clearances for automation rails and tooling outriggers
maximum tolerance +0.010 (+0.25 mm), to produce a gap
will be required. Also, extra tooling holes are needed so that
larger than the wire diameter. The weld must be built up to fill this
control of the part is not lost between the transfer fixtunng and the
gap. The large amount of heat that would be generated and the
weld station fixturing.
shrinking of the molten weld upon cooling would distort the
bracket out of tolerance.
PROJECTION WELDING Tooling holes, when provided, should be kept away from weld
The sizes of weld projections are based on the thickness and spatter areas if possible.
type ofmaterial to rejoined. These standard values areavailahle Due to the need for skilled operators for hand welding
from several welding publications. The top of the projection applications, the cost of consumables (wire, gas, and soon), and
should be flat, not a point (see Fig. 14-20). This helps to reduce thepotential health risk (smoke, arc flash, etc.), many companies
imbedding the projection into the base material when the weld are attempting to avoid arc welding processes in the product design
guns are closed under weld force. An elongated projection is stage, in favor of resistance welding processes (spot, projection,
preferred over a round projection as this allows for a larger area of seam, butt, or flash welding).
fused metal and greater weld strength.
In the case of weld nuts or studs, it is preferred that the ROBOTIC AND AUTOMATED WELDING
projections ronconcentric tothecenter hole (see Fig. 14-21). On The successful implementation of a robotic or automated
piloted nuts, the projections should not run outward from the pilot, welding system involves careful planning and execution. Of the
as this will cause expulsion into the pilot hole during welding. many processes which are recognized for the welding of materials,
14-25
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 14
WELDED ASSEMBLIES
J I
J
_ r
1
+
-(
1
d= *
---F
Fig. 14-19 Locat scalloping to allow for some two-thickness welds in a three-thickness weld pattern.
0
+
0
@-
+
Poor Good Best
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CHAPTER 14
WELDED ASSEMBLIES
14-27
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CHAPTER14
WELDED ASSEMBLIES
grossly under- or overestimate the actual tolerances of a proce- The overriding requirement in design for manufacture is, of
dure. It is better to use tolerance envelopes which show interacting course, the production of a weld that meets the quality require-
factors and to consider the relative importance of arc-to-joint ments set. However, equal leg length, and precise and uniform
position and fit-up errors. Seam tracking has the advantage of weld sizing and bead shape can be very difficult to achieve with
reducing the number of interactions and improving process sensorless robot welding systems, and any relaxation of these
tolerance to fit-up errors. requirements can increase process tolerance. Continuous welding
Designers should allow the greatest possible use of flat position around comers ~r bosses can also be difficult to achieve, and the
welding, which has larger tolerances and the highest productivity. grinding out of tacks prior to welding will rarely be feasible in an
With small assemblies, manipulation is quite rapid and may be automatic welding cycle. These difficulties should prompt the
used liberally without undue effect on cycle times. However, for designer to ask whether continuous welding is really necessary and
large assemblies mounted on large capacity and relatively slow whether tacks can be welded over. It should be remembered that
manipulators, the designer should aim to reduce the amount of rarely in general fabrication work are all joints critical to the same
manipulation needed to access welds, as shown in Fig. 14-22. degree. Many less critical joints can be subjected to less rigorous
Larger welds generally have greater tolerances, and autogenous quality requirements and relaxed standards. Perceived quality
welds relatively small tolerances. Designers should ask where should not, of course, be overlooked, but there can be a high price
there is a case for specifying larger welds than functionally to pay for this.
necessmy to facilitate the use of sensorless robot weldlng. The Many design and procedure changes incur little cost since only
additional costs of larger welds may be more than offset by the paper changes are involved. Others incur a modest cost. On the
higher productivity of robot welding. By the same token, it is other hand, radical changes may be needed and can provide the
important to ask whether intermittent welding will permit shorter, opportunity to carry out a comprehensive review of parts manu-
larger welds to give the same strength and rigidity properties. facturing methods and assembly techniques so as to create the
Fillet and lap joints generally have greater tolerance than comer maximum benefit for fabrication as a whole.
and butt joints, and are often produced at greater deposition rates
(see Fig. 14-23, page 4-30). Designers should, therefore, consider
whether a backing can be designed in at acceptable cost (see
Fig. 14-24).
Weaving increases gap-bridging ability and can be used to Design and Joint Location
melt-in overlength edges. Robots permit a range of closely The sources of error in joint location relative to the arc include:
controlled weave patterns, and the specification of weaving in Vmiation in component parts dimensions.
designed procedures can ease the acceptance of large fit-up . Variation in assembly dimensions.
variations, thereby improving the tolerance of the process. Location of assembly on the work handler.
. Teaching errors.
. Distofiion during welding.
. Repeatability of robot.
. Work handler repeatability.
. Dexterity of the robot and compliance in motion.
In much general fabrication, dimensional and geometric accu-
racy in the positioning of the majority of members is not
functionally critical, and this is reflected in large and open
tolerances that are often specified in designs (many have no
specified tolerances). Relatively few component parts or assembly
features require close dimensional control, since this is usually
achieved by subsequent machining, with appropriate machining
allowances. The manual welder can make good welds under such
(a) conditions of poor fit-up. On the other hand, for robot welding
without sensors, the positions of all weld joints are dimensionally
critical and the required accuracy must be specified at the design
stage. The basic design criterion is to limit or exclude dimensional
variability but, at the same time, to do so at the lowest cost.
Closer dimensional specification. Manufacturers may be
capable of achieving closer control of parts and assembly dimen-
sions than is normally specified for manual welding, at little extra
cost. Perhaps only tighter quality control (QC), improved machine
maintenance, or changed assembly tooling methods are needed.
For example, closer control of shearing machine settings or
process parameters in thermal cutting may provide significant
u improvements. Capability studies are commonplace in machine
shop operations and such studies, if extended to the fabrication
shop, would provide the designer and manufacturing engineer with
Fig. .14-22 Example of design for minimizing manipulation: (a)
much valuable design data. Indeed, tighter design tolerances may
reqmres four manipulations for flat position or two for WV welding; be the catalyst for improved quality assurance (QA), with wide
(b) halves these requirements. ranging advantages.
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CHAPTER14
WELDED ASSEMBLIES
Of course, this is not to advocate a higher level of accuracy ability of the robot to accommodate changes in joint position,
simply for its own sake. Stricter dimensional specification and allows the designer to consider ways of minimizing fit-up varia-
control may be needed only where parts are destined for robot tions (for example, factors causing joint volume changes). All that
welding. On the other hand, closer dimensional control may may be needed to ensure consistent joint preparation is a design
require more accurate processing such as machined edge prepara- that allows closure of as many members as possible, the seam
tions or CNC plasma arc cutting under water instead of optical sensor taking account of variations in joint position.
cutting with oxyfuel gas. Clearly, designers must confer with Adaptive control and seam following together emulate most
manufacturers to establish the overall cost effectiveness of the aspects of the manual welders control ability and, where they are
changes needed to facilitate robot welding. technically and economically viable, give greater freedom for
Statistical dimension and tolerance analysis of the parts making functional design. The extent to which this is trne will, of course,
up an assembly can be used to establish the probable dimensional depend on the limits of adaptivity of the robot control system, and
variability of joint positions, and to indicate where strategic use of design to permit the use of the specific sensing system may,
accurately produced parts can reduce the buildup of tolerances. therefore, be an important consideration,
Grossly inaccurate processes. Components produced from Find[ng the seam. If the initial seam position error is too great,
closed tooling for example, blanking and forming usually offer the weld sensing systems, notably those using the simpler (and
acceptable accuracy and repeatability, but rolling and open die cheaper) methods such as tactile or through-the-arc techniques,
bending can rarely achieve the order of accuracy and repeatability may not themselves be able to establish the start point of the seam.
needed for robot welding. Wherever possible, such processes The same may be true if the end of weld position cannot be
should not be used for assemblies destined for robot welding. The detected until the arc runs over the end of the joint. Starting and
application of CNC to such processes can provide greater accuracy finishing the weld run a short distance in from the plate end could
and repeatability, but the improvement is often not enough for avoid this problem.
successful robot welding. The elimination of bending or forming Access to joints and corners. All robots have large, less
by additional welding can be cost effective, but where bending is dexterous arm-wrist assemblies than man and this increases the
a functional requirement, this will be the overriding factor (see problem of accessing joints with the welding arc, As a result,
Fig. 14-25). greater attention to the problem of access, perhaps leading to
Use standard rolled sections or extrusions. Standard sections radical design changes, may be necessary for robot welding to be
offer greater accuracy than can be achieved by manufacture from economically viable. Welding on the inside of box-like assemblies
flat plate or sheet, and the strategic use of such sections can should be avoided.
provide a cost-effective means of reducing variability. Moreover, with the exception of through-the-arc sensing, all
Provision of location or assembly features. Self-location sensor systems introduce increased bulk into the vicinity of the
features, (for example, pins, protrusion, rebates, holes) can often weld torch. At the very least, the torch assembly will be bulkier;
be provided at little cost and can improve the productivity and at worst, the system may demand a large sensing head. Either will
accuracy of the assembly process, as seen in Fig. 14-26. However, aggravate the problem of access to joints, and this is a reason for
in making such joints, not only must the plate-to-plate gap be attempting to design components with external welds only.
closed, but the joint position must be maintained spatially. In order Lastly, since some sensors have difficulty accessing or follow-
to ensure repeatable positioning, additional location features may ing sharp comers, designers should question the need for welding
be necessary within the assembly tooling. right into comers. Generally, the more complex the joint geome-
With large assemblies, the location of the assembly on the try, the more complex will be the sensor torch manipula-
manipulating/holding fixture (and thus relative to the robot) can be tion required.
critical to the magnification of repeatability errors. Contrary to Sensor requirements. Many sensors (for example, through-
normal design principles, where common location features would the-arc parameter sensors) work only in or under certain circum-
be used for all manufacturing processes, it may be necessay to stances, for example within or between minimum sized groove
provide additional assembly location features for the robot or joint faces, as illustrated in Fig. 14-28. Tightly closed butts,
holding fixture. thin sheet laps, edge welds, and asymmetric joints will present
Teaching errors (an access problem). Large teaching errors problems. Other sensor methods, however, may compensate for
can result if welds are placed in positions where the programmer such joints.
does not have a clear view of the joint. To avoid this, the designer
should be aware of the environment in which the programmer
will work.
Distortion. As with all welding, tbe location of welds has a
significant influence on distortion. LASER BEAM WELDING
Robot compliance. All robots, but particularly larger ma- Laser beam welding (LBW) is a high energy density fusion
chines, have some compliance in their mechanisms, but this process which can join a wide variety of materials with minimal
usually does not significantly influence welding. However, where heat input. Both metals and nonmetals are being joined in
sharp changes in direction are required, particularly during high industrial production environments. High production rates can be
speed continuous welding, it may cause path errors. The designer achieved with LBW, and minimal heat input can produce welds
should, if possible, increase the radius of comers or eliminate the with little or no distortion. This noncontact process requires only
need for continuous welds (see Fig. 14-27). Coordinated motion of limited access to the weld joint, allowing welds to be produced in
the work handling manipulator may help to reduce this effect. hard-to-reach locations.
The main disadvantages of the process are capital equipment
Design to Assist Sensors cost and the tight joint tolerances required. LBW is used in almost
Seam following devices can alleviate some of the problems all products, from turbine engine components to razor blades, in
encountered when robot welding. For example, increasing the the consumer products industry.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 14
WELDED ASSEMBLIES
,.\
)2-%
- s Tolerance associated with fit-up variation
(b) ~~ .eldigwire~
o 0
~ (ii,) 9 (iv)
Fig. 14-23 Examples of joint design for robot welding: (a) Butt versus lap joints: (i) butt joints are poor for robot welding; the open gap gives no
support to the weld pool. (ii) lap joints are good for robot welding; the weld pool is supported but strength may be lower than with butt joints (b).
Closed versus open edge joints: (i) opening edge joint (ii) increases tolerance to lateral movement of welding wire. Tolerance to fit-up variation
(horizontal and vertical movement of plate) increases from (i) to (iv) in (c).
Application Selection and mismatch are ilhtstrated in Fig. 14-29. As the material
Selection of the appropriate application for LBW is the first and thickness is reduced, these fit-up tolerances become more strin-
most important step to be considered. The major evaluation factors gent. Welding of foil thicknesses with any gaps or mismatch will
in selecting a LB W application are joint design, material, and result in pinholes and other weld defects. Regardless of thickness,
quality issues. Improper selection of joint design or material, or if any gaps occur in the joint and no filler metal is added, there will
unrealistic quality specifications, will result in a narrow process be a reduction in the cross-sectional thickness, Reduced cross-
window, or an LBW component which may not perform its sectional thickness due to weld undertill can result in stress
intended service. concentration or a reduction of the load-carrying capabilities of the
structure.
Joint Design
LBW is co~ducted by focusing a laser beam to produce small Material
spot sizes. Depending on the laser type and power range, spot Laser weldability of the material to be joined is the second
diameters range from approximately 0.005 to 0.040 (O.13 mm to issue to consider. Weldability ofmaterials with lasers can be better
1.02 mm). These small spot diameters require part fit-up and than conventional welding processes due to the low thermal input.
tolerances that are an order of magnitude smaller than the spot Distortion due to thermal input during welding can be reduced or
diameter, to ensure that the weld does not miss the joint. The opti- eliminated with laser joining. Laser welds typically have small
mum joint design for LBW uses machined, press-fit components heat-affected zones (HAZ) which can improve the mechanical
that eliminate any gaps and ensure joint location repeatability. performance of the weldment, The fine grain size resulting from
Many LBW applications do not have ideal fit-up. Joint designs LBW is good for ambient temperature fatigue properties. Low
such as butt welds, lap welds, spot welds, and fillet welds are the dilution (base metal mixing) is obtained with LBW; this can make
most commonly used. Some roles-of-thumb for allowable gaps possible the welding of dissimilar materials.
14-30
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER14
WELDED ASSEMBLIES
1
.
(1)
.
{ .y\
(e) Tube Bush
/
(ii)
Fig. 14-23 continued (d) Tolerance to fit-up increases from (i) to (iii): (i) variable root gapdifticult to weld; (ii) variable root face and side
walldifficult to weld; (iii) variation has no effect on joint wall or root thickness (e). Overlap gives greater process tolerance: (i) busb projects
minimum beyond tube welding will tend to burn bush edge; (ii) increased projection improves welding tolerance.
LBW also can decrease the weldability of some materials as models yield approximate parameters, which are then experimen-
compared to other fusion joining processes. The high cooling rates tally verified and refined,
can exceed 1.8 x 1060 F ( 1 x 1060 C) per second, which may Weld quality is most often monitored off-line, with traditional
result in unexpected microstructure. Hardness levels in HAZ, and destructive or nondestructive methods. Statistical process control
in the weld in steels, may exceed those obtained with conventional (SPC) is often used to monitor process parameters and helps
arc welding. Crack-sensitive microstructure may form in austenitic improve the quality of the welded component. Recently, on-line
stainless steels due to the absence of any primary ferritic solidifi- monitoring of LBW has been tried with acoustic, back-scattered
cation. The loss of elevated temperature ductility in some alumi- light, infrared (IR), or ultraviolet (UV) methods. The fast solidi-
num alloys may be accentuated by the high solidification stresses fication rates of LBW make these monitoring techniques difficult
in LBW. to implement with a closed-loop process control method. The
The laser weldability for an application should be verified for design of the weldment should take into account the methods for
the material and joint design under consideration. The joint design inspection, either on-line or off-line.
should be considered during weldability trials, because high
restraint from certain joint designs may produce cracking. Laser Selection
Lasers can perform single-pass penetration welds exceeding The wavelength and the power level of a laser are the primary
one inch (25.4 mm). Most welding of metals is conducted in features to be selected. The proper wavelength and power level are
thicknesses less than 0.5 (13 mm) with a large percentage of the functions of the application, or range of applications, to be
applications in the sheet-metal gages. performed by the laser. The material, thickness, joint design, and
production rate of the components to be welded are the main
Weld Quality factors which determine the size (average power) and wavelength
Weld discontinuities such as porosity and cracking can arise of laser required.
during LBW. Proper parameter selection can help reduce or
eliminate these discontinuities. Parameter selection is typically Wavelength
done empirically. Theoretical models have been developed for The absorption of the laser beam into the material(s) to be
laser welding parameter selection, but are rarely used. These welded is dependent on the wavelength. Metals are highly reflec-
14-31
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CHAPTER14
WELDED ASSEMBLIES
(a) (b)
N 7K-O:ss
C AK %
Fixture controlled ~
(c)
--il-
Fig. 14-24 Examples of possible design change: (a) original butt joint: production tolerance gives rise to root gaps, no weld pool support, and poor
process tolerance; (b) design mortified to give backing: weld pool support allows use of hlgber welding rate but production tolerance gives changes
in joint volume; (c) further design modification to use fillet welds: production tolerance dues not change joint volume.
14-32
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CHAPTER14
WELDED ASSEMBLIES
Fit-up
problems
D Fit-up
problems
I
1
L
I
I
Simpler
design
14-33
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CHAPTER 14
WELDED ASSEMBLIES
1
Fig. 14-27 Examples of design to reduce severity of robot motions: (a) original continuous weld around tight radii; (h) alternative two straight
welds; (c) cheaper to form than (b). U.E. Mitile)
Beam Quality power densities. Good beam quality can beadvantageous froma
Laser beam q~ality is another factor to consider in laser beam delivery standpoint because smaller diameter, less expensive
selection andisquantified by its spatial and temporal distribution. optics can be used and higher energy densities can be transmitted
Typically, as the average power of the laser increases, the laser over long distances.
beam quality deereases. In general terms, a laser beam that Laser selection is determined by the application. If only one
approaches a Gaussian spatial distribution and diverges at lower part is to be welded on a system, then the choice of laser is usually
rates has better beam quality. Better beam quality can achieve simple and governed by the guidelines previously listed. When a
smaller focused spot sizes. Smaller spot sizes will produce higher range of materials and joint designs are to be used on the same
power densities which typically yield deeper penetrations or higher system, then laser selection becomes more complicated. LBW
travel speeds, or both. Weld component fit-up and beardmaterial systems are usually justified on a limited number of applications.
interaction phenomena may require larger spot sizes and lower
Fig. 14-28Senwr requirement. Forexaple, adwi@constraint forsucc6sful arcparameter sensing isatinimum face Iength of approximately
0.12 (3 mm). (.1.E. Middk)
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CHAPTER 14
WELDED ASSEMBLIES
.25 I
-H- .151
14-35
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER15
MATERIALS
PLASTIC PRODUCTS
This section addresses the basic design, tooling, 2. Manufacturing causes. Improper processing CHAPTER
and manufacturing processes required to produce is one of the greatest causes of plastic product CONTENTS:
a well designed plastic product. It also addresses failures. In an attempt to minimize costs and
some of the pitfalls to watch for and how to over- expenses, some manufacturers cut comers PLASTIC
come them. and allow a mold to run in an undersized PRODUCTS 15-1
press, reduce cycle times by minimizing im-
portant cooling, or perform other borderline COMPOSITES 15-15
FAILURE ANALYSIS practices that result in the plastic material not
WHY PRODUCTS FAIL realizing normal property values. In addition, CERAMICS 15-31
Due to a designers lack of exposure to basic
poorly designed (or built) tooling may result
design rules, or a decision not to follow the rules, POWDER
in plastic parts that are never properly cured
plastic products are designed that do fail sometimes METALLURGY
or crystallized. Poor tooling also may not be 15-40
even when the rules are followed to the letter. It is able to withstand normal manufacturing plant
necessary to scrutinize these failures in an effort to wear and tear and handling, and may have to
determine the cause(s) and eliminate repetition of
be babied in order to produce anything at
that cause(s) in the next design. Product failure can all. In these cases, thermal analysis will be
be attributed to the following:
beneficial in determining the thermal history
1. Part design. Visual observation will some- of the plastic including the degree of crystal-
times lead to the cause of product failure. A Iinity, amount of moisture present when
crack may have been caused by a weak weld molded, percentage of regrind used, and ap-
line due to poor gate location. A broken rib proximate temperature of the mold when the
may be caused by lack of a fillet at the base of product was produced. These are important
the rib. A warped part may be due to an pieces of information that can determine
abrupt and drastic change in wall thickness. whether or not the manufacturing process was
These things all can be seen readily, and properly performed, and if tooling was ade-
changes can be recommended to correct the quate. Of course, visual observation of the
problems. tooling, equipment, and processes is vital to
Sometimes more extensive investigation full understanding of the proper relationship
may be required, or laboratory testing must between the three factors.
be performed to determine failure causes. An 3 Supplier capabilities. The lowest bidder is not
improper material may have been selected, necessarily the right vendor for manufactur-
resulting in thermal degradation when ex- ing a specific product. In fact, in most cases,
posed to elevated end-use temperatures. An the lower the bid, the more time, effort, and
improper shrinkage rate may have been as- expense the customer must put forward to
signed, resulting in dimensional discrepan- achieve success in producing the product.
cies. These problems will be identified Therefore, it is extremely important to thor-
through the use of thermal analysis equipment oughly investigate a potential vendors capa-
and standard measuring devices. bilities before placing a purchase order.
The Contributors of this chapter are: Doug Bqce, Staff Engineer, IBM; Peter K. Johnson, CAE, Director of
Marketing and Public Relations, Metal Powder Industries Federation; Dan Kleymeer, Manufacturing Engineering
Manager, Ardyne, Inc.; Winston Knight, Ph.D., Chairman, Industrial Engineering Department, University of Rhode
Island; John B. LoveI\, Product Engineering Manager, Speciafty Plastics Division, Spaulding Composites Co.; Philip
J. Magnan, Development Engineer, E./. DuPont; Timothy J. McCabe, Manager, Powder Metals Department,
Metalworking Technology, Inc.; Tom Ormkton, New Products Manager, Willbanks International; Jeffrey L. Sajna,
Design Engineering and Technical Services Manager, Polymer Composites, lnc.lHoechst Celanese Co.
The Reviewers of this chapter are: Ronald H. Chand, President, Chand Kare Technical Ceramics; Keith
Costello, Vice President, Sales, Chand Kare Technical Ceramics; Samuel J. Daatin, Director Advanced Projects,
Engineering Operations, GrummanAircraft Systems Division; Vistasp Gheyara, Manager, Materials Development,
Product Development Division, Standard Products Co.; Stewari E. Lute, Manager, Operations Program Planning-
Composites, Northrop Corporation, B-2 Division; Michael J. Martin, Director, Industrial Development Institute,
Michigan State University; Howard L Sanderow, Technical Director, Center for Powder Metallurgy Technology; D.R.
Sidwell, Materials Consultant, Quincy, CA; Jamee P. Sufka, Product Manager, ICI Ceramics, Inc.
15-1
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER15
PLASTIC PRODUCTS
Usually, it is beneficial to deal with a full-service vendor quality in itself, itmayindicate that quality may not be
who can fulfill the requirements of all the operations and of utmost importance to that vendor.
tooling, from start to finish. That will minimize the buck . Investigate specialty areas. All vendors have an area of
passing that may be prevalent when many vendors are expertise in which they excel. It maybe large parts, or
involved in building tools, molding products, painting, and quick turn-around, or low cost, or a variety of other
assembling. fronts, or a combination of these. In any case, there
4. Materials. Because of the thousands of variations of basic should be a match with the specific product requirements
materials (and their alloys) available today, it is important at hand.
to specify the correct one for a specific application. A . Determine equipment availability. Most vendors expe-
materials engineer should be consulted for this activity, rience periods of bustling activity countered with periods
and the word of that engineer should be considered final. of lulls. It is important to understand how those cycles
Too often, materials are specified generically, when a may affect specific products that are being considered
specific material type is actually preferred, For instance, a for placement with specific vendors.
glass-filled thermoplastic polyester may be shown on . Competitiveness in bidding. How does the specific
the drawing as a material requirement when a polyethy - vendor fare in the bidding process? A vendor who
leneterephthalate (PET) is actually needed. Both specifica- consistently bids outside the range of other vendors for
tions are glass-filled thermoplastic polyesters, but PET has the same products may not be in a position to properly
a higher heat deflection temperature (HDT) than polybu- manufacture those products. This may be due to such
tadieneterephthalate (PBT), which is also a glass-filled factors as an overcapacity at the time, a misunderstand-
thermoplastic polyester. The HDT value may be critical to ing of what is required, or an inability toquotecompet-
the performance of the finished product, and use of the itively.
PBT may cause it to fail. 2. Familiarity.
5. Communications. This is by far the most prevalent cause of . No~al tolerance levels. A]] vendors work well within
problems occur-ring between tbe phases of product design specific dimensional tolerance requirements. Some pre-
and final manufacturing of a product. All too often this is fer open tolerances, and some prefer very tight toler-
a prime reason why a product fails in its intended uses. It ances. Theprodtrct design will dictate the tolerance level
is imperative that any product be designed, prototype, required, andthechosen vendor must work comfortably
anal yzed, critiqued, manufactured, and tested using a team within that level.
approach, with open communications from start to finish, Materials. Although some vendors advertise that they
or cradle-to-grave. are capable of manufacturing products made of any
plastic, most are willing to admit limitations. Plastics are
rated as commodity plastics, engineering materials, and
SUPPLIER CHECKLIST
blends, and each series has its own peculiarities. The
The following is a list of items to consider when searching for
vendor must be able to show established expertise with
a vendor to manufacture a plastic product. The list consists of
the specific material required by the product design.
concerns in three areas (basic investigation, familiarity, and
. Molding processes. Some vendors specialize in only one
capabilities) and is not intended to be complete, but rather a
type of molding process, while others have multiple
guideline.
processes. It is important that the vendor be able to
1. Basic investigation. exhibit specific expertise intheprocess required for any
Note condition of plant and equipment. During the specific product. A vendor with expertise in extrusion
initial survey trip, close attention should be paid to the may not be able to injection mold properly.
overall cleanliness of the plant and condition of the Equipment type, age and size. State-of-the-art equip-
equipment. A messy plant, or equipment with rags tied ment, sized fora specific product design, and capable of
around oil leaks, indicates lack of concern for details. producing the specific product at the lowest possible cost
This could result in late deliveries and/or poor quality with the highest possible quality level, is critical to a
products. successful program. Negotiation on any of these items
. Ask for product samples. Reputable vendors are proud means negotiating the cost or quality of the product.
to display the types of products they have been involved . Subcontracting. Full-service vendors will supply any
with. Do not expect to see the failures, but observe the operations they do not perform themselves by subcon-
quality and complexity of the products offered. Usually, tracting that operation to another vendor. Responsibility
these will be representative of what to expect. for the quality, cost, and delivery of that contracted
. Check delivery performance. Ask to see specific exam- service should be established as belonging to the prime
ples of deliveries made versus promised dates. While vendor, although the customer may wish to certify the
most delivery promise dates do change, the changes can subcontractor in order to achieve a high level of confi-
usually be explained by changes in customer require- dence in the overall program.
ments, natural disasters, or engineering changes to the 3. Capabilities.
product design. Beware of any vendor who has no Volume. A vendor must show theability to produce the
explanation for missed deliveries. required number of products in the required amount of
. Check quality rating, Ask to see awards, letters, or time. A schedule meeting the customer requirements
documents stating the quality rating of the vendor by must consider production time as well as transportation
other companies, or other divisions of the same com- and tool delivery times, The customer should discuss
pany. Most vendors are proud to display these items with the vendor how and when the product will be
and, while their absence does not demonstrate poor delivered.
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. Tool design, build and repair. Some vendors design and system hardens and is then removed and finish machined to
build the tools required for a specific product, while specifllcations. This is a good system to consider for up to
others contract that work to other vendors. Most vendors 25 or 30 units from each mold.
have repair facilities on site or close by, but these factors 4. Molding. The plastic resin is injection molded into a
must all be considered when choosing a primary vendor. soft mold ofaluminum, epoxy, polyester, or soft steel,
If work is to be contracted out, a thorough understanding to form the finished product. This system should be
of final responsibilities must reestablished. considered when prototype quantities number from 1,000
. Secondw operations. Again, secondary operations may to 5,000 units.
be performed by the primary vendor, or subcontracted to 5. Rapid prototyping systems. There are many new prototype
another vendor specializing in those required processes. methods based on using light-curable resins which are
If the work is to be performed by the primary vendor, the formed, layer on layer, very rapidly, to produce a product
equipment and area should be investigated to ensure similar to the final requirement (see Chapter 7,
capability. Ifthework istobesubcontracted, a thorough Computer-aidedT ethnology). This is a costly process
understanding of final responsibilities must be estab- but creates each prototype in a matter of hours, and can be
lished. adapted to run from a computer tape containing the product
. Electronic data transfer and computerized operations. design. It should be used when the required number of
EDT is a most valuable tool for ensuring fast response parts is minimal (approximately two or three units) and
time and transferor information to a vendor. It requires time is critical.
a phoneline hookup with the customer, and the trend 6. Computer-assisted design prototypes. Newly developed
today istoward that goal. Impossible, itiswise to utilize computer programs are available which allow the product
vendors with this capability. Computerized operations designer to see on a monitor what could only have been
tend to ensure accurate processing of materials to the found before by building a physical product. This method
specific end product. In most cases, computer drawings of prototyping can be used to determine the answers to
can be downloaded directly totoolmaking equipmentor many what if questions such as:
processing equipment, thus reducing overall develop- . What if a different plastic is selected? What if ribs and
ment cycles. fillets are added?
SPC and quality programs. If a vendor is not utilizing . What if certain dimensions are altered?
SPC today, it is a sign that the vendor is rehrctant to The final design can then be downloaded to a tape-controlled
provide the customer with the quality desired. Other cutting machine to produce a mold or a prototype part. This
programs may be used to provide the same information, method of prototyping can be used for any number of parts.
but the important thing to consider is how well the
vendor is able to track and document performance, CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTICS
efficiency, and quality levels. All plastics are classified as either thermoplastic or thermoset.
A thermoplastic material requires heat (thermo) to make it mold-
PROTOTYPING able (plastic), and can be formed into other shapes by reheating
Getting a product from design into final production and vohrme and remolding. When heated, the polymer chains of these mate-
manufacturing is a time-consuming and costly process. Plastic rials flow over each other and continue to move until they are
prototypes can be made to closely resemble the finished product so cooled. Reheating causes the chains to flow again and take anew
that form, fit, and function can all be assessedor they can be shape. Athemoset material requires heat (theme) tomake it solid
made simply for aesthetic reasons so that a product model can be (set), and cannot be formed into other shapes by reheating because
displayed for marketing purposes. Resultant changes can be made it has taken a set. When heated, the polymer chains of these
and the product rc-evaluated before volume production parts are materials become chemically cross-linked in a lattice shape, are
tooled and produced. locked together, and cannot move. Reheating will only degrade
There are many methods available for creating prototype parts, the chains and cause them to disintegrate.
some simple and some complex. The more common ones are:
Typical Properties Defined
1. Fabrication. Inthisprocess, plastic sheet androd stocksme
The performance of any plastic depends on the properties of
machined and bonded together to create a facsimile of the
that specific plastic. While there are dozens (if not hundreds) of
required product. This is one of the oldest methods of
properties associated with plastics, the following is a list and
producing plastic prototypes. It isarr ideal method to use
description of some of the most important for proper product
when time is not critical and cost must be held to a
design.
minimum. It should be cost-effective for up to five or six
Speciilc gravity. Specific gravity is a property that determines
units.
theactual cost per cubic inch of a plastic. The higher the specific
2. Thermoforming. Plastic sheets are vacuum-formed over
gravity, the heavier the plastic. Plastics are usually priced at a
models of wood, plaster, latex, aluminum, or other easily
value per pound, so the true cost of a product is calculated by
machined material, and then cut to shape and bonded to
converting the price per pound to a cost per cubic inch, using the
form the finished prototype. This method requires very
specific gravity value.
little tool investment, but the models are only good for
Electrical properties. Electrical properties include:
approximately two dozen units. Thecost ofmachining and
bonding must be calculated into the final numbers. MC resistance is a measurement of the ability of a plastic
3. Casting. A plastic such as urethane is poured into an material to resist arcing when exposed to an electric current
epoxy, aluminum, or similar material mold which is flowing between two electrodes attached to the surface of a
machined to the required dimensions. The two-part resin plastic sample.
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CHAPTER 15
PLASTIC PRODUCTS
Processing Methods and Typical Products Fig. 15-1 Typical products associated with various plastics manufac-
There are many methods existing for processing various forms turing prm%ses. -
of plastic materials, but the primary function of each is to change
the shape of the plastic. Figure 15-1 lists some of the typical An effective product designer will assign values to all of the
products associated with various plastics manufacturing processes. determined requirements, and then (usually with the help of a
Materials Engineer) find the material that comes closest to these
MATERIAL SELECTION needs, at the lowest unit cost. Trade-offs are inevitable, so ranges
When selecting material during the design process, the de- should be applied to all values. It is important to realize that costs
signer should consider both performance versus cost and typical will increase as performance requirements are increased.
properties of the various materials.
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. Fluoroplastics. There are four basic types: PTFE or TFE excellent materials of choice for such products as connector
(polytetrafluoroethy lene), PCTFE or CTFE (polychlorotri- housings, wire and cable jacketing, and circuit board substrates.
fluoroethylene), PFEP or FEP (polyfluoroethylenepropy - The main properties of interest for electrical applications are
lene), and PVF (polyvinylidene tluoride). They all have high dielectric strength, dlelectiic constant, volume resistivity, surface
chemical resistance, low coefficient of friction, low mois- resistivity, and arc resistance.
ture absorption, and excellent dimensional stability. PVF is Dielectr-ic strength can redefined as the level of electrical
the only one that does not have high heat resistance, but it is
voltage required to arc through an insulating material,
the easiest of all to mold.
measured in volts per mil of the material thickness.
Nylons (polyamides). The common types are: 6, 6/6, 6/10, Dielectric constant is a ratio measured as the amount of
6/1 1, and 6/12. All are hydroscopic (absorb moisture), with
capacitance of an assembly of two electrodes separated by a
some worse than others. They have outstandhtg toughness,
plastic insulating material compared to the same capacitance
excellent wear resistance, low coefficient of friction, excel-
of the same assembly with the electrodes separated by air.
lent chemical resistance, and high electrical strengths, but Volume resi.wivity is defined as the ability of a material to
poor dimensional stability due to their hydroscopic nature.
resist passage of anelectrical ctrrrent through its bulk and is
They are self-extinguishing.
measured in ohms per centimeter.
Polycmbonate. High degree of rigidity, very transparent,
Surface resistiviry is defined as the ability of a material to
extremely tough, excellent outdoor dimensional stability,
resist passage ofanelectrical cumentacross its surface, from
self-extinguishing, fair chemical resistance, low creep, and
one point to another, and is measured in ohms.
excellent impact resistance. Arc resistance is a measurement of the time reauired for an
. Polyester (thermoplastic). High heat resistance, high chem-
electrical arc flame to render the surface of a dielectric
ical resistance, excellent electrical properties, high physical
material conductive through carbonization of that materials
strength (when reinforced), but can be difficult to process.
surface. This is also commonly referred to as tracking.
. Polyimide. High continuous use heat resistance, to 500 F
(260 C), low coefficient of expansion, high impact Chemical Exposure
strength, high electrical strength, excellent wear resistance, Most plastics have excellent chemical resistance, but this may
but difficult to process, be greatly affected by temperature and by combined chemicals.
. Polyphenylene oxide. Excellent toughness over a wide Individual chemicals may have no effect, but when combined with
temperature range, 275 to 370 F (-171 (to 188C), other chemicals (or water) they may be deleterious, Unfilled
excellent dimensional stability, low moisture absorption, plastics may have better chemical resistance than those same
excellent chemical resistance, and high resistance to creep. plastics with fillers added. Fillers include catalysts, stabilizers,
Modified version is easiest to mold but has lower heat plasticizers, and colorants. There arehundreds of chemicals and
resistance. chemical combinations in use today, and the best source of
Polypropylene. Low specific gravity (less than 1.0), excel- information for determining the resistance of specific plastic
lent impact strength, excellent chemical resistance, fair heat materials to specific chemicals is the plastic material supplier.
resistance, to 240 F (116 C), good scratch resistance, Usually, simplified tests can be performed for specific
excellent resistance to stress or flex cracking, can be plated, applications.
and has low cost. Indications of chemical attack include swelling, cracking,
. Polystyrene. Very rigid, low moisture absorption, low crazing, pitting, blistering, discoloration, weight change, change
shrinkage, high optical clarity but poor weatherability, inwardness, dimensional changes, andgassing to the environment,
easily processed; low cost, but poor chemical resistance.
. Pol ysulfone. Good transparency, excellent heat resistance, Temperature Exposure
excellent electrical strength, high mechanical strength, can Of all design considerations, thermal stability is usually the
be plated, excellent chemical resistance. most important. Besides normal, in-use temperatures, the designer
. Polyurethane (thermoplastic). High toughness, excellent must be concerned with additional sources of temperature
wear resistance, superior impact resistance, good electrical changes, such as flexure and vibration, as well as extreme
properties, and excellent chemical resistance. temperatures experienced during transportation, asintbe trunk of
PVC (Po]yvinyl chloride). There are two types: rigid and a car in a southern summer or a northern winter. Thermal
flexible. Rigid PVC is tough, has excellent weatherability, exposures must be considered relative to the amount of time of
excellent electrical strength, excellent moisture and chemi- exposure and also the degree of force applied to the product
cal resistance; is self-extinguishing, but difficult to process. (external or internal stresses) while exposed to those temperatures.
Flexible PVC is easy to process, very flexible, but has lower Reinforced plastics (typically glass-filled) have greater high-
heat resistance, lower strength, and poor weatherability. temperature thermal resistance properties than nonreinforced ver-
sions, andthere can beadifference ofas much as 100 F(38 C)
PRODUCT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS with ahighlevel of reinforcement. Onthe other hand, few plastics
There are several considerations a designer must make when are acceptable for low-temperature, less than 0 F (17 C)
designing a plastic product: will it be exposed to electricity, applications. Afavorable range oftemperature exposure forplastic
chemicals, temperature, and moisture? What is its flammability products would normally be from 0Fto212 F(-170Cto 100
rating? How will it weather? Are there any special considerations C), with glass reinforcement (upto40%) adding as much as 100
if the product is some type of optical equipment? F (38 C) to the high limit.
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most notable effect is expansion, and materials with high moisture tive stresses, in a minimum amount of time, with little, if any,
absorption levels are extremely difficult to control with respect to labor. In addition, in a successful effort to reduce vandalism costs,
dimensional tolerances, especially when used in high-moisture plastic materials are now being used to replace glass in such
end-use conditions. Moisture is removed from plastic resins prior products as street-light globes. The plastic material is virtually
to processing by devices that circulate heated, dry air in ovens or unbreakable, yet retains the required optical properties of the
hopper-mounted systems. Some processing equipment manufac- globe design.
turers include vented barrels on their injection machines, for
removing moisture from a melt stream after it has become steam
due to the beating process.
TYPICAL DESIGN
Even properly dried materials will absorb moisture after CONCERNS AND LIMITATIONS
processing, if they are hydroscopic. This moisture absorption Any manufactured plastic product is the result of physically
factor causes the swelling and twisting that adversely affect (and sometimes chemically) changing the plastic resin from a solid
dimensional stability. state to a soft state and back to a solid state. As a result of these
changes, stresses are created during the manufacture of the
finished product, and become one with that product. If the part is
Flammability Ratings designed properly, these stresses are minimized and will not create
While most thermoset materials are self-extinguishing, only a
a problem. However, if the part is not designed properly, these
few of the thermoplastic materials fall into that category, although
stresses may be relieved at some point during the use of the
the addition of glass fiber or mineral reinforcements will greatly
product, and dramatic failures may occur. In addition, products
improve the self-extinguishing characteristics of all plastics. It is
that are over-designed may require more expensive tooling and
important to select a material with the proper flammability rating
materials to produce. The intent of this section is to address some
for products typical of the specific product being designed.
of the many restrictions and limitations that must be placed on
Government regulations and Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
product designs in an effort to minimize occurrences of product
certification requirements will determine what those ratings
failure, while keeping production costs reasonable.
should be.
A common misconception is that a material with a specific
flammability rating will maintain that rating for any given thick- Draft Angles
ness. Actually, the rating is given only for a minimum specific To facilitate easy removal from the mold, and to minimize
thickness. A thickness less than that shown in the rating will not scraping of the plastic material as it passes the parting line edge
necessarily have the same rating. For instance, if a material is plane of the mold, a taper known as a draji angle should be
rated UL 94V-1 at 0.060 (1.5 mm), it may be only UL 94V-2 (a included for all walls perpendicular to the parting line (see Fig.
lower rating) at 0.040 (1.0 mm). 15-2). In general, a draft angle of 10 per side is considered
adequate, but, if necessary, the angle may be as low as 1/2
Weatherability per side.
Outdoor weathering affects all plastic materials to some extent On large parts, over 6 (152 mm) deep, because of the total
through exposure to wind abrasion, sunlight, precipitation, and amount of taper that must be added to the walls, it may be more
temperature. Tests have been established which identify the effects practical to design the product in two smaller sections that are then
of these exposures. Specific plastic samples are placed in racks fastened together. Of course, this approach increases product cost
and exposed to the environment for a minimum period of one year.
Then, the test samples are compared to control samples of the
same material that were wrapped and held in an indoor, controlled
environment of 72 F (22 C) and 5090relative humidity.
Parting line of mold
Accelerated weathering may be accomplished by utilizing
artificial sunlight in the form of a carbon arc, xenon arc, or -?
fluorescent sunlamp, combined with water sprays and regulated
temperatures. Special equipment is required for these accelerated
conditions, but the results accurately depict the effects to be
expected from exposure to natural outdoor weathering. --- 4 ----- . ------- ----------- -..
Droft
Optical Products angle #/
Plastics are used in a variety of optical applications including
clear packaging, lighted display signs, and lenses and prisms. As
a replacement for glass, plastics are used in windows, glazings, Ty M=
protective covers, and mirrors. The product designer may take
advantage of plastic properties such as transparency and light-
scattering for aesthetic and functional values; in addition, the
processing capabilities of plastics can minimize costs involved in
manufacturing a product. For instance, glass lenses usually cannot
be molded, because the stresses imparted to the finished lens
deflect the light; the lenses must be machined and ground from
rough blank stock, which is a time-consuming and costly process.
On the other hand, plastic lenses can be produced by precision
molding, which creates excellent surface finishes without destruc- Fig. 15-2 Draft angle requirements.
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PLASTIC PRODUCTS
due to the extra tooling requirements and secondary operation, but be accomplished by all means. However, if annual volumes are
is a viable method of producing a product with critical dimensional low enough it may be more realistic to mold the product without
limitations. the undercuts and have them added in a secondary operation
after molding.
Undercuts
An undercut is defined as a protuberance or indentation Wall Thickness
thatimpedes straight removal of a molded part from a mold. For the sake of economy, all plastic parts should be designed
External and internal threads are typical examples of undercuts. with the minimum wall thickness required for proper part strength
While some minor undercuts can be incorporated in products and performance. In addition, each plastic material has a range of
molded of very flexible materials, most undercuts must be thickness that it is most easily processed within, Table 15-1 shows
produced using complicated tooling designs that are expensive to the recommended minimum and maximum wall thickness values
build and difficult (thus costly) to maintain. If annual volumes and for some common materials.
product function require that undercuts be molded in, that should
T t
\
P- Increased wall thickness
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Radii
Sharp comers should be avoided when designing plastic parts,
because they act as stress concentration points. Products designed
for normal use should have a minimum radius of 0.015 (0.38
mm), while products designed to be subjected to high impact or
mechanical or thermal stress conditions should have a minimum
radius of 0.125 (3.18 mm). Figure 15-5 shows typical radius
recommendations.
0.016
Fillets (040 mm]
R min.
At junctions where bosses andlor ribs join the main body of the
< 7
plastic part, fillets should be added. Fillets with radii are less stress
concentrating than angular fillets. The optimum fillet radius is
calculated by multiplying 0.6 times the wall thickness of the area
requiring the fillet. For example, in Fig. 15-6 the optimum fillet
radius is 0.6 times 0.090 (2.23 mm), the wall thickness, for a
recommended fillet radius dimension of 0.054 (1.37 mm).
Fig. 15-5 Use of radii to replace sharp corners.
Partina Lines
Any ~olded part must be produced in a mold that consists of material enters the gate and then must be routed back and forth, or
two halves held together during the molding process. The plane at from thin to thick sections, or around core pins or other obstruc-
which the two mold halves meet is called the parting line. It is tions, stresses may become exaggerated, or weak knit lines maybe
important to understand that this parting line leaves a definite, fortned, which may result in molded parts that are twisted,
visible, feature line (witness) on the molded part. Proper product warped, prone to cracking, or simply mechanical y weak. Because
design will allow for the parting line witness to be located in such of the importance of the gate design and its location, it is highly
a way as to be least offensive for both aesthetic and functional recommended that mold designer expertise be utilized in product
purposes. Including a mold designer in the initial phases of design, to minimize the gate location effect.
product design will aid in ensuring proper parting line location. An
improperly located parting line may add thousands of dollars to the
cost of the mold, and may cause functional interference in the Ejector Pins
finished product. Normally round steel rods that are used to eject the finished
molded product from the mold, ejector pins are usually located on
Gates the clamp side of the tool. They are approximately 1/8 to 1/4
A gate is the point at which molten plastic material enters (3. 18 mm to 6.35 mm) in diameter, depending on the size of
the actual cavity section of a closed mold.This is where pressure is product being ejected, and usually a number of pins are spread out
built up and the material begins the final flow towards filling the over the molded surface to minimize forces at any single location.
mold and reproducing the mold surfaces. Normally, the gate is Ejector pins will produce a witness line in the shape of the cross
designed to be only 0.015 to 0.100 (0.38 mm to 2.54 mm) in section of the pin itselfi a round pin leaves a round witness line, or
diameter (or equivalent cross-sectional area). Because of the circle, in the face of the molded part on which it is placed. This
pressures that are built up, the material is prone to molecular must be kept in mind for aesthetic purposes, and if there are areas
orientation, which results in the creation of mechanical stresses. of the product which must not have these witness lines (a lens
This is normal and usually does not affect the properties of the surface, for example), that fact should be noted on the product
molded product. However, the location of the gate will determine drawing. Unless otherwise noted a mold maker will assume that
the flow- path of the plastic, and that can affe~t properties. If the ejector pins may be placed anywhere.
----- . .. . .
1 lg. 15-6 I+met reqmrernents.
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I I
Generic
titerial Hentifimtion
Family
1. PETE
I POly&ylene*rephlhalate [PTE]
I 2. HWE I HighDensi~Polyehylene I
3, v Vhyl/Polyvin$ Chlorids
5. PP Polypropylene
LDPE
The chasing arrow symbol defines the plastic material
Pol ystyene used, with both number and Ietter designation
6. PS
I i. otier I Allotherresintypes
I
. .-
Fig. 15-7 Saciety oKthe Ylastics industry (SP1)symbuts.
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part will grow volumetrically when it is heated, and then shrink Effects of Shrinkage
upon releasing that heat. On a thin molded part, 0.08 or 0.11 (2 Tbereare some benefits associated with shrinkage. For exam-
or 3 mm) thick, this growth is manifested primarily as a linear ple, shrinkage of the cooling plastic around an insert-molded
phenomenon. The coefficient of linear thermal expansion (CLTE) threaded insert or reinforcement member allows integration of that
is a measure of this growth and subsequent shrinkage; it is component into the plastic part. (Itshould be noted, however, that
generally given as in/in/degree F (mrrdmm per degree C). the same shrinkage tending to lock in inserts can also result in
Hygr-oscopy refers to a plastics tendency after molding to areas of high stress which may lead to part failure. ) Also,
absorb moisture either from liquid water, ambient air, or even shrink-wraps made of oriented plastic film shrink upon heating,
from other materials containing water. This absorption results in providing clear, tight packaging.
growth of a part. When the part dries (resorption), it will shrink However, there seem to be many more negative effects
back to original dimensions. The term hydrolysis resistance is resulting from shrinkage. An inherent disadvantage related to
often used in describing the degree to which plastics resist shrinkage is the fact that all plastics shrink differently. Even ifall
absorption of moisture. processing conditions can be kept constant fora given injection
molding machine and tool, the differences in base resin and filier
content mean that a tool cut for one plastic often cannot accom-
modate another material and meet specified dimensional
Causes of Shrinkage tolerances.
There aremany factors that influence sht-inkage. One of these For example, stool might becutfor ahigh-impact A13S with
is the very nature of the plastic being molded. When any plastic aO.5% shrink. If a 2.0%0shrink polypropylene is substituted in a
COOISfrom a melted condition to a solid condition, it shrinks. part with anomina165 (200 mm) length, that part could be off
Highly crystalline resins, such asacetals, mayshrink three times specification by O.11 (3 mm).
as much as unfilled polycarbonate, an amorphous material with a Warpage in a part can be one of the most serious and frustrating
more random molecular structure. Among crystalline resins, the problems related to shrinkage. Warpage can be seen in long,
degree of crystallinity varies depending on type of polymer, narrow pieces that tend to twist large, flat pieces that warp out of
possible nucleating agents, and cooling rates. Cooling rates, in plane; contoured pieces that flatten out of tolerance; and in
turn, depend on the process conditions as well as the wall unmatched conditions between mating features.
thickness and thermal conductivity of the material. The primary cause of warpage is differential shrinkage result-
A large amount of filler content will tend to reduce overall ingfrom the anisotropic nature ofa molded part. That anisotropy
shrinkage in a part. Glass and other fibers with high aspect ratios is caused by a combination of flow orientation, filler orientation,
will give the plastic an anisotropic character, tending to minimize and asymmetric geometry. The greater the degree of differential
shrinkage along the flow direction by up to 40Y0 or 50Yc compared flow shrinkagewbether from orientation or non-uniform part
with transverse direction. thicknessthe greater the chance and degree of warpage.
Fillers with spherical mineral particles or glass beads and flakes Shrinkage begins during the molding cycle after the end of
have lower aspect ratios and tend to result in a more isotropic screw forward time (SFT), when the gate is presumabl y frozen and
material, less susceptible towarpage caused bydifferential shrink- the injection pressure is removed. Until this moment the part has
age. Most filled or reinforced materials will have two published the same dimensions as dimensions as the cavity. The part is
values for shrinkage: one for flow direction, one fortransverse (or ejected after cooling time, at which time warpage can begin
cross-flow) direction. without geometrical restriction. Sometimes the cooling time is
The way a plastic is processed has a great deal of effect on extended in order for the mold to act as a shrink fixture and reduce
s~lnkage. Cavity fill time, packing pressures, melt temperature, warpage. However, thelonger molding cycle incrcasesthe cost of
mold temperature, and the temperature andduration of an anneal- the part. Also, ifthepart islater subjected to heat, itcanre-warp.
ing (or stress relaxation) process all influence shrinkage in an The effects of shrinkage are often seen as undesired surface
injection molded part. phenomena called sink marks. These are localized depressions
Part design plays a critical role in when, where, and how located at points of relatively heavy wall thickness (intersection of
shrinkage will occur. Thegeometry of thepart contributes greatly ribs or bosses with the nominal wall, or comers and other
to the presence or absence of shrinkage-related problems; thick features). At these thick points, the cumulative shrinkage is
wall sections shrink more than thinner sections, and complex greater, and the surface sags as the interior collapses during
features increase thechances ofanisotropic shrhkage. part cooling.
Very large molded parts, such as automobile body panels, If sink marks cannot be avoided entirely, they can sometimes
compound the number and magnitude of shrhkage-related con- bedisguised bysurface textures orother features. However, sink
cerns. For example, thermal growth (and subsequent shrinkage) marks are more than just an appearance issue; they usually indicate
for a plastic fender will always begreater than fora steel fender areas of molded-in stress.
during a given paint operation; if the fender is not permitted to Another problem related to thick sections can be the presence
grow andsbrinkin adesigned fashion (inchrdingthe use of slip of shrinkage voids, irregukirpocketso ntheinterioro fap artw all.
fasteners), problems can occur. Hydroscopic plastics, such as They maynotbc seen, butthey can represent potential points of
polyamide (nylon) blends, may compound dimensional instabili- failure due to lack of structural mass or threat of crack propagation.
ties in end-use conditions.
Proper tool design also is important. The number, size, type,
andlocation of gates (the pointsat which the melt leaves thesproe Shrinkage Prediction
and runners and enters the cavity) all affect the location and degree and Problem Avoidance
of shrinkage. If there is poor balance of cooling in a tool, there will Fortunately, sklnkage anditseffects canoften be anticipated
begreater differentiation ofcooling andrelated shinkage, which and predicted. Usually, if problems are predicted, they can be
often translates into warpage problems. avoided or minimized.
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The biggest key to anticipating shtinkage and its results is for minimum expense. When more is known about the dimensional
everyone involved in the manufacture to be aware of the many control of the molded part, a steel production tool can be cut.
factors involved. Most major resin suppliers publish design and Even after all this preparation, and assuming strict adherence
process guides that help engineers, designers, and molders with by the toolmaker to tight tolerances, it is important to recognize
shrinkage-related issues. For example, a design engineer who is that there may still be differences in how the production part
aware of how sink marks occur will keep rib thickness at 2/3 or comes out relative to the prototype part. The different thermal
less of nominal wall thickness. Sometimes, certain features can be characteristics of the tool material and cooling system (relative to
designed in that will minimize or even eliminate the warpage that the prototype tool) may result in differential cooling and shrhk
would otherwise occur from differential shrinkage. rates within a part causing some warpage or unexpected mold
Similarly, an injection molding process engineer who under- shrinkage values.
stands the causes and effects of shrinkage will optimize molding It is advisable to build a one-cavity pre-production steel tool
parameters sometimes using sophisticated design of experiments before building amultiple-cavity tool. The production tool itself
(DOE) methodologiesin order to get good parts. A proper should be cut steel-safe if possible. This means that if further
combination of mold temperatures, injection pressure, packing modifications are required, steel can be cut from the tool rather
time, and SFT is necessary, in order to pack a part out fully than expensively welded on to make changes.
(minimizing shrinkage and related sink marks) without increasing
shrinkage differentiation and its resultant warpage. SECONDARY OPERATIONS
The toolmaker who recognizes the results of anisotropic A number of secondary operations can be used in making a
shrinkage will locate gates to minimize the differences in flow plastic part: various machining operations, cutting operations, and
direction within a part. Mold shrhkage nomogrdphs published by a variety of joining operations.
resin suppliers can be used to predict simple shrinkage for specific
resins. These nomography require the input of mold variables (gate
Machining Plastics
width, gate thickness, part thickness) and process variables (melt
Any secondary machining process will remove the surface
temperature, mold temperature, melt pressure). The output shtink- hardness and luster from a molded plastic product. This must be
age values then can be used as a guide to cutting the tool correctly. taken into consideration, especially for parts that will be exposed
Designers, materials engineers, and toolmakers all need to to severe environments or require a high luster for aesthetic
know that the mold shrinkage values printed in property data purposes. Thermoset materials usually can have the luster restored
sheets are only guidelines for relative comparisons of different by polishing the surface with mineral oil. In most cases, plastics
resins. The actual shrinkage will vary in molded parts more can be machined accurately if the proper tools, feeds, speeds, and
complex and larger than test plaques with constant cross-sections. coolants are used. Thermoplastic materials are especially suscep-
Once the relative shrink characteristics of a plastic are known, tible to tool speeds and cutter shape because of the heat generated
along with basic knowledge of how design interacts with shrink- by the machining processes. If excessive, this heat will cause
age, so-called visualization can be the next step in anticipating deformation, or even melting, of the plastic product being
shrinkage, as well as possible stress risers and other problems. machined.
Visualization is a nonmathematical way of picturing lines of flow The designer should be aware of various tooling parameters
and the manner in which a liquid polymer will fill the cavity of a (such as speeds and feeds and drill flute condition and composi-
tool. The material will flow smoothly through generous, uniform tion) if drilling, tapping, reaming, turning, and milling, or
sections, leading to even cooling and balanced shrinkage. Very combinations of these processes, are to be used in the manufacture
thick and very thin sections, along with other disruptive features, of the product. For example, in specifying tooling for drilling a
can create problems and should be eliminated or reduced. thermoset, the designer should know that carbide drills are most
After all the correct design guidelines have been followed, suitable for drilling thermoplastics, but if they are not available
given the structural requirements of the part, computer-aided carbide-tipped or diamond-tipped should be used. If surface finish
engineering (CAE) can be used to help predict shrinkage-related is critical and a mirror finish is required, a diamond-tipped drill is
warpage. Finite element modeling and analysis (FEM/FEA) can be mandatory.
used to determine possible problems.
For example, recently a thermal analysis was performed on a Automated Shape Cutting
glass-reinforced thermoplastic automotive seat back. The displace- Waterjet, laser cutting, and mechanical routing are the three
ment output of the FEA indicated that there would be unacceptable most popular methods of computerized cutting of shapes for
bowing inward of two support flanges if no corrections were made plastic products. Each has its own advantages.
to the prototype tool. When the seat back was molded, that Waterjet. Perhaps the most popular automated cutting process
prediction was confiied and design modifications could be made. currently, waterjet cutting utilizes the force of a thin stream of
Moldability and flow analysis packages, both commercially water under pressures in the range of 20 ksi to 50 ksi ( 138 MPa to
available and proprietary, are used to help predict shrinkage by 345 MPa), to create a powerful cutting point that pierces plastic
indicating how the tool will fill, likely tiller orientation, cooling material cleanly and effortlessly. Dust and chips are nonexistent
patterns, and other characteristics which can influence shrinkage with waterjet cutting, and the addition of abrasive material to the
and its effects. Flow analysis isusedto balance flow in multicavity stream allows cutting of the most difficult materials.
tools and to reduce cavity-to-cavity variations. Although most waterjet cutting is performed on flat sheet
Even when all the best design guides are used and the most stock, computer controlled three- and five-axis machines are
sophisticated analysis programs are employed, it is best to use a capable of cutting shapes on very complex surfaces. Some units
prototype tool whenever feasible. If unexpected problems arise combine waterjet cutting with more conventional mechanical
with the trial moldings, asofttool made of Kirksite, aluminum, or cutting processes to provide a variety of processes at one machin-
some other material can be modified relatively quickly and with ing station.
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Laser cutting. Laser cutters are used for cutting plastics when is the point at which the vibrations cause the material to melt. This
a fine polished finish is required, such as for the edges of an director should be a minimum of 0.005 (O. 13 mm) high and a
acrylic sign. The laser cuts by focusing its concentrated beam at maximum of 0.020 (O.51 mm). If a higher director is called for it
the exact point of required cutting. This causes the plastic to melt, is better to use multiple directors, the total of all heights equalling
vaporize, and solidify, resulting in an ultra-smooth finish. the required dimension. Figure 15-9 shows various joint designs
Proper adjustments of laser energy and cutting speeds are that also may be utilized.
critical to successful operations, and improper adjustments can It is important to understand that the weld strength of a joint is
cause the plastic to char, burn, or disintegrate. The result can be equal to approximately 70% of the strength of the parent material.
the release of toxic fumes in some cases, and adequate exhaust In some cases dissimilar plastics can be welded; in that case the
venting is imperative. Although most lasers operate in the range of weld strength is 709Z0of the weaker of the two plastics.
200 to 500 watts, some plastics require higher power cutters, and Electromagnetic bonding. Electromagnetic bonding is a pro-
equipment is now available with lasers operating in the 1,000 watt cess that uses a high-energy induction heating coil to generate heat
range and higher. in an energy-absorbing plastic compound bonding band. This
Mechanical routers. Mechanical routing has been the main- band is placed between the two plastic components that are to be
stay method of cutting plastic shapes for decades. The low bonded, and when the energy is applied the band melts, fusing all
investment cost and ease of operation make it a popular choice, but three components together. Pressure is applied during the process
it does create dust and cutting chips which must be properly to ensure a fii weld.
controlled and collected for facility and operator safety. Besides Spin welding. Spin welding requires that a circular joint be
the inconvenience of debris, tool wear is high, heavy-duty employed in the design of the two components to be bonded. One
fixturing is required, and accuracy of cut cannot compare with that of the components is held stationary while the other is spun at a
of laser or water jet cutting. Computerized, five-axis routing high rate of speed, then brought in contact with the stationary
machines are available which make automated routing operations component. Frictional heat is generated, causing the material at
economically attractive for complex shapes. the joint to melt and fuse. Slight pressure is applied as the melt
solidifies.
Welding Thermoplastics Hot gas welding. This process is similar to that used for
Welding processes that can be performed on plastics include welding metals. A special plastic welding rod is placed in a weld
ultrasonic, electromagnetic, spin, and hot gas. bed and both the rod and the plastic component are heated with a
Ultrasonic welding. The tongue and groove joint design stream of hot gas from a welding gun nozzle until both materials
shown in Fig. 15-8 is the most successful for sonic welding. The melt and fuse together. The basic concept is complicated and much
triangular contact point is referred to as an energy director and practice is needed to make good weld joints.
+ 4 4
L
/12
T T
-+ 5 k--
J 13
Wflo
J
Fig. 15-8 Tongue and groove joint design for sonic welding.
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PLASTIC PRODUCTS
Adhesive Code
Thermoses Elastomers
Thermoplastics Allays
Fig. 15-90ptional joint designs for sonic welding. Fig. 15-10 Adhesives for bonding plastics.
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PLASTIC PRODUCTS
Corona Discharge surface of the plastic product. For decorating these symbols, the
Surface oxidation of plastic material can also be achieved ink or paint is wiped into the recessed image; then the surface is
through theuseof acorona discharge process, inwhich the plastic wiped clean, leaving the coating only in the recesses.
product is passed over an insulated metal cylinder beneath a high
voltage conductor. Anelectron discharge then takes place between Heat Transfer
the conductors and the cylinder, and strikes the surface of the This process requires a film consisting of a paper carrier, a
plastic product passing through. Acorona is formed which causes release coat, and a thermoplastic ink image. The image is
the plastic material to oxidize, thus preparing it for decora- transferred to the plastic product by running the film between the
tive coatings. product and a heated roller. The roller causes the ink of the image
to melt, and it is pressed against the plastic product surface by
Plasma Process roller pressure. Therelease coat acts as both amechanism to allow
In this process, Iow-pressure airisdirected through anelectri- the inktodetach from the paper carrier, anda durable protective
cal discharge andexpanded into aclosed vacuum chamber which finish for the inked image.
contains the plastic product to be treated. While passing through
this chamber, nitrogen andoxygen arepartially disassociated from In-mold Overlays
the air, and in their atomic state, react with the surface of the In some cases, such as thermoset compression molding, it is
plastic material to alter its physical/chemical characteristics, al- possible to decorate the plastic product during the molding
lowing the surface toaccept decorative coatings. process. This is accomplished by placing in the mold a foil
(overlay) consisting of a thermoplastic sheet that has the required
Acid Etch image printed on it, coated with a partially cured thermosetting
Some plastics, such as acetal and polycarbonate, do not accept resin. During the molding cycle this entire overlay is fused to the
decorative coatings even after treatments such as those mentioned curing molding compound and becomes one with the finished
above. Inthese cases itmaybe necessary toetchthe surface of the product. A similar process is used for thermoplastic products, but
plastic material to obtain a mechanical bond with coatings. This is the pressures incurred during injection molding, or blow molding,
done through an acid wash process that attacks the surface of the make this a difficult procedure.
plastic and forms tiny craters of exposed resin, which then
physically capture the decorative coating and lock it to the Two-color Molding
plastic surface. Products such as typewriter and business machine keys are
susceptible to surface wear due to constant use. Because of that, a
process known as two-color molding is used for creating the
DECORATIVE PROCESSES
decorative finish, such as keyboard symbols. Ths process is
There are a variety of processes that the designer should
actually an injection molding process performed twice. In the first
consider which will reproduce symbols or change the surface
step the base color material is molded into a basic shape. Then the
finish of the plastic product.
second material is injection molded into the remaining open
spaces, In the case of a typewriter key, the key itself is molded in
Screen Printing an off-white material, but the area where a symbol will appear is
In screen printing, ink or paint is forced through the mesh of a
molded as an open space. That space is then filled during the
plastic or metal screen by pulling a squeegee across a screen which
second injection step with a material of a different color. As the
is placed against the surface of the plastic product being decorated.
surfaces wear in use, they wear consistently so that the two colors
Artwork secured to the screen causes the ink to flow through the
are always apparent. While two-color molding is more expensive
mesh only in specific areas, thus forming the required design on
than stamping or painting, it is recommended when wear is a
the product. Artwork used for screen printing is in the form of a
factor to be considered as a function of product design.
stencil made by placing the artwork positive on a photo-sensitive
film and exposing the film to a light source, which then etches the Painting
image into the film.
Although all plastics can be painted, the success of the process
depends on proper surface preparation and the use of specific paint
Hot Stamping formulations for specific plastics. These formulas must be adjusted
Hot stamping is one of the original and most often used to address: the plasticizer, when present, of the plastic to ensure
methods of decorating plastic products. In this process a plastic, there is no migration into the paint; the heat distortion temperature
usually polyethyleneterephthalate (PET) or acetate, film containing of the plastic which determines whether the paint should be
a thermoplastic color coat is placed against the product being air-dried or oven baked: and the chemical resistance properties of
decorated. A heated die is then pressed against the plastic film, the plastic which determine which solvent system should be used
melting the color coat which adheres to the plastic product surface. to ensure proper adhesion without crazing.
The heated die can be cast or machined to a variety of shapes and Paint can be applied through brushing, spraying, roliing, or
designs and can be made to conform to a variety of product shapes, dipping, either manually or automatically.
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COMPOSITES
materials are ABS, acetal, acrylic, alkyd, cellulosics, epoxy, There are seven basic areas of concern that should be addressed as
phenolic, polycarbonate, polyurethane, TFE fluorocarbon, urea, early in the design stages as possible. Addressing these items
and rigid vinyl. Electroplating plastic material requires that the properly will ensure that everything possible has been done to
nonconductive plastic be made conductive. That usually requires design a product that is manufacturable while minimizing potential
failures and associated costs.
that a conductive base metal first be applied to an etched and
sensitized plastic surface. Then, a plating material can be applied 1. Functional concept. What will the product be doing?
to the conductive metal surface. Procedures vary with the type of 2. Material selection. Which material gives the best match
plastic being plated, and detailed information is available from of required properties, lowest cost, and best performance
material suppliers for specific plastics. for the specific product? Should color be molded in, or
painted on?
Vacuum Metallizing 3. Process determination. Based on annual volumes, which
When a plastic product needs a bright metallic finish but does process will produce the part for the lowest cost, in the
not require the thick, rigid plate created by electroplating, the less least amount of time, with the highest quality required?
expensive method of vacuum metallizing should be considered. 4. Tooling concepts. Based on annual volumes, what tooling
The process requires that the plastic product be coated with a will be required? How many? Is it better to incorporate
lacquer or enamel base coat, to minimize surface defects and to complex mechanical designs in the tooling to produce the
increase adhesion properties. The product is then placed on a rack entire product, or simplify the primary tooling and use
inside a vacuum chamber, along with small clips of the metal secondary operations to produce such things as tapped
to be deposited. During the operation the metal clips are electri- holes?
cal y heated to the point of vaporizing, at which point, due to the 5. Secondary operations. Which processes should be used for
high vacuum in the chamber, the vaporized metal is deposited on producing secondary operations? Will drilling suffice, or is
al I line-of-sight surfaces. The product is then removed from the reaming required? If the part is to be painted, will the entire
chamber and coated with another layer of lacquer or enamel to part require paint, or only specific areas, thus requiring
protect the metal finish, which is only approximately 5 micro- masking? If assembly is required, the product must be
incbes (O. 13 microns) thick. If a color tone is required, such as designed with the easiest possible assembly method.
gold, brass or copper, it is applied at the same time as the final 6. Testing procedures. What must be tested? What values will
lacquer coating, be required? What method will be used to test for those
values?
SUMMARY 7. Packaging requirements. Does the product need any
Designing plastic products for manufacturability does not have special packaging for protection during handling and
to be burdensome, time-consuming, or expensive. Following shipment?
some basic guidelines makes it possible to design and manufacture
Finally, time and opportunity must be established, at all stages
a plastic product that functions as required, is aesthetically
of design, for communication among all participating individuals
pleasing, and is produced at the lowest possible cost with the
and departments.
highest degree of quality.
COMPOSITES
This section covers liquid composite, fiber composite, and sheet molding tool. In any case, when the heated mold is closed, it
molding compound materials. Composite material gear design is forms a cavity of what the finished part will be. Resin is forced
also addressed. into the cavity and through the reinforcement, actually encapsu-
lating it. After the exothermic reaction has cured, the part can be
removed for secondary processing.
LIQUID COMPOSITES MOLDING The reinforcement package is the heart of the LCM process. It
Liquid composite molding (LCM) is different from most other is most commonly made of E fiberglass in mat forms, such as
plastic processes. The polymerization reaction occurs after a continuous strand mat (CSM), unidirectional mat, and woven mat
thermoset liquid resin matrix fills a mold cavity that also contains (see Fig. 15- 11). Mats can be stacked and die cut, or preformed
a pre-placed reinforcement package. Resin transfer molding into the part shape and trimmed to size, so they fit the mold cavity
(RTM) and structural reaction injection molding (SRIM) are without forming wrinkles. Glass can also be chopped into one-inch
common types of LCM. The major differences between the two strands, and blown onto a vacuum screen made into the shape of
are speed of reaction, mechanical properties, and surface finish. the part. A thermosetting binder, sprayed into the glass stream,
SRIM is faster and stronger, but RTM has better finish character- wicks on the fibers and hardens when exposed to heat. Other types
istics. Each derives most of its structural properties from the of reinforcement include metal and wood shapes, foam and balsa
reinforcement placed into the mold cavity before the resin matrix wood cores, Kevlar@ and carbon fibers, and various types of
is injected. The reinforcement can be of one or more types and inserts. Because the reinforcement package is most often made
materials. Either a simple or complex reinforcement package can before being placed into the mold, and held in place during resin
be draped into the mold, or preformed to the approximate shape injection, strength properties can be added where needed by
of the molded part in a prior operation. In one advanced method, design. Such orthotropic material properties allow for optimizing
fiberglass mat is preformed, trimmed, and resin-injected all in one designs toward the goal of a one-color finite element analysis.
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COMPOSITES
CSM Woven
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COMPOSITES
T
Fig. 15-15 Rlb and bead cross-sections.
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COMPOSITES
__
. .
. . _ _
___ .
Only RTM and compression molding can provide desired From the outside. both meforms will look the same. Thev mav.
surface finish results today. The same techniques mentioned however, mold with wid~ly varied results regarding wa~ aid
above, in various combinations, are generally used. Since RTM tolerance consistency. Veils added to outside surfaces can give
resins are injected with much less pressure, less air entrainment similar undesirable resuhs. Fortunate y, LCM offers easy and
occurs. Most significant is that RTM resins can support fillers effective ways to make corrections. Without making any mold
added to the matrix while in the holding tank. The most common changes, the preform can be altered to produce the desired result.
filler, calcium carbonate, can be added so it is as much as 50W% Changing the stacking order, adding or subtracting pieces, chang-
of the resin. Again, in-mold coatings or thermoplastic sheets can ing resin systems, changing the cure times, using a cooling fixture,
be initially placed into the mold. Gel-coating the mold surface, modifying the preforming tool, or a combination of these, are all
using a veil on the preform, injecting a fNed RTM resin, and ways to correct warpage on a consistent basis. LCM offers
molding with vacuum assistance are techniques commonly used to repeatable dimensional stability when preform and process condi-
produce Class A finishes. tions are optimized and controlled. Figure 15-17 contrasts sym-
Properties. Material characteristics depend mostly on the metrical and unsymmetrical stacking sequences.
reinforcements and resin selected for LCM processing. Each resin Physical properties vary widely, which actually makes design-
matrix has unique properties that can be changed by additives and ing more difficult. More analysis work is required to design an
fillers blended prior to molding. Generally, SRIM resins can optimized part. LCM materials are generally stiff, strong and
attach molecules to the sizing on fiberglass more efficiently than brittle. The flexural modulus range is from 300 to 400 ksi (2. 1 to
most RTM resins. As time goes on, research efforts will diminish 2.8 GPa) or more. Flexural strength can range from 15 to 50 ksi
the efficiency difference. Strength and stiffness properties vary in (103 to 345 MPa); tensile strengths from 12 to 30 ksi (83 to 207
proportion to reinforcement loading. Heat stability properties MPa). Notched Izod impact vahres range from eight to 16 ft-lb/in
depend on resin formulations. Shrinkage rates are inversely (427 to 854 J/m). Elongation can be anywhere from 1% to 20%.
proportional to reinforcement loads. Generally, LCM parts shrink Chemical resistivity is good; ultraviolet stability is poor. Water
at a rate of 0.0015 inch/inch (mm/mm). However, some low absorption is 1% to 3.5%. Properties increase as temperatures
profile RTM resins expand during the cure cycle. Partial stability decline, and decrease when temperatures rise. Some resins remain
is reached several minutes after part removal from the mold. The stable at temperatures well over 400 F (204 C). These basic
polymerization (cross-linking) process usually becomes 80% to properties are not limited to the stated values; they can be
90% complete while still in the mold. The remainder can require expanded by designing with the methods and materials described.
up to 12 hours for 100% completion. Post-mold curing oven cycles
can shorten that time. Other characteristics are mainly dependent
on the preform package.
Characteristics such as warpage and tolerance repeatability are
mostly dependent on preform consistencey. When a preform does Veil
not match the mold in a radius, as previously discussed, the UNI
outside portion of the radius is empty of reinforcement. The CSM
resin-rich outside radius will shrink more than the inside one. The CSM
UNI
differential can cause part dimensions to vary from the mold
Veil
shape. As long as the preform is consistent, the part will be
repeatable. Depending on size, thickness, reinforcement load, and
shape, LCM parts can expect to hold a tolerance of 0.0005 (0.013 Veil
mm) per unit of length. However, poor reinforcement fit in one UNI
area can cause warpage some distance away. Good reinforcement
CSM
fit is characterized by examining a cross section slice for even
UNI
reinforcement distribution throughout the thickness.
Unsymmetrical stacking of reinforcement layers can cause
warpage, too. For example, four layers of a woven and chopped
fiberglass combination mat can be stacked in several ways. Two
possible ways are as follows:
1. Woven/chop, woven/chop, choplwoven, choplwoven. Fig. 15-17 Symmetrical versus nonsymmetrical stacking sequence.
2. Woven/chop, choplwoven, choplwoven, choptwoven. The latter can cause warpage.
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COMPOSITES
Manufacturing directs the fibers in an even pattern. Vacuum pulled behind the
An LCM part is made by preforming a reinforcement package, screen helps to even the distribution and tighten the fiber loft,
molding the part with a thermosetting resin matrix, and finishing Binder sprayed into the fiber stream coats the fibers and holds
the part with secondary processes. Trimming away flash and them together when subjected to heat. Trimming is sometimes
unwanted areas, drilling, bondhg, and painting are common required after removing the preform from the screen. Some part
post-mold operations done to finish LCM parts. The nature of the shapes do not work well with direct fiber placement (DFP)
manufacturing processes used in making LCM parts follows, preforming, Screen walls that are vertical relative to the fiber
Preforming. The simplest preform is cut from fabric and stream will not collect fibers well. Placing baffles behind the
draped into the mold cavity. The fabric can be any of those already screen, or directing the fibers at an angle, may help to deposit
mentioned, single or multiple layers. It is important to mention fibers on vertical walls.
that glass fibers cannot actually be cut, only broken. The fastest In any preforming method, additional patches of fabric can be
method of cutting uses an inexpensive steel rule dic shaped into the added where needed by design, Other inserts can also be added.
perimeter of the flattened part, and mounted to a plywood board. Programmed cutters, sewing methods, stapling, and bonding of
The die is mounted in a low-tonnage vertical acting press, Mat patches are technologies borrowed from other industries, including
larger than the die is pulled from fabric rolls over the blade. textile and advanced aerospace composites. Holding the inserts in
Cycling the press cuts the mat against a thermoplastic backer place during loading and molding is important; the extra picccs
brmrd. Offage is discarded and the trimmed mat is ready for must remain in the proper location while the mold is closed and
molding. Manual cutting can be done with large scissors, recip- resin is injected. If the part shape has sharp radii, the fabric may
rocating blade devices, or pneumatic shears. shift or be pulled tightly against one side of the mold while it
Three-dimensionally shaped preforms can be trimmed 10 size in closes. This action could increase internal stress in the preform
much the same manner as above. A steel die blade forged to the which might cause poor dimensional stability.
correct contour is used. The technology for this comes from the No special provisions to the preform are needed in the gate
formed carpet industry. Glass mat can be formed into shape prior area. If fibers wasti into the gate area, a small patch of mat can
to trimming if needed. It can also be formed and trimmed often control the movement. Sometimes the addition of resin-rich
simultaneously. Since the mat generally is treated with a binder, it ribs to tie two legs of a channel together can help maintain them in
can be heated in an oven and quickly pressed into the desired shape the correct position, if the part is so designed. Biasing the stacking
using a clamping press outfitted with forming dies. Friction and sequence of reinforcement layers to induce warpage will some-
tension control devices are often used to minimize wrinkling as the times provide the intended dimensions. The strength of LCM is
fabric is drawn into the die cavity. As the binder cools, it holds the derived from the reinforcement, but applying appropriate preform-
mat in the shape of the forming dies. It is often difficult to have the ing techniques places that strength where it is needed to satisfy the
preform tit the mold exactly, which can cause molding problems. design intent.
The forming dies can be modified to overdraw the fabric so it Mold design. Successful molding with LCM depends first on
will better fit the mold cavity when closed (see Fig. 15- 18). After the shape and loft of the preform, and then on the design of the
forming, the preform can then be cut as described above, manually mold. It also depends on fiber structure, fiber volume fractions,
or with a forged contoured die blade. resin saturation, and resin flow character sties. Mold materials
Another way to make a preform is to chop fiber rovings into include mass-cast epoxy, epoxy lamination, Kirksite, cast steel,
short strands, say, one- to two-inch (25 mm to 51 mm) lengths, nickel-faced epoxy, aluminum, and various tool steels, cast or
and deposit them onto a screen shaped like the part. The fibers are machined. The selection criteria include output quantity expecta-
usually blown through a three-or four-inch (76 mm to 102 mm) tions, detail complexity, desired life, and dimensional integrity.
diameter flexible tube. Manual or robotic movement of the tube Molds must be heated to initiate polymerization, typically to
120 F to 220 F (49 C to 104 C). Zone heating has benefits in
controlling gel times, but is usually not needed. Hot treated water
or oil are the preferred heating media, routed through the molds
internal pipes or passages.
I I The injection point is usually in the geometric center of the
cavity, to allow a uniform flow front during resin injection, Much
research is being undertaken to predict and optimize resin flow.
LCM resins usually do not need mixing other than that done in the
injection head. The gate can be a one-half to two-inch (13 mm to
[a) Port geometry 5 I mm) long cone, having a top diameter the same as the mixhead
plunger bore, and a bottom diameter of up to one inch (25 mm) or
i more. The gate may also be flush with the mixhead plunger, Small
l_---Ilr
runners that look like ribs can be added to one or both sides of the
mold cavity, to aid flow and prevent dry spots due to resin
wrap-around.
Edge sealing and venting are critical issues of mold design. The
seal can be carefully benched to be very tight, with upper and
lower surfaces carefully matched. 11can also be resilient, such as
(b) Overdrawn preform
half-inch (13 mm) round silicone rubber. Finally, a seal can be
made by cutting matching vertical walls in the two mold halves so
that they perform a shearing action when the mold is closed, A
Fig. 15-18 Exaggerated view of making the preform larger than the combination of these methods of sealing the mold can be em-
part to ensure a good fit; (a) part geometry, (b) overdrawn preform. ployed. Since the cavity is filled with air in addition to a
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reinforcement package, the air must be allowed a controlled allowing multiple trims with each press stroke. A somewhat rough
escape while the resin flows. The air provides back pressure to edge will be left, because not all fibers can be cleanly cut. More
cause the resin to develop an even flow front. Vent passages are intricate trimming is best handled by a robotic controlled device
cut in the edge seal to allow the air to escape (see Fig. 15-19). for good repeatability.
These are placed at the furthest distance from the injeetion gate, A laser gives a very smooth edge finish even at feed rates of
where the resin will last flow. Additional vents are sometimes 200 ipm (5,080 mm/min). The fumes from the process must be
added to reduce wrap-around. Small dams can be added along the vented, and the power needs are high. Waterjet is fast: up to 500
edges to restrict flow and eliminate dry spots. The method, for ipm (12,700 mrn/min) or more when a polymer is added. This is
tuning the mold as described, involves making a series of short even faster when an abrasive is added to the water. Abrasive
shots (see Fig. 15-20). With a preform in place and the mold waterjet trimming is faster, but equipment maintenance becomes
closed, resin is injected for one second durations for each part in expensive. Waterjet is a viable method because the edge can be
the series. The flow path can be analyzed and vents or dams added fairly clean; the cut is small, so effluent is small; and there is no
or removed as needed. With the preform and mold optimized, a dust. Correct fixturing is critical, in order to control accuracy,
successful LCM part can be made. minimize noise, and subdue deflected spray. Both gantry and arm
Secondary operations. After removing the part from the robots work well with waterjet. The gantry styles offer larger size
mold, and allowing cool-down in a fixture if needed, it is ready for ranges that are better suited to LCM part designs.
post-mold or secondary process operations. These might include CNC machining centers and gantries can do the job faster and
edge trimming, drilling, slotting, cutting, bonding, assembling, or more accurate] y, but dust is a major problem. Routering LCM is
painting. Proven methods adapted from other processes work quite almost a grinding action, producing chips that are very small and
well for LCM. New methods are constantly being explored and dusty. The particles should be removed immediately, either with
brought into production. Knowing how existing methods are used vacuum or a water shower. A mist sprayed on the router bit can
will aid the effort to design for manufacturability. help improve life and reduce dust and noise, if a shower is not
Even with tight shear edges in the mold, some fibers will practical. Cooling air nozzles can also help. Router bits can be
inevitably extend beyond the edge of the part, as will resin. Some ground to provide a contoured edge. Feed rates of 600 ipm (15,240
designs demand that the prescribed reinforcement fibers be com- mm/min) are possible. Accuracy is quite high and edge finishes
pletely intact right to the edge of the part. Inaccurate preform can be very smooth. Plunge cutting and drilling make a CNC
placement in production, or slight shifting during mold closing, router, equipped with an automatic tool changer, the most flexible
might cause fibers to be vacant at the edge, Resin-rich edges might device for trimming LCM parts,
crack or act as triggers for more severe failure under load. The best Abrasive machining is also inexpensive, but very dusty.
way to have fibers at all edges is to make the preform larger than Hence, it requires a strong vacuum or a water carrier system.
the part, mold it, and then trim the extension back to the desired Abrasives offer the best way to provide a smooth edge, thereby
size. The extension flash can be much thinner than the part minimizing part failure triggers. Unsquare edges can easily be
thickness, but depends on the reinforcement loading and available made with abrasive cutting. Low-volume jobs can use disk sanders
press tonnage. The mold will need a trough, to contain the preform with 25-, 80-, or 120-grit paper. High-volume production needs
extension and allow the mold to close down tightly. The crushing CNC or dedicated machinery built for the task. For light flash or
action will form a seal that allows air to escape yet contains the a special edge finish, abrasives offer a viable alternative.
resin. For 30W70 of fiberglass, a trough thickness of 0.040 ( 1.0 Holes can be molded in place, but voids and resin-rich weak
mm) will work well if 150 psi (1 .03 Mpa) of pressure is available. spots might occur around the hole. To avoid molding problems
Part thickness will grow if excess material is in the trough, holding and additional stress on the preform, it is better to drill holes after
the mold open. If it is not critical to always have fibers at all edges, molding. Drilling LCM materials can be done with conventional
the molding and trimming operations become easier. Figure 15-21 drill bits, but the heat buildup severely reduces tool life. Carbide
compares shear edges and a trough. gives some relief, especially if the angle is narrowed to 90 to
Flash trimming can be done in a number of ways. Shear die 105. Again, more of a grinding action occurs when machining
cutting, forged contour die cutting, laser, waterjet, abrasive these materials. The spindle speeds should be high: 6,000 to
machining, and CNC and manual routering are all effective ways 10,000 rpm. Feed rates should be moderate, about 30 to 125 ipm
to trim LCM parts. Choosing the best one depends on annual (762 to 3,175 mrdmin), depending on fiber loads and drill
vohrmes, accuracy requirements, job life, and part design. Die diameter. Coolants, water, or chilled-air nozzles greatly improve
cutting is by far the fastest way, especially if parts nest together bit life, Drilling can be done with manual drivers through mounted
+ Mold
Edge of part
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K31
parts are clamped or mechanically fastened together. Heat can
accelerate the adhesive cure time. As with most adhesives, a good
bond will show substrate failure instead of cohesive failure
during loading.
c1
o o Mechanical fastening devices include rivets, bolts, and screws.
With all three, it is important to spread the compressive loads
exerted by the fasteners with large-diameter washers, metal plates,
or preform inserts. The LCM part can be made locally thicker to
help spread the loading of the washer or plate, but fastener
pull-through failures are best handled by materials that have high
1 2
compressive strength. Bosses, to add thickness for greater thread
engagement (see Fig. 15-22), can increase the screws gripping
power as measured by torque. Common sheet metal screws and
Hi-Lo@ threaded screws work well for moderately loaded fasten-
ing (see Fig. 15-23). Fasteners should not be located in high stress
areas in the part. The hole will interrupt the reinforcement and
create a weak spot. A combination of adhesives and mechanical
fasteners can overcome such weaknesses, as one practical alter-
native. Another alternative is to design the LCM part and the
attaching part so that they can be joined with a gradual stress
transfer through the interface. Fastening and bonding are impor-
I
3 4
tant considerations to include in designing any parts, especially
composites. Failures can occur when conventional metalworking
ideas are used. The advantages and limitations of LCM materials
and manufacturing processes should be clearly understood, so that
bad experiences can be avoided.
Fig. 15-20 Short shot sequence.
Painting. Painting LCM surfaces is possible, but it is difficult
to achieve Class A quality at this time. Components made with
drill bushings as the low-cost fixture approach. The next step is to SMC, RIM, and other related thermoset materials have achieved
use a mounted drill unit, where a spring-loaded chill and bushing the Class A target. The best LCM surfaces are produced with
are mounted together. The driver is moved from unit to unit. gel-coated RTM resins and some of the new polyurethane-
Automatics and CNC drivers add precision and consistency, polyester hybrid resins. Those that can support fillers stand a good
improving quality and productivity. Dust control is again a major chance of producing acceptable surfaces. It is difficult to hide poor
hurdle to overcome, and is handled much the same as with surfaces with paint. Surface analysis experiments have shown that
routering. sanding actually makes the surface worse. The best finish is the
Fastening. Fastening LCM is done with methods from ad- one straight from the mold.
vanced composite and SMC technologies. Adhesives, screws, Major paint suppliers have paints that are formulated for
rivets, and through-bolting are the common ways to join LCM polymers, including water-borne and multiple component. If the
parts to other parts of any material. The nature of thermoset resins mold surface is perfect; and the reinforcement can be kept from
and reinforcements makes ultrasonic welding impossible. The contacting the surface during molding; and entrained air is greatly
strongest and most common joining is accomplished with adhe- minimized; and the resin flows evenly and smoothly; and the mold
sives, primarily epoxies and urethanes. Surface preparation is release allows good removal, then the part can be painted to
Fig. 15-21 Mold design at edge of part; (a) shear edges, (b) preform trough.
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30
+b -----
Fig. 15-23 Screw types suitable for LCM; (a) type BT thread-cutting screw, (b) type Hi-Lo@ thread-rolling screw,
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CHAPTER 15
COMPOSITES
High
Size
and
complexity
Hand
Low
Low High
Production volume
high styrene content will cost less. Many resin suppliers have LCM parts can sometimes be reworked. This is done by
several LCM resin matrix systems to offer. As experience is pouring hand-mixed resin onto <dry areas and reclosing the
gained through production, these systems will be refined so that mold for set and cure. The premium cost of the materials greatly
custom tailoring can be done by the molder to fit a given outweighs the rework labor. Mold flow modeling to predict resin
application. Flat plaques, molded in the lab, are a far cry from a flow through reinforcements has not yet been perfected. Conse-
pick-up truck box or a large truck hood. Molding involves a press, quently, the only way to determine moldability is by judgment
a resin delivery system, a preform, a mold, a temperature from experience and prototyping. Production case studies show
controller, a release agent, and a resin matrix. They all must work scrap rates to be in the 0.5910 to 3.0% range, when parts are
together to make an LCM part. After the preform and resin matrix, designed for LCM manufacturability.
the mold is tbe next most important component of the operation. Parts with difficult shapes or complicated preforms will require
The molds giving the best performance are made of tooling additional amounts of resin to be injected into the mold in the
grade steel. Temperature control lines can be gun-drilled for attempt to pack in the resin and force out the air. For a 12 lb.
leak-free water or oil flow. Mixhead or injection gun mounting (5.443 kg) part, it is not unusual to use 0.5 lb to 1 lb (0.227 kg to
holes and gates can be installed as an insert, so repairs can be 0.454 kg) more resin than estimated, just to make sure the part
easily made in the future. Leader pins, special seal edges, preform fills. Ovetillling can often be avoided through mold-tuning efforts.
locators, ejector pins, markings, seal grooves, runners, surface A more predictable method is to design the part so the resin flow
texture, mash outs, slides, bosses, and more can all be included front travels evenly from the injection gate outward, Saving a
without much difficulty. Like buying a new car, options cost pound (0.454 kg) of resin translates to as much as 10% of the
more. General] y, LCM molds cost a third to half of a compression material cost. Not forming the reinforcement package properly can
or injection mold. Various mold materials have already been cause a thicker, heavier part because the mold is held open
discussed. An inexpensive mold should not be expected to produce slightly. Surface finish will suffer from this same cause. A mold
parts with consistency. Molds can be cut using conventional designed with a seal edge too wide or too thick will give away
techniques, including CAM, models, and tapes. New face coat- material. This design will also require trimming beyond simple,
ings are making composite molds attractive alternatives. Typical less expensive means. Part designs should consider material and
mold design and build lead times vary from four to eighteen processing selections to minimize overall costs.
weeks, depending on the program. LCM has the potential to become a significant entity on the
Part cost. The economic impact of simplifying part designs for designers palette. Knowing how to design for it will help extract
LCM manufacturing can be quite significant. A major hurdle is the maximum possible benefits. Not designing within the above
part moldability on a production basis. The factors that influence guidelines could leave the designer discouraged. Risk increases
moldability most include reinforcement fractions and part shape. when untried design ideas are used, Of course, the relative
Higher weight or reinforcement fractions and radical contours will newness of LCM means there are many opportunities to be
cause incomplete filling with resin, thereby increasing scrap and discovered. These guidelines have been intended to provide a
rework rates. basic starting point.
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Sandwich cores. When composite materials are used, it is may be offset by the need for more expensive mechanical
often beneficial to design sandwich-type structures rather than the fasteners. The need to drill cured composite elements for fasteners
more traditional frarneworldskin construction, Honeycomb mate- could cause problems because care must be taken to avoid possible
rials are frequently used to provide the lightweight core for these damage to the laminates.
panels. These honeycomb materials are used in a wide variety of Co-curing. With co-curing, two or more uncured composite
densities from about 1.56 lb/ft3 to about 21.84 lb/ft3 (25 kg/m3 to parts are held together during the curing process so that the matrix
about 350 kg/m3), with the higher density used to provide local resins fuse along the contacting surfaces, effectively creating an
reinforced areas for fasteners. The machining and preparation assembly during a single processing step. Co-curing has advan-
of honeycomb core for layup is a relatively lengthy and tages and disadvantages relative to bonding and mechanical
costly process. fastening. The co-curing of spars to skinsin anaircraftcompo-
Foam materials are also used with composite structures, but nent, as opposed to mechanically fastening the parts, has shown
some of the foam materials are dimensionally unstable at typical cost savings of 1590.7
processing temperatures and pressures for the composite materials. In theory, it is possible to co-cure more and more sub-
The exceptions to this are the syntactic foam materials, which assemblies into large integrated structures, but this requires more
consist of resin matrix material surrounding glass or phenolic complex tooling and fixtures, including, for hollow enclosed
microballoons. These foams, however, are relatively heavy, structures, the use of internal mandrels to ensure adequate lami-
18.73 lb/ft3 to 43.7 lb/ft3 (300 kg/m3 to 700 kg/m3) and are used nation and integrity of the product. Inspection and trimming of
mainly for local densiflcation of honeycomb core. large co-cured structures may become excessively expensive also.
Consequently, one of the important trade-offs to be made in the
Assembly Processes for design of composite structures is between co-curing and assembly
Thermoset Plastic Materials of smaller cured structural elements by other means, such as
As with other products, fiber composite structures are divided bonding ormechanical fastening (see Table 15-2).
into subassemblies and component parts, whicb maybe individual
ply patterns in this case. The various subassemblies can be Thermoplastic Assembly Methods
assembled into the overall structure in three main ways. Bonded joints, a favorite for joining thermoset components, are
Bonded joints. Composite structures should use bonded joints too time-consuming for thermoplastics. Since thermoplastics can
wherever possible to realize the best potential for the materials, but be remelted, there are more options for assembly than are available
theneed for special process control andclean room requirements to thermoset components. The methods involve melting the
may make bonding unsuitable for final assembly, inpartictdar for polymer at the joint interface, then allowing it to resolidify under
large structures. Both hot and cold bonding are used, with hot pressure. The heat can be generated by ultrasonic vibration,
being the most common. The adhesives for hot bonding are friction (spinning or linear vibration), or thermal transfer (heat
usually in film form, with ascrim material added to prevent total staking and hot plate). These processes are extremely rapid.
squeeze-out of the adhesives. Foaming adhesives are used also Ultrasonic welding, for example, can be accomplished in approx-
when gap-filling properties are required, Cleanliness of the sur- imately two seconds.
faces and good joint design in relation to the loading expected are Thermoplastics generally have greater elongation than thermo-
important for good integrity. ses. This, combined with the complex shapes that injection
Mechanical joints. Although bonding ispreferred for joining molding allows, enables the designer to incorporate snap-fits into
composite parts, mechanical joints cannot always be avoided. the component. These allow for rapid assembly and disassembly.
Careful joint design and selection of fasteners is necessary for
good performance, Composite materials provide very little elastic SHEET MOLDING COMPOUNDS
deflection to spread loads within a fastener pattern, indicating Component parts and systems molded by the sheet molding
that wider rather than longer joints should be used to support compound (SMC) process offer the designer the opportunity to
larger loads. utilize the many advantages of this material early in the concept
Corrosion of mechanical fasteners is an important consider- stage of design. 8
ation. Graphite has a galvanic incompatibility with most metals,
p~icularly aluminum, so that rivets may disintegrate very Parts Consolidation
quickly. Titanium and some stainless steels are the only metals Shapes and contours that would require several parts if made of
generally considered compatible with graphite. Consequently, sheet metal can be integrated into one composite SMC part, thus
some of the savings possible from integrated composite structures saving assembly plant costs for labor, floor space, and storage.
TABLE 15-2
Comparison of Assembly Methods for Composite Structures
Co-cure 1 3 3 1 3
Bonded 2 2 2 2 2
Mechanical fasteners 3 1 1 3 1
*No. 1 is best
No. 3 is worst
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The tooling costs for composites are lower than those for stamping Surfaces and finishes. Molded part surface finish is an
steel due to the reduced number of tools required for the desired important consideration in the design of a composite for exterior
shape. A single tool, used to mold a SMC part, produces the final body panels. Besides the design factors discussed here, the
shape in one stage. In metal stamping, several hits or sets of tools material formulation and molding parameters are very important
are required, depending on the part configuration and depth of and are affected by part design. With the high quality, zero-zero
draw. SMC tooling costs are typically only 20% to 30% that of shrink SMC materials available today, the surface and dimensions
multiple progression dies for sheet metal. of the mold will be precisely reproduced in the molded part,
whether it is the first part or the 100,000th part. Parts from molds
Material Savings that have a highly polished, smooth surface are equal to or better
Little material is wasted, since there are no sprtres, culls, or than steel panels in surface appearance. Surface measuring equip-
runners as in die casting, thermoplastic, and thermoset injection ment now in use can quantify differences in surface waviness.
molding processes. SMC raw material costs are one-half or SMC composite assemblies can be installed in the body shop at the
less of the cost of other plastics. There is no material offal from assembly plant and painted on-line. These parts can be subjected
molding large openings into a part, such as the blanks from steel to the same high temperature ovens (400 F/204 C) and receive
stampings. the same paint systems used on steel.
One- and two-piece design. Smaller panels with a lot of
Material Flexibility contour and shape, such as front and rear end panels, headlight
SMC materials are selected depending on the final part require- retainers, radiator supports, spoilers, etc., are usually of one-piece
ments. Mechanical properties can be tailored by varying the design. Ribs are molded in for strength and rigidity. Larger
amounts of filler and fiberglass reinforcement used in the com- exterior body and closure panels are two-piece, bonded assem-
pound. Minimal fiber or resin degradation occurs in compression blies. The outer panel is a nominal 0.100 (2.5 mm) thick, while
molding as the materials flow during molding. the inner panel may be 0.080 (2.0 mm) in thickness.
The following guidelines are recommended:
Design Flexibility
No other materials offer more design flexibility than compos- Exterior panel thickness: The thickness of the molded panel
ites. They can be used in different ways for thousands of may be increased in any area where it may be subjected to
applications. They can be varied in appearance, structure, or heavier loads, as indicated by the stress analysis. The
electrical or chemical properties, and may be processed to meet thickness increase from the area of nominal thickness should
specific functional and performance criteria. Complex geometries be a gradual transition, no greater than 0.020 (0.50 mm)
and variable wall sections can be molded. change per 1.00 (25.4 mm) of length. Exterior panels
should be designed with a return flange along the edge. This
Corrosion Resistance flange stiffens the edge, hides the inner panel bond flange,
Composites do not rust or corrode and are resistant to attack and moves the molded-panel flash trim line away from the
from most chemicals. From automotive body panels to electrical appearance surface.
applications, composites have proven to be a superior alternative Inner panel: This panel provides the assembly with a closed
to metals. box section when bonded to the outer panel; this provides
maximum rigidity at minimum weight. The inner panel also
High Strength contains any additional strengthening ribs, mounting bosses,
Composites offer a higher strength-to-weight ratio than many and/or metal hardware for mounting.
metals. By this strength-to-weight relationship, SMC composites
surpass the tensile strength of iron, carbon steel, and stainless Ribs and bosses. Ribs are used to reduce the bulk and mass
steel. Many fiberglass reinforced compounds equal or exceed the (thickness) of a part while allowing it to meet strength and rigidity
flexural strength and impact resistance of many metals. requirements, and to prevent warpage or bowing of large plane
surfaces.
Light Weight Ribs (and boss side walls) under appearance surfaces should be
In most cases, composite parts are lighter than steel, The dimensioned so that their thickness at the base of the rib is between
density of composites is about one quarter the density of steel, 75% and 90% of the surface thickness. The tip of the rib should be
while parts made from SMC usually are only about two to three no less than 6070 of the panel surface thickness. Long ribs should
times thicker. SMC exterior parts typically provide 20% to 40% have at least 1 of draft per side, while 1/2 is permissible on
weight savings compared to a steel counterpart. shorter ribs.
Ribs and bosses under appearance surfaces should be designed
Dimensional Stability with a sharp radius, 0.010 (0.25 mm) to eliminate my surface
Repeatability of molded dimensions is excellent. SMC com- distortion due to sink. Radii under a nonappearance structural
posites can maintain the critical tolerances required of the most surface should bc a minimum of 0.0625 (1 .588 mm) to enhance
demanding applications, and will meet the most stringent material fill-out during molding, since these ribs may be of greater depth.
stiffness, dimensional tolerance, weight, and cost criteria. Ther- Bosses should be cored with a pin that leaves a molded-in hole
moset materials maintain their dimensional stability very well, whose depth goes to the panel thickness. Bosses should have
even at temperatures greater than 400 F (204 C). radiating ribs around them, to provide additional strength and aid
in fill-out during molding.
Designing with SMC Holes and openings. These may be put into a panel during
When designing composite parts, there are some general molding, or in a secondary operation by drilling or punching,
parameters to follow that will affect their moldability and use in mechanical routing, or cutting by waterjet or laser beam. Holes
service. The foliowing are recommended guidelines. and openings that are molded in are in the die draw direction, and
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COMPOSITES
are formed by a pin or projection of steel in the mold. The This type of gear has a good record of reliability in over 20
minimum distance from a hole or opening to the part edge is years of service and continues today in new applications. In
0.197 (5.00 mm). addition, systematic fatigue and stress testing of this configuration
Fasteners. Another method to fasten two parts together has recently been completed; stress and cycles-to-faihrre data is
besides bonding is the use of self-tapping screws into bosses. now available to assist the gear designer in determining if a
This method may be used for light loads to attach parts in the molded composite gear is a candidate for a specific application.
assembly plant. The screws come in a variety of standard or
proprietary threads. In composites, coarse-pitched self-tapping Design Considerations
Most composite gears are not designed at all. They are
screws work well when threaded into drilled or cored holes in the
SMC part. There are also inexpensive double-ended shoulder usually metal designs that happen to utilize composite materials
because the metal gear would not work or possibly the gear set was
studs, with a machine thread on one end, which can be used for
too noisy.
attachment with a nut.
Gear designers usually begin by considering metal because
they are familiar with its characteristics and have confidence that
MOLDED COMPOSITE GEARS
metal will withstand the loads transmitted by the gears. Tooling to
In a general sense, molded composite gears include all gears
make the metal blanks and to hob the teeth must be committed to
that are made by combining two or more different materials,
before prototype gears are tested. Reversing these decisions later is
usually a reinforcement of some type imbedded in a matrix or
cost] y, and often the resulting composite gear is a compromise that
binder. The objective of using composite is to achieve character-
may not perform satisfactorily because of poor design, not because
istics or properties that are superior to the properties of either the
of the material involved.
reinforcement or matrix materials alone.
By considering composite gears early, design input from the
This section is confined to compression-molded thermoset
molder can be utilized. The molder has the most experience with
polymers (the matrix) combined with woven fabric reinforce-
the materials which are brought together to form the composite.
ments. Thermoset polymers do not remelt after being cured, as
Often, if the general design concept, space limitations, and power
contrasted to thermoplastic polymers which melt when exposed to
requirements are provided the molder, he can provide two or three
temperatures above their melting point. Examples of thermoset
alternative designs to the application engineer and the application
polymers include phenolics, epoxies, and melamines. Thermo-
plastic polymers include polyethylene, nylon, styrene, ABS, and engineer is relieved of most of the gear design detail.
acetal. This specific discussion relates to designing phenolic, Design Requirements
fabric-reinforced gears, but the design considerations also apply to The conditions and criteria that must be considered or met,
other polymers and reinforcements. regardless of the type of material to be used for the gears, include:
Phenolic composites are used as automotive engine camshaft
timing gears, and engine balance shaft gears, and to drive gerotor 1. Operating environment: temperature, lubricants, chemical
oil pumps. Figure 15-25 shows a typical gerotor oil pump gear. exposure, foreign materials (for example, dirt and grit).
2, Load the gears must carry: torque, horsepower, and stress.
Advantages 3. Life expectancy: How many cycles is the gear cxpcctcd to
One of the best reasons for considering a composite gear is sustain?
noise reduction. When noise (or its reduction) is a major consid- 4. Operating speed.
eration, particularly where consumer products are involved, com- 5. Center distance between the gears.
posite gears should be evaluated early in the design. Noise levels 6. Size and space limitations: minimum and maximum face
have been reportedly reduced by 10 Db to 20 Db when comparing widths; protrusions such as hardware that may interfere
cast iron to a composite gear. Composite gears are also lighter than with the gears. Often, providing the molder with an
metal, weighing about one-half as much as aluminum and one- assembly drawing will save a good deal of time in arriving
fifth of cast iron. They are resistant to the fluids used in engines, at an appropriate design.
such as hot engine oil, and, in general, are chemical and corrosion 7. Function of the gears: power transmission, motion trans-
resistant. mission, timing. Is the required gear ratio fixed or can it be
varied?
8. Limitations on tooth geometries: tooth size (diametral pitch
or module), pressure angle, special geometries 10 be
considered, spur or helical teeth.
9. Isa gear set being considered, or a single gear to mesh with
an existing gear?
10. Material, tolerances, finish of mating-- gear. This is esPe-
ciall y important for composite gears. In general, compo~ite
gears operate better when running against a metal gear.
However, the metal, finish, and quality of the mating gear
have a significant effect on the performance of a composite
gear.
11 Time constraints. When are prototype and production gears
required? How much time will be required for testing and
evaluation?
12. Cost: target cost for the gear or set. This is always
important, but often secondary to timely production (espe-
Fig. 15-25 A typical gerotor oil pump gear. ciall y prototypes) and performance.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 15
COMPOSITES
Mating gear (pinion). Machined steel with a surface finish of be loaded into the mold. The preforming tool must be mounted in
20 rrns or better is preferred. The face width should be slightly a hydraulic press that forms the preform from loose, bulky
greater than the composite gear if possible. Powdered metal macerate compound. This is necessary to reduce the volume of the
mating gears have been used successfully, but are risky choices macerate so it will fit in the hot mold.
due to the porous nature of the surface of the PM. Burrs and sharp The phenolic fabric is more dense and does not require the
edges should be avoided regardless of the choice of material. In preform tooling that macerate does. However, the phenolic fabric
general, it should be kept in mind that the composite tooth surface material must be cut to size so it will fit in the hot mold. Usually
is softer than the mating gear surface. Sharp edges, a rough the cutting is done in a punch press, where a disk or ring is die cut
surface, or protruding particles on the mating gear will cause from the phenolic coated (and dried) fabric. The tooling for this
premature wear of the molded gear. This may result in the operation can usually be an inexpensive steel rule die.
conclusion that the composite is unsatisfactory because of poor Possibly the greatest advantage of the all-phenolic fabric
surface durability, but when premature wear is encountered, both construction is its greater overall strength. The entire blank
gears and the running conditions should be examined very consists of a laminate built up with several layers (laminations) of
carefully. A change in the mating gear may solve the problem. phenolic fabric. This gives the highest strength of the three types.
Gear blank construction alternatives. Figure 15-26 shows In addition, because of the simple design, prototyping time maybe
three basic blank constructions: reduced. When a cross-section of uniform thickness and essen-
tially rectangular shape can be used (as in Fig. 15-26b), the
. Phenolic macerate web and rim.
all-phenolic fabric construction is effective. This type of blank
. Phenolic fabric web and rim.
construction has been successfully evaluated in engine balance
Phenolic fabric rim, phenolic macerate web.
shaft assemblies.
The rim is the outer part of the blank where the teeth are cut. The combination of phenolic fabric laminate rim and phenolic
The web is the part of the blank extending from the rim to the macerate web is the most prevalent molded composite gear blank
center hub. The hub is usually made from metal, and is actually an (see Fig. 15-26c). Millions of gears using this type of construction
insert that is placed in the mold along with the uncured thermoset have been used as automotive engine cam timing gears. Here a
polymer reinforcement. The mold is closed, and heat and pressure more complex web cross-section can be used to avoid protrusions
cause the polymer to melt and flow around the hub insert, and and reduce weight, and the advantage of a laminate rim to provide
finally cure into the finished composite gear blank. superior tooth strength and wear resistance can be utilized.
Each of the types has advantages and disadvantages which preform tooling and equipment are required for the macerate web
should be considered when evaluating a blank construction. The material.
phenolic macerate type (see Fig. 15-26a) is generally the least There is a choice of rim construction. One involves punched
expensive in terms of material cost. Because it contains relatively rings that are built up to form the rim. This is a fairly simple design
small pieces of fabric reinforcement, it can be molded into more and can be produced using steel rule dies. However, a consider-
complex cross-sections than phenolic fabric. However, the smaller able amount of expensive material is scrapped, because the center
pieces of reinforcement also result in gear teeth that are lower in of the ringas well as material between the ringscannot be used
strength than blanks made with phenolic fabric in the rim. There in the blank.
are successful applications of this construction, however, and it The second type of rim construction involves punching seg-
offers an economical solution to some gear noise problems where ments that are automatically built up into a rim preform. This
the extra strength of a true composite laminate rim is not process eliminates almost all material scrap, but involves hard
necessary. punch press dies and other fixtures. Tooling costs are increased,
The construction using phenolic fabric for the rim and web but material cost reduced.
offers simple construction and high strength. It does not allow for Both ring and segmented rim styles have been successful in
much reduction in cross-section between the rim and hub, and is production. Annual production requirements, total blanks ex-
usually somewhat more expensive than macerate, The extra cost of pected to be molded, and constraints on the development time
material is somewhat offset by reduced tooling requirements. should all be considered, along with the cost, in making the
Macerate requires a hard preforming tool to form a pill or disk to decision. Short runs, or blanks with an unsure future, often are
~ Metal hub
wm - \
Phenolic macerate Phenolic fabric
web and rim web and rlm Phenolic Phenolic
macerate web fobric rim
Fig. 15-26 Three basic blank constructions, (a) pbenotic macerate web and rim, (b) phenolic fabric web and rim, and (c) phenolic fabric rim,
phenolic macerate web. (Spaukiing Composites CO.)
15-28
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER15
COMPOSITES
made with rings, Later, if assembly sales are good, a segmented and are chosen because they offer the superior machinability
rim can be adopted and molded in the same hot mold. necessary for the smaller teeth.
Some molders may not have experience or access to the When sharp bobs and good bobbing techniques are used,
phenolic-fabric materials described. If so, the designer will be AGMA gear qualities of 8 to 9 can be expected. However,
limited to commercially available macerate compounds. composite gears are somewhat more difficult to machine accu-
Hub or insert selection. A metal hub is usually required in the rately than metal ones because of the relative softness and recovery
center of the gear to accommodate attachment to a metal shaft. (springback) of the material. Proper bobbing techniques can be
This hub or insert is typically a screw-machined part with knurling learned, however, and a number of bobbers routinely hob high
around the outside of tbe piece. The knurling is used to anchor the quality gears. The same characteristics that make composite gears
macerate or phenolic fabric web to the hub. The phenolic resin in different from metal in machinability also allow them to operate
the web material also acts as an adhesive to the metal hub. satisfactorily at lower AGMA quality numbers (6 or 7). The
Typically, an easy-machining steel such as 12L14 is used for the composite, being flexible and more elastic than metal, can adjust
hub insert. However, aluminum and powdered metal can also be to some imperfections in the bobbing process without harming the
used when the torque on the hub is not excessive (for aluminum), gear to a large extent. Surface smoothness and lay of the mating
or the extra tooling for PM can be justified. The finished bore and gear should not be overlooked, however, as rough mating surfaces
a kcyway arc usually machined in the hub after the blank will act as miniature cutting tools on the composite tooth surface.
is molded; this occurs prior to bobbing and is performed by Excessive wear and premature failure may be the result.
the bobber. Should a helical or spur gear be used? If a helical gear is
Steel stampings can also be used for hubs in some cases and are selected, what should the helix angle be? Most of the composite
relatively inexpensive. However, punched or stamped steel parts gears in use today are helical gears, but composite geats have been
usually do not offer tbe degree of precision that machining does. used successfully as spur gears,
In addition, stampings can only be used in cases where the Helical gears are often chosen to reduce noise. Because more
inside diameter of the insert and the shaft offer enough area to teeth are in mesh and the angled teeth are longer than for a spur
properly attach the gear. The gear should be thought of as a with the same face width, greater loads can usually be carried by
system. Tbe system consists of the materials, the process, the the gear. Helical gears are not witbout disadvantages, however,
tooth design, and the hub. The hub must be manufactured to a and some of the negatives of helical gears are especially important
degree of precision so that the finished gear runs true. If the hub when designing composite gears. Helical teeth transfer part of the
is unstable or not concentric, the rim containing the teeth will load axially because of the force vectors on the angled teeth. Part
wobble during operation. This condition will cause uneven wear of the force turns the gear, and part pushes the gear sideways. If
across the gear teeth and may cause premature failure of the gear. the gear is not securely fastened to the shaft, it may slide down the
Regardless of the metal or fabricating method used to make the shaft and out of mesh with its mate. When the gear is fastened
hubs, it is best to consult with the molder early in the design. The securely to the shaft, it cannot slide, and the side-acting force must
hub must fit in the mold as well as in the molded blank. And it he resisted by the gear. All gears in this situation will distort and
must have a suitable shape and surface, usually some type of twist to some degree, depending on the load, the helix angle, the
knurling, in contact with the molded materials to assure that the modulus of the gear material, and the design of gear (including the
hub will not twist and break loose from the web when torque is web and hub). A stiff (high modtdus material) gear operating at
applied. The molder is the best source of this type of information. light loads with a low helix angle will twist much less than a
Recommended tooth geometries. While some composite flexible (low modulus) gear under high load and a high helix
gears with 14 + pressure angles (PA) have been used success- angle. The composites used for gears are, in general, low modulus
fully, a 20 PA is preferred. The 20 PA offers somewhat greater materials when compared to metals. A composite gear that is
loads to be carried than the 14 + angle. The invohrte tooth form substituted for a previous metal gear may twist so that the teeth do
is recommended. There is some evidence that using a topping hob not properly mesh or the web is actually damaged. The elasticity
to cut the teeth actually decreases the fatigue strength of the gear. of the composite, which is an advantage in compensating for
A nontopping hob is recommended, and a tooth tip radius equal to minor machining errors and in noise reduction, can become a
or greater than 0.25 = normal diametral pitch. Wear problems due problem if the load, helix angle, and gear design are not correct.
to poor alignment have been mentioned above. The tooth contact Typical helix angles used for composite gears range from 15 to
pattern between the gear and pinion must be centrally located on 25 with angles in the low 20s used most. This does not mean that
the tooth. these helix angles are optimum. In most cases, they were chosen
A general guide for determining backlash is to divide 0.050 by for reasons quite apart from a systems concept that included
the diametral pitch of the gear (for example, for a 10 diametral consideration of the effect on the gear. Helical teeth do reduce
pitch gear: 0.050 = 10 = 0.005). noise and can be used successfully on composite gears, as they
An increase in diametral pitch (that is, to smaller teeth) can have been in dozens of applications and millions of gears. When
significant y reduce the load the gear can safely carry, unless the the load transmitted is reasonable, twisting and distortion are not
center distance is maintained by increasing the number of teeth. a problem and high helix angles can be used. However, low helix
Most composite gears are designed with diametral pitch from 8 to angles should be considered early in the design process, and if 10
16. Larger gears (for example, 6 (152 mm) in diameter with a or 15 angles are acceptable, they should be used. Considerable
0.875 (22.22 mm) face width) typically use a 10 or 12 diametral trouble may be avoided by using a spur or low helix angle tooth.
pitch. Smaller, 3 or 4 (76 mm or 102 mm) diameter, gears are The possible negative effects of helical gears are not limited to
likely to have diametral pitches of 14 or 16. The choice of fabric composites. Some years ago, a major automobile maker sponsored
reinforcement to be used in the gear rim is related to the diametral a team to modify their standard four-cylinder push-rod car engine.
pitch. In general, finer weaves and lighter weight fabrics are used Tbe team created a very high-power, high-torque engine. There-
for gears with smaller (14 and 16 DP) teeth. These fabrics are was one problem, however the timing gear driving the camshaft
somewhat more expensive than the fabrics used for larger teeth, shed its teeth before they could get very far around the track.
15-29
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 15
COMPOSITES
Several exotic high-strength metals were tried, but all failed. The Larger gears, possibly to 12 (305 mm) or more in diameter,
problem was not solved until a spur gear was used to tilve the are basically limited by the size of the molding press platens and
camshaft. the tonnage of the press which determines the pressure that can
Twisting of the gear due to side thrust on the helical teeth can be applied to the molded gear. Additional considerations include
be compensated for by adding a slight crown to the surface of the the number of blanks that can be molded per press cycle, the cost
teeth on the mating gear, or by modifying the lead angle of the of the molds, and the required delivery schedule (volume and
composite gear. The crown tends to wear into the composite tooth timing) for the blanks required.
slightly, assuring more uniform contact across the entire tooth Relative costs and development time. There is probably an
surface, Crowning adds some cost to the bobbing, as it usually is infinite number of combinations of composite materials, gear
an additional machining operation. However, the corrective action designs, and blank construction. Precise cost information can only
of the crown is uniform regardless of the load applied. bc obtained when specific design information is available. Even
Lead angle correction can be accomplished during bobbing, so so, some idea of the cost of composite gears and development time
it adds no appreciable expense to the cost of machining the gear. may prove useful in determining when this type of gear should be
The question is: how much difference should there be between the considered.
lead angles of the gear and the pinion? At present, there is not a lot
of data available. Knowledge of the loads being transmitted and Gear Wear and Tooth Breakage
the behavior of the gear with no lead correction forms the basis of Is a molded composite gear strong enough for the application?
an estimate. The twisting and overall performance are observed This is a good first question. The answer depends on the
after the lead angle is modified, and an additional change is conditions and criteria described above, and reliable information
evaluated if necessary. Ordinarily, one or two estimates and trials about the composite materials being considered. Assuming certain
are all that is required to achieve good results. The disadvantage of preliminary information, there is a thoroughly tested method for
lead angle modification is that it does not contribute to a calculating the horsepower that can be transmitted by a specific
self-centering of the load (and contact) equally at all loads. Since composite gear material.
the angle of the tooth is changed to compensate for tooth Two horsepower capability calculations are required. The first
movement at a specific load, the lead angle correction can only be is for wear (surface distress or durability); the second is for tooth
1009. effective at that load. However, where loads are low and do
breakage (strength and fatigue),
not vary a great deal, lead angle modification does work and is an For wear-resistance to surface distress and for durability:
inexpensive solution once the correct angle is determined.
Sharp edges and corners should be avoided, particularly in the nXF
Pac = ,Oxzx(sacxd)z (1)
fillet area where the tooth profile joins the bottom of the tooth 7. I Xlo
space. Generous radii should be used in the fillet to avoid stress
risers at intersecting planes. The lack of a suitable radius at this For tooth breakage-resistance to fatigue:
point may shorten the life of the gear significantly and/or decrease
the Ioad-caqing capacity. nxd
P<,, = X;d XJXSar (2)
Work is continuing to better quantify how all of these factors 126,000
work together in the gear system, particularly when helical gears
are being considered. It is possible that a correction factor may Where: Pac = Durability rating
have to be added to the basic horsepower formulas to accommo- = Allowable horsepower for wear
date the factors of side thrust, composites, and the design of the P al = Allowable horsepower for tooth breakage
gear blank (hub, web, and rim). n = Speed of composite gear (rPm)
Table 15-3 lists typical composite gear sizes. Smaller and d = Pitch diameter of composite gear, inches (mm)
larger gears can be molded. Smaller gears generally still require a F = Face width of composite gear, inches (mm)
metal insert. The limiting factor is often the amount of area for the Gear = Gear with greater number of teeth
insert and the rim. The rim must be thick enough to allow the teeth Pinion = Gear with lesser number of teeth
to be cut and retain material under the teeth at least as thick as the I = Geometry factor for wear
tooth is high, More material is better, and additional material is mG
= 0.235 for helical gears (3)
necessary to accommodate knurling and grooves on the insert, mG+l
15-30
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 15
CERAMICS
If both Pa,. and P., exceed the required load, the suggested These formulas can easily be entered into a simple spreadsheet
composite gear should be able to handle the load. program where many variables can be quickly evaluated.
CERAMICS
Classical ceramics are probably the oldest engineering materi- ENGINEERED CERAMICS
als known to man. Early stone age innovators discovered the Along with controlled chemical composition, the other key
hardness of natural glass when they fashioned knives and arrow difference between engineered and classical ceramics is the
points from flint and obsidian, Clay pots fired in open fires helped controlled microstructure. As with metals, many of the physical
early man to store precious commodities, and early builders properties of ceramics are dependent on the grain size, Also, the
discovered the benefit of adding straw to clay to make composite size, shape, and concentration of second phases between grains
bricks for homes and shelters. The world of classical ceramics has can have a profound effect on the properties of the material,
rools that run deep into antiquity, yet modem technology has given In the following discussion, some of the engineering properties
this ancient class of materials some fascinating new capabilities. of various engineered ceramics are described in some detail along
Ceramics form the third component of the world of materials. with their method of manufacture. This information should help
They are defined as inorganic, nonmetallic, solid materials that are the design engineer to understand some of the advantages and
made through the application of heat. The triangle shown in Fig. limitations of these materials, and make an informed choice.
15-27 summarizes the world of materials.
Most classical ceramics are made from clay. To the clay base,
fillers and additives can be added to improve the strength, Properties
hardness, color, density, and other key properties. When the raw Before ceramic materials can be described, it is important that
clay is dried and fked, it goes through several physical and the designer have a good understanding of their significant
chemical changes that transform it, from a plastic mass to a fragile properties. Many characteristics of metals simply do not translate
solid, and then to a dense, hard solid. to ceramics, and many a designer has been led astray trying to use
Modem advanced ceramics differ from classical ceramics test data from tests designed for metals and applying them directly
because they do not necessarily involve the use of clay. Instead, to ceramics.
raw materials are refined into high-purity chemical constituents, Strength. For most structural applications, strength is the most
which are recombined under carefully controlled conditions to important property for design engineers. They have to know how
produce materials with far superior properties than can be achieved much load a given member can support. The rules for setting
with naturally occurring minerals. allowable stress loads are different for ceramics than for metals.
For one thing, the standard tensile test used for measuring the
strength of metals is quite expensive for testing ceramics. Ceram-
ics are normally brittle and have no meaningful yield stress. For
ceramics, yield stress and ultimate tensile strength are essentially
the same.
Metals The strength of ceramics is most easily measured using a
four-point bending or flexural test. Here, the test specimen is
simply loaded in flexure and the tensile stress of the outer surface
is calculated as shown in Fig. 15-28. This is a useful test since
most structural loads are applied by flexing, and since the test
device does not have to be concerned with absolute uniformity of
the load.
Ceramics are known to have very high compressive strengths.
Handbooks are full of compressive strength data on a variety of
ceramic materials. For most engineered ceramics, the compressive
strength given is far higher than will ever be needed for a given
application; in reality, it is nearly impossible to cause a ceramic to
actually fail in compression. Most tests load the specimen in
compression, but the actual mode of failure occurs when a
buckling or shear vector exceeds the tensile strength and the
specimen actually fails in tension or in shear, The important thing
to remember is that ceramics are extremely strong in compression
Ceramics Organics
and can normally carry very high compressive loads.
[plastics, wood, etc.]
Fracture toughness. Ceramics are also known to be extremely
sensitive 10 cracks or flaws. In a brittle material, a crdck tip does
not get blunted by ductile flow as it does in a metal. If a crack is
subjected to a stress sufficient to make it grow, it will simply
Ilg. 15-27 The world of materials. propagate until a catastrophic failure occurs. The ultimate strength
15-31
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER15
CERAMICS
I
I I
I I
of a given ceramic is highly dependent on the shape and concen- the actual strength of the material but is, rather, a statistical
tration of flaws within its microstructure. evaluation of failure data that gives the probability of failure under
Twenty years ago, conventional wisdom dictated that a ceramic given stress. The easiest way to picture the Weibull modulus, as
must be completely dense and free of flaws to achieve maximum shown in Fig. 15-30, is to plot the probability of failure versus
strength. Unfortunately, there are practical limits to the level of load on a probability chart. The steeper the slope of the probability
perfection in a ceramic. Also, production methods for achieving curve, the more confidence there is that faihrre will not occur at
perfection are currently nonexistent. Modern methods for produc- unusually low levels. Basically, the Weibull modulus corresponds
ing high strength ceramics try to control rather than eliminate the to the slope of that probability curve. A designer will be much
flaw structure in ceramics. Stress analysis of a typical crack in a more confident designing with a material with a Weibull modulus
ceramic matrix can give a formula for computing the stress of 20 than one with a modulus of 3.
intensification at a crack tip. This formula is shown in Fig. 15-29. Elastic modulus. Many ceramics are known to have a very
As the formula shows, the critical flaw depends on the stress high specific stiffness. They tend to be lighter than metals and yet
applied and the length of the flaw, By creating a myriad of have a very high modulus of elasticity. This makes them ideal for
extremely small flaws in the matrix, the critical stress required to structures that need to move with minimum acceleration and
fracture the part can be raised. This is a very simplified description rninimuin deflection. The modulus of elasticity is very easy to
of microcracking a process used by ceramists to actually toughen measure in most ceramics, since they follow Youngs law almost
ceramic materials. perfectly. Most modulus of elasticity data is run using the same
The toughness of ceramics is measured by creating a controlled four-point bending load as that used for measuring flex-
crack in the surface of the ceramic and measuring the force ural strength.
necessary to propagate the crack. The K,c value is the critical A property related to elastic modulus is the Poissons ratio.
force/flaw relationship required to propagate a crack. A typical This is the amount of increase or decrease in cross-sectional area
classical ceramic such as a porcelain dinner plate has a K,c value for a given amount of strain. Most ceramics have a Poissons ratio
of about 1, while an aluminum oxide such as a spark plug insulator between 0.2 and 0.3. They can be subjected to extensive modeling
has a K,c value of about 3. Highly toughened ceramics such as a with various finite element anal ysis programs.
partially stabilized zirconia can have K,c values as high as 11 to Hardness. Ceramics are known for being hard. Hardness,
13, To bring this into the real world, if a porcelain saucer is however, is a difficult trait to define since many of the tests used
dropped from a third story window onto a cement parking lot, the for evaluating metals are not valid for ceramics.
porcelain will, of course, shatter. If that same saucer were made of The most common test for measuring hardness of metals is the
aluminum oxide, it would break. If it were made of toughened Rockwell indentation test. Unfortunately, this test does not work
zirconia, the cement parking lot would be dented. with ceramics since they will not deform in compression without
Weibull modulus. When designing highly stressed parts of shattering. Any Rockwell hardness numbers that have been
ceramic, engineers should try to define the reliabilityy of the part in published for ceramics are merely comparative guesses, based on
terms of the Weibull modulus. This number has nothing to do with the perceived equivalency to known metals.
15-32
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER15
CERAMICS
P/2
P/2
0.989 --------------------------------------------------------
t i
.9
0.934 --------------------------------------------
##+-e-=------
0.808 -------------------------------------- -----------------
~+/
------------------------------- .+++
*------------------------
0.632 **+
***
079
~
70.1 73.7 81.5 85.6 90.0 94.6
[483) (508) (T3J (562) (590) (621) (652)
Appliadstress,kpsi(MP.)
15-33
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER15
CERAMICS
The most common hardness test for ceramics is the Mobs kxsx KJc
resistance = (7)
hardness scale. This test is not very useful to a designer who is xXr XeXp
trying to characterize his material of choice by a repetitive test
where: k = thermal conductivity
which shows that materials meet certain minimums.
s = tensile strength
To date, the best compromise between metallurgists and
K,c = toughness
ceramists seems to be the Knoop hardness test. The load applied is
x = thermal expansion coefficient
divided by the cross-sectional area of the flaw to give a compar-
r = heat capacity
ative value.
e= elastic modulus
The designer must be careful when using hardness numbers to
P = Poissons ratio
predict wear resistance. Numerous tests exist to evaluate wear and
abrasion, and these are normally specific to the kind of application It is also important to understand that the size and shape of the
being pursued. These types of test data are available from most object has an effect on its ability to withstand thermal shock. A
ceramic manufacturers, and must be studied careful] y before small, round object will have a much higher resistance to thermal
drawing any conclusions as to specific applications. Figure 15-31 shock than a large irregular object, A vessel with a uniform wall
shows comparative wear resistance of several common ceramic thickness and smooth symmetrical shape will withstand shock
materials using three different test methods. This information better than a part with adjoining thick and thin cross-sections.
clearly shows that wear resistance is extremely test-dependent, Most of these considerations can be reduced to common sense,
Thermal properties. Designers are often drawn to ceramics considering the relative heating and cooling rates of comparable
because of their high melting points and their ability to operate objects and how they cool.
under extreme heat. When designing for high temperature opera- Some ceramics can be formulated to have a very low thermal
tion, it is important to understand the behavior of ceramics at high expansion coefficient. Inthe case of some materials, it impossible
temperature and understand their limitations. to have a negative coefficient of expansion. These materials often
The melting point of a ceramic has little to do with its ultimate depend on a crystal structure that expands in certain directions and
use temperature. As with metals, ceramics begin to lose some of contracts in others. This generates a large number of flaws in the
their stability and strength once they are heated above one-half microstructure, making the materials rather weak. The materials
their absolute melting point. Aluminum oxide, for instance, has an can, however, withstand tremendous thermal shock loads.
absolute melting point around 2,300 K (3,630 F/2,000 C). At Among the stronger structural ceramics, there is a tendency for
1,250 K ( 1,740 F/950 C) there is evidence that the material will the thermal expansion coefficient to increase at higher tempera-
creep under prolonged load. tures. Figure 15-32 shows how a piece of high purity aluminum
It is also important to understand the role of thermal shock if a oxide expands as the temperature increases. It is important to
part is to be subjected to repeated heating and cooling cycles. know how the material behaves over the full temperature range in
Ceramics are brittle, and most susceptible to thermal shock when order to design for differential expansion.
they are rapidly cooled. The thermal shock resistance of a given Most oxide ceramics are fairly poor conductors of heat. The
material evolves from many properties. This can most easily be important exception is beryllium oxide, which has a thermal
described by the following formula: conductivity nearly as high as copper. Due to the toxic nature of
0.7
H
0.6 s---------------~------------------------------------4 sandblast
0,5
dry rub
0.4
~
wet slurry
0.3 -------------
0.2 -------------
1
0.1 ------- ------------
0
1
96% alumina zirconia silicon crsrbirls
Weor index is weight bss under given conditions compared to an 85% alumina standard.
Fig. 15-31 Comparative wear resistance of several common ceramic materials using three different test methods.
15-34
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 15
beryllium oxide, many designers turn to aluminum nitride, which material to a chemical at various temperatures, and measure the
has only half the ability to conduct heat but no toxicity problems. weight loss as a function of time. Some generalized chemical
The highest thermal conductivity of all materials is diamond, corrosion data is given in Table 15-4 for some common ceramic
which is considered a ceramic material. materials. When designing for corrosive environments, the de-
Electrical properties. Although ceramics are normally con- signer should try to get as much detailed information as possible
sidered good electrical insulators, there are many important from the ceramic manufacturer, or design a test to carefully
exceptions, Discounting ceramic superconductors, many common evaluate the materials suitability.
oxides arc fairly good conductors of electricity. Most carbide
ceramics and boride ceramics are considered to be semiconduc-
Types of Engineered Ceramics
tors. Most nitride ceramics are fairly good insulators.
Engineered ceramics can be classified by chemical composi-
Most ceramic insulators are based on silicon dioxide or silica.
tion, end use, or unique properties. Chemical grouping breaks
Pure fused quartz, a glassy form of silica, has the highest volume
them down into oxides, carbides, nitrides, and borides, with
and surface resistivity of any known material. Most silicate glasses
carbon and boron being the only two elements that are grouped
have a similarly high resistivity.
with ceramics.
Some additional properties to consider for electrical insulation
are the dielectric constant and the dielectric strength or breakdown
voltage. The dielectric constant is the ability of the material to TABLE 15-4
store a static charge. Air has a dielectric constant of 1 while water Corrosion Resistance of Ceramics
has a dielectric constant of 80, For high-frequency circuits, it is
important that the insulators have as low a dielectric constant as Hydro- Hydro- Hot Fused
possible. Silica and glass are both considered low dielectric chloric fluoric Sodium Sodium
constant materials with values around 3. Aluminum oxide is Acid Acid Hydroxide Hydroxide
sometimes used because of its strength, but its dielectric constant
Glass A D D D
of 9 can sometimes cause energy loss and heat generation in
Quartz A D c D
high-frequency systems. In some cases, a very high dielectric
constant is desirable, especially for making ceramic capacitors and
Ahrminum Oxide A B c D
(99.5%)
transducers. Certain ceramics are available with dielectric con-
stants of 15,000 and higher. These will be discussed later.
Mullite A c D D
Dielectric strength is a materials ability to withstand high
Zirconium Oxide B c A A
voltage without breakdown. The breakdown strength is expressed
Silicon Carbide A A A c
(Sintered)
in volts/mm and indicates the voltage required to penetrate a given
thickness of material. Again, silica and silicate glasses show good
Silicon Nitride A c A c
performance in these tests.
Ttianium Diboride C c c c
Chemical properties. Most ceramics are fairly inert chemi- Key: A: No reaction
cally and are suitable for many corrosive applications. It is B: Slight reaction
important to know, however, that stress corrosion and general C. Appreciable attack
weakening can occur in ceramics just as they do in metals. The D: Dissolves
most common way to evaluate chemical resistance is to expose the
0.6
~b+.d
------------------------------------------------ *+.S.*
*=..%------
0.5
S.@
..*+*.***
0.4 --------------------------------------- .ss+.---..--_-------- -
,&&..+es++
0.3 ---------------------------- ~*%*.2--------------------------
~+.H
0.2 -----------------;w'**~
~##
-----------------------------------
0.1 -------- ,+%&*
**--*`2---------------------------------------------
.&@+
0
I I I I I
32 392 752 1,112 1,472 1,832 2,192
(o) (200) (400) (600) (800) (1,Ooo) (1,200)
Tenprotare, OF(%)
. .. . -. . . . . ..
Fig. 15-32 Graph showing how a piece of high purity aluminum oxide expands as the temperature increases.
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CERAMICS
Oxide ceramics can be made from nearly all metal oxides. The By adding various impurities such as calcium oxide, magne-
materials of key interest, however, are the materials with high sium oxide, yttrium oxide, and cerium oxide, the high-temperature
strength, high melting points, and properties that make them easy phases can be stabilized so the material can be sintered into a
to fabricate into engineered products. Table 15-5 lists properties of usable shape. This is often done when making refractories since
several ceramic materials. zirconia has an extremely high melting point. Zirconia-based
Alumina. Aluminum oxide (alumina), or corundum, is prob- refractories are used extensively in steel making, glass melting,
ably the oldest true engineered ceramic. It is extremely hard, has and metal filtration because of their heat resistance and extreme
good mechanical strength, and can be made from raw materials chemical stability and corrosion resistance.
costing from $0.20 to $5.00 per pound depending on purity. Structural ceramic components are made by adding carefully
Aluminum oxide is an important abrasive used for grinding most controlled amounts of these same impurities and allowing the
metals. It is also used for spark plug insulators because of its high material to undergo phase transformations under carefully con-
electrical resistance and mechanical strength. trolled conditions. A transformation toughened zirconia (TTZ) is
Alumina is the workhorse of heavy industrial processes. Its produced, for instance, by adding just enough impurity to freeze
hardness and chemical stability are useful for protecting wear the material in its high-temperature form. As the material cools it
surfaces such as valves, conveyor chutes, and other high is heat treated so the material starts to precipitate a second phase.
wear areas. On further coding, these precipitates have a tendency to transform
In recent years, aluminum oxide has become an interesting to the low-temperature phase, but are held by the matrix so they
material for making machine tools. The material has only 40% the cannot undergo the discontinuous expansion. This situation tends
density of steel, yet it is nearly twice as rigid and does not wear, to toughen the material; a crack front hitting one of these
rust, warp, or deflect from temperature changes. precipitates causes a sudden expansion of the precipitate, which
Although much stronger than typical porcelain and clay bodies, tends to compress the crack front and deflect it in other directions.
alumina is somewhat brittle and needs to be treated as such when This mechanism is analogous to a martensitic phase transformation
designing structures. Its high compressive strength, good hard- used to harden steel.
ness, and dimensional stability need to be exploited when design- Another type of partially stabilized zirconia controls the phase
ing with this versatile material. transformation by forcing the entire matrix to crystallize in the
Zirconia. Zirconium oxide (zirconia) is a relatively new middle temperature form which happens to be tetragonal. This
material to most engineers. Engineered zirconia ceramics are made material also transforms when a crack occurs, although not as
in three forms: fully stabilized, partially stabilized tetragonal dramatically as lTZ. Normally, yttrium oxide is the impurity used
(Y-TZP), and partially stabilized transformation toughened (ITZ). to form these composites, which are thus called yttria-stabilized
In its pure state, zirconium oxide cannot be fabricated into tetragonal zirconia polycrystak (Y-TZP).
functional parts. As it COOISfrom the temperatures required to Zirconium oxide ceramics are used in numerous tough appli-
sinter a powder into a monolithic part, it undergoes two phase cations such as bearings, extrusion dies, wear surfaces, cutting
transformations. The second transformation is accompanied by a tools, and forming tools. They are the toughest of the high-tech
discontinuous expansion that causes spontaneous fracture, leaving ceramics, and extremely useful because they can be sharpened to
the part cracked, weakened, and sometimes pulverized. a keen, stable edge. Since most steel cutting surfaces are dulled by
TABLE 15-5
Properties of Ceramic Materials
Partially
Stabilized Silicon Silicon Titanium
Property Alumina Zirconia Mullite Carbide Nitride Diboride
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CERAMICS
corrosion rather than abrasion, zirconia cutting edges have shown Non-oxide ceramics. This group of ceramics includes nitrides,
some remarkable results when tested in side-by-side edge-life carbides, and borides.
experiments. Nitrides. Nitrides form a second important family of ceramics.
Mullite. Mullite is a stable aluminum silicate compound that is These materials have exceptional strength and thermal properties
found in nearly all classical ceramics. When made in its pure form, that make them interesting for a variety of uses. They typically
it provides a chemically stable material with a high melting point, have high thermal conductivity, good mechanical strength, low
low thermal expansion, and good chemical stability. It is primarily thermal expansion, good fracture toughness, and a low coefficient
used as a refractory because of its heat resistance and relatively of friction.
low cost Silicon nitride is the premier structural ceramic. It comes in
Low expansion ceramics. One of the unique characteristics of several different forms and is used for everything from turbine
ceramics is the fact that they can be easily formulated to have a blades to refractory linings. A hot-pressed silicon nitride can be
very low coefficient of thermal expansion. This makes them made with a tensile strength that exceeds that of all but the
extremely useful for making optical components as well as strongest superalloy. It maintains this strength at elevated tem-
containers for rapid heating of chemicals and molten metals. peratures well above 2,372 F ( 1,300 C). It also has remarkable
Fused quartz is the standard for comparing most ceramics. fatigue strength compared to most metals, and is being used to
Although silicon dioxide has several stable crystalline forms, it develop high-performance ball bearings. Although it is not as hard
can be easily made into a glassy form with neatly zero thermal and rigid as aluminum oxide, its toughness gives it impressive
expansion. At high temperatures and under the influence of resistance to wear.
impurities, fused quartz tends to crystallize into several unstable Although the impressive s~ength of hot-pressed silicon nitride
crystalline forms that weaken the material severely. This is why makes it interesting as a structural member, the expense of this
people are warned not to touch the surface of a quartz-halogen very exotic material makes its applications somewhat limited.
light bulb, since even slight contamination from human fingers can There are several reaction-bonded silicon nitrides on the market
be sufficient to crystallize (devitrify) the glass. that are considerably cheaper. These materials do not have nearly
There are several low-expansion compounds based on combi- the strength of the sintered materials, but they are still useful for
nations of lithium, aluminum, and silicon oxides. The three most man y refractory and nonstructural applications.
common forms are cordierite, petalite, and beta eucryptite. Cordi- Aluminum nitride is of interest to the electronics industry
erite is the primary ingredient in most high-strength ceramic because of its high thermal conductivity and good electrical
cookware. Petalite has a slightly higher expansion rate than resistance. Power transistors can be mounted on a ceramic
cordiente, while beta eucryptite has a negative coefficient of substrate, and thermally coupled to a heat sink, using this material.
expansion. Various combinations of these three materials can yield Although it is not as good an electrical conductor as diamond or
materials with very close to zero thermal expansion. Unlike fused beryllium oxide, it is relatively inexpensive and safe to handle.
quartz, these materials are not sensitive to contaminants. They are Boron nitride is of interest because it can be made very similar
widely used for cookware and as substrates for catalytic converters. to crystalline forms of carbon, namely graphite and diamond.
For high -temperature applications, there are various forms of Cubic boron nitride can be used in place of diamond for many
stabilized aluminum titanate that can withstand both high temper- cutting applications because it is almost as hard. Boron nitride is
atures and considerable contamination. These materials are stable also used as a solid lubricant where black graphite is objectionable.
to temperatures as high as 2,552 F ( 1,400 C) and are not wetted The cutting-tool industry has discovered a unique use for
by many nonferrous molten metals. coatings of titanium and zirconium nitride on cutting tools. These
Piezoelectric ceramics. Most ceramics are good electrical coatings are vapor deposited on hard steel and carbide tools to
insulators with high breakdown strengths and low dielectric impart an improved hardness and htbricit y. Machining of stainless
constants. There are, however, some important exceptions that steel has become much easier since these coatings have gained
take advantage of some unique oxide structures. A family of widespread use. They are both quite noticeable on cutting tools
materials called perovskites have a unique structure: a very small, because of their beautiful golden color.
tetravalent metal ion, that has been stripped of its four outer Carbides. Although all organic compounds contain carbon, the
electrons, finds itself rattling rather loosely within a matrix of element carbon is a true ceramic by technical definition. Carbon
some relatively huge oxygen ions. The key here is that the physical electrodes are well known in batteries as well as melting furnaces,
size of the ion is nowhere near large enough to fill the space chemical processing, and aluminum smelting. Its two primary
available to it. A slight electrical charge can easily move the ion crystalline forms are diamond and graphite,
from one end of the space to the other. Diamond is the standard to which all other materials are
If a high-frequency alternating current is run across a block of compared. It is the hardest material known, it has the highest
this material, the corresponding movement of the ions within this thermal conductivity, and it has the highest optical refractive
lattice forms an effective transducer that can very efficiently index. It is used extensively for cutting tools and grinding and
change electrical energy into mechanical energy. Conversely, lapping compounds. One of the little known facts about diamond
small vibrations or impact on the crystal will cause displacement is the fact that it also has a very low coefficient of friction which
of the ions, which results in a direct conversion of mechanical has made it useful for some high-precision bearing applications.
energy into electrical energy. Recently, processes have been developed to deposit diamond-like
Barium titanate is the most common perovskite material. It is films on metal substrates to form some interesting and useful
used extensively for capacitors, impact motor cores, phonograph composites.
record cartridges, and numerous other useful devices. Many Graphite is an extremely soft material which makes it an ideal
similar substances are also available in a perovskite form, inchrd- solid lubricant. Graphite powder is often added to lubricating
ing lead zircon ate, strontium zirconate, lead lanthanate, and greases and oils to improve their lubricity. It can be made
numerous rare-earth doped compounds. synthetically into structural parts which are useful for nonhtbri-
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CERAMICS
cated bearings, pump and meter parts, electric motor brushes, and parts. As water tiles from the surface, the water in the interior
numerous chemical process tools. must migrate outward, often carrying the dissolved binders with it.
Carbon is also found in a variety of diverse crystalline forms, This causes the binder to gradually migrate to the surface leaving
which are all grouped together as amorphous carbons. These the interior dry. The resulting cross-section is difficult to keep
materials are made by mixing various cokes, charcoals, carbon uniform, and warpage often results.
blacks, and other forms of char with pitch and resin binders, For many ceramics, the powders have to be extremely fine,
molding them into solid shapes, and baking them to decompose often less than 40 microinches (1 micron) particle size. The
the binder. The resultant parts are chemically stable, have high surface area of these powders is extremely large and makes it
electrical and thermal conductivityy, and very high resistance extremely difficult to get even dispersion in a IiquicUbinder
to heat. system. Because of the small passageways between these parti-
Silicon carbide is a compound that bas physical properties very cles, drying is very difficult, and often impossible.
similar to diamond. It is also extremely hard and has good Dry pressing allows the parts to be formed without exposure to
chemical and heat resistance. Normally used as an abrasive or as liquids. Here, a dry binder that flows under pressure is added to
a refractory material, silicon carbide is now available in forms that the ceramic powder. This is normally done either by spray drying,
make it an important structural ceramic. or by a process called <slug and granulate. The resultant powder
Silicon carbide has a very high stiffness-to-weight ratio as well can be pressed into a solid form by simply applying pressure. For
as good hot strength. Structural members made from silicon normal dry pressing, the powder is fed into a hollow cavity and
carbide are used regularly at temperatures up to 2,552 F then compressed by a pair of matching punches which compress
(1 ,400 C). The material can be sintered into a fine-grained form the powder and eject the part.
that takes on a very smooth surface finish. For extremely large parts, isostatic molding procedures are
Boron carbide has the highest stiffness-to-weight ratio of any used. Here, the powder is loaded into a flexible rubber bag,
monolithic material. Its density is only 0.09 lb/in. 3 (2.5 g/cc) sealed, and then immersed into a fluid pressure medium such as
while its elastic modulus is an impressive 50,770 ksi (350 GPa). It water. The pressure medium is then compressed to apply pressure
is also an extremely hard material. Boron carbide is used as an to the powder. Solid ceramic beams over 6 (1.8 m) in length and
abrasive because of its extreme hardness and as an important weighing several hundred pounds are made by isostatic molding.
component of armor systems because of its high sonic modulus. Once the parts are formed, they must be fired. This exposure to
Other carbides of interest include titanium and tantalum carbide high temperatures causes the particles to sinter and, in some cases,
which are used as coatings on cutting tools. The highest known react to form tbe finished composition of the material. During the
melting point of any solid belongs to a compound of tantalum and initial phases of tbe firhg cycle, all of the binder must be burned
hafnium carbides-nearly 9,000 F (5 ,000 C). out. Care must be taken so that the binder can migrate out
Borides. The last group of compounds is borides. Boron and gradually, without rupturing the part. It is also important that
carbon are two elements that are considered ceramics. Boron is a flammable binders do not come in contact with direct flame.
gray metallic-looking solid which is extremely rigid and brittfe at Once the binders are removed, the part is heated to a sufficient
room temperature. Boron fibers, made by decomposing borane gas temperature for sintering to occur. Although sintering takes place
on a hot filament, are an important reinforcing material for the by a number of complex mechanisms, it is easiest to understand
aircraft and recreational industries. that the high surface energy of a finely divided powder is simply
The most important boride material used as a ceramic is reduced by the particles welding to one another to form a fully
titanium diboride. This compound is extremely rigid and, like dense body.
boron carbide, has a very high stiffness-to-weight ratio. It is an Most oxide ceramics are fired in air using gas or other fossil
important material for making lightweight armor. fuels. Most non-oxide ceramics must be fired in a controlled
atmosphere to prevent oxidation. The simplest atmosphere control
is achieved by putting a ceramic muffle inside a gas kiln and
How Engineered Ceramics Are Made feeding a controlled gas atmosphere into the muffle, For more
Unlike metals, a chunk of ceramic bar stock cannot be taken off exotic atmosphere control, a vacuum furnace is often used, By
the shelf and machined. Its brittle nature makes single-point pulling a vacuum on the system and backfilling with the control
machining nearly impossible for all but a very few specifically gas, the exact stoichiometry of the atmosphere can be controlled.
designed materials. A ceramic part must be formed and then fired Since firing is a densification process, most ceramics undergo
to produce the desired shape. Precise dimensions can be diamond- considerable shrinkage on firing. A drypressed refractory may
ground on specific surfaces, but this needs to be minimized shrink only 5% to IOYO,while a fine-grained structural part may
because of the expens. shrink as much as 30Y0 to 35%0. Great care must be taken when
Forming techniques. Just as clay can be easily molded and setting high-shrkkage parts in the kiln, to prevent restriction of the
shaped, most ceramic powders can be mixed with a combination shrinkage. If a bigh-sbrinkage part sticks or drags on its supporting
of organic binders and solvents to make a plastic mass that can be surface, it can actually tear itself apart.
formed into a suitable shape. Drying or curing of the organic It is also important to consider that many ceramics become very
binder will produce a green part, much like a tiled piece of soft while undergoing firing and may slump under their own
clay, that can then be machined or carved to a closer tolerance. weight. This is especially important when designing parts that
Using a similar technique, a slurry can be made up that stays in have cantilevered members or long unsupported spans.
suspension and can be cast in a porous mold to form intricate Many materials are very difficult to sinter. Most carbides, for
hollow forms. This slip casting process is extremely useful instance, have very little surface energy and do not react even in
for making crucibles, casting pots, large tubes, and other thin- a very fine powder. To aid in the sintering, it is often helpful to
walled shapes. add pressure as well as temperature during firing. To do this, a
The limitation of plastic forming and slip casting is the fact that graphite die and punch set is used in a controlled atmosphere to
the part must be dried. Drying gets very difficult in thick-walled generate pressures as high as 12,000 psi (83 MPa) and tem-
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CERAMICS
peratures above 3,600F (2,000C). This is a process called Non-oxide ceramics can be made into large shapes; however,
hot-pressing, which is used extensively in making ceramic the high-tech, structural versions of these materials are made from
cutting tools. extremely expensive raw materials. Usually parts under 12 (305
Recently, a process called HIP (hot isostatic pressing) has mm) in major dimension are within practical limits.
gained attention from the ceramic community. By putting fired Although simple shapes are the general rule, ceramics can be
parts in a pressure chamber and subjecting them to a combination formed into some fairly intricate shapes. The main considerations
of high temperature and pressure, improvements can be made in are thickness of cross-section, effects of shrinkage, and how tight
the strength, density, and toughness of the material. the tolerances will be. Simple round or square plates with holes
through them are easy; short cylinders, straight beams, and bars
Grinding ceramics. Once ceramics are fired, they are not
are also relatively simple. Tall cylinders, arched structures, and
easily machined by normal metal-cutting procedures. Unlike
thin square frames arc much more difficult.
metals, that harden and yield to the pressure of a machining tip,
ceramics break or pull apart. The damage induced by grinding can Since ceramics cannot be welded, bent, or riveted, careful
consideration must be given to how they will be joined; it pays to
often extend below the surface as well as on top; these subsurface
know what joining methods work well.
cracks, and residual stresses, can severely weaken a ceramic part.
In order to minimize the effects of subsurface fracture, the Adhesive bonding is a good way to join ceramics to metal,
plastic, and other ceramics. The limitations are the temperature
ceramic must often be ground in steps, using progressively finer
limit of the adhesive used, and the differential expansion between
grinding media to gradually remove the damaged layers. Manu-
facturers who are unfamiliar with ceramic grinding should work the ceramic and the surface to which it is being joined. The shear
stress generated by differential expansion is dependent on the size
closely with experienced grinders to develop and institute the
special techniques for grinding these materials. of the parts being joined and the temperature extremes they have
Typically, the ceramic is rough ground with a 120- to to withstand. It is always best to match expansion rates and keep
the parts as small as possible.
180-grit metal-bond diamond wheel to bring it to a rough size.
Brazing is another way to join ceramics to metal. Certain alloys
Once the part is to size, the grinder is usually allowed to dwell for
several passes to compensate for the normal deflection of the of manganese and molybdenum can be bonded firmly to a ceramic
surface, as can titanium. Using various compliant layers and
machine. It is important that the machines used are extremely
rigid, the wheels balanced, and that copious quantities of clean brazing alloys, a substantial bond can be made from ceramic to
coolant are used while grinding. metal. These processes must all be done under vacuum, however,
and are still subject to differential expansion problems.
If a fine surface is needed, the part must be finish ground using
progressively finer abrasives. To remove the subsurface damage, Although ceramics can be threaded into nut and bolt threads,
a 325- to 600-grit resin bond wheel is often used. Feed rates are this practice should generally be discouraged. Most ceramics are
highly notch sensitive and become very weak when made in these
kept to a minimum and no more than 0.002 to 0.003 (0.05 mm
to 0.08 mm) of stock are removed on this step. Again, the grinder configurations. If threads must be used, it is good practice to use
coarse and heavily rounded threads such as those found on screw
must be allowed to dwell to eliminate pressures caused by
top glass bottles.
deflection. This step can then be followed by a subsequent regrind
with a 1200- to 6000-grit finishing wheel. The high compressive strength of ceramics does encourage
certain mechanical fastening schemes. S&Ink fhting, for instance,
Complex shapes can be machined into ceramics using very
rigid CNC machining centers and a process called creep feed of a ceramic ring inside a metal sleeve puts it in uniform
grinding. Here, the movement of the machine is slowed to a rate compression and provides an assembly with extremely high
that allows a roughing wheel to move slowly over a contour and strength. Bolting two ceramic plates together will put the ceramic
in compression provided the mating surfaces are perfectly flat. It
grind away the ceramic. This is a slow and expensive process, but
is good practice to use oversized washers when bolting two pieces
one that allows the manufacture of complex, high precision parts.
The process can be speeded up, using an ultrasonic rotating of ceramic together.
spindle that will aid in material removal, but that could create a
greater extent of subsurface damage.
For inside diameters, honing is a cheap and efficient way to
true up a hole. The same limitations that apply to metal hones, Applications
Because they are hard, low in density, and chemically inert,
however, also apply to ceramics. A hole that is grossly out of
round cannot be trued. ceramics are useful in numerous consumer and industrial applica-
tions. They are also brittle, which makes their use a challenge to
Joining ceramics. When designing parts and assemblies, it is the design engineer.
important to remember that ceramics are very different from Automotive applications inchrde spark plugs, catalytic con-
metals. They cannot be welded, sheared, bent, rolled, forged, verter supports, water pump seals, oxygen sensors, numerous
riveted, or burnished. They have to be used in a way that takes electronic substrates, and active electronic elements. More re-
advantage of their unique capabilities and avoids their weaknesses. centl y, automotive uses have included turbocharger turbines,
Since most ceramics are formed into discrete parts rather than exhaust manifold liners, and wear pads for critical wear areas
stock sizes, it is important to understand the size and shape where lubrication is diftlcult.
limitations. Oxide ceramic parts are available in sizes up to 6 or 7 Ceramics are used extensively in the power generation and
feet (1. 8 m or 2.1 m) in length and weighing several hundred mining industries to prevent wear from handling coal and hard
pounds. There are, however, only a limited number of manufac- rock ore. Chutes, cyclones, pumps, valves, fans, and hoppers are
turers that can produce parts of this size at a substantial price. extensively lined with ceramic overlays to protect them from
Small, regular shaped parts can be produced by a number of abrasive wear. Ceramic turbine blades and high pressure valves
manufacturers and can normally be purchased in quantity at prices are used in the steam circuits of some power plants to combat
quite comparable to metal parts. serious wear and corrosion.
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POWDER METALLURGY
Because of their chemical and thermal stability, ceramics are processes for preparing the corrosive chemicals and handling the
used extensively in the chemical industry to protect steel struc- abrasive chips and fillers that gointotie prepmation of the stock.
tures, and to act as filters, catalyst supports, flow control devices, Ceramics are used in the electronics industry for a large variety
and tower packings. of applications. Some ceramics are excellent insulators and are
The metals industry depends on high-temperature ceramics to used for insulators and isolators. Others have an extremely high
handle molten metal. They also use ceramic cutting tools and dielectric constant and are used for high-density capacitors. Still
abrasives for grinding and machining operations. Ceramics are others are semiconductors, and are used as active elements of a
used for wire-drawing blocks because of their wear resistance and circuit. More recently, high-temperature superconductors have
low coefficient of friction, and in a variety of hot and cold forming been made from ceramics that promise some exciting applications
tools. Ceramic refractories are used as furnace linings, burner for the future,
blocks, heat exchangers, and fixtures in heat treating furnaces. During the 1980s, a lot of ambitious expectations were ex-
The medical and food handling industries use ceramics in pressed about ceramics. Hopefully, the exposure of these materials
crucial applications where surfaces must be kept clean and free of to design engineers, and the growing understanding about where
contamination. Their smooth, hard surfaces allow cleaning and and how to use these materials, will bring about some practical,
sterilization without deterioration. common-sense solutions to a variety of engineering materials
The pulp and paper industry uses ceramics for dewatering problems.
elements on their high speed paper machines and in a variety of
POWDER METALLURGY
Powder metallurgy (PM) is a process for manufacturing metal to wrought steel products, The second method is a precision
components used in automobile engines, transmission and chassis forging process, without flash, in which the shape of the preform
assemblies, lawn and garden equipment, agricultural equipment, is simpler than the final part shape so that the desired final shape
off-road machinery, business machines, instruments, power and is produced to close dimensional control during the forging step.
hand tools, lock and hardware components, small and large In this case the preform is upset or extruded during the hot forging
appliances, and aircraft, step, resulting in more rapid initial densification and greater shear
Powder metallurgy is a cost-effective alternative to die casting, stresses at the pore surfaces than in the hot repressing. This second
forging, gravity casting, investment casting, stamping, fineblank- method can produce densities approaching 100% theoretical, and
ing, and screw machining. It produces reliable, precision compo- develops properties nearly equal to the equivalent wrought steel of
nents at production rates of up to several thousand pieces per hour the same chemistry. Due to the isotropic nature of the powder
at near net or net shape. metallurgy process, longitudinal and transverse properties are
This section focuses on conventional PM processing of four more uniform in powder metallurgy hot forged products as
major alloy groups: iron, stainless steel, aluminum, and copper. compared to wrought parts,
PM is also used to fabricate materials such as tungsten carbide, The cost of the powder metallurgy forging process exceeds
tungsten and other heavy metal alloys, superalloy, titanium, high conventional powder metallurgy products due to the extra process-
speed tool steels, and precious metals. ing steps, reduced tool life of the forging dies, preform design and
Powder metal parts can be manufactured in a variety of development, and the process controls necessary to achieve full
processes, including conventional production, powder forging, density. Most of the work in this field has concentrated on
and metal injection molding. steel alloys, although aluminum and copper based alloys have
been forged.
POWDER FORGING Powder metallurgy forgings have been used as load-bearing
Powder metallurgy forging was developed over 20 years ago as components in vehicular power train assemblies, most notably for
a means to produce full dense steel parts. Powder metallurgy connecting rods and transmission parts, as well as tapered roller
forged parts have mechanical properties close to wrought steels, bearings for truck, farm, and construction equipment. The powder
unlike conventional pressed and sintered powder metallurgy parts metallurgy forged bearings save material and provide longer
that have limited dynamic properties of impact and fatigue. These fatigue life than wrought steel bearings due to fewer and finer
limits can be overcome by eliminating residual porosity with the inclusions and more controlled grain size in the steel. Powder
forging process. forging produces fully dense components to net shape. A large
In the powder metallurgy forging operation, a powder metal- number of U. S .-made automobiles have powder forged connect-
lurgy preform is compacted and sintered conventionally and then ing rods.
either taken directly to the forging die or cooled after sintering,
reheated, and then taken to the forging press. Two different METAL INJECTION MOLDING
approaches have been developed for powder metallurgy forging. Metal injection molding (MIM) is the newest of the powder
In the first method, hot repressing, the preform is very similar in metallurgy processes to be fully commercialized, MIM, also
shape to the final part except for its length in the forging direction. known as powder injection molding (PIM), produces small highly
This technique is generally used in applications where densities complex components with density levels typically around 98% of
from 95% to 98% of theoretical are satisfactory. Recent modifi- theoretical. In the MIM process the metal powders are mixed with
cations to this technique indicate that it may be possible to produce a suitable plasticizer which allows the material to be forced into a
densities approaching 100~0 theoretical with properties equivalent closed mold at relatively low pressure and temperature, typically
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POWDER METALLURGY
250 Fto4000F and 10ksi to 20ksi (121 C to 204 Canal 69kPa . Faciliutes manufacture of complex or unique shapes thal
to 138 kpa) using a conventional plastic injection molding ma- would be impractical or impossible with other metalworking
chine. Removal of the organic binder after the molding operation processes.
is the critical step in the process. Once the binder has been . Satisfies moderate to high-volume component production
removed, MIM parts are sintered in atmosphere or vacuum requirements.
furnaces. The metal powders necessary for MIM parts are much . Offers long-term performance reliability in critical
finer than those used for conventional powder metallurgy parts and applications.
therefore, the MIM parts undergo very high shrinkage, sometimes
as high as 30%, during sintering. However, due to the uniform
density of the as-molded part, stilnkage is isotropic and close COMPARING PM WITH OTHER PROCESSES
tolerances can be maintained, typically *0.003 inch per inch (mm Die casting and PM are very competitive in terms of dimen-
per mm). Densities of 96% of theoretical and above can be sional precision and machining requirements. The advantage
achieved. Ductility of as-sintered MIM parts is usually high, with frequently depends on the orientation of the features. Tooling costs
elongation of 2570 to 30% not uncommon. Common MIM and machine costs usually favor PM. The choice between the two
materials include pure iron, low alloy steels, stainless steels, and processes is often a matter of product size or performance
certain specialty alloys. MIM parts are usually limited in overall requirements rather than economics. Die castings can be made in
size to about the size of a tennis ball and less than 2.6 oz (74 sizes beyond PM capabilities. PM is the choice when requirements
grams), though larger parts are under development. The size limit for strength, wear resistance, or high operating temperatures
applies in most cases to the cross-sectional thickness of the part. exceed the capabilities of die casting alloys, or if the corrosion
Due to the process to remove the binder, most parts have a resistance of copper alloys or stainless steel is required.
cross-section of one-fourth inch (6.35 mm) or less. When a component can be made as one stamping from one die,
stamping is usually more feasible and economical than PM. When
a progressive die or several dies are required, the tooling costs and
machine operating costs are significantly increased and PM may
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF PM
be competitive. When several stampings are required, the costs of
The PM process is material- and energy-efficient. The finished
fixturhtg and welding are added to component and tooling costs
product typically uses 97% of the metal powder consumed. The
and PM becomes more competitive.
sintering process of solid-state diffusion bonding between powder
PM is highly competitive with fineblanking, which runs at a
particles avoids the use of the high temperatures and latent heat
slower cycle than conventional stamping and has higher equipment
required to melt metals.
costs. Fineblanking has less latitude to produce the shapes that can
The PM structure is porous. The amount and characteristics of
be easily designed with PM, and the component thickness is
the porosity can be controlled within limitsthrough powder
essentially constant as it is with conventional stamping.
characteristics, powder composition, the compaction process, and
Foundry castings can be made in sizes which exceed the
the sintering process.
capabilities of conventional powder metallurgy. Where both pro-
A variety of processes are employed that offset or utilize
cesses are viable, foundry castings usually incur lower tooling and
porosity to develop special properties in PM components. PM
material costs, but higher production costs. PM offers greater
parts can be:
precision, eliminating most or all of the finish machining opera-
. Impregnated with oil and solid lubricants to function as tions required for castings. PM avoids casting defects such as blow
self-lubricating bearings. holes, slag, and shrinkage, which are often detected in castings
. Resin impregnated to seal interconnecting porosity. after initial machining operations. PM is usually the choice when
. Infiltrated with a lower melting point metal to increase production quantities are high and the tooling costs can be
strength and impact resistance. amortized over a large number of components. The break-even
. Steam treated to increase corrosion resistance and seal point is lower when PM precision forming capability eliminates
porosity. finish machining operations.
Investment casting is a high-precision process using alloys with
PM parts can be plated to provide a decorative, corrosion-
properties similar to PM. Configurations which cannot be formed
resistwrt, or wear-resistant sus-fwe. Individual features requiring
by PM, or which require extensive machining, can often be
additional dimensional precision or increased strength can be sized
investment cast. Tooling cost is substantially lower, and produc-
or coined. Features that cannot be formed by compaction can be
tion costs are higher. Investment casting is generally competitive
achieved by machining.
with PM at very low production volumes. The break-even point
Most PM parts weigh less than five lbs (2.3 kg), although
depends on factors such as dimensional precision and post-forming
conventional PM equipment can fabricate components of varying
operations.
size, from less than 0.04 oz (1 gram) to as much as 35 lb (15.9 kg).
Automatic screw machines incur the lowest tooling cost of any
The most prominent benefits of PM are that it:
production methods. Screw machines are highly automated and
. Eliminates or minimizes machining. therefore not labor intensive. The process, which uses bar stock as
. Eliminates or minimizes scrap losses. raw material, is marked by very poor material utilization, some-
. Maintains close dimensional tolerances. times less than 50%. Deciding on screw machining versus PM
. Utilizes a wide variety of alloy systems. depends on production quantities, with the PM advantage increas-
. Produces good surface finishes. ing as the production rates increase.
Provides materials that may be heat-treated for increased The PM advantage is less for brass than for ferrous screw
strength or enhanced wear resistance. machined components. Cutting rates for brass are substantially
provides controlled porosity, for self-lubrication or higher, tool maintenance is lower, and brass chips have a high
filtration. scrap value.
15-41
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER15
POWDER METALLURGY
Screw machining operations are most advantageous when the Nickel powder additions of 2% to 4%, with or without copper
component configuration is symmetrical with a central axis, powder, develop tough, high-strength components with excellent
particularly cylinders. PM can readily produce irregular configu- fatigue strength. Tensile strength for parts not heat treated ranges
rations, provided that they are oriented to permit ejection from between 50 ksi and 75 ksi (345 MPa and 517 MPa); heat
the tools. treatment increases strength to as high as 180 ksi (1.2 GPa).
Porous ferrous components can be infiltrated with lower
PM MATERIALS melting point materials, such as copper or copper alloys, to
Metal powders are precisely engineered materials, produced to
increase density andprovide improved impact resistance. Standard
meet a range of special performance requirements. Powders are copper-intiltrated components have tensile strengths ranging from
available in numerous types and grades designed for the PM 65ksito90ksi (448 MPato620MPa). Heat treatment increases
process. When fabricated into components, their mechanical
strengths up to 130 ksi (900 MPa). Infiltration can additionally
properties compare favorably with materials used in other metal- provide local density improvement where it may otherwise be
working processes. difficult to achieve ina pressing operation. Eliminating intercom-
Additionally, PM offers wide latitude to develop engineered netted porosity permits plating without resin impregnation.
materials with properties tailored to the application. The process Phosphorus is added to iron powder in small amounts to
allows conventional metal alloying; it also allows the infiltration of accelerate the sintering cycle, enhance electromagnetic properties,
an alloy with a lower melting point into a porous metal compo- andprovide aunique combination of good ductility and strength.
nentproducing a part with a composite structure that cannot be Ni/Mo/Mn (nickel/molybdenum/manganese) prealloyed powders
achieved with conventional cast or wrought materials. arc used for production of components requiring heat treatment.
The technique used to fabricate a powder is determined by The prealloyed powders impart the homogeneity required to reach
economics, the raw material, and the desired particle shape, size, high levels of hardenability.
and size distribution. Particle shape, size, and size distribution A variety of PM materials are available for soft magnetic
strongly influence thecharacteristics of PM powders, particularly components.
their behavior during compacting and sintering. PM stainless steels use prealloyed pow-der to develop acom-
The Metal Powder Industries Federation (MPIF) has estab- pletely homogeneous microstructure under commercial sintering
lished a three-part alphanumeric code for designated powder
conditions. They are generally selected for their mechanical
composition and properties of the finished component. A full properties and high levels of corrosion resistance, in porous filters
explanation of the system and material properties is contained in and automotive, appliance, hardware, marine, and food industry
MPIFs Standard 35. Just as with many standards, there are applications.
materials that are being produced that have not yet been added to
the standard. Powder metallurgy has been growing and changing
and standards are being expanded to provide designers with
Copper Base Materials
Available PM copper-base materials include pure copper,
additional information. These standards shouldn't betaken as the
brasses, bronzes, and nickel silver.
limit of what can be produced by powder metallurgy manufactur-
Pure copper is selected when high electrical or thermal con-
ers. Standard 35 will be expanded to include powder forged
ductivity is required.
material properties. Also, another standard for metal injection
Bronze is the most widely used nonferrous PM material. The
molded (MIM) material properties is being established. Both of
oil-impregnated self-lubricating bearing is the primary application
these powder metallurgy processes provide superior properties to
for PM bronze. High-strength bronze structural components with
most conventionally processed materials.
tensile strengths as high as 50 ksi (345 MPa) are usually made
Ferrous Materials from prealloyed bronze powders.
fron powder is the most widely used PM material for structural Brasses, in the form of prealloyed powders, are available in
parts. Itissometimes used alone, butmost frequently with small numerous compositions. Zinc content ranges from 1070 to 3070.
additions, singly or in combination, to improve mechanical Leaded brasses have copper content from 70% to 90%, and lead
properties. Carbon, copper, nickel, andmolybdenum are the most from 1% to 2%. Sintered brass components have tensile strengths
common alloying elements. as high as 40 ksi (275 MPa). Machinability of the materials is
Ferrous alloys with O.3% or more combined carbon can be comparable to cast and wrought brass stock of the same compo-
hardened and tempered to increase strength, hardness, and wear sition. Brass PM components are well suited for applications
resistance. The yield strength of heat-treated alloys is close to the requiring good corrosion resistance, good machinability, attractive
ultimate tensile strength. Non-heat-treated ferrous alloys exhibit appearance, and ductility.
yield strengths lower than ultimate tensile. Nickel silver powders are prealloys of copper, nickel, and zinc,
Plain carbon steels are made from mixtures of iron and graphite typically containing 16% to 19% nickel. Properties are similar to
powders. Sintering diffuses the graphite into the iron to produce a brass, but corrosion resistance is superior.
steel structure. Low, medium, and high - density components
produced from these powders range in tensile strength from 16 ksi Aluminum
to nearly 60 ksi (110 MPa to415 MPa). Strengths can be increased Aluminum alloys have the widest application of the three
to over 90 ksi (620 MPa) by heat treatment. lightweight metal groups (aluminum, beryllium, titanium) preva-
The addition of copper powder to iron powder increases lent in the PM industry. The major alloying elements are copper,
strength and hardness. Copper steels contain from 1.5 YO to 10.5% magnesium, and silicon. Tensile strengths range from about 15 ksi
copper and up to 0.9%0carbon, depending on the application. to 50 ksi (105 MPa to 345 MPa) depending on composition,
Low, medium and high-density parts and bearings produced with density, and heat treatment. Aluminum PM offers good corrosion
these powders have tensile strengths from 20 ksi to more than 80 resistance, high strengtl-to-weight ratio, high rigidity-to-weight
ksi (138 MPa to 550 MPa). Heat treatment can develop strengths ratio, excellent finishing properties, and excellent electrical and
up to 100 ksi (690 MPa). thermal conductivity.
15-42
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER15
POWDER METALLURGY
TABLE 15-6
Typical Radial Tolerances for Dimensions Up to 0.500 (12.7 mm)
15-43
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER15
POWDER METALLURGY
15-44
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER15
POWDER METALLURGY
References
Poor
Fig. 15-35 Locate gear hubs as far as possible from the gear roots
diameter.
15-45
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
DESIGN FOR
ELECTRONIC ASSEMBLY
INTRODUCTION
For successful electronic companies, now is the The business world has long known the power of CHAPTER
decisive time to beat back the competitive threat as mass production in achieving greater productivity CONTENTS:
product cost, time to market, and quality become the and profitability. For decades it has proved its worth
pivotal comparative benchmarks used by well in- as a staple for industrial engineering practices and INTRODUCTION
formed purchasers to measure electronic goods. applications. Modem industry has embraced the 16-1
Since most product cost is determined before the basic principles of mass production while adding a
design leaves the drawing board, the winning strat- few of its own. Examples of todays manufacturing OVERVIEW 16-1
egy will call upon design teams to predict product methods used when producing electronic products
cost before design begins. This ensures profitable are just in time (JIT), total quality management SALES AND
EMPLOYMENT
products with the highest possible quality and (TQM), and other shop floor improvements that TRENDS 16-3
performance, reduce defects and costs. While many books cover
The goal of this chapter is to provide new princi- these techniques amply, this chapter introduces and PRINTED WIRE
ples and practices for selecting optimal form and fit reviews a DFM approach that integrates design and ASSEMBLY
features for printed wire assemblies through the manufacturing objectives as a single function. This (PWA) 16-4
techniques of cost prediction, knowledge-based soft- approach incorporates productivity before releasing
ware, and design for manufacturability (DFM) tech- the design to build. DFM is effective in removing BALANCING
niques. This chapter will also discuss design param- what is known in the industry as the wall between TECHNOLOGY 16-7
eters for testing and producing a reliable product designers and builders of electronics products by
(especially a printed circuit board). Successful DFM forming a business team of people from both areas. INDUSTRY
PREFERRED
includes manufacturing the product with a profit; The method is simple: form the team; prevent high COMPONENTS 16-8
DFM should blend business goals and technical data cost and low quality; predict the cost impact by using
within a single process. By meeting competition on simulation associated with major design features THE NEED TO
the drawing board and not relying on manufacturing concurrently with the product specification; design a DESIGN FOR
programs alone, the engineer and product business manufacturable product; and establish reliability and MANUFAC-
manager can team up to reap large rewards. quality testing procedures. TURABILITY 16-13
PRINTED WIRING
ASSEMBLY TECH-
NOLOGIES 16-14
Design for profit and manufacturability is a pre- a competitive advantage. DFM is a specific method IMPLEMENTING
design concurrent process aimed at increasing pre- that might show that outsourcing, fabrication, assem- DFM 16-16
dictability and profitability for electronic product bly, the use of an existing part-or even its elimina-
suppliers in a rapidly changing business world which tionmay sometimes be more profitable. Elimina- AUTOMATING
offers a bewildering array of new technology oppor- tion of a part is ideal DFM. THE DFM
tunities some of them highly successful and some The DFM process applies integrated economic PROCESS 16-20
with uncertain futures. and technical modeling, tools, and decision making
DFM has always been the right thing to do; as simultaneous parts of a designers job responsibil- DESIGN FOR
TESTABILITY 16-21
having designers work closely with diemakers or ities, for the success of the entire product. The strategy
supplying design departments with up-to-date stan- allows a balance of technology with a companys
TESTABILITY
dards, to ensure that a specified hole size has a business performance which is often left out of tra- SUCCESS 16-26
matching drill in the toolroom, is the fiist step to ditional design for manufacturability programs. DFM
making a new part or assembly manufacturable with is an important part of simultaneous engineering. STANDARD
TEST ARCHI-
TECTURE 16-30
DESIGN FOR
The Contributors of sections of this chapter are: Stanley F. Burlington, Ph.D., PE, Assistant Professor, RELIABILITY 16-37
Industrial Engineering Dept., Mississippi State University; Richard C. Dunlop, Consuking Engineer, Digital
Equipmant Corp.; Peter Dziel, Principal Design Engineer, Data General; Phil P. Mareoux, PPM Associates,
Sunnyvale, CA; Jon Turino, President and CEO, Logical Solutions Technology Inc.
The Reviewers of this chapter are: David A. Curfis, President, Curtis and Associates, Concord, MA; Charlie
Harper, President, Technology Seminars, Inc., Lutherville, MD; Mirko Matejic, Consulting Engineer, Codex Division,
Motorola Inc.; Sammy Shina, Associate Professorj College of Engineering, University of Massachusetts-Lowell.
16-1
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
OVERVIEW
The key word here is simultaneous. In one electronics com- however, the possibility of more defects. Engineers are trying to
pany, a perfect DFM effort in the design of a die-cast metal collapse the refrigerator-sized 1980 computer into a breakfast-
enclosure saved $20 per unit, but forced the cost of the electronic cereal box size today. A major reason for this downsizing is that
circuit outlines to go up $100 and no one knew it. Even with while todays chip can do the work of thousands of its 1980
good DFM support in the detailed circuit function, this was counterparts, it can be limited in getting the completed work to the
overlooked, and circuit designers responded with Thats the form next stage because of the problem of distance. Downsizing
and size the industrial designer gave us. DFM is put in place to products means lower power, better performance per volume, new
prevent this and glue each effort into a single team goal. The two applications, easier service by replacing the whole unit, and lower
together are powerful tools. weight which gives better portability.
One way to hedge the future is to design for procurement by For example, the electrons propagation time to travel a
insisting that new designs conform to the best proven processes. six-foot distance to a device waiting for the signal is six times
This can remove the risk of designing captive electronic assem- longer than the time required to travel onc foot. This is the
blies which fit only a single plant. Generally, design details that technological reason for downsizing; there is also a reason chiven
determine most of the cost and quality are defined in about 20 by business. With these hot new chips in the right place, the owner
basic specifications for form and fit. Many companies have of a new product may gain the advantage of getting the same work
defined their own specifications through painstaking trial and error. done faster than the competition. Additionally, the decreased floor
DFM starts with concurrent activities right from the minute that space required for the smaller system may save the new product
a new product is about to be created. It is helpful to remember that owner many times its initial cost by reducing space-rental costs.
DFM must go beyond just making the details of a part or assembly However, increased pin and thermal density must be weighed
feature fit the process. The designer has to make cost decisions against higher opportunities for defects and failure due to exces-
which might change the design approach altogether. sive heat and the fragility of the minute pin size.
Investing in software cost-capture programs to apply during the
product specification stage has proven very valuable to companies, THE MERGER OF TECHNOLOGY AND
with much of the savings passed on to customers in the form of BUSINESS
lower prices. This makes both the company and the customer more Most shop-floor quality programs are still focused on control-
competitive and profitable. ling and reducing symptoms, because what is released to the shop
There are major development phases in the traditional serial floor is what is built. Controlling the process, or providing better
step-by-step process and in the DFM concurrent process which inspection of incoming parts, is about the most that can be done
offer the comparative example of time-to-mwket improvement once the product design is complete and released to production.
using DFM. Manufacturability y starts with product specification. Such efforts to build to a six-sigma confidence level (a process
Designers realize that timing is vital, and since the biggest cost tolerance within a range of six sample standard deviations or about
factors are determined at the specification stage, this is the right 3.4 defects per million opportunities) are increasing. However, the
place to start. Changes to major form and fit are costly. If value DFM approach is to take defect knowledge back to the design
engineering (VE) is delayed until the prototype stage, that can put thus preventing defects on the next products. Removing the
time-to-market goals in jeopardy (value engineering also called opportunity for defects through design features is always the fist
value analysis, value control, or value management provides a step. JIT programs, like all others, are only as effective as the
systematic approach to evaluating design alternatives. VE is design allows them to be; a design which halves the number of
different from cost engineering. VE makes changes that improve parts has twice the chances for JIT benefits.
the products value to the customer. Cost engineering makes The necessity for balancing technology and business within the
changes that reduce the manufacturing costs). Designing-in test- design is a gamble which engineers must face every day. DFM
ability considerations should also happen as part of the specifica- demonstrates the value of predicting cost trade-offs before the
tion step, or at the latest during design layout. design is frozen. This permits accurate matching between the job
Designing on the networkusing a computer-based network to be done and the right process capability. Process capability
design is another way to form a design team without expensive specifies the limits within which a tool or process operates based
trips and time delays. Product and process decisions can be made on minimum variability as governed by the prevailing circum-
concurrently by teams which are made up of everyone, starting stances. DFM also provides a new dimension of analysis to help
with vendors all the way to assembly engineers. Their inputs can decide {make or bu y strategies. Many things affect the cost and
be coalesced and balanced to form a more competitive design in a time to market of a new product, but none so much as the selection
few cycles before design even starts. Naturally, midcourse correc- of the electronic parts and their style of micropackage attachment
tions will sometimes be made. These corrections must always be to the substrate or printed wire board (PWB).
included in the new cost impact before adjusting specifications.
This keeps the design and the cost predictable. Eliminating LOOKING BEYOND TRADITIONAL SOURCES
past-design recycles can provide improvement in time to market. FOR NEW PRODUCTIVITY
The cost estimating process, formerly made on instinct, can now Figure16-1shows some of the changes in successful intern-
be replaced with fast design cost prediction which is often within ational companies that are moving from the old reactive mode to
10% of actual cost as measured after volume production. one of proactive, information-supported design and production to
Printed wire assembly (PWA) technology in recent years has achieve productivity gains. The goals are to reduce labor intensity
leaped from an interconnect average of 30 pins per square inch and increase the quality of the information and technology
(6.45 cmz) to a typical range of 50 to 100 today. This is directly available. The concept of DFM is to utilize data and software in a
due to a switch from through-lead soldering devices with 0.100 manner which allows designers to have expert decision support.
(2.54 mm) lead pitches to surface mount packaging with pitches of This is done on line within the same CAD frameworks that contain
0.050 (1.27 mm) and 0.025 (0.63 mm). This allows parts to be the performance guidelines needed to design out functional faults.
added to the bottom side, adding even higher densities with, Using the two concurrently is ideal.
16-2
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
SALES AND EMPLOYMENT TRENDS
and quality
v
Value
of prod uchon Technology
~
Labor
Intenswe
70 80 90 2000
-. .,.-. ,. . . .. . . .
Flg. 10- I mectromc manutacturmg and trusiness ctrivers.
The goal is to help product designers become production business decisions regarding the relationships between costs and
experts, able to make form and fit choices without taking twenty profits, without becoming an MBA just to predict the companys
years to learn the knowledge on a production line; to make sound profit margins.
16-3
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
PRINTED WIRE ASSEMBLY (PWA)
cesses that can control quality and cycle times far beyond anything ers can make the trade-offs to reach an optimal balance of
envisioned just 20 years ago, but they too have turned to technology for a product with designed-in competitive advantage.
specialization in order to counter the growing quality and defect A group technology code (GTC) classification allows analysis
problems stemming from higher densities and volume. Much of to be separated from market specifications. With the many
their time is spent reacting to symptoms and process control rather choices, all major benefits and shortcomings need to be under-
than in working with designers for preventive measures on stood. In fact, the lower-end, older assembly methods used first in
upcoming new products. the early 1960s are still used in more than 50% of all global
Product designers know how to make a design work and production, independent of product. By using GTC, the product
process designers know how to build it. But often they dont talk designer can rely on hard data rather than instinct. This means that
to each other, and this can devastate business objectives and the designer can take responsibility for cost outcome, rather than
destroy profit. Step one in the outlined design process is to get the shucking off responsibility with a thats manufacturings prob-
product and process designer togetherget them on the same lem response. What should become clear at this point is that
course of objectives. Provide software such as cost prediction tools business goals and technology are inseparably interrelated in the
with continual y updated databases for analysis, and a measure- DFM philosophy.
ment structure which rewards the team for its profitable and
creative design solutions.
THE TECHNOLOGY DRIVERS
BUSINESS DRIVERS The customary manner of explaining the phenomenal level of
Since the business worlds interest is in designing, producing, development reached by the electronics industry is to compare the
and purchasing products which increase shareholder profits, such $500 PC product, common in every department store, with the
decisions often affect which new technology will be designed into product of the same capability of 30 years ago which took up the
the next product and, in turn, can make or break profitability. space of at least one garage and cost millions of dollars. If the
These facts are a good reason to use technology levels or classes automobile industry had achieved equivalent productivity, a new
as a method of comparison. At the same time, it is necessary to Mercedes-Benz car would only cost a few dollars and would get
attach both technical and cost performance criteria to each area. around 1,000 miles to the gallon. This price decrease and
This allows an evaluation to determine which technology is the performance increasers still growing in the 1990s, andisattrib-
right fit for a particular product application. The method used in utable to the solid state transistor invention and its follow-on
this text is bound by a few assumptions to better handle the integrated circuit, the famous fingernail-sized chip. The integrated
material. Electronic technology means only the physical form and circuit (IC) contains many transistors which are linked together to
fit features for electronic assembly, since the circuit performance perform their functions. To pack a million transistors on a chip
possibilities are almost infinite. today is state of the art (DFM defines state of the art as proven
Except for very high-speed needs of electronic devices, these volume manufacturing capability). The IC is connected to many
physical technologies can be addressed in groups or classes of other ICS on a PWB to make a PWA. Each IC can have three to
interconnect features of both product and production process hundreds of pins, depending on complexity. The IC features
capability. Therefore, DFM basically identifies classes of features required to cram all this into a square centimeter are very small and
and their density, cost, availability, and quality impact so design- are measured in microns.
16-4
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
PRINTED WIRE ASSEMBLY (PWA)
versus function approach reviewed here is done with the assump- A, B, C, and so forth are only guideposts and have been proven
tion that it must be measured against overall reliability goals. Even empirically overtime. The levels should be used as a comparison
high reliability is not always affordable, so it too must be of each levels impact on the others, and are not always intended
quantified and compared. Where are the big costs? The PWB is the to match a specific application. Again, its the metrics and the
most commonly used base for low-end, midrange and networked measuring process that are important. It is also important to
systems. As new advances are made, PWBS will most likely understand that overuse is costly. Basic levels are arranged in
remain the lowest cost answer for all but those high-end systems order of complexity and labeled GTC-A-, etc.
requiring controlled impedance with superior thermal performance Many new ways to get the equivalent of 100 to 200 pins per
and minimum conductor paths to achieve fast speeds. square inch (6.45 cm2)are being evaluated, butnosingle way has
Manufacturability starts with the product specification. When emerged at this point. GTC-X- contenders might be Bump (inner-
designers create a parts list, they must select the build process. As lead bonding) technology, Flip-chip (face-down bonding or
simple as this idea sounds, its the one most often overlooked. Too controlled-collapse soldering), tape-automated bonding (TAB),
often it is discovered after design layout, requiring recycling to and chip on board (COB). COB is used for many very high-
correct process-related problems. volume consumer products, but its reliability is uncertain in some
applications. Mtdtichip modules (MCMS) are expensive but are
LEVELS OF TECHNOLOGY also in the lead for possible high-volume interconnect use, AH of
The penalty for using a new technology without understanding these are starting to find their way into new products, but their cost
all of its cost, quality, availability, and reliability can be devas- and reliability metrics are cloudy,
tating. The risks of overusing even well understood packaging Figure 16-2 can be a design checklist which will help isolate
technologies are more obvious. Putting higb-density pincount ina real from apparent needs. This isolation forces data to be re-
design not requiring it is wasted money. This section outlines searched so that business decisions are integrated into physical
details of typical packaging choices, not in terms of simple detail design rather than reacted to afterward. Tbelast three columns of
but in balanced groupings that can give predictable size and data are most often ignored by engineers. High technology implies
performance as combined systems of levels of density. The levels new, advanced, better, improved, innovative, and competitive.
Pkg Pm
Size PI n per Rel Rel cost
Mfg. GTC Sides in.z per In.> pkg detect per
Type Pitch Used (6 cm) pkg. (6 cmz) cost per pin p,n
(2.5 mm)
1,53 8G300 6&70 1&50 3 0.12
;GA
SM :.050
(13 mm)
. . . .
Eig. 16-Z Yackage density and matguide.
16-5
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
PRINTED WIRE ASSEMBLY (PWA)
zB----q----El
demand, were inversely proportioned to size to the point of
absurdity: keys could not be operated reliably because they were
designed to be too close together. Well organized integrated
engineering-manufacturing design reviews are very important for
optimizing DFM.
The GTC in Fig. 16-2 is used as the code for the pitch of the
IC device pin centers since that dimension is, by far, the most
important assembly cost driver. Generally speaking, GTC-A- is
I 3-5 Mjxed
assembly
package
processes I
pure throughhole (THT) pin soldering on a 0.10 (2.5 mm) pitch, 10 Assembly ways
I I
24 Efficient PWB
and so on. For the DFM concept to work, design rules and their preferred outllnes
related cost impact must be at fingertip reach. Ideally, within a
minute of considering a physical design feature and using SMT 10 X 24 = 240
approach as an example, its cost impact could be determined, thus
making available the quick overall cost prediction of the PWA
when comparing it to a THT design. By the same token, its PWB
cost in several form factors and layer counts should be readily
accessible.
I 6 Different
Ime technologies
PWB
I
240 X 6 = 1440
array (pGA) has a higher pin count range from 60 to 400 pins per 10080
10080 Possible
Possible
package but these empty carriers can cost from $10 to $60 cost outcomes
comblnahons
per unit.
The current PWA line is a flexible process that is based on
production lots of a few hundred to a million units per year. The
economy of scale in mass volume works in electronics production
as it does in every kind of production, with the proviso that here
it may be an even greater lever considering the defect learning
curves with each new complex package. Asset utilization and DFM IS more then being sure that eoch set in the design process
benchmarking must be part of the decision process before consid- is not a process breaker, but works to select which one is optimal
16-6
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
BALANCING TECHNOLOGY
Fig. 16-4 Different circuit PWA sizes are 1007o eftlcient when made from a standard panel.
BALANCING TECHNOLOGY
The balance of technology concept consists simply of address- pressure of tight schedules, they do not have available the months
ing the common errors of overkill and underkill in design and necessary to research the dozens of details needed to bring all the
process. The designer Iooking for this balance must take more into data into focus.
consideration than achieving the goals of functional performance, Design and process engineers will need to join together in their
an area in which designers tend to overkill. This is understandable, future design efforts. This does not necessarily mean more formal
since a product which fails to meet its purchasers expectations in schooling or retraining in the others field. It does mean becoming
speed and size will not be weighed for cost, Many companies a product team engineer. The transformation from design engineer
measure designers on release date and performance alone. and process engineer into product team engineers puts members
The same firms look to the production engineer for cost from the two disciplines on the same quest and the same reward
control, thus causing conflicting objectives between designers and plane, giving them both a vested interest in total product success.
production engineers. DFM asks professionals from both fields to Prior to the 1990s, the GTCselections were notconsidered major,
form into a team before the product specification is fixed, and since designs could come out in only one of a hundred ways.
together find the valley of optimization. More often than not, both Similarly, each assembly line knew and could control cost and
sets of objectives can be met with the product ramping to volume quality. Now, with ten thousand possibilities, the risk of waiting
production nnmbers sooner than in the old serial approach. Cost until after assembly will dramatically reduce the probability of
and technology tools become a rallying point for both groups to reaching the optimal solution.
predict cost and performance concurrently.
16-7
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
BALANCING TECHNOLOGY
Basic balance
of technology curve
af many:
cost
~
PWA size
/
Return
on assets
used not only in the field performance, but in process measures as Figure 16-8 is an actual industry approximation of defect levels
well. Figure 16-6 (bottom) describes those things that can be for each GTC. This data is generally reported as defects per pin in
included in the implementation of a full quality program. parts per million (PPM). The intrinsic pin defect rate (DRPP~) is
As discussed previously, quality focus at only the shop floor is multiplied by total pins used per PWA to arrive at total defect/unit
usually reactionary and should be the last effort after ensuring that (TDU). Obviously, one defect per 30,000 opportunities sounds
quality has been designed in. This is going to become even more good, but it will still make the unit fail at the functional test if not
important with GTC-C- and above. Some companies today are screened out or prevented. The following is a list of defect impact
spending over one million dollars for just a single deteetion terms used to compare data in Fig. 16-8:
station, to find shorts and opens of pins under SM devices using
X-rays, The ideal process of the future would control the param- DRPP~ = defect rate ppm.
eters of each part and material in the soldering steps to lower TDU = total defects/unit cumulative or detected.
defects to single number parts per million (PPM) levels, but only P tot = total pins used/unit (PWA).
if the PWB and other components are well defined and selected. A Pwb = % area used for given PWB (for cxarnple, 100
Figure 16-7 clearly demonstrates that defect reduction comes from squared).
detection and repair, process and control, and most importantly,
prevention by design. Total Defects (cumulative) = TDU = DRPP~ x P,o,. (1)
16-8
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 16
INDUSTRY PREFERRED COMPONENTS
Quality of parts
Reliable process
Quality product
Reliable product
1
Where you can remove defects:
SpecDesignPartsPW&AssemblyTestSystemField
A Quality
o
Product
= r%
be afforded. The first line of defense is to have the design team produce many times fewcrdcfccts than hand assembly.
identify and measure quality features and parts which can be Computer-software models can show this advantage in terms of
incorporated with cost and time-to-market trade-offs. This is done lower costs. Once the design is released, quality control in the
in several ways. First, select the bill of material (BOM) with the process takes over, However, even the best assured quality level
highest mean time between failure (MTBF) estimate; second, (ASQ) plans can only be as good as the design entering production
choose parts that are automaticallyy insertable, since these parts will allow.
16-9
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
INDUSTRY PREFERRED COMPONENTS
34
6
Defect
per unit
PPM goal
I ~ I Process I I
~
Sigma
700 control goal
reduction
7000 ~ I
89 90 2000
TDU
Given I in. (6cm2)
80 Range
70
Cumulative
total defects
per unit (TDUTOT):
Parts for PWB
assembly
lK 2K 3K 4K 5K 6K 7K 8K
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
INDUSTRY PREFERRED COMPONENTS
GTC
40% 4
w,
Fig. 16-9 Critical PWB and part features for reliable solder SM bonds.
0.010 (0.254 mm) lines and 0.040 (1.0 mm) diameter via holes. I
Via hole diameter to PWB thickness ratios must be under five to /
avoid vias from opening after thermal cycling in the field. PWB / 5K
vendors can supply designs with many small details governing / Defects
preferred spacing and requirements. Figure 16-10 gives a rough / per pin
(PPM)
comparison of feature sizes. Notice that the vias should stay on the
/ A lK
0.100 (2.54 mm) grid. If a 0.050 (1.0 mm) grid is considered,
higher test costs can be expected. ~ -
Figure 16-9 supplies both design and inspection criteria for
reliable solder joints used on SM designs. This data provides 10 20 30 40 50 100
industry ranges for typical process-proven design parameters. The !+n/[n.2
reliability triangle is the part of the joint undergoing the most stress
and is the most critical to control. What is important here is that
after assembly, this part of the joint is not visible. Some compa-
nies have resorted to X-ray inspection to help control the process
quality, There are three major requirements needed to minimize Fig. 16-10 Component selection: defects per pin compared to pins per
the defects and to reduce cracking. square inch.
16-11
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
INDUSTRY PREFERRED COMPONENTS
Circuit
outline
P
e PWB only
r
c Totol sig
e layers
n
t
Line/space
-r-
o 84 roils
f (0.2-0.1 mm)
c
o Holes: 2040, 156maxmils(4 mm]
s <5 aspect ratio
Bonds/pitch Assembly
mt;nc:~::::~e...d
I I I
1. Purchase and inspect GTC-C devices to stay within the these features located within the software can quickly make a cost
coplanarity window. estimate of the most likely options.
2. Specify soldering material tomatch vendor recommenda- Figure 16-4B shows a standard 24 x 18 (61 cm x 46 cm)
tions and other available standards from industry sources. panel. This is fabricated as a standard unit which will produce two
3. Design tothepad sizes for best results. identical hoards ready to load into the assembly machines. Figure
16-4C is an example of one of 14 different end circuit units. They
From the DFM viewpoint, these three will provide the best
were developed to use 100% of the available space on the panel
chances for top assembly quality.
area with no waste between circuits. Assembly shearing holes
Figure 16-10 shows the heavy penalty which is added when
located in the comers of each circuit eliminate wasted tooling
increasing pins per square inch (6.45 cmz). With hundreds of pins
space and give the designer maximum possible size. The fou~
at a time, these three parts have a total of four defects. If not
0.156 (3.96 mm) tooling holes, having served their tooling
detected, they will make the PWA fail.
function, can become the mounting clearance for a number six
holddown screw in the chassis. These built-in features are com-
COST-EFFICIENT PRINTED WIRE BOARDS mon and remove any burden from the designers and plant
Once the optimum bill of materials (BOM) is selected, a data engineers to communicate any plant-specific details back and
library can be used to help select several PWB outlines, line forth, since the PWB panel sizes are also a good match to industry
technology, and layer count. Several thousand combinations of outlines that most vendors can handle.
16-12
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
THE NEED TO DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURABILITY
The secrets of nature lie in her details. In applying this quality will be a factor in price. Also, the PWAS long term
insight from Leonardo da Vinci, one sees that the key to large reliability will track latent defects of workmanship relating to
DFM savings also lies in small details. Many circuits fall out of the higher densities. ]
industry standard 18 x 24 (46 cm x 61 cm) panel, and because of For Fig. 16-11 to beusefid togagerelative levels ofmerit, all
its fixed material and process cost, each circuit cost is optimized if acceptable norms that must be followed for good design are
its correct size is chosen wisely. If not, any waste between circuits spelled out by the Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging
results in raising the cost of each circuit. A four-layer panel Electronic Circuits (IPC) and other industry standards. For exam-
costing $200 and yielding 20 finished circuits at a cost of $10 is ple: a standard PWB material FR-4 with a thickness range of
fine, because the circuit size was selected from a set of standard- 0.060 to 0.190 (1.52 mm to 4.83 mm), a specified foil and
ized sizes. However, each one would be raised to $12 each if the layups. Additionally, common assembly processes are assumed
circuits were just a tenth of an inch (2.54 mm) bigger, because the for the design. This eliminates the need to commit source vendors,
slight] y larger circuit would push off four of the smaller ones. This since this DFMapproach considers them asavifiual process. Once
means a 2070 cost increase for just a 3% larger circuit. several likely selections are identified, the vendor can provide
Define these PWBS standard outlines and layer combinations invaluable aid in the ultimate choice. Caution is needed to avoid
with simple GTCS. Then, by just entering the code into a data making design changes for one particular vendor whose attractive
library, users can quickly see the cost comparisons of several entering price might vanish a year later. Sticking with the
alternatives. Nonstandard outlines, thicker copper, gold plating, or industrys acceptable norms will give thedesigner agood deal of
small diameter via holes should be avoided. leverage because of a large base of vendorsholding interchange-
able processes.
capability, and they are almost independent of parts cost and Repaired.
functionality although parts cost and functionality would have an Reliable.
16-13
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 16
THE NEED TO DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURABILITY
several other groups need to provide capability data. For example, 3. What is its cost-to-worth ratio?
in the case of a printed wire assembly of an electronic product, 4. Is there anything else that would do the job better?
DFM needs a measure of the process capability and boundaries for 5. What is the value of switching to the alternative?
each critical assembly step. The capabilities of each material
Value engineering failed to generate a long-term interest in the
element, such as the component package, are also required.
U.S. for several reasons. The prime reason was the stage at which
the design was evaluated. The value analysis wasnt performed
BEFORE DFMVALUE ENGINEERING until after the design was virtual] y complete. Second] y, the
Historically, DFM evolved from the concept of value engineer- analysis was done by an independent team, sometimes other
ing. Value engineering was developed in the U.S. in the 1940s. It designers, but also by test, quality, or manufacturing engineers.
received support from the U.S. government in the 1950s but was Frequently, the analysis became a tug of wills between the
largely ignored by commercial manufacturers. In the 1960s value products designer and those who were viewed as uninvolved
engineering was still ignored in the U. S., but was imported by inquisitors.
several Asian manufacturers where it, along with quality control, Thirdly, the questions used in diagnosing the value engineer-
became cornerstones for new product development efforts. These ing, while well intentioned, did little to improve the products
companies recognized value engineering as a tool to make a quality or manufacturability. As a result of these three reasons,
product more manufacturable and of higher quality. They also design changes including minor improvements were rejected as
recognized that making changes early in the design cycle was too little, too late, or too much trouble to incorporate,
much cheaper and easier than later in the production cycle. Users of value engineering became successful by pushing the
The traditional product development cycle is a serial progres- value analysis in parallel with the design phase. Also, designers
sion. This sequence of events has caused a major rift between were taught that the design cycle wasnt complete until the
designers and manufacturers. There is a preproduction develop- analysis was satisfactory to the manufacturing personnel. From
ment phase after the product is designed. Once the product starts this modified approach to value engineering bas grown the tool of
the preproduction phase, the designers traditionally assume their DFM. Design for manufacturability strengthens some of the
job is over and go on to design other products. Often, even if the weaknesses of value engineering. These weaknesses are basically
designers want to follow the product through preproduction, they due to the lack of new product involvement and a weak sense
are assigned to another product. of the importance of getting a new product to market in a
Value engineering inserts a step between the design and timely fashion.2
preproduction. The process of accessing the value of a design DFM doesnt necessarily teach the manufacturer to become
involves answering a series of questions and exploring alternatives more sensitive to the designers pressures, but it helps the
to any negative answers. The questions posed by the value manufacturer to set some boundaries for the designer to operate
engineering method include: within. Advanced DFM systems also allow the designer the ability
1. What is the item? to calculate cost, yield, and reliability consequences when the
2. What is its function? boundaries are overstepped. 3
16-14
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 16
PRINTED WIRING ASSEMBLY TECHNOLOGIES
k
Flclmmenr
B -iii EI E
(4)
(1) (2) (3) (5)
IfmTfl
(10) (11}
SURFACE MOUNT TECHNOLOGY requiring high reliability, is to skip the first reflow oven cycle and
Surface mount (SMT) assembly allows the attachment of to put the assembly through the oven only after the components
components to both sides of the boards surface. This is shown in have been placed on both sides. The success of this process is
Fig. 16-13. The assembly process for a double-sided SMT dependent on using an adhesive that securely holds the compo-
assembly involves applying a solder-bearing paste and an adhesive nents without the need for curing or long set times. Also, the
to the pads to hold the component body. The components are components must be placed and put into the oven before the solder
placed into the paste and adhesive. Next, the assembly is conveyed paste dries out and loses solderability. This assembly approach
through an oven that reflows the solder paste, to form solder joints requires a high degree of cooperation from the designer, so that a
and to set the adhesive. The assembly is cleaned and turned over. minimal number of different component values and additional
New paste is stenciled on the pads of the assemblys opposite side. handling steps are utilized.
The components are placed, this time without the need for The assembly of fine pitch components (FPT) is very similar to
adhesive. The assembly is put through the oven again. The SMT. However, due to the tiny leads, many users find it best to
adhesive on the first side prevents components from falling off the simultaneously place and reflow each fine pitch component. The
board during the second pass through the oven. The assembly is equipment accuracy required for FPT is much higher than SMT.
cleaned again and is ready for inspection and test. Also, the solder reflow times must be faster to provide adequate
An alternative method, which is recommended for assemblies throughput. The assembly flow for FPT is shown in Fig. 16-14.
16-15
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
THE RULES OF DFM
F===Pp
Exck4and folrn
m
I
,,
-u
.-
--
.&
\
*P
:*
I
;
..:
Pbce and thsmwdsIdbw
Clmn
lrcp Test
and rspair
16-16
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
THE RULES OF DFM
Parts orientation is particularly important in soldering. During ELIMINATE MULTIPLE SOLDER AND
wave soldering, for example, the body of the package which is CLEANING STEPS
glued on the wave solder side of the assembly will briefly disrupt Minimize the number of different technologies used to assem-
the shape of the wave. Any terminations behind and too close to ble components on the board. The fewer chances for error and
the wave disruption may not be soldered properly. Generally, yield loss, the better.
orienting the terminations so they enter the wave uniformly and For example, in a ~imple, single-sided surface mounted assem-
are spaced sufficiently away from other packages eliminates bly, the process steps are to stencil paste, place components,
the problem. reflow the solder, and clean the assembly. The addition of one
through-hole part, such as a connector, causes the assembly to
require wave soldering or manual soldering. The extra process
adds cost, risk, and delay. This does not prohibit the use of a
DETERMINE PROCESS CAPABILITIES through-hole part which is more reliable or sufficiently less costly
Process capability is defined as the ability of a process to than an SMT equivalent, butthetrade-offs forextra process steps
produce, within predictable or acceptable specification limits, should be examined before the design is completed and the extra
without generating waste. The index ofinherent process capability process steps are required.
can be defined as the allowable process limits divided by the actual Another example of avoiding multiple steps is the processing of
measured limits. a two-sided SMT assembly. Putting components on both sides of
The allowable index of process capability value depends on the the printed wire board is one of the functional benefits of SMT.
process and on subsequent processing. Rough values of accept- However, it may cause manufacturing and reliability problems
ability have been advanced from many sources. The following when the assembly and the parts assembled on the first side of the
process capability indexes are a ratio of the natural tolerance and board gothrough the reflow oven a second time.
the specification tolerance, According to Ekvall and Juran:6 One option is to use an adhesive with the solder paste to hold
. Less than 1 is not adequate. the components on the first side of the board. When using this
. Between 1 and 1.33 is adequate, but the process requires technique, it is best to design the board so that any large, heavy
close control to prevent approaching inadequacy. components are on the second assembly side, The adhesive offers
. Greater than 1.33 is more than adequate. a significant advantage for assemblies with temperature-sensitive
parts by avoiding the extra thermal energy of a second pass
Montgomery recommends minimum values depending on the through the oven. However, on less sensitive assemblies, the
maturity of the process: adhesive may contribute more defects than added value.
. 1.33 is the minimum for established processes.
. 1.50 for new processes or when the established process is
critical. ELIMINATE ADJUSTMENTS
. 1.67 for new processes whose variation will be critical. Eliminating mechanical adjustments generally means eliminat-
ing potentiometer and manual switches from the assembly. To
To illustrate process capability, assume an established process adjust these requires human labor which adds cost, defect rate, and
that is always well within the allowed limits. This means the delay. These parts can be eliminated by specifying tighter toler-
computed vahreis greater than 1.33. For an index value of greater ances on other parts, or by including electronic adjusters such as
than l.33, itissaid that theprocess will always produce within the phase lock loops, feedback loops, voltage regulators, nonvolatile
specification limits without any waste. memories, and autoconfiguration registers.
The mathematics of the process capability calculation678 The elimination of adjustments is not limited to the electrical
shows that a value greater than 1.33 will probably never allow a adjustments of potentiometers and switches. Adjustments ofcom-
defect to occur, hence the process is not capable of creating waste. ponent misalignment after placement is an example of a very
If it is between l.O and 1.33, there will probably be some minor costly process that may add no more benefit than to make the
waste since theprocess is barely capable. The slightest shift in the product look pretty, If certain parts have a tendency to misalign
process, resulting from events such as lower quality materials or during soldering (tubular resistors are a good example), the
machine wear, will decrease the process capability value and footprint designs should allow for a reliable solder joint even if the
create greater waste. part is misaligned.
The expected limits maybe themachine or factory limits that Adjustments to the lead alignment are very costly. Resoldering
are specified in the design guidelines. In essence, as long as the the leads can often result in lifted pads, due to the different
parameter (trace width, placement area, stencil opening) stays resoldering rates of the pads. The different heating rates of the
within the true capabilities of the process, there should be no pads aredueto thedifferent amounts ofcopper (either fiaces, via
problem, and no yield loss (waste). With SMT and FPT this is holes, orground plane) attached to the pad. Replacing lifted pads
more complex than THT due to some mutually dependent capa- is not impossible, but it is costly.
bilities that must be accounted for, such as stencil opening, solder
paste rheology, and solder runout.
The process capability index is a very vahsable tool, as it MINIMIZE THE NUMBER
effectively and quantitatively communicates the various process OF DIFFERENT PARTS
boundaries to the designer. The index is easily calculated if a Minimizing the number of different part sizes and values brings
database of the critical process variables and a realistic specifica- significant savings in the cost of component placement and
tion limit are available. The critical process variables are deter- product reliability. Reduce the total part count by combining many
mined by testing each element of the process for statistical of the part functions. With fewer parts used, the number of parts
significance. Once these are identified, they should be measured that can fail is lower and reliability is increased. Few placement
regularly and the measurements logged into the database. machines have methods for verifying that the operator has loaded
16-17
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
THE RULES OF DFM
the correct value. With small SMT unmarked chip capacitors and thecomputerized DFM design guidelines include the ability of a
resistors in taped reek, the probabilityy of a mis-inserted reel feeder software program to calculate the estimated product cost and yield,
goes up greatly with the increasing number of different feeders. By using the allowable DFM design guidelines, parts, and materials.
minimizing the number of different values, the problem, and This type of program can be expanded to estimate the cost and
potentially the number of different placement machines on the yield of any nonallowed parts, materials, and design features that
factory floor, is reduced. may be desired by the designer.9
Placement machines have a finite number of feeders for
presenting the component to the placement quill. The placement
quill is a vacuum pipette that holds the component during pickup, DESIGN FOR VARIABILITY
transport to, and placement on the board. If the maximum number Design for variability doesnt mean design for every conceiv-
of component feeders is exceeded, the dilemma is created of able variation or event that can occur to the product. This
whether to buy a new placement machine (at a cost of several requirement means to allow room for some uncontrollable but
thousand dollars), manually place the extra components offline, or predictable variations. The predictable variables and the magni-
persuade the designer to reduce the number of different parts. tude of variation are provided by measuring the process capability.
In many cases, the process can be controlled tightly or is
inherently capable, so there is no need to design for variability.
PUBLISH UP-TO-DATE Other processes are less controllable or would be unreasonably
DFM DESIGN GUIDELINES expensive to control.
Written DFM design guidelines and a standard part library A good example of uncontrollable variability is the lead width
form the starting point of any DFM system. In some companies variation on fine-pitch integrated circuit packages. Suppliers set an
this may be the entire DFM system. Written DFM design industry limit on the lead width tolerance; it is unreasonable to try
guidelines are marginally effective if they are basedon someone to make the tolerances tighter. The simple solution is to design
elses processes, are written with difficult terms and expressions, pads so they are wide enough to reliably hold the lead regardless
use poor graphic examples, or are not current. Some companies of its width.
are very diligent in the preparation and maintenance of their- DFM Another example of uncontrolled variability is variability in the
design guidelines; most are not. leads planarity and alignment. The design for this variability is
DFM design guidelines describe the reliability, quality, and not as easy or obvious as in the previous example. In this case,
manufacturing requirements of the company and general custom- manufacturing experiments would show that adding more solder
ers. Asaminimum, the DFMguidelines list the allowable printed paste will compensate for the planarity variations. However, more
wire board parameters (such as coatings, platings, and materials), paste increases the possibility of short circuits. To minimize the
theminimum part spacings, andthesolder joint features (pad and short circuits, the pads can be designed to be longer than normal
land). The D~guidelines should also define the critical process so that the extra pad length wicks away the excess solder and
steps, and how to design well within the capabilities of these breaks the solder short circuit. Another example of designing for
processes. These steps include accurate phototool generation for variability is the printed wire boards tooling holes. Adding
the board andthe stencil fabricator, theplacement coordinates for localized placement location (fiducial) marks adjacent to the fine
the placement machine, and the hole locations for any test and pitch packages enables the use of a vision system to guide the
tooling fixtures. The best design guideline maintenance systems placement quill. With the help of the fiducial marks, the placement
have copy and revision controls. accuracy will be assured to within 0.001 (0.03 mm). Without the
To help keep the DFM guidelines current and relevant, several fiducial marks, part placement may vary as much as the tooling
companies are experimenting with other ways to provide guide- hole variation. PCB tooling holes may vary by 0.010 (0.25 mm)
lines to the designer. One increasingly popukwwayistou set he or more, which creates unacceptable part registration.
power of low-cost mini and personal computers. This enables
some companies topublish and maintain the DFM guidelineson a IDENTIFY DEFECT RATES BY CAUSE
network of computers. The DFM guidelines document can have Identifying the cause of defects goes beyond the task of
embedded tables of tolerance and feature limits that can be directly researching a problem and engineering a solution. The task should
accessed by the design engineers computer-aided engineering involve the determination of cause and effect. The conventional
(CAE) and computer-aided design (CAD) software. With this cause and effect approach segments the results into six different
feature, the DFMguidelines document is both preference for the defect causes: people, methods, machinery, materials, environ-
engineer andacontroller of the design tools. Advanced features of ment, and management.
IMPLEMENTING DFM
The successful implementation of a design for manufacturabil- From this data, the DFM model predicts the product cost and yield
ity system requires climbing over several hurdles and developing for the matrix of options available to the designer.
a thick skin. DFM is much talked about; however, a uniform
definition doesnt exist. To some, DFM is simply a book of DFM Whatever the sophistication level of the model, the primary
design guidelines and a parts library. To others, DFM is a goal is to provide to the designer guidelines and boundaries, as
computerized model that allows the designer to enter data such as quickly and as early as possible in the design cycle, so a new
material lists, package spacings, and test fixture information. product can be produced optimally and quickly the first time.
16-18
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
IMPLEMENTING DFM
Successful DFM implementation must include: too tightly or unrealistically in tbe designers eyes. Once consen-
sus is reached, the manual is issued to the designers as the
People participation.
benchmark guideline.
. Predictive tools.
A design review at several points in the development cycle is
Management commitment.
the next people participation area. To an extent, these are
. Suitable parts and materials
judgment sessions where manufacturing, test, and quality engi-
neers are invited to see if the designer is faithfully adhering to the
PEOPLE PARTICIPATION design manual limits.
Enlisting the support and commitment of the people in the
company to the goal of implementing DFM is paramount. Regard- PREDICTIVE TOOLS
less of the degree of the design automation for manufacturability The DFM design manual needs to be a dynamic and living
process, there will always be the need for human involvement. document. If tbe people wbo produced it allow it to go unchanged
DFM involves the evaluation of several trade-offs; these can be for long periods (this may be as short as one month depending on
accurately judged only if sufficient and valid information is the changes in manufacturing and new product developments) then
available. The information needed includes values such as quality, the manual becomes obsolete. This gives a designer reason not to
cost, ease of use, and availability. For example, it is of less follow the DFM design guideline manual criteria.
apPUrent value to design in a part that costs half as much as a Tbc manual must be current. Predictive tools must be installed
competing part if it is not as readily available as the more in the critical areas of the factory to achieve this. The job of these
expensive part. Its also unwise to use a part that requires an tools is to predict or simply measure changes in the processes,
assembly process that is variable and difficult to control when materials, customer requirements, or customer satisfaction.
compared to an apparently more costly part. People are needed to The simplest example of a predictive tool is the tally sheet.
generate the information of the tangible and intangible values, Tally sheets are commonly used to record the visual defects found
advantages, and disadvantages of the various trade-offs. on an assembly after the soldering and cleaning steps. Several tally
As viewed by most companies, DFM as a system is new and in sheets from closely related manufacturing periods or from similar
experimental development. The bcncfhs of DFM are easily ac- products can give an accurate picture of the problems occurring.
cepted by everyone in the company; the realization may be These problems should be ranked in order of highest occurrence.
enforced through managerial channels, who are required to collect This will require the tabulation of the sheets and the calculation of
and analyze data, to decide on the trade-offs, to design the a Pareto char a ranking of the problems by descending order of
product, and to accept the discipline of the DFM system. the number of occurrences. The tally sheet creators must use a
Writing the DFM design guidelines manual is the first task. common language that is specific to a problem type for the tally
The writing requires the participation of a team of engineers who sheet to be accurate. Simply listing on the tally sheet that an
are called upon to impart their years of experience into this assembly is broken, doesnt work, or U39 is bad are
document. The design guideline manual is the benchmark of invalid entries since they aren t specific. An example of a properly
manufacturing, reliability, and quality boundmies. Additional prepared tally sheet is shown in Fig. 16-15.
expertise in producing this manual should come from manage- Creating a tally sheet by itself doesnt make it a predictive tool.
ment, test, purchasing, and external expert groups. The line In the case of an inspection tally sheet and accompanying Pareto
workers should also be asked to contribute with inspection, chart, someone must now analyze the causes of the top few
rework, and repair problems that may be resolved by following problems that cause the majority of the defects. From the analysis
certain DFM design guidelines. After the other groups have of Pareto, this means to analyze <those 20% of the problems that
authored their DFM requirements, it is the teams responsibility to cause 80% of the defects. Pareto ranking is also known by many
blend the requirements and to resolve any conflicts and overlaps. as the 80-20 rule. A Pareto chart of common electronic assembly
Next, the manual should be presented to a review team of defects after soldering is shown in Fig. 16-16.
designers. Their job is to review it and to suggest wording changes Analysis of the causes of the problems determines whether tbe
that make it easily understandable by the other designers. Also, problems are caused by shifts in the process or in the design
this team can challenge any manufacturing boundaries that are set practices. Shifts in the process are the responsibility of the
Solder Opens 20 10 15 6
Solder Shoris 13 18 28 2
Misalignment 31 19 1 3
Tombstones 5 14 5 0
Missing Components 13 3 4 0
Solder Balls 14 28 2 0
Reversed Components 11 2 13 1
Damaged Board 1 0 0 0
Flux Residue 0 0 0 0
Damaged Components 4 5 9 1
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
IMPLEMENTING DFM
MANAGEMENT COMMITMENT
Fig. 16-16 Pareto chart example. No design for manufacturability system will survive if the
companys management doesnt support it. Like a child, aDFM
manufacturing engineers to repair. For example, if a problem of system needs supervision, nurturing, and growth opportunities.
part misalignment is due to belt wear on the placement machine Simple verbal approvals are not enough.
heads, those belts must be replaced. It would be unacceptable to Over the past decade, managers have found that improving
impose tighter tolerances in the DFM design guidelines manual to product quality requires their constant vigilance. DFM requires the
compensate for this wear. If, however, the problem is due to same, but the savings are higher. DFM provides reduced devel-
something that was overlooked in the initiaf DFM design guide- opment time, lower product cost, and, duetoeasier transhion into
lines manual, or the use of new components that react differently production, less emotional cost. The most successful DFM sys-
to the process, then the design manual must be changed. temsin use today are in companies where the managers first sat
Another valuable predictive tool is the capabilities experiment. down to learn and understand the DFM process, and then assigned
Several techniques have been developed for the tool known as task teams with theproper responsibility andauthority to define a
design of experiments. These techniques can measure the causes system. They actively supervised its implementation, and they
of a problem, by changing several of the variables individually contributed with questions and new ideas. Most important, when
while holding others constant for a relatively small number of the team requested money for implementing better tools
sample sizes and tests. The basic technique is to vary the input and justifiable automated tools, the management approved
variables one at a time and to measure the output or process their requests.
response. The variables that cause the highest output responses are The managers of these companies made sure that everyone in
the best candidates for the imposition of tighter design controls, or the company was aware of the DFM program, its benefits, the
to avoid, or for the development of a more capable process. companys expectations, and its progress.
By utilizing the power of inexpensive personal computers, any anal yzes the data to detect any trends or defects. The supervisory
size electronic product manufacturer can ease some of the tedious system, when it encounters excessive defects or waste-generating
tasks of the DFM process, A personal computer can be used to trends, accesses a database of problem corrections. This is called
consolidate the tally sheets and to provide a Pareto analysis. This the fix- it database. Using statistical capability, the supervisory
requires a capable computer and a spreadsheet program. 3 system will decide the best probable solution and then send
The printed wire assembly dream factory uses automated the instructions directly to the appropriate machines to correct
machines to perform all of the most demanding, high-volume, and the problem.
repetitious jobs. These machines provide the paste printing,
component placement and insertion, solder reflow, and cleaning.
Machines also do the electrical testing, optical and reliability PROCESS EXAMPLE
inspection, and rework. These machines have enough intelligence The optical inspection system may detect an ever-increasing
to perform the assembly operation and to generate a measurement amount of solder voids or dewetting. The supervisory system,
of what they are doing. A separate supervisory system monitors using its statistical capability, calculates that this trend, if un-
the data of the key process measurements from each machine, and changed, will generate significant waste. It consults its fix-it
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
DESIGN FOR TESTABILITY
database and concludes that the reflow oven needs to slow down SUITABLE PARTS AND MATERIALS
the belt speed and increase its preheat temperature. The system Suitable parts and materials are determined by their quality,
sends these instructions to the oven and monitors the results. If the reliabilityy, ease of use, availability, tolerances, and cost.
trend continues, the supervisory system sends instructions for The acceptability decision for a new part or material cant be
another correction or calls for human help. made solely by the designer. The assembly processes are too
The computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) system also complex and customer requirements too demanding to risk even
sends capability information to the DFM software files. This the slightest oversight in a part feature. Testing of these determ-
application uses the data and the materials list supplied by the inants and comparison with other trade-offs are a must before
designer, plus other design information, to predict the products acceptance of the part or material into the parts library.
first pass yield, cost, and field reliability. Since the prediction The new part may be unacceptable due to a reason of
process is fast and based on process capabilities of the actual economics beyond the designers knowledge. A good example is
process, the designer can try different options such as alternative the number of different values of resistors and capacitors used in
packages or different spacings to achieve more design flexibility. all of the companys products. The piece prices of different
The system will provide the designer with the yield, cost, and resistor values are the same. If too many different values are
reliabilityy consequences of these trade-offs. This gives the de- allowed, the company will need to buy several placement ma-
signer greater flexibility and some authority to go beyond the chines so that enough part feeders will be available without the
normal design. need for retooling.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
DESIGN FOR TESTABILITY
Parts M Asssilbly
m- T&t Enck&a
verifying the response of the unit under test signals by evaluating necessarv to Place test Si!znals on the inmrts to cause U5s outout .
the response signals supplied by the unit under test. In the digital to go to ~he ~ogic O state-(if it is worki~g).
realm, the input stimulus signals, usually called test vectors, and In the example of Fig. 16-18, U5S output will go to the logic
the resulting response signals are patterns of logic 1s and logic 0s. O state when both of its inputs are sent to the logic 1 state. To
In the analog world, the input stimulus signals, and thus the provide a logic 1 state at the output of U 1, its inputs must both be
resulting responses to be analyzed, can be quite complex varia- at the logic 1 state. To provide a logic 1 at the output of U2, both
tions of frequency, voltage, resistance, or other parameters. of its inputs must be in the logic O state. Thus, the two logic 1s and
The reason for applying and analyzing test stimulus and the two logic 0s at the upper left hand side of the figure make up
response signals is to detect all of the possible~aults in a unit under the portion of a test stimulus vector that will activate the fault US
test that could prevent proper circuit operation, Faults can occur in STUCK AT 1. In other words, if U5S output is not stuck in
the components used in an assembly or as a result of the assembly the logic 1 state (that is, it is not faulty), it will assume the logic
process. Faults that occur within the components are usually O state with the test stimulus vector so far applied.
referred to as functional faults and are found after an assembly or The testing job, however, is not yet complete. Even though the
system has been tested or placed in service. Faults that occur initial test vector applied so far has created a set of conditions that
because of the assembly process are usually referred to as will cause U5s output to change to the logic O state in response to
manufacturing defects. Faults that occur due to functional inter- a test stimulus vector, there is currently no way of observing
action problems between good components on a good assembly whether or not U5s output actually went to the logic Ostate. There
are design defects. Regardless of the source of the fault, its effect is no known path through U7 to allow observation of the results of
is to prevent proper circuit operation. The test process must, the input stimulus to U5.
therefore, detect all of the possible faults that could prevent proper Logic 1s and 0s must be applied to the inputs of U3 and U4 to
circuit operation. In the digital realm, this is accomplished by provide the correct states to U6 to send its output to the logic 1
applying stimulus vectors, (sets of logic 1s and 0s) to circuit input state as well. With U6S output at logic 1, U7 will transfer the
pins. This should cause every node (circuit interconnection) in the results of activity on U5s output to the circuit output pin. The test
circuit to be at the logic O state at least once and to be at the logic vector is now complete, and a stuck at 1 fault is detected at the
1 state at least once. This is called fault activation. Activating output of U5 .
faults, however, is not enough. Faults must also be propagated to This test vector, in fact, detects quite a few faults in addition to
circuit output pins to make sure that each node actually assumed U5 stuck at 1. It detects input faults stuck at Ofor U1 and U3, input
the state that it was ordered to assume by the stimulus vectors. faults stuck at 1 for U2 and U4, output faults stuck at O for U1-U4,
Faults are propagated by providing a path from the circuit node input faults stuck at O for U5 and U6, output stuck at O for U6, the
activated through the other circuits in the design to output pins (or top input of U7 stuck at 1 and the bottom input of U7 stuck at O,
test points). Only when a fault can be both activated and and the output of U7 stuck at 1. If U7s output does not respond
propagated can it be detected. Thus, fault detection requires correctly to the input test vector, where is the fault? That question
activating faults and propagating faults. brings up the concept of <ambiguity groups if there is a fault,
The concept of fault activation and fault propagation is ilhrs- which component is actually causing the fault? Diagnostic accu-
trated in Figs. 16-18 and 16-19 using a digital circuit example, In racy may not have been important when the wrong part was
Fig. 16-18, the objective is to answer the question, Is U5s replaced at a cost of only a few dollars. But it is critically
output stuck at the logic 1 state? To answer that question, it is important with more expensive parts such as application-speeific
16-22
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
DESIGN FOR TESTABILITY
o 0
0
1
1
U1
U2
U3
U4
I -y/
I
I
1
1
U5
U6
o
2
Q Is the output
U7
A. Look
of U5 stuck
at the output
z
of U7,
at Logic 1?
..
Fig. 16-18 Fault activation. 1
integrated circuits (ASICS), microprocessors, and other complex, Consider what happens with a much more complex circuit such
very large-scale integration (VLSI) devices. It is also important as as the one shown in Fig. 16-20. This circuit is composed of 20
rework costs continue to increase, especially for surface mounted ICS, some VLSI ICS, and some ASICS, along with regular glue
components. logic. It may contain feedback loops, it may or may not be
>J/-
o
U1 1
0
I U5
1
I 1
U2
1
0
U7 1
0
0 1
U3
U6
16-23
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 16
DESIGN FOR TESTABILITY
.l J+
U1 U7
U3 U4
U19
\
1
U18
~
U2 U6 U8
U5
initializable; there may be long data paths or counter chains design and an untestable one. The three key testability principles
between the physical inputs and outputs; and there are many levels are:
of logic to be stimulated to both activate and propagate all of the
Partitioning.
possible faults that could prevent proper circuit operation. This
Controllability.
circuit is extremely difficult to test unless testability features . Visibility.
are added.
Consider only the task of trying to find one of the thousands of Circuits are partitioned by breaking them into reasonably small
possible faults in this circuit that of IC U3s output stuck at 1 (or functional blocks, or clusters. This makes them easier to under-
O). It may or may not be difficult to activate the fault by stand, easier to write tests for, and easier to test and troubleshoot.
stimulating U 1 according to its truth table or functional behavior Circuit control is provided by including: direct paths from the test
depending, of course, on whether or not what is done to U3 affects resource (either automatic test equipment or built-in test circuitry);
U4 in such a way as to feed a signal back to U 1 that conflicts with critical internal nodes required for initialization of the circuitry
the desired applied stimuhrs vectors. But, even if the feedback under test; partitioning of that circuitry; and control for fault
loop does not present a problem, propagating that fault to the activation. Circuit visibility is implemented by bringing internal
circuit output (at the output of IC U20) requires that all of the other nodes to the testing interface. This principle reduces logic and
circuitry also be stimulated and that it works. The analog world fault simulation times and costs along with test generation, testing,
uses a similar methodology, but different input signals and output and troubleshooting times. These three key principles are easy to
response analysis methods. Analog stimulus signals are applied to implement with minimal effect on circuit configuration, perfor-
circuit input pins to exercise each circuit node to its full range of mance, and reliability. The circuit in Fig. 16-21 shows three gates
parameters. This is analogous to the digitaf logic O (low) and logic added to the complex example, which partition it into smaller
1 (high) states. Analog responses are measured parametrically functional blocks, This allows certain blocks of the circuitry to be
(voltage, current, time, frequency, and waveform characteristics) stimulated while leaving other circuit elements in the inactive
to determine if the node under test actually did what it was state, not needing stimulation to activate faults in the subse-
supposed to do. quent circuitry.
The added gates shown in Fig. 16-21 may, in some cases, add
an extra delay between circuit elements. The circuit is simply
KEY TESTABILITY TECHNIQUES modified to include an extra input (called an extra fan-in point) to
To make todays (and tomorrows) complex designs testable, directly control a circuit function for testing purposes. This extra
three key testability principles must be included in the circuit input drastically cuts the time needed to generate the stimulus
design. They make the difference between an inherently testable vectors necessary to activate faults. Large sequential circuits are
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
DESIGN FOR TESTABILITY
U1 U4 U7
U3
CP
CP
CP
not always initializable (adjustable immediately to known states plespartitioning, control, andvisibilityhave a dramatic posi-
for testing) and often contain feedback loops and long counter tive effect in lowering all times and costs associated with both
chains. A few strategically selected control points allow for direct design verification and test. As shown, their implementation
(immediate) initialization of memory elements and other sequen- requires very little in terms of extra circuitry or extra circuit
tial circuits. They can also be used, usually with an extra gate or input/output connections. Testability techniques are designed to
two, to break feedback loops. Examples of these types of test reduce, or at least control, escalating test costs. Product design
control points are shown in Fig. 16-22. A reset line has been engineers today must devise circuits which can be tested in an
added to provide immediate initialization, and an extra input has efficient, economical, andordcrly manner. Incorporating features
been provided to allow the feedback loop to be disabled, elimi- which facilitate testing and fault isolation, and help to reduce
nating any conflicts between the desired applied stimulus patterns maintenance costs over the Iife cycle of the product, must become
at the inputs to IC U 1 and the results of those patterns on the part of the job description of the product designer and part of the
outputs of U4. specification for each new product.
Lack of initialization and the presence of feedback loops Customers should require testable designs from their suppliers.
contribute significantly to long test generation, logic simulation, Producers should look at testability not as a burden to their product
and fault detection times (and resulting higher costs). To further designs but as a feature that will make the product more reliable to
reduce times and costs, visibility (or observability) points are the potential user. Designers must make sure that every product
added so that extra stimulus patterns are not needed to propagate design, however technically elegant, can also be produced, tested,
faults to circuit output pins via other complex circuits. With and serviced at a competitive cost. If it is not, its success will
visibility points added, faults are propagated immediately to the be limited.
tester or built-in test interface. Figure 16-23 shows the addition of
four visibility points to the already pmitimsed and controllable TESTABILITY DEFINITIONS
complex example. Now with the addition of four simple gates, From a management standpoint, testability should be thought
five input control points, and four output visibility points the of as a concerted corporate effort to provide maximum efficiency
problem of activating and propagating the fault U3 stuck at 1 (or and economy throughout the total business cycle, from product
O) is a more simple problem to solve; the circuit has been concept through design, manufacture, and service. Testability is
partitioned and made controllable and visible. not an attempt to restrict design innovations or to criticize the
ICU3can bedirectly stimulated through Ul without worrying ability of a design to perform its intended function. In quantitative
about the effect of U3s outputs onU4. The actual output of U3 terms, testability is defined as a measure of how easily compre-
can be directly and immediately observed by the tester or built-in hensive test programs can be written and executed. This includes
test circuitry without stimulating all of the surrounding, or the ease of isolating faults on defective components, subassem-
intervening, circuitry. In short, the three key testability princi- blies, and systems. The higher the testability, the lower the overall
16-25
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
DESIGN FOR TESTABILIN
CP
U4
U1 U3 U7
CP U19
L
U20
CP
, I
Ull U14 U16
U12
-
CP # U18
-
U2 U5 U6
U8
CP
.-.
Fig. 16-22 Providing control point access.
product cost and the more competitive the product. In technical may not correlate to calculated availability). Consider the follow-
terms, testability is partitioning, control, and visibility. Testability ing example: A system has a mean time between failures (MTBF)
techniques are improving and benefits have been documented for of 100 hours and a mean time to repair (MTTR) of 10 hours. It is
years. There are misconceptions that implementing testability will thus available 91% of the time. If the system is made more
have a negative impact on design cost and design schedules. testable and easier to repair by adding a 1% component count/
component complexity increased burden to it, it might be made
REQUIREMENTS FOR DESIGNERS less reliable at a MTBF of 99.9 hours. The testability and
Designers are required to perform design verification and logic maintainability improvements, however, have reduced the MTTR
(and sometimes fault) simulation, Implementing testability tech- from 10 hours to one hour. The system is thus available 99% of
niques will actually reduce the design cost and shorten the design thetime (ascompared totheprevious 91%). With few exceptions
cycle. Designers objections to designing testability techniques like aircraft engines, almost every system will benefit from
may be caused by worries about the impact of testability on improved testability and maintainability, even at the expense of
product reliability. Reliability, either calculated or actual (or calculated reliability figures. In practice, testability improvements
both), is a critical parameter in most system design specifications to achieve the kind of reduced MlTRs mentioned, while they may
and procurement. Actual reliability, not calculated reliability, is a have some small impact on calculated reliability, have virtually no
critical element in the deployment and use of electronic systems. impact on actual reliability.
Maintainability, both calculated and actual (specifically actual It is true that every added component and every added
maintainability) is a critical element in most specifications, pro- connection in an electronic system design degrades reliability. In
curements, deployment, and use. To make something maintain- earlier days, when achieving testability meant adding many
able, itmust detestable. Tomake something testable, thenumhers discrete components and many extra dedicated connections to a
or complexity of the components that go into it must be increased. design, the reliability impact was sometimes significant. Today,
If the numbers or complexity of the components that go into a large scale and very large scale integration (LSI/VLSI), integrated
system are increased to make it testable and maintainable, then the circuits (ICS), and full custom and application specific integrated
calculated reliability figures go down. The actual reliability, circuits (ASICS) allow testability to be easily implemented without
however, maynotdecreaseonly thecalculated reliability does. undue degradation of reliability. Theadvances in technology have
given designers the ability to implement true functional testability
RELIABILITY CALCULATIONS with virtually no impact on reliability. Only the old belief that
Absolute (either calculated or real) reliability may not be what testability and reliability are at odds remains. Perhaps it is the
most users are looking for. More often, availability is the critical worry of the design engineer that implementing testability will
factor. Availability is, in fact, the figure of merit that ties have an adverse impact on circuit performance. Certainly there are
reliability, testability, andmaintainability all together. Itis impor- testability techniques which have adverse effects on circuit per-
tant to recognize the significance of real availability (which mayor formance (and on other circuit parameters such as weight, size,
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 16
DESIGN FOR TESTABILITY
CP 1 w
1 I 1!1 I ml
U1
VP
H ~lcu
U3
CP
CP
iv
? T
CP
U5 U6 U8
Id
VP
CP T
and power consumption); but there are equally as many, if not . Lower production test costs.
more, state-of-the-art testability techniques that have absolutely no . Lower capital equipment investments for automatic test
impdct on circuit performance and absolutely rrrinirrml effect on equipment.
other circuit parameters. . Improved product acceptance by customers.
Test bottlenecks eliminated.
GOALS FOR TESTABILITY . Reduced design verification time.
Thegoal is to implement the right testability technique in the . Cut fault simulation costs.
right design situation. In an ASIC, one of the many scan . Reduced field service costs,
techniques can be utilized. At the board level, testable parts can be . Improved product availability.
chosen, rather than typically untestable single-function parts, . Reduced organizational strife between design, test, and
when implementing glue logic. At the system level, the system management.
can be designed to take advantage of built-in tests and make sure . More market share.
that all subsets of the system are inherently testablepartitioned, . Increased profits and cash.
controllable, and visible. Testabilityy has not heen well imple- . Survival as a viable electronics manufacturer.
mented, and should be considered more of an organizational
Paying attention to testability during the design stage of a
problem than a technical problem. The benefits of incorporating
products life cycle, and enforcing the implementation of the
testability in a design, with little extra effort by the design
proper testability techniques, is a high-leverage activity. Even
engineer, appear to accrue to the production, test, quality, and
with shorter and shorter product life cycles, the extra hours or days
service organizations. But production, test, quality, and service
spent making a design testable, and the extra dollar or two in parts
are all part of the same business that the designer contributes to.
costs per product will make a big difference in the overall costs of
Break down the productivity barriers between the various groups
staying in a particular business. The savings from proper testabil-
in a business. Make things testable enough so that quality can be
ity implementation in a low vohrme, wide variety business
adequately verified. Make sure that top management communi-
typically come in the nonrecurring engineering area.. expendi-
cates the message to all of the elements in the organization that
tures for test equipment, test programs, and test fixtures (along
products must be manufacturable, testable, and serviceable if they
with the relevant documentation). Table 16-1 shows one example
are to be competitive in future world electronics markets.
where a relatively large testability investment59Z0 added to
design cost and 4~o added to product parts costs still results in a
JUSTIFYING TESTABILITY product cost reduction of over 15~o. In a low variety, high vohrme
Theanswers to the question of test justification are multiple.
operation, the major savings are realized in the rccurnng cost
. Higher design quality. areas ongoing testing and troubleshooting costs (see Table 16-2).
. Higher product quality. For most people, savings occur in both nonrecurring and recurring
. Shorter time to market. cost centers.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
TESTABILITY SUCCESS
Design (per qty.) 93.54 98.90 Design (per qty.) 3.97 4.12
Parts (each) 273.16 285.32 Parts (each) 148.56 157.61
Programming (PQ) 147.75 85.54 Programming (PQ) 3.29 1.68
Fixturing (PQ) 24.68 7.63 Fixturing (PQ) 0.46 0.12
Testing (each) 4.83 3.67 Testing (each) 2.93 2.64
Diagnostic (avg. ea.) 19.14 9.18 Diagnostic (avg. ea.) 16.65 7.63
Rework (avg. ea.) 15.86 12,69 Rework (avg. ea.) 14.34 12.15
Test Equipment (PQ) 18.37 11.74 Test Equipment (PQ) 9.80 5.30
Total Production Cost 597.33 514.67 Total Production Cost 200.00 191.25
per Item per Item
Savings/Year = $82.66 per board x 5,000 boards = Savings/Year = $8.75 per board x 50,000 boards =
$413,300.00 $437,500
Notes: Low-volume, wide-variety example; boards contain approximately Notes: High-volume, low-variety example; boards contain approximately
150 ICS each, 25 new designs per year, 200 of each type built per year, 150 ICS each, 5 new designs per year, 10,000 of each type built per year,
ATE amortized over 5,000 boards, other items over 200 boards. ATE amortized over 50,000 boards, other items over 10,000 boards.
TESTABILITY SUCCESS
Factors of successful testability include: Designing for testability will reduce post-release involve-
ment on the part of the design engineer to get a design
. Designer awareness.
smoothly incorporated into the production line.
. Benefit consideration. Designing for testability will reduce the cost of manufactur-
. Looking at the future trends.
ing and increase profits.
Designing for testability will improve the working relation-
AWARENESS ship between design engineering and manufacturing (test)
Many technological innovations have taken place in testability engineering personnel.
implementation. Testability is a way of thinking, where the Designing for testability produces products with lower initial
designer is aware of testings importance. The proper time is when and life cycle costs. This will serve to increase product sales
the component, PCB, or system is initially specified and/or and to increase market share.
designed. Designing for testability decreases test times and reduces
Testability should be part of the design cycle because testing is production delays.
a function that must be performed during the business cycle. Designing for testability increases field service productivity
Testability should be considered as part of the functional specifi- by allowing for more efficient diagnosis and repair.
cation that the design must meet. It is crucial that before starting
any design, each designer ask: Itis im~ortant to recomtize that real functional testability can
be implem~nted with a ve-~ small impact on product design: The
. How will it be tested by the designer, how will production improvements that are made to new product designs will allow
test it, how will it be tested in the field? those products to be tested with far fewer test patterns and in much
Which testability implementation technique will be used at shorter times. Expensive capital test equipment will last longer and
each level to insure that the design is successfully testable? provide higher fault coverage, with reduced test generation times
The commitment to designing products which are testable in and unambiguous fault isolation. The bottom line is shorter time to
design, manufacture, and service will lead to improved produc- market and lower product costs. Design for testability techniques
tivity and all of its attendant benefits. must be implemented in new product designs if tomorrows new
products are to be testable on time and at a competitive cost. The
pressure is even more clearly evident when examining testability
trends for the future.
TESTABILITY BENEFITS
Thebenefits of designing for testability can be realized both by
the individual and by the entire organization. Listed below are just
some of the benefits:
TESTABILITY TRENDS FOR THE FUTURE
. Designing for testabilityy will reduce the time required to New technical trends can make testing even tougher. Just as
transfer a design from design engineering to manufacturing test and design engineers begin to get a handle on testability, rdong
engineering. come ever more complex devices, many of them without adequate
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
TESTABILITY SUCCESS
built-in testability. When these new, more complex devices are both sides of the boards, and as the components themselves have
assembled into or onto printed circuit boards, the result can be an leads spaced very close together (often well under even the 0.050
almost completely untestable design. (1.3 mm) level that expensive bed-of-nails fixtures can access), the
Onthe plus side, there ismorenetworking going on between traditional in-circuit testing approach experiences problems.
computer-aided engineering (CAE), computer-aided design Since more automation is required for SMT manufacturing, the
(CAD), and computer-aided test (CAT) equipment. That network- fault spectrum on boards is changing. Fewer manufacturing
ing means that a lot of data that previously had to be created twice defects, the in-circuit testers forte, will be encountered.
can now be directly (electronically) transferred. The result of all of these trends and advances is quite simple.
On the negative side, new packaging techniques, particularly As shown earlier, more requirements for built-in test and testabil-
surface mount technology and chip on board and fine pitch ity will be imposed on the circuit designers. If they are not, the
technology, are making it possible to pack even more complexity new designs will not be testable. Corporate managers are discov-
into the same area of board space. Increased device complexity is ering that the most elegant and technologically advanced design is
permeating all types of semiconductorsstandard, semi-custom, virtually useless unless it can be manufactured and tested at a
and full custom. Commercial parts, especially special purpose profit. Parts will have to be added to or selected properly for SMT
devices like communications chips and peripheral controllers, tend board designs to make test programming and fault isolation
togainmore complexity each year. While thedevice manufacturer affordable again. The economics of adding a few parts using a
may be able to test them, the user has a particular problem when square inch (6 cm) or two square inches (13 cm) of board
they arc mounted on boards. space for testability and built-in test will prove imefutable in the
The increased use of user-programmable devices, gate arrays, face of reduced product costs.
full custom ICS, and semi-custom (or application specific) ICS New techniques, such as boundary scan and the various
means that many new devices are being designed by many proposed and standard IEEE P1 149.x testability buses, should be
designem whometotally unawmeof testability techniques. Some considered for implementation in new designs, particularly where
silicon foundries, however, are making sure that their customer use is made of multi-chip module technology that does not lend
designers include some on-chip built-in tests. The same increase in itself to the mechanical testability solutions usually proposed for
complexity that is characteristic of semiconductor devices drives simpler surface mount and fine pitch technology designs. Built-in
increased complexity at the printed circuit board level. More testing can be implemented much more effectively when designs
complex devices are populating new board designs. And many are basically testable from the start. Also, with the cost of testing,
times, lines provided on the devices for self-test or built-in test are troubleshooting, and rework rising as board density increases, and
notaccessible once the board has been designed. The trend toward as it becomes increasingly difficult to replace wrong, wrongly
larger boards, inthemistaken assumption that alarge board saves oriented, and defective components, more attention must be paid
cost, isalso hurting productivity. While alargeboard does indeed to looking at manufacturing as a process, rather than as a batch
save on parts costs, it tends to cost slot inthe other business cost operation, and to controlling that process so that only good
elements most notably testing. products get built. To summarize the trends for the future, they
Whole groups of small-scale integration (SS1) and medium- are:
scale integration (MSI) devices are now being encased in plastic or
More attention to design for testability techniques and
ceramic as gate arrays or application specific integrated circuits
(ASIC). These SS1 and MSI devices were formally accessible built-in test approaches.
with bed-of-nails (BON) fixtures. The BON fixture contains . More attention to manufacturing process control.
interface contacts, interconnection wiring, tooling for the end
product (bare board) and the test head. New manufacturing IMPLEMENTING A STANDARD TEST
techniques, such assurface mount technology, are letting design- STRATEGY FOR ELECTRONIC PRINTED
ers quickly design boards so complex that they potentially cannot CIRCUIT BOARDS
remanufactured and tested at all. As silicon technology improves, high-tech computer manufac-
As mentioned earlier, however, there are some advances being turers are faced with a growing test problem. A typical computer
made in the database and factory networking areas. CAD/CAE/ printed circuit board (PCB) of today may consist of several very
CAT tie-ins allow for the direct electronic transfer of much of the dense, high-pin-count application specific integrated circuits
data required foreffective and efficient testing tothe test equip- (ASICS) along with various surface mount devices (SMD) residing
mentartdlor test engineer. Most automatic test equipment (ATE) on both sides of the board. Very few board nodes are available for
can now accept at least net lists from the CAD system. Newer direct contact probing. Earlier PCBS usually consisted of less
systems allow for the transfer of actual circuit models and test complex devices using through-hole technology, and only popu-
patterns, many of which are now being generated by the designer lated one side of the board; thus, the board could be tested by
on the CAE/CAD system as part of the design verification process. direct contact probing of the boards underside.
Connecting the ATE into a factory network allows test and quality As ASIC device densities increase and system packaging
personnel to improve manufacturing yield and to feed information techniques induce greater access restrictions, the ability to test a
back to design on hard to manufacture, hard to test, or umeliable PCB by conventional methods becomes less effective. Therefore,
designs. the test strategy must keep pace with these variables.
Perhaps the most dramatic impetus currently being given to
testability is the push from new packaging techniques. Surface A Standard Approach
mount components, surface mount technology boards, and chip- A standard approach is required in the testing of electronic
on-board techniques are all possible ways to squeeze more PCBS, independent of the problems discussed earlier. Specifically:
performance out of the same product size. Hampering the wide-
spread use of these techniques, however, is the lack of information Testing of PCB interconnections between &vices.
on how to test these new assemblies. As components get placed on . Testing of the devices themselves.
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CHAPTER16
STANDARD TEST ARCHITECTURE
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 16
STANDARD TEST ARCHITECTURE
l-i Boundaryscarclmin(ES)
I 3 Scorn
h
*
Test
Test
data ~ -$;,
input
* (TDO)
(TDI)
L)<-
Irsstrudian
kcw
T-celb
BIST,tD
Instruction
register
The standard test access controller would be implemented as a An inactive-state, or tri-state controller cell, was made av~]-
custom design and layout, and would be implanted as a fii macro able as a standard macro-cell library element. This compliant cell
in the device. This results in a 0.5 Yoarea savings, as compared to provided the output enable control, err, to banks of one or more
implementing the TAP with macro-cells. output pin groups as shown in Fig. 16-26. These cells were
The boundary-scan logic was designed as available I/O macro- appended to the boundaxy scan chain as shown in Fig. 16-24. Thk
cells and placed in a provided channel around the periphery of the implementation would result in lower penalties in area, perfor-
chip. Since a dedicated area of the chip was created for boundary mance, and power than could otherwise be obtained without the
scan, no usable area was lost to the addition of boundary scan. cooperation and effort of the silicon maker. Note that the signals,
This accounted for the largest savings, since the macro-cell sh[@DR (data register), c1ocIcDR, and upriateDR are generated by
implementation would have used 259Z0of available space. the TAP controller, whereas S1 (instruction mode bit), rni, and rno
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
STANDARD TEST ARCHITECTURE
BidirectCelfConhof
signals bs_stsiftc)R_
framTAP &fackL)R
controller: bs_upjotam_
mi
MO
TAP madas
I I I T
Ccqture ........ ...........................1 A
1
A I
Shift
.........................................o
Update .. .. ..... ...........................1 I o
other........... ...........................1 1 1
TAP irahhcms
Scrmple/norrnal .... .. ............ ......- 1 1 1 N
External update ........... .............- x 1 0 1
Extarrsalcqture .......................- 1 1 0 0
Internal ......... ............ .. .. ........ ...- 0 0 0
bapback w/drker ...... .. ........ ...- 1 1 : 1
bapbrsckw/o driver ................- 1 1 x x
Bidiraclional
call
~
1
7 >
0 b logic
-t-
mi
fram
pin +<
1 4
0 0
Srs T
r+ I1 I
1
1 1
FF L
0 0
s_in >
w Kay
s-out
qin =scan data in
s_out= scandataout
DR. data register
mi. instru~onmodebit
T en. enable
A. risingclackadge
N. fromnarmcdsystembgic
-. otharsource
bs_dackDR
bs_updalaDR
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
STANDARD TEST ARCHITECTURE
are set by the instruction. Signal en (enable), when not controlled 5:BTINT Test data is driven from T-cells and boundary scan
by internal logic, is driven from the inactive-state controller cell cells.
(see Fig. 16-25).
6:BSST1 Self test number 1: Boundary scan loop with driver.
BI-DIRECT CELL MODES OF OPERATION 7:BTST2 Self test number 2: Bound~ scan loop without
The hi-direct cell modes are: normal, external test, internal driver plus T-cell and inactive control cell loop.
test, sample, and self-test. 8:TSIN T-cell inputs only are sampled.
9:TINT An internal test using the T-cell chain only. A constant
Normal Mode
value is applied from the boundary scan register.
Normal circuit operation is performed in this mode. The
normal path is subject to an additional mux delay. A:IDCODE The ID register sample instruction.
B :BYPASS The bypass register is selected.
External Test Mode C: BYPASS The bypass register is selected.
Testing of board interconnects and glue logic external to the D: BYPASS The bypass register is selected.
gate arrays can be done using the external boundary scan mode. E: RUNBIST The run_bist (built-in self test) signal is as-
Device output pin cells are used to provide stimulus for testing the serted (bypass register selected).
pins of the device and other board glue logic. Results of the F: BYPASS The bypass register is selected.
stimulus are captured at input pin cells of other devices, and
scanned out for evaluation. DESIGN PROCESS
No device internal logic is involved or affected in the external To obtain an efficient DFT process that will truly reduce
test mode. manufacturing costs, it is necessary to alter the conventional
design flow of over-the-wall testing. The objective is a con-
Internal Test Mode current, integrated approach to testing which will provide device-
Testing of the device internal logic is accomplished by loadlng and board-level solutions.
the input pin cells of the array, capturing the result at the outputs, To achieve this, specific test goals and their justifications must
and scanning out the result. No board logic is involved or affected be included with the overall product goals. Design tools should be
in the internal test mode. chosen that allow functional design and test design to be merged
into a common environment. The following items should be part
of the DFT process:
Sample Mode
Sampling of input or output pins can be done at any time . Definition of test goals, derived from analysis of the impact
without disturbing the state of the machine. of cost versus coverage on the product, using a test cost
model (TCM).
Self-test Mode . Use of an automated test pattern generation (ATPG) system
This mode allows data to be looped back through the boundary for testability analysis, test vector creation, and testability
scan (BS) cell, thereby performing a limited self-test of the cell enhancement, using partial-scan design.
logic. An option exists to allow the 1/0 driver to be included in the . The automated back annotation of scan cells into the
test if desired. This option may be unusable for board test, since schematic entry system.
state transitions may occur on the 1/0 pin if the 1/0 ti]ver is . Specific structured and ad hoc test design rules with auto-
included in the self-test loop. Figure 16-25 shows a diagram of a matic checking.
bidirectional cell with control. . Automatic implementation of some DFT rules, with provi-
sions for placement and routing of some DFf logic.
TEST ACCESS PORT
Thetest access port (TAP) should be implemented in compli- ATPG AND PARTIAL SCAN
ance to the rules specified in IEEE Standard 1149.1. The TAP Automated test pattern generation software has the following
interfaces the test bus to the boundary scan and T-cell chains, and important features:
contains a TAP controller, an instruction register, an instruction Full-scan methodology is not required; handles sequential
decoder, a bypass register, BIST register, and an identification elements.
register (as shown in the Joint Test Action Group architecture, Fig. Testability analysis and weighted reporting.
16-24) . Automatic test pattern generation and fault grading.
Debug capabilities (single fault selection, trace capability,
TAP INSTRUCTIONS etc. )
O:EXTEST Boundary scan external test. Knowledge-based compiler (KBC) for receiving designer
input.
1:INTEST Boundwy scan internal test. Vector algorithm, for tester compliance.
2:SAMPLE Data on IO pins is loaded into boundary scan cells. Vector compaction.
Testability-cell recommendations and otXional insertion ca-
3 :BSISAMP Boundary scan internal sample. Internal signals pability f&rning a partial scan design,
are loaded into the boundary scan register. This allows a
signal from the chip logic to be sampled when its pin is in the
TESTABILITY RULES AND GUIDELINES
inactive (input) state.
The following rules are examples taken from the full DFT rules
4: BTSAMP Signals on T-cell inputs and chip 10s are sampled. list being used in the design process:
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
STANDARD TEST ARCHITECTURE
Oe_rnOda
d (imtrudionmodebt)
I
(output enobla mode)
TAP modes I
TAP instructions
Somple/nOrmol........................- - - 0 1
control ....................................- - - x o
tic ........................ - - 1 0
n
s_in
s_out
SI
bs_cbckDR
bs_u@tecx
OqnOde
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
STANDARD TEST ARCHITECTURE
logic O or logic 1 signal. These signal sources would assume the containing internal asynchronous feedback may be used, since
proper state under normal system operation, but could be cotttrol- they are modelled as sequential devices. Outputs of FFs should not
lable to either state during a test mode operation. feed asynchronous inputs to other FFs.
Ds DS
I
Q - Q -
> CK > CK
A B
Faultbiocking
point when ~ ~
Aor B-1
F]g. 16-27 Fault biaekksg point: OR case. Fig. 16-28 Fault blocking pointi AND case.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 16
STANDARD TEST ARCHITECTURE
Costversus Coverage
Mcsnufacluring
R~ir Conpred toEngineerhgTest Dewebprnent
600 >
\
.
500
400
Manufacturing
,
---------- Manual
9
----- Manufacturing + Manual
u)
- Automatic Test Generation (ATG)
------ Manufacturing + ATG
200
100
-HA
. --- -
0
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 IM
Fig. 16-29 Cost versus coverage.
thorough testing of a device prior to insertion is essential to the test bus to the system level. The expanded TMS 1149.1
controlling manufacturing cost. Device defects that go undetected version shown can then be driven by an integrated tester built into
prior to insertion will usually surface in a later test stage, when the the system (BIST), or by a low-cost external tester connected to
~ost to repair the defect is siwrificantly greater than ~n a mevious the test bus.
stage. Fi~ure 16-29 shows ~ straigh~ ~eclining cost li~e (Mfg)
which represents the reduced cost of repair due to increasing fault
coverage of three ASICS on a board design. The sharply rising
manual cost curve (Manual) represents the cost of manual test
generation as a function of fault coverage based on empirical data
derived from case studies. This curve shows that the effort to
manually achieve fault coverage beyond 9570 grows at a near-
exponential rate. The sum of the Mfg and Manual curves yields the
total cost of manual test generation.
With an automatic test generation (ATG) tool, the Manual
trsl
component of the cost of test generation is replaced by tbe more
linear ATG curve. The ATG curve represents the manual labor tclk
cost of using the ATG tool. The total savings gained by use of the tdi
ATG tool is the difference between the two sum curves. tdo
tmsl
TEST MIGRATION tms2
.
L.
The migration of this test strategy to the board or system level
is accomplished by the adaptation of the JTAG TAP controller to
the board level. Each system board contains a board-level TAP
Imsm I
(BTAP) that is used to control various scan destinations. Each
board is connected in the system with an expanded TMS version of
the 1149.1 test bus. Figure 16-30 depicts the connection scheme of Fig. 16-30 System-level test bus connection.
16-36
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
DESIGN FOR RELIABILITY
16-37
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
DESIGN FOR RELIABILITY
recovered, because of the enhanced reliability of the product involved. A system for providing effective maintenance, both
which is ultimately placed into service, and because of all the repair and preventive, should reestablished before the production
benefits associated with that enhanced reliability. phase begins.
16-38
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
DESIGN FOR RELIABILITY
16-39
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
DESIGN FOR RELIABILITY
If stress and strength are assumed to be independent random reliability. 23First, the mean strength can be increased. This can be
variables, then the reliability, R, of the component for the failure done by increasing the weight or size of the item, by using stronger
mode under consideration is given by Kapur: 22 materials, etc. Second, the mean stress can be reduced. This can
be accomplished by controlling the loads on the item, by providing
R= PY>X (2)
protection against environmental factors, etc. Third, the variation
of the strength variable can be decreased through the use of
improved manufacturing processes, by maintaining tighter control
over the manufacturing processes, or by inspecting to remove less
desirable parts and to identify and eliminate the causes of
part-to-part variations. Finally, the variation of the stress variable
.
. can be decreased. This variation isdifficult tocorrtrol. Limitations
f .m g (Y) ~(.y) 4 on the conditions under which the product is used may assist in
reducing this variance.
= D@f:@
y}& METHODS AND TOOLS FOR DFR
In this section, three of the most important aids for use in
designing reliable products are discussed. These aids are design
=/mfix,{,-qx,,dx reviews, FMECA, and fault-tree analysis.
Where: fix) is the probability density function for the stress Design Reviews
random variable X. Formal design reviews should be held periodically during the
g~) is the probability density function for the strength design process in order to evaluate all aspects of the design,
random variable Y. including reliability. At least three such reviews are needed. The
first should occur at the very outset of the program, and issues of
The cumulative distribution functions for X and Y are F(x) reliability andmaintainability should be considered then. A second
and G(y), respectively. review should be held when prototype units are available, so that
For example, assume that X and Yare both normally distributed data from tests of those units can be analyzed as part of the review
random variables with means rrx and UY,respectively, and standard process. A third review is needed when development testing has
deviations ax and, UYrespectively. Then the reliability, R, is given been completed.240ther reviews may beheld as needed and, in
by some cases, special reliability reviews may be held in addition to
the reviews of the total design. The design review teams should be
cross-functional in nature, with participants from areas such as
(3)
engineering, manufacturing, purchasing, marketing, quality assur-
ance, compliance engineering, and reliability. The use of such
where @ is the cumulative distribution function for the standard cross-functional teams early in the design stage helps to guard
normal random variable. The following example illustrates the against overlooking design problems which might beobvious toa
aPP1icatiOn of this formula. person with one background but not evident to someone witha
different background. The output of each design review should be
Suppose that X and Yare both normally distributed, with
a list of action items to be done by specified individuals, observing
p, = 3,000 u, = 400 specified deadlines. Typical action items would be the collection
px = 2,000 Ux = 300 of information, the running of tests, and the performance of
redesign work.
The safety factor for this situation is given by p,Y pX, or
Inregard to reliability, the work of thedesign review team is
3,000/2,000 = 1.5, and
based upon a set of clearly defined, quantified reliability goals
which should be established at the very heginning of the design
3000-2000 concept phase. Thereliability requirements forthe product should
R=@ ]@ (4)
[u (400)2 + (300)2 = be stated in terms of maximum allowable failure rates (or an
equivalent measure) for all operating modes, over the total range
= 0.97725 ofexpected operating conditions. Thegoals should beset basedon
safety considerations, customer expectations, the reliability of
Ifthemean vahreof the stress variable, px, is decreased from competing products, theexpected number of warranty claims, the
2,000 to 1,500, with all other variables remaining unchanged, the expected cost of service, and the costs associated with producing
safety factor becomes 3,000/1,500 = 2.0, and a product with acertain level of reliability. Historical data on the
failure modes and rates of similar components and products should
3,000-1,500 be used to ensure that the stated reliability requirements are
R=@ (5)
]@ reasonable. 25
[v (400)2 + (300)2 =
It is often advisable to develop a formal reliability requirements
specification during the design phase. Such a specification can be
= 0.99865
used during design reviews as a framework for performing the
Based upon the development, itisapparent that there are four reliability portion of the review. Liebesman 26 lists the following
basic approaches which can be used by the designer to increase factors which should be dealt with in a reliability specification:
16-40
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER 16
DESIGN FOR RELIABILITY
1. A detailed system definition and list of intended functions. Supplier certification programs should be set up so that
2. Environmental specifications. suppliers can be certified, rather than just individual components
. Conditions under which the product is expected to be and materials. 33 Ekings34 lists several principles for dealing
stored, handled, and used. successfully with suppliers. These include the presence of com-
possible misuses of the product. mon business objectives, the existence of well defined reliability
. Maintenance modes. requirements, a well defined responsibility for the supplier to take
3. Detailed definition(s) of failure. the actions necessary to meet the reliability requirements, a clear
4. Reliability and availability requirements. supplier quality assurance program which is established with the
System reliability calculation (refer to common reliabil- assistance and agreement of the customer, and the early involve-
ity texts, such as References 27, 28, and 29). ment of suppliers in addressing customer needs.
System availability calculation via analytical methods The importance of thorough documentation of all tests cannot
(see References 27,28, and 29) or computer simulation. be overemphasized. Such careful documentation often removes
. Update these calculations throughout the design phase, the need for further tests in the future, eases the process of
as more information is available. analyzing data when new products or applications are introduced,
5. Reliability growth requirements. eases the handling of product liability cases, and may speed the
. Improvements due to the screening of components. processing of customer service requests. It is especially important
. Improvements due to bum-in procedures. that all test failures be thoroughly recorded and documented, along
6. Analysis of failure modes which have safety implications. with the suggested corrective actions to be taken. 35
7. Workmanship and physical design characteristics.
8. Maintainability requirements. Failure Modes, Effects, and
. Ease of problem diagnosis and evaluation. Criticality Analysis
. Ease of problem correction. FMECA (often referred to as FMEA, even when criticality
. Ease of return to active service. analysis is included) is a systematic procedure for evaluating the
9. Reliability demonstration methods. reliability of a design. In FMECA, every possible failure mode
. Include reliability demonstration and analysis in design should be identified, along with the causes of each faihrre mode
reviews. (often called the failure mechanisms ), the effects of each
. Run reliability tests on prototype equipment. failure mode on the operation of the system, and the criticality of
Run hypothesis tests to see if design targets are met. each failure mode.
MIL-STD- 1629A36 provides a list of steps for conducting a
The accurate estimation of product reliability during the design detailed FMECA. These steps are summarized as follows:
phase is crucial to the design review process. Most of the literature
1. Develop a system description and block diagram. Identify
on DFR, and on the field of reliability as a whole, deals primarily
all realistic failure modes.
with electronic components and systems. Therefore, there are a
2. Identify the cause(s) of each failure mode (the faihrre
number of good sources of failure data for such components. One
mechanisms ).
potentially useful source for electronic systems is MIL-HDBK-
3. Identify and analyze the effects of each possible failure
217E.30 The Nonelectronic Parts Reliability Data (NPRD)
mode on the operation of the item in question, items at
Handbook3 provides general estimates of failure rates for various
higher levels, and the entire system.
failure modes of mechanical, electrical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and
4. List the possible symptoms of each type of faihrre, and the
rotating parts. The Government-Industry Data Exchange Program
means to be used to detect failures.
(GIDEP)32 provides participants with access to databases with
5. Assign a severity classification to each potential failure
information on failure experiences, maintainability, etc. Any
mode.
general information such as that contained in these references
6. Estimate the probability of occurrence of each failure type.
should be used carefully to ensure that the designs, conditions,
Failure rate data sources (as noted in references 30,31, 32),
failure modes, and other factors for the cataloged data match the
and in-house historical data on similar products or compo-
product situation under analysis.
nents, can be quite useful in developing quantitative
Various tests will be performed to support the design review
estimates of failure rates.
process. However, if the preliminary planning recommended here
7. Perform a criticality analysis for each failure mode. The
is performed, the amount of testing needed should be significantly
criticality of a particular failure mode is a function of both
reduced. Typical test activities will involve component and mate-
its probabilityy of occurrence and its level of severity. The
rials qualification tests, where only previously unqualified items
following six-step procedure for performing a criticality
are tested. These tests should be carried out under conditions
analysis is recommended:
which reflect the worst expected operating environment, and
should focus on the component level because of the expense Step 1: Estimate the failure effect probability ~.
involved in system-level testing. The need for qualification tests at Step 2: Estimate the failure mode ratio. Individual failure
the system level should be significantly reduced if the proper mode ratios can be estimated from failure rate source
planning work is done from the beginning. Every attempt should data, test data, operational data, or the judgment and
be made to identify critical components as soon as possible so that experience of analysts.
the appropriate tests can be performed in a timely fashion. Step 3: Estimate the part failure rate k.
Components may be referred to as critical because of safety Step 4: Define the operating time (t) required.
considerations, the newness of the component or material or Step 5: Calculate the failure mode criticality number. This
manufacturing process, the use of a component in a totally new criticality number is attributable to one failure mode. It
application, the high cost of the component, or the use of a is calculated by:
new supplier. Cm=pukpt (6)
16-41
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
c HAPTER 16
DESIGN FOR RELIABILITY
Step 6: Calculate the item criticality number, Cr. The item TABLE 16-4
criticality number represents the expected number of Typical Causes of Unreliability
system failures of a specific type due to the failure modes
for the item under consideration. Take the necessary Component selection
corrective actions. The information which is developed Component quality*
during the FMECA is used to make design changes which Circuits
will help eliminate certain failure causes, help reduce the System interfaces
probability of occurrence of failures, help increase the Workmanship*
probability of failure detection, and help reduce the Inadequate processes*
severity of failures. Substandard materials*
Environmental stresses
Another step which is sometimes included in the FMECA
Inadequate packaging
process is a detailed safety analysis and review. Potential safety-
Material handling*
related failures under all possible uses or misuses of the product
Subsystem interaction
are identified. The systems safety review should take into account
any applicable government regulations. 37 Detailed examples of *These causes are controlled or influenced by
FMECA analyses can he found in references 38 and 39. manufacturing.
Fault-tree Analysis
Fault-tree analysis is a graphical tool for use in representing the Transfer: These symbols are merely used to simplify the
interrelationships among various possible events, both normal and graphical re resentation of the fault-tree (Fig. 16-3 lm).
abnormal, which can contribute to a system failure of a particular Dhillon4 F presents the following procedure for conducting a
type (known as the top event since it is generally located at the fault-tree analysis:
top of the network diagram). The top event under consideration 1. Define the system, the top event of interest, and the
might be, for example, engine fails to start. A fault-tree could Ixruntiles of the system.
then be formed which would illustrate all of the possible events 2. Construct the fault-tree.
which, either singly or in combination with other events, could 3. Perform a qualitative evaluation of the tree to identify
result in the failure of the engine to start. possible system weaknesses.
Fault trees are developed using gate symbols and event 4. Perform a quantitative evaluation of the tree based on the
symbols. Gate symbols are used to connect events based on their data on failure rates, repair rates, etc. This evaluation can
relationships. A gate may have more than one input, but only one be performed either analytically42 or by using computer
output. A brief description of the more common gate and event simulation.
symbols is given below. These descriptions are taken from Dhillon
and Kapur.m41
OR Gate: This denotes that the output event occurs only when MAINTAINING RELIABILITY
one or more of the input events occurs (see Fig. 16-3 la). DURING PRODUCTION
AND Gate: This denotes that the output event occurs only If proper procedures are followed, the designed product should
when all of the input events occur (Fig. 16-31 b). possess an acceptable level of inherent reliability. However, this
Priority AND Gate: This is an AND gate with the additional reliability level may be degraded by tbe production and assembly
stipulation that the input events must occur in a certain order (Fig. processes. It is important to ensure that care is taken during
16-31 c). production to maintain as much of the designed-in reliability
Exclusive OR Gate: The output event occurs if one, and only as possible.
one, of the input events occurs (Fig. 16-3 id). To illustrate the importance of maintaining reliability during
Delay gate: The output event of the gate only occurs after a production, consider the list of typical causes of unreliability in
specified time delay (Fig. 16-3 le). Table 16-4.43
Inhibit gate: The input event produces the output event only To assure that reliability is not degraded significantly during
when a conditional event occurs (Fig. 16-3 lfl. the production process, Miller states that the following activities
M-out-of-N gate: The output event occurs if m out of the n should be completed before production begins:
input events occur (Fig. 16-3 lg).
1. Machine or process specification and capability studies.
Resultant event: The rectangle denotes an event which results
2. The development of detailed, written manufacturing and
from some combination of fault events which precede it (Fig.
quality assurance plans.
16-31 h).
3. Manufacturing check samples.
Basic fault event: This represents the failure of a component or
4. Formal pilot production runs.
subsystem. The probability of occurrence, the failure rate, the
5. Reliability qualification tests.
repair rate, and other parameters of interest should be estimated
using appropriate data sources (Fig. 16-31 i).
Incomplete event: This denotes a fault event whose cause has SUMMARY
not yet been completely determined (Fig. 16-3 lj). A design for manufacturability system provides to the elec-
Conditional event: This event represents the restriction or tronic producer the opportunisty to achieve cost and development
condition used with an inhibit gate (Fig. 16-3 lk). benefits and timeliness beyond the benefits of previous quality and
Trigger or Switch event This event is used to examine special producibility improvement programs. A DFM system addresses
cases by forcing events to occur, or by forcing them not to occur the cause of defects usually ignored by other improve-
(Fig. 16-311). ment programs.
16-42
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
DESIGN FOR RELIABILITY
Inputs
w)
Inputs
(c)
Inputs
(d]
Inputs
+()
Delay
time
Condition m
8
Input
Fig. 16-31 Description of gate and event symbols used in a fautt-tree analysis.
The steps to implementing a DFM system may vary from waste. This information can be used to implement solutions, such
company to company, but the benefhs should remain the same. as more capable processes and machines. The information also
These benefits are higher quality, higher reliability, faster time to enables the evaluation of trade-offs and evolution toward using
production, and lower cost. only suitable parts and materials.
A written design guidelines manual may be a suitable DFM As the tools of DFh4 advance towards the printed wiring
system for those companies able to maintain it properly, but in assembly dream factory, the system is still critically dependent
most cases that is not sufficient. Utilizing the power of inexpen- on people participation. Their acceptance and adherence to the
sive computers and software, companies now have tools that are disciplines required by their companys DFM system is the key to
able to measure and predict the quantity and cause of defects and success regardless of the systems sophistication.
16-43
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
CHAPTER16
REFERENCES
CA, PPM Associates, 1989 and the Societv of Manufacturirm 38. MlL-STD-l 629A, op. cit.
Engineers, Dearborn, Ml: 1990). 39. A. Pages and M. Gondran, System Re/iabi/ity: Evaluation and
5. C.E, Bancroft, Design for Assembl and Manufacture, E/ec- Prediction in Engineering (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1986).
tronicrVfateria/s /-handbook, Vol. l (A { Mlnternational, 1989), pp. 40. Dhillon. OD. cit.
119-126. 41. Kapur, o~. cit.
6. D.N. Ekvall and J.M. Juran, Manufacturing Planning, C)ua/ity 42. Dhillon, op. cit.
Contra/ Handbook, 3rded. (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 43. Ekings, op. cit.
1974). 44. Miller, op. cit.
7.D. Montgomery, /ntroduction to Statistica/ Qua/ity Contra/ (New
York: John Wilev & Sons. Inc.. 1985). V.E. Kane. Process
Capability Indite;, Jouma/ of Quality Techno/ogy 1,pp. 41-52.
8. PCB Design for Manufacturability, PPM Software product
brocf_rure(Sunnyvale, CA: PPM Associates).
9.J. Turino, Concurrent Engineering Seminar (Campbell, CA: Bibliography
Logical Solutions Technology, Inc., 1991 ).
10. J. Turino, Design To Test Semirrar/Wor/rshop (Campbell, CA:
Logical Solutions Technology, Inc., 1991 ). Bancroft, C.E. DFM: Half Speed Ahead, Manufacturing Engineer-
ll. lEEE Standard Test Access Port and Boundary-scan Architec- ing, Vol. 101, No. 3 (Sept 1988).
ture, 1149.1, May 21, 1990, IEEE Computer Society (Sunnyvale, Boothroyd, G. and Dewhurst, P., Computer-aided Design for As-
CA). sembly, Assembly Engineering (Feb. 1983).
12. C.O. Smith, /introduction to Re/iabi/ity in Design (New York: Boothroyd, G. and Dewhurst P., Design for Assemb/y. A Designers
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1976). Handbook (Boothroyd Dewhurst, Inc.j 1983).
13. Ibid. Boothroyd, G. and Dewhurst, P., Design for Assembly: Manual
14. B.S. Dhillon, Reliability Engineering in Systems Design and Assembly, Machine Design (Dec. f+ 1983).
Operation (New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1983). Boothroyd, G. and Dewhurst, P., Design for Assembly: Selecting
15. Smith, op. cit. the Right Method, Machine Design (Nov. 10, 1983).
16. TEOOO-AB-GTP-O1 O, Parts Application and Re/iabi/ity /format- Bradyhouse, R.G. Design for Assembly and Value Engineering-
ion Manua/ for Navy Electronic Equipment (Available from the -Helping You Design Your Product for Easy Assembly, SAVE
Naval Publications and Forms Center, 5801 Tabor Avenue, ~9~f?rrca Proceedings, Society of American Value Engineers
Philadelphia, PA, 191 20).
17. A.A. McGill, Reliability Standards and Specifications, in F/and- Bryan, J.B. Closer Tolerances-Economic Sense, Annals C/RP,
book of Reliability Engineering and Management, W.G. Ireson vol. Xvlv (1971).
and C.F. Coombs, Jr., eds. (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Dewhurst, P. and Boothroyd, G., Design for Assembly: Automatic
1988). Assembly, Machine Design (Jan. 26, 1984).
18. D.L. Grosh, A Primer of Re/iabi/ity Theory (New York: John Wiley Dewhurst~ P. and Boothroyd, G., Design for Assembly: Robots,
and Sons, 1989). Machvre Design (Feb. 23, 1984).
19. Smith, op. cit. Dunlop, R.C. Global Manufacturing Governs Computer Design,
20. Ibid. Electronic Packaging and Production (July, 1990).
21. K.C. Kapur and L.R. Lamberson, Reliability in Engineering Frohman, A. L., Putting Technology Into Strategic Planning, Cali-
Design (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1977). fornia Management Revue (Winter, 1985).
22. K.C. Kapur, Techniques of Estimating Reliability at Design Garret, R., Eight Steps to Simultaneous Engineering, Manufactur-
Stage, in Handbook of Reliability Engineering and Manage- ing .Engineering, (Nov. 1990).
ment, W.G. Ireson and C.F. Coombs, Jr., eds. (New York: Halevi, G.; Weill, R.; and Technion, H. Development of Flexible
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1988). Orximum Process Plannina Procedures. Anna/s C/RP, Vol. 29.
23. Ibid. No. 1 (1 980).
24. C.R. Miller, Product Reliability Program, in Handbook of Re/i- Hayes, R.H. Strategic Planning Forward in Reverse? Harvard
abi/ity Engineering and Management, W.G. Ireson and C. F. Business Review, Vol. 63, No. 6 (Nov-Dec. 1985).
Coombs, Jr., eds. (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1988). Kuttner, B.C. Computer-aided Plastics Engineering, Manufactur-
25. B.S. Liebesman, Specification of Reliability Requirements, in ing Engineering (March 1985).
Handbook of Reliability Engineering and Mana ement W.G. Mason, A. and Young, P, Strategies for Improving the Manufactur-
Ireson and C.F. Coombs, Jr., ads. (New York: Mc 8 raw-Hall Book ability of PCB Design, SME Autofact 88 Proceedings (Dear-
CO., 1988). born, Ml: Society of Manufacturing Engineers 1988).
26. Ibid. Ppklenik, J.G. Investigation of Computer-Aided Classification of
27. Dhillon, op. cit. Parts, Anna/s C/RP, Vol. 29, No. 1 (1980).
28. Grosh, op. cit. Roth, E. Tolerances Should be Functional, Not Impossible, Too/ing
29. Kapur & Lamberson, op. cit. Products (Feb., 1981 ).
30. MIL-HDBK-217E, Ffe/iabi/ity Prediction of Hectronic Equipment, Schreiber, R.R. Design for Assembly, Robotics Today, Vol. 7,
(Available from the Naval Publications and Forms Center, 5801 -----!3 [1!285}.
NO ,. _--,.
Tabor Avenue, Philadelphia, PA, 19120). Stoll, H.W. Design for Manufacture: An Overview, Applied Me-
31. NPRD-2, rVone/ectronic Parts Ffe/iabi/ity Data, (Available from chanica/ Review, Vol. 39, No. 9 (Sept. 1986).
the Reliability Analysis Center, Rome Air Development Center, Spitz, L. DFM; Series of Articles, Electronic Production and
Griffis AFB, New York, 1981). Packaging Magazine (Sept., Oct., Nov., 1990).
32. MlL-STD-l 556A, Government-Industry Data Exchange Program Zimmerman, L.W. and Hart, G. D., Va/ue EngineeringA Practica/
(G/DEP), (Available from the Naval Publications and Forms Approach for Owners, Designers, and Contractors (Van Nos-
Center, 5801 Tabor Avenue, Philadelphia, PA, 19120). trand Reinhold, 1982).
16-44
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
Great British
Hoover
A-9
A-1 O
A-1
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
STORAGETEKS MILLION DOLLAR PLUS SAVINGS WITH DFM
5. Apply quality improvement techniques to the teams. 25 are screws (see Fig. A-1). The DFM teams came up with three
6. Get management involved. Drive from the top. different designs:
7. Recruit new employees from schools which offer the DFM
1. DFM-1. This was a highly desired design with only 17
curriculum.
parts and no screws. There was, however, some risk in
8. Provide all the tools necessary to implement DFM, both
investment tooling (see Fig. A-2).
design tools and team tools.
2. SUPEREL. This design didnt meet some requirements
Design for manufacturability is an extensive change for Amer- and was dropped.
ican industry. The payoff is survival, with improved quality of 3. TEAM DFM. This proved to be the optimal design with 36
design, manufacturing, and organization. parts, of which only two are screws! Figure A-3 shows an
exploded view of the TEAM DFM product. There was less
DFM IN ACTION risk with this design than with DFM- 1. Higgins stated after
StorageTek went forward and applied its DFM program to a selection of this design, One day we will get rid of the
product in trouble, the Elevator. As Arch Higgins, DFM Director, two screws.
said, We needed a DFM victory. This DFM elevator was worth the effort; StorageTek will save
The Elevator is a tape retrieval device with 95 parts, of which more than $1,000,000 on this product line. -
.r lg.
. A-I
. . An
. . .
expmaea
..... .. ---- ..
Y3 ~mcmamg L5 screws).
. . . .
A-2
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
STORAGETEKS MILLION DOLLAR PLUS SAVINGS WITH DFM
Fig. A-2 An exploded view of the DFM-1 Elevator. This design had a very simple approach to assembly. Part count: 17 (no screws).
A-3
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
FEDERAL-MOGUL AND DFM
/ 62
.
d
Q@--*
Fig. A-3 An exploded view of the winning design, the TEAM DFM Elevator. This design does not have many parts, there is one less surface to
assemble from, and there are less tool and materiat investment risks. Part count: 36 (only 2 screws). Company savings: over $1,000,000.
selected for the pilot improvement program. In this area, some Other temporary teams were established to help implement the
competitors were providing samples in six to eight weeks, while process changes. Four temporary global requirements teams pro-
Federal-Mogul was taking up to 20 weeks. Oil bath seals are a vided the corporate perspective for both the pilot project and
complicated item. They are used largely in truck axle applications broader corporate needs. These teams defined and selected system
and they represent one of the companys long-time core products. solutions for cost estimating, CAD/CAM, engineering data man-
agement, and status tracking.
A product tools team responsible for designing, developing,
ESTABLISHING TEAMS and implementing the required software and hardware tools was
To reduce product development time, the entire product devel- also established. This team transferred critical knowledge from
opment process was redesigned. As a result of this redesign, Ernst & Young to Federal-Moguls technical support team. The
Business Unit Teams (BUT) were created. A BUT is typically technical support team is ultimately responsible for maintaining
composed of seven to 10 members and sometimes includes hourly engineering tools for product groups throughout the division.
workers. The BUT is a customer-focused, cross-functional team. To further improve the process, Federal-Mogul employees, by
It is charged with rapidly responding to a specific product market product line, are given complete control of product development
segment. decisions including pricing.
A-4
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
FEDERAL-MOGUL AND DFM
The teams efforts resulted in a reduction of the sample ments and data transfer. Storyboard serves as a clearing house for
development process from 20 weeks to 20 business days the process by sending electronic messages to staff members
representing an 80~0 reduction. responsible for performing product development tasks. In addi-
tion, Storyboard updates statuses and electronically links offices.
CHANGING THE PROCESS This electronic linkage eliminates the delay caused by regular
While industry has generally looked to technology to reduce mail. Through VISIONAEL-Storyboard@, the EDM automatically
product development lead time, the oil bath seals project owed its updates the status-tracking system, indicating the stage of an
success to the companys ability to shift orientation from technol- inquiry or an order. The EDM also pulls together information
ogy to Process and procedureparticularly linking sales, design, required by the cost-estimating system. The VISIONAEL-
and manufacturing. Federal-Mogul attributes technology for only Design@ product, through its user-interactive parametric editor and
20% of its success in reducing product lead time; 80% resulted electronic spreadsheets, sends and receives information from the
from improving their overall processes and procedures. Redun- EDM for the automatic creation of engineering drawings.
dancies in the product-development process were reduced thereby VISIONAEL-Vault@ provides a secure document-control environ-
cutting time and expense. These redundancies at times were ment and ensures that the most current part geometry is shared
manifest in duplicate design with one design completed at the between many groups and locations.
companys headquarters anda second identical design completed Leveraging product history also has been a major contributor in
at the production site, reducing product lead time. The engineering staff uses a system
Communication between departments has also increased, re- which classifies drawings in five ways:
sulting in reduced lead time and enhanced quality.
1. Catalog lookup.
Aplanwas developed by involving representatives from both
2. New part-existing components are combined in a new
design engineering and manufacturing. These representatives de-
way.
fined the AS-IS process. During AS-IS data collection,
3. Same as an existing part, except there is a dimension
team members developed recommendations for improving the
change,
process that were incorporated into the TO-BEprocesses. The
4. New pardnew application (at times necessitates new tool-
emphasis in the TO-BE area wastoremove the nonvalue-added
ing).
time, and to move data capture and decision making to earlier
5. Material change or compound change.
stages of product planning.
Chief among the design accomplishments: the company was
TECHNOLOGY able to redesign one of the products to eliminate two stages of the
Federal-Mogul hadinvested heavily in automation. However, stamping process.
machines typically did not communicate well within the division.
The islands of automation tied up customers orders and caused CONCLUSION
delays. The delays began with the order-taking stage. At times, The oil bath seals project was completed in 1990 and seals
orders in paper form were not entered into the system for designed and produced by the new process are being distributed.
weeks. With additional software, a salesperson can plug into the Federal-Mogul indicates that they intend to capitalize on its
engineering database using a PC and modem to generate the order. improvements by applying the new production process to other
A salesperson using a computer can discover if a similar part is product lines. In mid-1991, the seven maior Product lines within
being built and its approximate cost. The system automatically Federal-Mogul had incorporated the syste-m. -
tracks sales inquiries and final orders. The system allows staff at Figure A-4 shows how Federal-Mogul made DFM happen.
different geographic locations to share information.
The engineering data manager (EDM) integrates the procedures
for Federal-Moguls product development process. The EDM is a
1. Examine the way that business is done.
combination of software packages involving VISIONAEL-Vault@,
2. Engage business advisors to help turn the lead-time around.
VISIONAEL-Story board@, and INFORMIX@. Both VISIONAEL 3. Set up mult,dsciplinary teams that include sales personnel,
products are from Advanced Graphics Systems. Informixs rela- distribution personnel, engineers from manufacturing, testing
tional database is the backbone of the process. It ties together these and product design.
4. The Business Unit Teams (BUTS) identify redundant and tedious
modules with VISIONAEL-Design@ and Cimlincs CIMCAM
tasks which can be eliminated.
software as well as with custom-developed status tracking and cost 5. Establish an engineering data manager and network. Increase
estimating systems. The engineering data manager is UNIX@ communication electronically
workstation-based and supports access from personal computers. 6. Focus on improved production process and procedures.
A-5
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
NELMORS REDESIGNED NOISE SUPPRESSION SYSTEM
~ Cleanaut door
Feed thraat
. ..0.s.-
Cantral \
ponel
Granulate aut
Fig. A-5 Granutar cutting chamber showing the screen for controtting
output size and rotatingktationary knives. Fig. A-6 Granulator with Regal sound enclosure.
A-6
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
NELMORS REDESIGNED NOISE SUPPRESSION SYSTEM
Overall, the redesign project was a tremendous success, and (16 GA steel)
Fig. A-7 Old hopper design. Inner and outer hoppers are attached
through rubber grommets, gaskets, and pads.
A-7
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
NELMORS REDESIGNED NOISE SUPPRESSION SYSTEM
Outer layer
(16 GA steel)
\
1
I ! .------- ----
I
/4
----- ---
F -L
I
I Hopper
(1 O GA steel)
;
1
L ..>
i
~\ \-[
\~\ i
+\ \-+
\l
+
+ )
II #
FWot rod
Hopper wall
(7 GA steel)
1/16 dampening )
sheet
Typical
cross sectian
Fig. A-8 New hopper design. Outer layer is welded to hopper walls.
Rubber pads and air spaces are eliminated.
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
DESIGN FOR DISASSEMBLY IS A MARKETING ADVANTAGE
PRODUCT PERFORMANCE
The UKettle outperforms stove-top models and microwaves by
boiling water much more quickly, and is more energy efficient. In
addition, the unit has child-safety features and includes an auto-
matic shut-off mechanism.
Along with energy conservation, environmental responsibility
is fundamental to the UKettle concept. The kettle is made to be
easily and economically disassembled and completely recycled at
the end of its useful life. It is made of two recyclable high-
performance engineering thermoplastics. Its reservoir, base, lid,
handle, cross-brace, and on/off button are injection-molded of
NorylTM modified polyphenylene oxide (PPO) supplied by GE
Plastics. The products handle grip and lid grip are molded GE
Plastics LomodTM thermoplastic elastomer. PPO is a high-grade
plastic that will withstand the effects of constant heating and
cooling. The products life expectancy is comparable to that of a
quality electric coffee maker.
A-9
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
HOOVERS VACUUM CLEANER IS REDESIGNED
TABLE A-2
Elite/Convertible Comparison
A-10
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
GARRETT ENGINE DEVELOPS THE T800
ELITE CONVERTIBLE
10 Parts 17 Parts
8 Operations 29 Operations
Molded Plastic Body Painted Metal Body
Beater Bar Molded As Part of Body Steel Beater Bars-Riveted to Body
Bristles Laced Directly Inlo Body Bristles Laced to Brush Back
Automatic Assembly Could Not Be Assembled Automatically
the various agitator options, costs were estimated and the current techniques. Figure A-12 shows a comparison between the old
design was chosen. The use of design for manufacturing and the Convertible design and the new Elite design. Figure A-13 depicts
design for assembly techniques were relatively new to Hoover. the improvements made in the manufacturability of the new
They did not use any formal software or textbooks in applying agitator.
these techniques, but rather just applied the logic behind it. Their The Hoover Elite vacuum cleaner, brought to market in 1988,
findings were verified by sending the design to a DFM/DFA was the most successful product introduction in the companys
consulting group for a study on the agitator design. The results of history due to the successful blending of marketing, engineering,
that study verified that the agitator design followed proper DFM and manufacturing needs.
Contributed by La-r-y A4uncini, The Hoover Company,
A-1 1
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
WASHER DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURABILITY
Convertible
Bearing
Agitator end
I
@
&9
$//!%!$
I
Thread guard-L.H
/i
Washer
I 1<
Agitator body
I
Shaft
,<:
Washer I/A.
Thread guar[H.l&9
~qi
@
Agitator end
01
Be&ting
Elite
Figure A-13 A comparison between the old Convertible design and the new Elite design.
A-12
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
GARRETT ENGINE DEVELOPS THE T800
team has been given an adequate budget, works to resolve issues particular team members best interests, the team member must be
blocking team progress, evaluates the team leaders performance, able to accept that the company is being best served by such
and, most important y, ensures that overall company objectives decisions. This emotional maturity is essential if team bonding is
are being pursued and achieved. to occur.
The steering committcc represents various functional elements
in the company and serves as an advisory hoard to the CE team. It
should not give specific direction or make decisions, but rather be INITIAL TRAINING
available for giving advice and setting general policy. Senior It is important that a CE team comes together for offsite
management is represented on this committee. training prior to formally initiating activities. The team members
The CE team leader is an individual appointed by all of the will be forced to work together in such a new way that they must
sponsors, with the concurrence of the CE Steering Committee. be prepared emotionally and given interpersonal as well as team
This individual has the responsibility and authority to lead and training. While the integration of functional disciplines into a team
manage this group, but his or her principal role is to facilitate, looks simple on paper, the members are coming into this environ-
advise, counsel, and ensure consensus is reached for each activity ment with many dissimilar expectations and biases. These indi-
the team pursues. viduals must understand from the outset that there will be new
The breadth of team representation is dependent on the task challenges confronting them, and they are expected to be flexible,
being given to the team. If hardware cost reduction is being creative, fair, and committed. It is imperative that each member
addressed, then certainly manufacturing, purchasing, quality as- joining the team buys into the goals and methods; membership
surance, customer support, and engineering need to be represented should remain strictly voluntary.
on a full-time basis. If an entire engine development is being
considered, then in addition to these functions, accounting, busi-
CO-LOCATION
ness, contracts, and sales may be included. Team membership
It would be difficult to overestimate the psychological benefit
needs to include the functional departments that are affected over
derived from physically collocating the team in close proximity
the Iifetimc of the part from decisions made by the team. Part-time
close enough that there is a sense of unique identity. There is
departmental membership is permissible; however, the full-time considerable efficiency gained in communication from the fact that
members are generally those who feel a real commitment to team the members reside in close proximity to one another. Decisions
goals.
are made more rapidly because the exchange of information occurs
The CE contract is a critical element in the organizational
at a faster rate. But the major benefit comes from the sense of
structure, After the team has had ample time to become familiw
purpose and belonging that develops. Figure A-14 presents the
with its opportunity, it should prepare a written document that type of floor plan that would be helpful.
accurately states the commitments and constraints attendant to its
performance. The financial benefit to be derived from this team
activity is clearly stated, and a schedule is presented for delivered MATRIX ORGANIZATION GUIDELINES
units. The return on investment from this effort is stated, and Since each team member is reporting to the team while on
nonrecurring dollars are identified. The technical impact of loan, that team members loyalties are mixed. It is important that
changes to the engine or system is stated in terms of reliability, each team members department supervisor understand that he or
maintainability y, cost, durability, performance, and weight. Mile- she no longer has authority to direct or assign daily tasks. The
stones are included so the sponsor can be assured that progress is supervisor is there to ensure that the technical expertise of the
occurring at the appropriate rate. A reporting frequency is stipu- department is appropriately represented and documented. The
lated, and manpower and fiscal requirements/commitments are team leader is given the authority to assign and prioritize daily
enumerated, Program constraints are specified so the team and tasks that ensure CE team contract milestones will be achieved.
sponsors responsibilities are clear. Finally, a list of activities The functional departments supervision must accept that their
being considered by the team are presented so that the general department and company is best served in the long run by
scope of work is fully communicated. This contract is to be signed temporarilyy loaning out its most talented personnel. If this point is
by both the sponsor and the CE team leader. Team member names not completely understood, bitterness between the CE team and
are listed in the document so management is aware of those the home department may develop. In short, this concurrent
accepting responsibility for the activity. This document should be Engineering approach is only as effective as the functional
updated at least annually, or adjusted as required, when significant departments are committed.
unscheduled events occur.
A-13
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
GARRETT ENGINE DEVELOPS THE T800
Q
F
Cf$i.
Design
C
9 air e
C air
Chair chair
8 8
Suppliers
area
drait;~rd
Pc
H
MCD purchasing
C
@ air @
C air
Chair
E
Chair
B
z
F@ anq
Materials Qucdily Assurance
Engineering Engineering
-. . ..- ..-.
r lg. A-14 concurrent engmeerurg mar plan.
gained from teaming will become apparent to team members and commensurate with company objectives. This financial analysis
supervisors over time. But be prepared initially for loyalties to be includes consideration for nonrecurring costs (e. g. tooling, fix-
tested as physical separation introduces new emotional stresses tures, gages, inventory obsolescence, component and engine
into the organization. testing, as well as hardware procured) and recurring costs (e.g.
fabrication, repair, and field condemnation unit costs), as well as
TASK SELECTION production quantities and its schedule. Having performed such an
As the team begins to engage in its analysis, many opportuni- analysis, the team can proceed knowing what priority to affix to
ties will present themselves lo the team members. It will quickly such an objective. With various activities to consider, it is
become apparent that some equitable procedure must be estab- important to evaluate all priorities against a common denomina-
lished to ensure that wise decisions, reflective of the entire team torand rate of return on investment proves to be a good one.
membership, are pursued and attained. A trade study mechanism
must be employed that ensures all ultimate decisions reflect an
appropriate weighting. However, before final decisions are
MAINTAINING FOCUS
To ensure the CE team is properly focused, the following
reached, the process must also allow members to understand that
techniques are recommended:
initial concepts are worthy of detailed pursuit.
To achieve this confidence, a financial analysis is conducted on 1. The team should write an annually updated Contract for
each major design activity to ensure a return on investment management;
A-14
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
GARRETT ENGINE DEVELOPS THE T800
2. The team develops its own mission and vision statement; The ideal situation is to reserve floor space for suppliers and
3. The team has weekly meetings to ensure all members are allow them to stay in the work area when visits are made. The
receiving current information; suppliers interests will be represented in team decisions only
4. A public file is maintained for each major activity, which when the day-to-day priorities reflect the teams interest in them.
allows all members to review design requirements, draw-
ing release schedules, financial and programmatic benefits,
supplier selection and contacts, and barriers; and UPPER MANAGEMENT SUPPORT
5. A monthly report is issued documenting progress, status, While all of these factors are important to the success of the CE
and objectives. The informai communication that results team, the one force that ensures its viability is the support of the
from co-location cannot be discussed as a formal mecha- company president. With any change in an organization comes
nism, but it is in fact critical to the real world success of resistance. Only the support of a company president will ensure
team focus. that new teaming arrangements stand a chance of surviving
budgetary cut backs, departmental politics, and short-term project
or program directives. Before any effort at implementing a CE
PROGRAM SCHEDULE
Team approach is initiated, the company president must be
With representation from various departments comes the diffi-
convinced that the approach will be supported when it encounters
cult task of ensuring that team members understand the meaning
difficulties. Progress will come, but results will not be immediate.
and significance of scheduled commitments. Many individuals are
The buy-in is gradual and is only achieved by departments as they
not used to working in a design and development arena paced by
experience positive feedback from their team members.
the calendar, and the various sequential activities required to be
completed on time are not well understood. It is important to
develop clear schedules and milestones that hold meaning for RESULTS ACHIEVED TO DATE
everyone. Frequent reviews of commitments are mandatory and Results establish the integrity of any espoused system. The
thus many informal meetings are required to ensure optimal T800 CE Team has been operating together for one year and can
communication is achieved. The essence of concurrent engineer- claim the following successes:
ing is a timely and effective communication of needs one of
which is scheduled meetings. 1. The identification of design improvements that will reduce
engine fabrication costs by 25 percent;
DECISION MAKING 2. Design changes are in-process that will reduce fabrication
To ensure all team member input is given fair review, it is costs of production engines by 10 percent within four
essential that a formal process for making decisions is observed. years;
The CE Team uses a trade study analysis that weights each 3. Design changes in-process will reduce field repair and
important programmatic parameter. The parameters that are quan- condemnation costs by more than the fabrication cost
reduction;
tified include performance, weight, life, cost, make, maintainabil-
ityy, reliability, supportability, survivability, and schedule. The 4. Titanium cast parts are now being produced from stereo-
weighting factors employed are agreed upon by the customer and lithography parts generated from electronic 3D files;
company management so that team decisions are reflective of the 5. A D-base cost model has been created that accurately
computes all in-plant hidden and direct costs associated
enterprises best interests. As long as each team members input is
equitably and consistently utilized, he or she can be assured that with part fabrication;
6. New processes and materials have been identified for
the functional department has been properly represented. This
decision making methodology is vital to maintaining good team several parts;
morale. 7. Five suppliers have been selected for long-term agree-
ments; and, most importantly,
8. The team members believe in the CE approach.
SUPPLIER INCLUSION
The long-term success of concurrent engineering involves
Contributed by Jerry C. Webster, CA4fgE, Senior Production
active, up-front as well as continuous participation of all suppliers.
Engineer, Garrett Engine Division, Allied-Signal Aerospace Com-
The Garrett Engine Divisions CE team involves suppliers in a
pany and John Mason, Project Engineer, Garrett Engine Divi-
significant way by selecting certain suppliers to be partners
sion, Allied-Signal Aerospace Company.
over the entire life of the product, from initial design to support of
the units in the field. Such complete involvement means the
suppliers have a vested interest from the outset and are willing to
share ideas knowing that such information will not be given to
other suppliers but rather will be directed to improving a product
that will help both the prime contractor and its suppliers.
A-15
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
WASHER DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURABILITY
A-16
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
WASHER DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURABILITY
for the process quality and productivity. The results have been
higher quality with greater worker satisfaction and faster resolu- Fig. A-15 Plant layout.
tion of problems,
Brastemp worked with their suppliers early in the program to The experience gained in this project will be utilized in future
develop JIT delivery systems using Kanban. All suppliers com- product introductions worldwide. The World Washer product
pleted a certification program before their acceptance as a supplier design and process can be brought directly into the U.S. for
for the World Washer. domestic production if the market develops, or if a foreign
competitor challenges Whirlpools domestic market share for
washers. Potential U.S. markets parallel the Brazilian needs for
OUTCOME OF THE FOUR-STEP PROCESS floor space savings and water usage reduction.
The World Washer went into production as scheduled and with
157. to 207. fewer parts (dependent on the market) than current NEXT TIME
Whirlpool automatic washers, Model variations are created using To assist the Whirlpool teams that follow the lead taken by the
software changes to the controls rather than hard tooling. Produc- World Washer team, a how-to book, the Manufacturing System
tion quality is high, with very little WIPandalmost zero finished Development Manual, was assembled. This manual gathers the
goods inventory. individual elements of the entire DFM process that proved
A-17
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
DIGITAL BUILDS A BETTER MOUSETRAP
successful for the team. Major sections are devoted to setting the SUMMARY
manufacturing strategy, the project and quality management di- The four-step DFM process was a success with the World
rection, the materials control concepts, maintenance systems, Washer program. To review, the four steps are:
training, and the use of simulation. 1. Early marketing involvement and leadership.
Awareness of the need to do things differently was a challenge 2. Integration of design, process, and quality functions,
that the World Washer team faced in the unfamiliar global 3. Use of modules to meet the distinct needs of the local
marketplace. Exposure to the DFM process and world-class marketplace.
manufacturing was accomplished through seminars, selected read- 4. Establishing the world-class manufacturing philosophies.
ing, and tours of companies around the world. Reluctance to
change was real. It was addressed firmly and immediately. It is A1l of these steps were built around step zero which is the
anticipated that awareness also will be a key to future team development of, and adherence to, a set of objectives against
development. which all steps and developments are measured.
As awareness is heightened, the process of education begins By integrating DFM and advanced manufacturing philoso-
wherever possible. The training progressed as the need developed phies, concepts, and tools, Whirlpool has formed a definition of a
and where the results could immediate] y be put to use. world-class manufacturing process. This is a process designed to
Working with a foreign partner required an exchange of stay focused on continual improvement to remain competitive in
cultural learning to remove interpersonal barriers. Building a base the ever-changing global market.
of common understanding and goal setting reduced the impact of Contributed by Craig L, McGirr, P. E., Research and Engi-
complexities that were to develop later in the project. neering Center, Whirlpool Corp.
A-18
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
UNITED TECHNOLOGIES AUTOMOTIVE AND DFM
the material, says Mr. Lewis. With that figure and a series of
cost-lookup tables that are stored in the computer, DEC designers
can determine the material costs for their parts as they are
designing them.
Team members also perform computer simulation on the
designs, such as mold flow and stress analysis, and even assem-
bly. DEC designers also ensure meeting their cost goals by
following producibility guidelines as well as involving suppliers
early on with the team.
Therefore, in addition to significant improvements in assembly
figures, the team reduced material costs. By maximizing the
processes we were going to use to make the parts, Mr. Lewis
explains, we were able to take 47% off the cost of materials.
Even the packaging for the new mouse was innovatively
designed, built, and managed, with overall costs in mind, The
result is a new package that costs 24 cents, compared with 59 cents
for the old model. Phrs, the new package is one-third the
volume, so it costs less to ship, says Mr. Lewis.
A-19
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
UNITED TECHNOLOGIES AUTOMOTIVE AND DFM
A specification package is developed to cover the areas are anticipated. A testing plan for product validation is made. The
required for product performance throughout its anticipated life equipment used to perform the validation testing is reviewed.
without loss of function. Regular meetings are held to ensure that customer needs are
The design concept consists of the preliminary bill of material, incorporated. This is accomplished with the division, plant, team
hand sketches, initial layouts, and other material to convey the members, and suppliers to ensure that the proper direction is taken
basic design idea to others. All of the details of the design intent to resolve any issues. Responsibilities are listed on each issue with
must be present. The concept is reviewed with engineering a projected completion date.
management and key design personnel. A flow chart of the Concept drawings establish datums and demonstrate the con-
assembly process is drawn to allow further cost estimates. cept. Critical and significant characteristics are selected after
Using the design concept package, a cost is developed for each reviewing the following: drawings, customer requests, design and
individual component, a total assembled cost, and tooling. The process FMEAs, process knowledge, warranty, and returned parts
customer also receives this information on the estimated costs of analysis. These characteristics help determine process parameters
the product. for manufacturing controls.
A central file for all design documentation (related to the A layout is performed on all areas of the design and the design
program) is started and maintained by the program manager. Easy is checked for proper fit and function. Tolerances are identified,
access is a requirement for all staff involved in the program. the design is reviewed again by the team, datums are established
Typical documents contained in a shared file are those documents for dimensioning, and a sample is made. Initial design stackups of
that form a permanent record (for example, program checklist, the areas that pertain to fit and function are examined and noted.
specifications, and test reports). Program objectives are developed Control plan development (including end-of-line and in-
by the program leader with input from all areas. Objectives are process testing requirements) are developed by the team after
placed in the program file. control characteristics are identified. All engineering documenta-
A cross-functional team is established. This team consists of tion pertaining to the plant is reviewed, program status updated,
key members from the division and the manufacturing facilities. A packaging requirements resolved, and design sign-offs from all
program and/or engineering team leader is selected to facilitate the areas completed. Test equipment is evaluated for process moni-
various activities identified in the program checklist. A team toring capabilities. Any further changes to the sample design are
member also is selected to facilitate the various activities between completed prior to the first prototype without jeopardizing the
the plant and the division. promise date to the customer.
This cross-functional team consists of members from the Prototype development starts with tool requests, checking
following departments: layouts and samples, and capability studies. Prototypes are deliv-
Division Engineering. ered to the customer, tested, and evaluated. Corrections are added
Division Quality. for the layout and tooling, and retested.
Division Sales. Finally, the design is reviewerJ again and stackups and blue-
Division Supplier Technical Assistance Group or prints are checked. Production samples are evaluated and after
Purchasing. everyone-especially the customerapproves, the product is
Division Testing Group. brought into regular production.
Plant Manufacturing (includes supervisors and line
operators).
Plant Engineering. DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSIBILITIES
Plant Quality. Information is constantly exchanged among the involved de-
Customer Members. partments. This is crucial in developing a successful product.
Table A-3 shows a distribution of UTAP responsibilities and Fig.
The cross-functional team is divided into two groups consisting A-17 is a flowchart of UTAP activities.
of primary members and secondary members. Primary members
participate in the areas of the control plan development. Secondary
members provide assistance in their area of expertise or to share
information obtained by the primary members. Collectively, there
RESULTS
Resolving or anticipating product problems comes easier when
are many members, so interaction is important. The team attempts
DFM techniques are utilized in the early phase of program
to specify the progression of actions needed, member responsibil-
planning and product design. The assembly plants contributed to
ity, and an explanation for each action.
preliminary sketches of the product flow, FMEA, and character-
The activity completed to this point is reviewed by the DFM
istics for process control. Their input led to important changes in
team. The engineering team leader meets with that team to confirm
component drawings and process flows while the ideas were still
program release status including the program timing chart, team
being developed. Capability studies were simplified. The early
membership, design and testing status, planning for failure mode
shared-information sessions outlined gaging and testing require-
and effects analysis (FMEA) reports, and control plans. Based on
ments wh]ch simplified capability studies once tooling and ma-
the review status, action plans are developed, time-frames set, and
chinery arrived. In-process placement is very effective because the
responsibilities assigned. The product undergoes validation testing
decisions were based on a full understanding of the product and
to determine conformance to customer specifications and team
process. Team members use a wide range of analytical tools
suggestions. Final drafts of the initial design FMEA and the initial
traditionally reserved for Quality personnel. Working together has
assembly process are completed. Key-part supplier selection
led to better understanding of the roles and needs of departments
is started.
and customers.
A formalized process flow diagram is drawn after consultation
with the team. This diagram shows the flow of resources from the Contributed by James F. Sixtek and Craig J. Tonti, United
start to the end of the process. Possible design or process changes Technologies Automotive.
A-20
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
UNITED TECHNOLOGIES AUTOMOTIVE AND DFM
TABLE A-3
Distribution of UTAP Responsibilities
1 Customer inquiry a, c
2 Initial progrom review a
3 Design wish kst 0, f, p
4 Develop m,tiol speclflcotion package b, p
5 Design concept b, g, h
51 Design review, concept review b
5.2 Imtial process flow dmgram h
6 Concept cost package g, h
7 Customer proposal a
8 Quote and source selection a, b, f, I
81 Start program file a, b
8.2 Develop progrom objectives b
9 Team selectmn a, i
10 Program k!ck-off b
11 Develop design validation plan and report b, d, f
12 Cons.rner preference suweysl House of Quality b, p
13 Initm design FMEA b
14 Initial ossembly process FMEA k
15 Key-part suppl[er selection
16 Formallze process flow diagram ;h, n
17 Request prolect funding b, i
18 Testing plan (product validation) b, d, t, h, I
19 Ongoing design review with customer
20 Internal design review f, i
21 Concept draw!ngs b
22 Slgmf!cant pmductlprocess charocterlstic selectlon I
23 Design layout b, f, 1, m
23.1 Design check m
232 Check CAD models m
23.3 Establish datums 1, m
24 Proof sample b, p
25 Initial design stackups b, m
26 Control plan development d, f, I, k
27 Detailed drawings b, c, f, g, k, m
28 Packag[ng requirements b, e, f, I, k, p
29 Design s,gnoff
30 Checking b, I
31 Detailed cost package b, h
32 Test equ!pment design review d, I, I
33 Initial sample design freeze
34 Release vakdakm test equ[pment a, d, I
35 Release Initial sample tooling b, I
36 Prototype layout of Phase I samples b, o
37 Assemble Phase I samples b, d
38 Recewe component control plans k, 1, 0
39 Capability studies for prototype samples k, o
40 Customer prototype delivery n
41 Initial sample testing b, g
42 Prototype revlslon ond testing results b,
43 Final product[cm destgn re,ew a, b, c, p
44 Final stackups b
45 Final checktng b, I
46 ProductIon design freeze
47 Release production tooling c, 1
48 Receive production components with documentatmn k
49 UTAP team implements control plan k
50 S~llng opproval o, k, n, p
51 Manufacturing nd assembly approval k
52 8uild production validation k, n
53 Run vol,dation testing k,
54 Prepore/submit customer sample k, p
55 ProductIon startup k, p
56 Ongoing value engineering k, n
57 Launch support and customer k, p
KEY
~ = sol~~ f = UTAP team member k = Assembly plant or Its team member
b = Englneerlng team leader g = Engineenng management I = Quality, Reliability, and InspectIon
c = Prmclpal engineer (responsible engineer] h = Cost and pr[ce control m = Designer
d = Developing ond Testing I = Program leader n = Engineering
e = Purchoslng I = UTAP team leader 0 = Customer
A-21
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
UNITED TECHNOLOGIES AUTOMOTIVE AND DFM
El
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
UNITED TECHNOLOGIES AUTOMOTIVE AND DFM
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I 3.60
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
PERKIN-ELMERS TOTAL PACKAGE CONCEPT
A-24
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
PERKIN-ELMERS TOTAL PACKAGE CONCEPT
reliability, and a package that exhibits first-class styling. The The product name does not appear in the graphics. The factory
project team and PE management felt that the design for assembly staff were much in favor of the box with graphics, but they were
methodology was so successful that the concept should be ex- concerned about the prospect of each product group generating
panded to the total product that the customer sees when the unique graphics for each new product. So the two boxes with
shipping container is first opened, And, because of the momentum graphics are generic. The part number and contents of an individ-
established with design for assembly packaging of the SCI, top ual box are defined in labels affixed to the box end-flaps. For
management encouraged this initiative. OMEGA, there are four unique box labels. These are: the
There exist numerous examples of the PC peripheral and C-Engine, the SCI, an accessory called the REM, and the software
software companies that are packaging their wares in secure and kit which includes the manuals.
eye-catching boxes with graphics. On the other hand, the staff In the case of the SCI, for example, the plastic unit, the cables,
realized that with the then-current methodology for shipping this the feet, and other small items are placed neatly in one box with
type of product, the major components (C-Engine, SCI, software graphics. There is very little possibility of breakage or of parts not
disk package, cables, etc. ) would be picked from stock and placed being included. Moreover, the product has an outstanding look
in cardboard shipping boxes along with plastic bubbles. That is not when it arrives.
a very appealing picture. It is fraught with possibilities for parts
shortages (especially of small items like cables, the plastic feet, SUMMARY
etc. ) and of parts lost in the bubbles as well as breakage during In this before-and-after study of a simple product, one can
shipment. easily see the dramatic effect of applying the design for assembly
The use of a box with graphics seemed to be the answer. One concepts and methodology. And, by broadening perspective to
box size was selected to fit all of the OMEGA-2 requirements. encompass the packaging of the total product, PE increased the
Later on, another box was designed by the manufacturing engi- impact of the technique to directly affect marketplace perceptions.
neering staff to fit over an already existing, somewhat larger The work of a few can occasionally affect the results of many.
shipping box. The larger box was more appropriate for shipping It was fortunate that conditions were at the right point in the
the software kit. Currently both of these containers are used to project evolution to move directly on the concept outlined in the
package OMEGA-2 for shipment. seminar. In addition, as the project manager, I had the authority
A-25
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
DESIGN MODIFICATION-TRIPLETT MODEL 310 METER
%.,
-.,
and resources to act on this new-found knowledge and on my prevent doing the wrong thing), there are also pockets in those
perception of what to do next. Since design for assembly was same organizations where a new idea can take hold and flourish.
being strongly endorsed by top management, I knew it would be One is never sure just where thats going to be or how it will come
relatively easy to get support for this initiative and for the modest about. But, for top management, look for points of high leverage
additional expense it would entail. Moreover, I had no ax to when trying to introduce an idea like design for assembly, or any
grind, nor no functional turf to protect. Thus, it was possible new concept for that matter. Those leverage points are not
(even easy) for me to quickly scrap a design and to put a new one necessarily in the usual places. You may be surprised where you
in its place. Certainly this is not always the case. find them.
While resistance to a new idea or a new concept crops up in
every large organization (and often that resistance is good, it can Contributed by Gerard Paul, PE Nelson.
A-26
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
DESIGN MODIFICATION-TRIPLETT MODEL 310 METER
1. Find a replacement battery for the high ohms range of the circuit is actually a rather poor full wave rectifier that requires only
meter. The original battery was a 15V photo battery that is two diodes. It also requires the use of two addhional resistors. This
scheduled to go out of production. design was originally employed because of the wide tolerances of
2. Keep the original meter movement. the older style germanium diodes. Using the quasi-bridge circuit
3. The look and feel of the instrument must not be altered. effectively averaged the two diodes together and the result was a
more predictable input resistance and full-scale voltage.
Several hundred samples of the popular 1N34 germanium
INITIAL INVESTIGATION rectifier diodes were ordered and virtually no change was found
As the tasks began, certain modifications were immediately within a production run in any of the diodes. With higher quality
obvious. Manufacturers of custom resistor arrays that would meet or at least more closely matched rectifier diodes, the more
the meters specifications needed to be located. To maintain the conventional half wave rectifier circuit was used. This decision
meters basic DC accuracy of *2%, resistors must have a also reduced the part count of the AC section by two.
guaranteed accuracy of *1%. Because the meter movement and The last section to be modified was the ohm ranges. The
the DC voltage ranges were to be unchanged, thevalues of these Triplett Model 310 meter employs a rather unique ohm meter
resistors were unchanged. As the investigation began of single design with 200 ohms at center scale. This in itself is not difficult
inline package resistor array technology and Underwriters Labo- to deal with except that it also has an R X lK scale. The
ratory guidelines, it became clear that the highest voltage ranges combination of a 50 p,A meter movement along with 200 Kfl at
and current range would not meet practical manufacturing and center scale requires the use of at least a 10-volt battery. The
safety requirements. However, a workable design modification 15-volt battery had more than sufficient head room, but one of the
met the requirements. main reasons for initiating the modifications was the need to
Thehighest DCvoltage range was 1200 volts and requiredan eliminate the 15V photo battery (condition l). A battery marketed
18 Mf2, 1 watt dropping resistor. Thewattage requirement of this by Eveready for use in electronic cigarette lighters and remote
resistor was not a function of the actual expected dissipation, but controls for key-fob auto alarms was used. It was constructed by
was mandated because of the extreme voltage. A resistor of stacking eight LR932 hearing aid batteries to produce 12 volts, and
insufficient physical dimensions would not have the dielectric is smaller than tbe N cell which is used in the R X 1, R X 10
strength to inhibit arcing. Obviously, that resistor could not be and R X 100 ranges. A slight modification to the R X 1 Kf) range
included in an array with pinspacingof O.1. Thenext DC voltage utilized the new battery voltage. All of the resistors except one
range was the 300 volt range. This resistor needed to drop 240 were put into one array. The one remaining resistor exchrded from
volts and have a resistive value of 4.8 MO. Both of these the array was done so as to improve circuit board layout and to
parameters were beyond the maximums recommended by the optimize the use of the available circuit board real estate. The only
various manufacturers. To overcome this obstacle, this resistor other modification to the resistance ranges was the change to a
was replaced with two 2.4 MO resistors. These two resistors PCB mounted ohms adjust potentiometer. The PCB mount design
would be placed between three adjacent pins on the resistor array eliminated two sets of machine screws, nuts, and a metal bracket.
with the center pin removed. The missing pin also keyed the
device and insured that the array would not be inserted into the
board incorrectly. In this case, one array and one discreet resistor
MODIFICATIONS
A prototype of the modified meter was constructed starting
took the place of five separate resistors.
with the original Model 310. The electronic components were
The four ammeter ranges also were unchanged electrically. The
board mounted except for the batteries, the fuse, and the meter
only obstacle to direct conversion to a resistor array was the
movement. Even the input jacks were mounted to the PC board.
wattage requirement of the 600 mA range shunt resistor. With full
This type of modular design will greatly reduce the labor hours
scale current this resistor was expected to dissipate about 150 mW.
necessary for construction and also will render the meter much
However, it is considered good engineering practice to have
more serviceable.
current meter shunts rated at 10X the expected power require-
The modifications were transferred to Tripletts revised bhre-
ments. This 10X safety feature reduces drifting of the resistors
prints.
value due to heating and gives the protection device a few more
milliseconds to react in the event of accidental overload. As in the
previous situation, the extreme value was omitted from the array. REVISED DRAWINGS
However, the other three ammeter ranges lent themselves nicely to The original drawings were still being used for the manufacture
resistor array designs and, in this case, one resistor and one of the meter, with countless corrections and updates made over the
resistor array took the place of four separate devices. years. As a result, numerous conflicting dimensions and details
llc design of the dropping resistors for the AC voltages was existed on the drawings and they had become extremely cluttered
identical to that of the DC voltage ranges with the 1200 volt AC with the changes. To facilitate future changes, the entire unit was
range, utilizing a discreet device and the missing pin on the redrawn on a CAD system.
array for keying and to eliminate arcing. As in the case of the DC Since new drawings for the case were required and the changes
ranges, one resistor and one resistor array took the place of four to the circuitry simplified the construction of the unit, it was
separate devices. possible to make numerous changes to the internal layout of the
The dropping resistor for the three-volt AC range was not case. The fuse was relocated, simplifying the solder connections
included in the array. It remains a hand chosen component because and making a cleaner design inside the case. Combined with a
its value is a function of the forward drop of the rectifying diodes number of other minor changes, these resulted in a case design
and the reactance of the meter movement. which would be easier to mold, use less raw material, allow the
The last modification to the AC range was to assess the use of two spring contacts of the same design rather than two
feasibility of a half wave rectifier circuit instead of the quasi- tilfferent ones, and reduce the cost of making the injection
bridge circuit that had been used previously. The quasi-bridge molding dies,
A-27
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
DESIGN MODIFICATION-TRIPLETT MODEL 310 METER
The PC board itself was dramatically modified because of the process. However, the movement is extremely sensitive to shock
reduction in total number of components, circuitry changes, and and excess deflection. Approximately 2070 were damaged by the
incorporation of resistor arrays. The photo master was created time the unit was ready for final testing. These movements are not
using a CAD (Computer-aided Drawing) program. The arcs for the repairable, so these 20% were discarded. Because of the redesign
switch wipers and all of the runs between solder pads were of the zero adjust pot and the subsequent elimination of its three
produced in this way. The final drawing was then laser plotted on wires, and the PC board mounting of the input jacks and the
drafting film to obtain the necessary line density. The plotting elimination of their wires, the meter movement could be assem-
scale was fine-tuned to obtain the exact finished dimensions bled to the rest of the meter at the very end of the assembly
desired. Although a4X copy of the PC board was required by process, saving nearly 100% of damaged movements. An addi-
Triplett for it to be manufactured, a 1X copy was printed using tional advantage is that there are no longer any wires connecting
CAD to verify layout designs. After several generations and the case top to the case bottom via the input jacks, making service
modifications, a circuit board layout provided the required spacing dramatically simpler.
needed forthehigh-voltage areas of the board, and adequate room As noted, the four input jacks were originally swaged to the
for the remaining components. case top. To reinforce the case top to withstand the forces of
Model 310 was only slightly modified electrically; however, repeated insertion and removal of the plugs, two pieces of plastic
the modernization of the components will significantly reduce were glued to the right and left of center on the inside of the case
production costs and facilitate maintenance in the future. top. Swaging the newly designed jacks to the bottom of the PC
board eliminated the necessity for the reinforcement pieces. The
NUMBER OF PARTS length of the jacks is such that they press against the underside
A number of changes also were made to the physical design of of the case top for added support, minimizing the stress on
the unit, including components as well as the case. Initially the the PC board.
ohms zero adjust potentiometer was secured to the case bottom As an example of the reduction in the number of parts on the
with a bracket, two screws, and two nuts. It was then hard wired PC board, the original 15 resistors and their 30 connecting wires
tothe PC board with three wires. Theredesign calls for soldering were replaced with four resistor arrays with 19 solder points in the
the three Ieadsof a simplified pot directly to the PC board. form of pins rather than protruding wires. Seven wires were
Secondly, the four input jacks were swagedinto the case top eliminated by locating the input jacks and ohms zero adjust
while the wires connected them to the PC board mounted to the potentiometer on the PC board.
case bottom. Once in place, these wires prevented the complete As a consequence of the detailed changes, many cost reduc-
removal of the top from the bottom. It was only possible to tions and unit improvements were realized. The meter is easier and
separate thetwohalves by about 1(25.4mm). Forthisreason, all simpler to assemble, there are fewer overall components, the
internal components and wiring had to be installed before the jacks finished product is more reliable electrically and mechanically, the
were wired in. Redesign called forasimplified jack that was then number of rejects was significantly reduced, a number of the
swaged and soldered directly to the PC board. Four more wires replacement components were significantly cheaper than the
were eliminated. originals, service was simplified, mold design was simplified, and
The fact that the top could not be completely separated from the assembly could be automated to a greater extent than was
bottom without disconnecting the input jack wires created prob- previously possible.
lems with the meter movement during manufacture. It meant that
the movement had to be assembled to the case before the input Contributed by Al Palmer and Tabb Schreder, The University
jacks were wired. This required that it be early in the assembly of Toledo.
A-28
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
LT-5 PROJECT
Because of the success of the LT-5 project, these three flexible manufacturing process allowed for product design changes
companies now believe in a philosophy called simultaneous or to be incorporated quickly and cost effective y. Figure A-22 shows
concurrent engineering. a traditional versus simultaneous time line which depicts the
Sirrruhaneous engineering is a team approach to project man- amount of time required for launch of the LT-5 versus the
agement, both within the individual companies and in their traditional timing required.
relations with each other. For example, the LT-5 engine was Total expenditures for manufacturing the LT-5 area fraction of
designed by Chevrolet Engineering and Lotus Engineering in a conventionally produced automotive engine due to the design of
Hethel, England, in conjunction with several GM Allied Divisions the manufacturing process. The process was designed with product
such as AC Rochester, Delco Electronics, and others. Chevrolet development in mind. The advantages are reduced changeover
Engineering worked closely with Lotus to develop and direct the cost and the use of durability testing of the product from the
engine design and specifications throughout the project. In the production process rather than a model from the prototype shop.
earliest design stages, MerCruiser was brought into the program to
start the development of production manufacturing processes. The
product design and the manufacturing process were developed
concurrently to produce the engine now manufactured under WHY SIMULTANEOUS ENGINEERING
contract by MerCruiser. WORKED
There were key individuals in the simultaneous communica- Setting mandatory goals in the early stages and having all the
tions of the program. These individuals were team leaders at their companies adhere to those goals was essential to making simulta-
respective companies. The information exchanged between them neous engineering work. In this case, the entire project was based
was used to coordinate the evolution of the LT-5 design. on small multifunctional groups targeting basic goals:
As stated earlier, there were three major players in the
Build an engine of world-class quality.
development of the LT-5 engine. There were also many minor
. Maintain quality and achieve unmatched performance.
players who were equally essential to the success of the program.
. Meet established deadlines/milestones to ensure prompt
The GM Allied Divisions alone constituted a major effort in
completion of the project (Beat the competition to the
engineering coordination.
marketplace. )
Engine component suppliers other than General Motors, along
. Maintain a flexible team environment at all costs throughout
with capital and tooling suppliers for the in-house MerCruiser
the project.
manufacturing process, were kept in the same simultaneous
engineering communication loop adopted by the three main Because of simultaneous engineering, the project required
companies. The number of LT-5 engine component suppliers fewer managers, buyers, and engineers than a traditional engine
alone totaled 91 companies. Open communication between these design and development project. Chevrolet representatives often
firms and product design was cultivated. Good communication noted that it would have taken significantly more personnel for
was essential to success, considering that the component suppliers manufacturing alone had GM taken on this project itself.
companies were located throughout the United States, Europe, and A multifunctional team was pulled together as soon as possible,
the Far East. and because of the low number of personnel, each individual
To establish and maintain open communications, the three assigned to the project at MerCruiser had to assume broader
major companies would visit all suppliers for a complete review of responsibilities than usual. The advantage was a reduction in the
the components they were to supply. This interface established a levels of approval required to make decisions. This factor helped
partnership between suppliers, engineering, manufacturing, and cultivate a teamwork environment. During development of the
the customer. Drawing and design issues were discussed up front. engine, one objective was to incorporate product design changes
Quality concerns and criteria were also reviewed at this time. It as quickly as possible. It was not uncommon to receive a faxed
should be noted that quality requirements were very thorough, and drawing in the morning and have a complete change in the
it was essential to establish this goal at the beginning. The result manufacturing process by noon.
of this approach proved beneficial from the suppliers point of Major changes which adversely affected the function of man-
view, because the y were brought into these philosophies at the ufacturing equipment and tooling took longer, but were still
beginning rather than toward the end. handled in record time. The ability to move quickly was a direct
The Lotus/Chevrolet/MerCruiser collaboration would have result of the confidence and trust management placed in their
been unlikely just a few years ago; however, it makes perfect sense teams. The following factors are essential to the success of teams:
for todays niche-filled automotive market. Chevrolet wanted to
1. Select competent team leaders.
develop the best engine possible to power its 1990 ZR- 1 Corvette.
2. Insist on good communications.
The goal was to achieve the highest quality and best performance
3. Provide necessary financial resources.
possible, yet still meet emission and fuel efficiency objectives in
4. Omit multilevel approval structures.
the shortest lead time and, of course, accomplish this at the lowest
5. Provide clear goals and milestones.
possible cost. The result is the LT-5 engine a 5.7 liter fuel
6. Make room for flexibility.
injected V-8 engine. The engine features four valves per cylinder,
and can develop nearly 400 horsepower. It is the first all- To meet established deadlines, MerCruiser and Lotus had to be
ahtminum production engine of its kind to be produced in the flexible and creative in the way they handled product development
United States. The statistics in Fig. A-20 show the LT-5 as it design changes. One example of this was the creation of a
compares to its competition. specification update sheet. This document could be submitted by
Simultaneous engineering allowed the LT-5 to evolve from either company (via fax) to address required changes. This method
concept to first running prototype in 23 months, and to the first of addressing engineering changes was simple, informal, and
engine built by MerCruiser in just 35 months (see Fig. A-21). successful. After only a short period of time, the system was
There were a significant number of engineering changes. The nicknamed SPUD (Spec Update). Updated master drawings
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
LT-5 PROJECT
COMPETITIVE VEHICLES
VEHICLE MAKE AND MODEL ENGINE TYPE BORE/STROKE (IN. ) LITERS/CID HORSEPOWER @ RPM TORQUE @ RPM
Chevrolet
Corvette LT-5 V8 3.90/3.66 5.7/350 370-390@6000 370-390@4800
Chevrolet
Corvette L98 V8 4.00/3.48 5.7/350 240@40CXl 335@3200
Ferrati 328
GTB S1 V8 3.27/194 3.2/1 94 260@7000 213@5500
Mondial Cabriolet
Testarossa V-12 3.27/3.07 4.9/302 380@5750 354@4500
Lamborghini
Jalpa V8 3.40/3.00 3.5/21 4 255@7000 229@3500
Nissan 300ZX
Turbo V6 340/3.30 3.0/181 205@5200 227@3600
Porsche
.. ... . - . . . .
Fig. A-ZU The LI-5 comparert to its competition.
would always follow in a short period of time. The absence of the established the team relationship that exists today between the two
latest formal engineering drawings on-site at MerCrttiser did not companies. Before the manufacturing process actually began at
slow down the product or the process development. MetCruiser, the assembly production foreman and the industrial
Trust was essential. Trust in the ability and intentions of the engineer spent four weeks at Lotus Engineering in England to
team members, especially at Chevrolet and Lotus, was probably study the Lotus build techniques, to document the prototype build
the most important element of this program. One example of the process, and to build engines themselves.
trust relationship is the fact that, when required, the authority to In most cases, the production foreman is not hired until
approve sample inspection reports (S .l.R. ) was given to the engineering is complete. In this case, the project was not even out
MerCruiser Project Engineer. In traditional project launch hierar- of the prototype stage when tbe foreman was sent to Lotus to work
chies, the manufacturer submits the S. 1.R. to product design for directly with technicians and engineers.
approval. This would have added time, especially if lengthy Using this knowledge, the foreman assisted the team in the
reports had to go to England for approval, considering there are design and configuration of the LT-5 assembly process. The result
over 400 individual part numbers in the LT-5 engine. Trust is also was an ownership for the product and the manufacturing process
essential in the product design development stages of the project, essential to an extremely fast-paced program like the LT-5.
where manufacturing process capability and minimum product The industrial engineer was directly involved with Lotus early
requirements are concerned. Each group must trust the talents and in the design development and worked with the Lotus technicians,
intentions of the other for effective product and process growth to at Lotus, while the prototype was being built. The challenge for
occur. This is not to say there were never disagreements; there the industrial engineer was to assimilate the Lotus formula one
were. However, team members would fall back on the other goals racing engine build method into a production-type manufacturing
to keep the project moving forward. system. Lotus had previously assigned two men to an engine and
Also, using resources like the facsimile machine and the would take as long as 200 work hours to build a single LT-5. The
telephone to communicate between companies helped support the goal at MerCruiser was to achieve 18 to 20 engines per day with
project by providing timely information for decision making. 20 to 25 people in production mode, taking approximately 10
These two resources were recognized immediately and utilized hours per engine. Working closely with Lotus Engineering and
thoroughly. Chevrolet, the team developed a plan to achieve this goal.
Simultaneous engineering played a role in the engine assembly Simultaneous engineering did not stop with engineers, purchas-
and test process just as it did in each step leading to final ing agents, and managers. During the prototype builds, Lotus
production. MerCruiser representatives visited Lotus very early in technicians and engineers were assigned to Mercury and worked
the design stages of the product; they worked with Lotus top closely with the assemblers to further improve the product for
management to set up a schedule of engineering design reviews manufacturing. The shared knowledge gained by both Lotus and
that were attended by the MerCruiser project manager, project MerCruiser benefitted both companies and is still paying dividends
engineer, and project purchasing agent. These early meetings years later. A memorable occasion was the first LT-5 to be built in
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
LT-5 PROJECT
one day. The resident Lotus technician could not believe that an generated on a printer and plays out as a 300 dots per inch instant
LT-5 engine could be completely assembled in one dayanother photograph on 81/2 x 11 (22 cm X 28 cm) white paper.
LT-5 first. The complete system of hardware and purchased software cost
between $30,000 and $40,000 and has been in use since August of
WORLD CLASS ENGINE 1988. The estimated cost of developing the initial hand-drawn
BUILD INSTRUCTIONS graphics version of the manual was over $100,000.
This type of information is commonly known as process sheets Every assembler is put through many hours of hands-on
or op sheets in most companies. The key to consistent quality training, and usually performs his or her assigned task by memory.
build levels is simple, complete, and up-to-date instructional The MIS has not speeded assembly of the LT-5, but that was not
information in the hands of the operator. MetCruiser, working the intent. The main purpose was to document and maintain
with CPC and Lotus, decided to take over the creation and a process and to ensure that the capability of the process
generation of the LT-5 build instruction. was recorded.
The initial direction was to follow the traditional operation World-class quality was achieved through use of the projects
instruction with hand-drawn graphics and text, but this was totally top asset people.
umealistic from a cost standpoint rdone. The use of 35-mm First, processes must be initiated with quality targets in mind.
photographs began, which developed into the system used today. Engineers and machine operators must work with machine tool
MerCruisers industrial engineer began a one-year develop- builders to establish machinery that will achieve the desired
ment program to quickly and efficiently turn Super VHS video capability. Machine tool run offs are required to document the
images into computer-generated pictures merged with text; this achievement of that capability.
program is called the MIS (manufacturing information system). Second, the engineers, operators, and assembly people must
MerCruiser believes that this approach to shopfloor build instruc- work with their suppliers to achieve the quality level required. For
tions was an industry first. example, if castings are used, the machining operators should visit
The photos originate as VHS videotape shots. The desired the casting suppliers facility to understand the casting process and
picture frame is captured on the monitor of a modified computer. to work with their operators on qualhy standards. Conversely. the
Using commercially available software for image management and casting operators should visit the machining facility to better
a MerCt-uiser program to integrate the text, the sheet selected is understand their process and the rationale for the quality level
A-31
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
LT-5 PROJECT
Traditianai
Simultarream
Mar&eting/C.P.C. Engineerin@otus
M4nrufacfuring/Mrwcury Marina
Dwebp/ilr+menl
Pibt Pm&liarl-
rnanufucturingplan
expected. Assembly personnel should work with component following points summarize the keys for success in simultaneous
suppliers for a thorough understanding of each other. This ap- engineering:
proach will build a partnership between all parties to achieve 1. Set mandatory goals and objectives.
quality objectives. 2. Establish a team environment.
Third, ownership of the process and responsibility for quality 3. Reduce the levels of decision making to a minimum.
can be achieved at the production level if people are brought into 4. Get manufacturing involved as early as possible.
the planning stages as soon as possible. A considerable amount of 5. Rely and insist on trust.
time and money can be saved by these peoples ideas before 6. Build systems that are simple and flexible.
production starts.
These philosophies will require major cultural changes and There are many other elements essential to making simulta-
paradigm shifts for the people involved. neous engineering work, such as management support for financial
Effective communication training is essential to cooperation requirements and labor. Flexibility in the way the launch team
among engineering, manufacturing, production, and suppliers. operates is also essential. Suggestions to corporate executives
This type of training can also be very effective in breahng down considering use of simultaneous engineering include:
barriers between the groups. If production people are to be . Pick the product.
endowed with all of these responsibilities, they must be able to . Put together a capable team.
communicate effectively at all levels. . Set up goals and design objectives.
. Provide the resources.
. Then move out of the way.
SIMULTANEOUS ENGINEERING
IN SUMMARY
Simultaneous engineering is a viable means of achieving Contributed By Terry Stinson and Gary Cline, MerCruiser-A
design-to-production release in a minimum amount of time. The Brunswick Marine Power Corporation.
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Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
AIRPAX AND DESIGNING FOR ASSEMBLY
A-33
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
AIRPAX AND DESIGNING FOR ASSEMBLY
/ /
Lower housing Washer
Hell cell ~
/
Copacitor (2I
1-
F]g. A-23 Redesign ofsensor using Hall-effect technology.
Termmal strip
Hall cell
Weld
Capacitor
Weld
Capacitor
Weld
Overmold
F
t Shaft Magnetize lWasher [Over maldediWasher[ Retaining Upperi Ultrasanlcl Reanent IO-ring I Testl
ond lower ring housing weld
magnet housing
assembly
easier. Finding the problems from a nonautomated viewpoint is, assembly account for 369t0of the total, yet they encompass 43 % of
thus, a critical step inthemove toward automation. theoperations and 54% of the assembly time. Clearly, this is an
area where an automated welding process is needed.
Review of Problems As recognized early in the program, a system was conceptual-
From a review of the DFA analysis, the major area of concern ized feeding the terminals and capacitors from a reel, and bowl
is the welded terminal assembly. The four parts within the feeding and forming the Hall cell. Weld heads would be positioned
A-34
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
AIRPAX AND DESIGNING FOR ASSEMBLY
where necessrwy to process the assembly on this linear system. The operation, performed early in the weld sequence, also
Figure A-25 shows the positioning of the components and the eliminated the potential for weld fracture (if positioned at the end
final cutting and blanking operation which separates the part from of the weld system as initially proposed). The molding system,
the strip. spaced six feet from the welder, overmolded the components as
Although confidence in successfully building such a system shown in Fig. A-27. A die set, immediately following the over-
was high, and prospects for substantial labor savings were evident, mold operation, would separate the remaining web of material
the resultant assembly was something less than robust. The DFA between the terminals and blank the part from the strip.
analysis, in fact, showed that it would still take 12 seconds for A closer look at the mold indicates how any slight component
handling and insertion in the subsequent overmolding operation. misalignments are properly compensated for. Pilot pins register
But the assembly time was not so much the issue, and the DFA the strip into position and tapered inserts capture each end of the
analysis was simply flagging a problem. The part was delicate. It assembly while the guiding the components into position during
was prone to mishandling. The assembly into the overmold mold closure.
required finesse. With a clear path paved toward improved handling, it was time
to revisit the DFA analysis and review the results with these
automate h processes installed.
FINAL DESIGN
There was a problem in this case and the solution, although not
initially obvious, was enlightening: dont accept handling unless
DFA Analysis
Input: for the analysis was reformatted. The new molded
handling is acceptable. Afinaldesign took shape.
terminal assembly has been diagramed along with some addi-
tional operations including an as-molded test operation.
Attacking the Problem Part count has increased to 12 and total operations are now 25.
The addition of a continuous strip molding process presented But the real benefit from the inclusion of the overmolding process
the ideal choice. Parts leaving the continuous strip welding system is in the serial mode of assembly and the savings in direct labor.
would bc crrcapsulated to harden the part for subsequent With the welding system operating on a five-second cycle and the
handling. Some modifications would be necessary to properly feed molding system operating on a 20-second cycle with four cavities,
the strip for molding while allowing an access for terminal an assembly is produced every five seconds.
separation. Figure A-26 shows how the welded terminal strip was The molded assembly, now suitable for bulk handling and
modified. easier insertion for its subsequent operations, has effectively
A semi-gutting operation was added at the beginning of the reduced the products assembly time to 86 seconds.
welding system to remove most of the material between the As mentioned earlier, the time associated with manual assem-
terminals. The operation resolved an immediate problem of strip bly of the four parts within the welded terminal accounted for 54910
distortion due to welding while m-ovidin~ adeauate material for
w.
of the total assembly time. It now accounts for only 9%. Only one
strip transport through the welder and into the molding system. step was left. -
+ 0.000
-0.005
1.214 I
Fig. A-25 Component positioning and the final gutting and blanking operation which separates the part from the strip.
A-35
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
AIRPAX AND DESIGNING FOR ASSEMBLY
A-36
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
WORKING TOGETHER FOR BETTER CIRCUIT CARD DESIGNS
operation. With pretested components entering the final assembly product is not necessarily one which is easy to assemble properly;
system, higher yields and minimal scrap become evident. rather, it is one which is difficult to assemble improperly. There is
The proper application of design for assembly techniques can a considerable difference between the two. When it comes to
play a vital role in the development of products. With markets developing new products, minimizing the number of parts is a
expanding on a global basis, products must remain competitive, must. But recognize as well, that sometimes more is less.
with designs closely tailored to their applications. Contributed by Phil Atiyeh, Advanced Manufacturing Engi-
DFA provides a means for driving out unnecessary parts, and neering Manager, Airpax Corporation, a division of North Amer-
forces the design to be more easily assembled. A well designed ican Philips.
A-37
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
WORKING TOGETHER FOR BETTER CIRCUIT CARD DESIGNS
be modeled, and eventually used, as a basis for feedback to with a copper coating on one or both sides. Through a photo-
engineering on design for manufacturing processes. graphic and chemical process, an exact replica of the artwork is
represented on this board with copper remaining where the pads
and conductor paths are, and bare insulator everywhere else.
THE MANUFACTURING ARCHITECTURE
When all of the layers of the board design are complete, they are
aligned and laminated together. This assembly is then sent to the
Top Level Flow drilling machine, which drills the holes for component pins, for
When acircuit card design isreleased to manufacturing, it is
any interlayer connections (vias) and for mounting of nonelectrical
treated as two distinct products. The first is the bare board (PWB),
components. Generally, this process is accomplished by grouping
which is fabricated, inspected, tested, and released back to stores
multiple cards on a single panel which optimizes panel handling,
(inventory). The second is the assembled module (CCA), which is
use of standard size tooling, and material usage. The last step of
constructed from a kit of parts (including the bare board).
the fabrication process is to profile or rout the individual boards
Both the bare board and the circuit card assembly are prepared
out of the panel. The inspection process begins with a bare board
for manufacturing in the same way. In both cases, preparation
test which examines the continuity and isolation of every pair of
includes planning which steps (and what equipment) will be used,
pins on the board and compares the results with the data in the
preparing NC tapes for the automated equipment, producing
RAMCADM database. After this test phase, the board is ready for
detailed process sheets listing each step to be performed, and
component assembly.
generating visual aids to illustrate the assembly. These visual aids
(actually pictures to aid the assembler) are then added to the text
Automating the Board Fabrication Process
of the process plan. Inspection program tapes arealso generated to
The first goal of the automation team was to standardize the
facili~ate testing by automated test equipment. Once all the data is
stacking of individual layers on standard boards (boards without
prepared, itisput under configuration management control. Data
special controlled impedance requirements which force special
from the process sheets (listing each of the manufacturing steps) is
copper spacing). This made it possible to write software to
also converted into estimates of machine/workstation time, which
generate all process sheets and support data (such as drill tapes)
are entered into the MRP-11 systems for scheduling purposes.
required to fabricate the bare board. This system requires only that
the user answer a few questions on an interactive terminal (for
The Board Fabrication Process instance, the number of copper layers, copper thickness, maxi-
Printed wiring board fabrication (PWF) is the chemical, pho- mum board thickness, etc.). This system has been used at the
tographic, and mechanical process by which the single sided, Missile Systems Divisions Andover, MA facility and the Equip-
double sided, or multilayer printed circuit boards are fabricated. A ment Divisions Waltham, MA manufacturing facility to generate
typical example of bow the manufacturing process flow is sup- and maintain approximate y 3000 process plans, with a reduction
ported by the RAMCADM database is shown in Fig. A-28. Data in generation time of three to four hours per plan. This system is
extracted from the RAMCADM database is used to generate also capable of generating bare board test tapes directly from the
photoplots describing every component pad and conductor path in RAMCADM database for bed-of-nails (BON) testers with fixed
the design. This artwork is then transferred to a piece of insulator test heads or flying head testers.
~ *
Extract Extract
PWF code drill data
1
Panelize
(
+.
Process
plans
f
1
1
I
plans
+ f
Khydrls Transfer inner Etch Optical Prim:;l drill
* layer + and > * Kit + Laminate * *
inspect
clean artwork strip deb.r
----- .. . .. . .. . . .
t+lg. A-2ti lhe prmtert wmsng tJoarrt tatsrlcatlon process.
A-38
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
WORKING TOGETHER FOR BETTER CIRCUIT CARD DESIGNS
The Circuit Card Assembly Process automated analysis to determine whether normally auto-inserted
The database used for the circuit card assembly process is the components would be more cost effectively inserted by manual
same as that used for board fabrication. A major benefit of using methods. This decision is based on manufacturing guidelines
a common database is the ability to use that database as input to which define the least number of components and CCAS consid-
CAM (computer-aided manufacturing) software to automatically ered worthwhile to commit to automatic machinery. If the number
plan the assembly process. This same software also generates the is too low to offset the setup costs, the component will be
documentation describing those processes. downgraded to manual insertion.
The outputs and decision processes of the automated system Selecting the normal assembly mode for a component also
mimic those outputs and decision processes of manual procedures. identifies the specific machine or process (workstation) to be used
In both cases, the first step is to determine standard assembly at the specified manufacturing site. Once the machine is known,
techniques and processes for mechanical and electrical assembly. information specific to it (such as the clearances needed to avoid
Our studies show that most of the industrial engineers time is adjacent parts during insertion) can be retrieved from the central-
allocated to the following tasks: ized database. This must be done by taking into account the size of
the jaws used by the machine to hold the part. This type of data is
. Determining electrical assembly operations. critical to the automatic determination of potential component
. Determining mechanical assembly operations. insertion interferences.
Preparing instructions.
The next step is to generate component sequence tapes. These
. Repining MBOMS (manufacturing bills of material). This is
tapes contain the individual components and define the insertion
a list of parts grouped by the type of insertion method, and order, location, and orientation of each part on the board. A
within each insertion type, ordered by component insertion sequencer is a machine generally used for axial leaded devices.
sequence. This machine takes components from multiple reels, each of which
Preparing and merging of visual aids.
contain identicrd components, and then assembles a new tape
Initial use of the automated version of this process has yielded containing all the components for a particular design in the order
a nearly 6CM0 reduction in the industrial engineering effort. in which they will be inserted. The result is something reminiscent
of a railroad track where the rails are the tapes that hold the
The Automated Approach to components and the ties are the individual components. This tape
Circuit Card Assembly is then sent to a station on the same machine, called a verijier-. The
The first step in the automated process is to group the verifier tests the vahres and orientation of the components on the
components by how they will be inserted on the board (fully parts tape.
automatic, manual, etc. ). Next, they are sequenced in the order in Other types of components, such as DIPs (dual in-line pack-
which they will be assembled. This is done by extracting library ages) are not sequenced, but the different types of components are
data which defines how each part is normally installed under ideal fed into the machine on individual tapes or from separate, machine
conditions (for example, the library data might define a particular selectable bins as needed.
part as an axial leaded component normally inserted with a Once the initial insertion order has been determined, the
particular automatic insertion machine). The next step is an program must make one additional critical check it must math-
+
Extract
~ connectivity
@
Run *
profile
@ Run BBT
*
Board
Ietl file
7 1 ~
Photopbt Photopbt
( ( ) Postprocessor
~ Process I I
plans
+ + Y Y + \
Copper late Transfer outer %Ider late Bed of nails
@ + + > SaIder sec~l~v
an i layer an : + * Prafile * test
inspect mask
artwork etch equipment
. --
Fig. A-28 Conbnued
A-39
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
WORKING TOGETHER FOR BETTER CIRCUIT CARD DESIGNS
emetically simulate the process of inserting each component in the because the RAMCADM database has been structured in a
determined sequence. As each part is placed, the program must feature-based architecture so the graphics for any component can
perform a clearance check, taking into account the size of the be highlighted simply by specifying the reference designator of the
component plus the dimensions of the insertion machines mount- part. To automatically generate visual aids (VAS), the basic (text
ing jaws. If any obstructions are detected, the component will be based) process planning software was modified so that, instead of
dropped from the auto-insertion list and rescheduled for manual printing finished text, it creates a command language script that is
insertion. The corrected insertion sequence is then used for run on the Computervision system. That script loads the appro-
generating process sheets and is formatted into tapes that are used priate RAMCADM database and then creates a series of new
to control the insertion machinery. drawings, one for each VA that is required. These drawings
Another program that depends upon the RAMCADM database include both the picture and the text that will appear on the
generates a control tape for in-circuit tester machines. This operators screen.
machine verifies that all the components are present on the board, Initially, a paper-based output was delivered to the work sites.
that the components have the correct values (for instance, a However, several of Raytheons Government Group manufactur-
resistor of the proper resistance), and that each component has ing sites have replaced the paper representation with electronic
been inserted in the correct orientation. images view able on video terminals. To accomplish this, VAS are
Once the type and order of assembly steps have been deter- down-loaded electronically into the file manager of the paperless
mined, they must be documented on process sheets. Automatic system and are ready for access on the shop floor. As of 1991, the
process sheet generation is accomplished using a Raytheon- paperless systems had already been installed on several production
developed system called DCAPP-CCA (decision supported lines in the Missile Systems Divisions Andover, MA manufac-
computer-aided process planner+ ircuit card assembly). For each turing facility and are being planned for the Equipment Divisions
function to be performed in the proper sequence, this program Waltham, MA manufacturing facility, as well as the Missile
recalls the machine or workstation at which that process is to be Systems Division facilities at Lowell, MA and Bristol, TN.
done, and accesses its own plant-specific database to obtain the Experience at the Andover facility has shown that paperless
instructions (in text form) required to accomplish the task. Once systems are more effective when using a higher percentage of
the text generation portion of the process plan is complete, visual visual aids than were formerly used on the paper formats. The
aids must be generated and merged into the plan. This is done by interface reverses the trend from being mostly text with some
merging the required pictorial data obtained from the RAMCADM illustrations to being mostly pictures with some clarifying text.
database with information specific to the selected production site. Figure A-29 shows how the RAMCADM data is used to support
For example, the process of inserting five axial components the circuit card assembly process.
requires several operational steps in the process plan. They might
include setup and executing the sequencer/verifier followed by
setting up and executing the automatic axial inserter. To aid the Benefits
machine operators, a visual aid is provided at each step in the Based on initial use of the system, the time required to prepare
assembly process which illustrates the board with all the compo- a new design for production has been reduced by approximately
nents that have already been mounted and highlights the new axial 6W70. These savings were further enhanced as the generation of
devices now being inserted. The system was easy to implement additional reports was automated and the interface to the MRP-11
----- .. - . .
l+lg. A-ZYIne interlace between the tXA manufacturing process and the RAMCADM database.
A-40
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
WORKING TOGETHER FOR BETTER CIRCUIT CARD DESIGNS
system was improved. These savings become significant when CADM database for use in manufacturing, we realized that the set
applied to the nearly 500 CCA designs changed to production each of rules would also be very useful if they could be applied to
year. Additional intangible savings are derived from the fact that helping the designers evaluate the manufacturability of their
this system is inherently more accurate than the existing manual, designs before they were released to the factory. To do this, a new
labor-intensive procedure. Far more savings are realized whenever tool was added to the RAPIDS framework called MOSS (manu-
a change is made to a shop floor process. Traditionally, this would facturing optimization support system). This system supports a
require that all the affected process sheets be re-edited and number of subsystems that help the designer during the process of
rereleased back to document control. Using the automated system, converting the electrical design into a product.
all that is needed is that the rules base and/or the linked First, MOSS can be loaded with current manufacturing guide-
instructions be updated and a batch process run to update all the lines. This on-line help system is particularly important when
VA databases. From then on, the new instructions will appear on those responsible for board routing may not be aware of the most
the paperless terminals whenever the VA is called. recent changes in the product design or manufacturing environ-
ment. At Raytheon, there is an effort to make the electrical
engineer responsible for the total quality of the design, not only in
CLOSING THE LOOP BACK TO
terms of electrical performance but also manufacturability. The
ENGINEERING difficultly faced is that the product conversion phase of the design
may only represent a third of the design cycle. During the
RAPIDS: The PWB Concurrent remaining two-thirds of the time, a lot of changes can occur, of
Engineering Framework which the electrical engineer may not be aware. Hence, the on-line
For board design, Raytheon put together a set of tools under an design guidelines provide ready access to the current design
in-house developed framework or wrapper called RAPIDS (Ray- practices.
theon automated placement and interconnect design system). Our The second capability that MOSS supports is built-in manufac-
original intent was to build this function on top of an existing turing design rules checking. Thk is similar to the rough analysis
layout system such as VISULA or Mentor 8.0. Unfortunately, we done by the better routing programs for checking component
quickly discovered that the concurrent engineering objective of placement, but takes an important additional step. MOSS bases its
allowing analysis to be conducted as early in the design cycle as checking on the actual machines used for insertion at the Raytheon
possible was at odds with the methodologies supported by com- manufacturing sites. Furthermore, it checks clearances based on
mercial design systems at that time. Those systems were arc hi- the machine gripper size and shapes, and also the component
tected to check and validate the completeness of the design data insertion order.
before permitting anal ysis. Although this assures us that the design is free of assembly
The system we built not only gave us a uniform look and errors the question remains: can it be better manufactured? This is
feel to a wide variety of tools, but also allowed commercial the heart of design for manufacturing (DFM) since changes made
analysis programs (which normally could not be executed because early in the design process can make designs easier to build and
of missing information) to be run by substituting logically derived provide greater use of appropriate automation, giving higher yields
missing data. This Iogicall y derived data is developed from a set of with reduced costs.
heuristics built into our framework that approximate the missing or MOSS encourages this in two ways. First, it allows the user to
as yet undefined data. The goal was to permit the maximum level vary both engineering and manufacturing-related parameters and
of analysis to be done at the earliest point in the design cycle. For obtain a spreadsheet which lists parameters versus resulting yield
example, if a designer uses the system to sketch and place and cost. Secondly, a rules-based system has been added which
components on a board outline during the concept phase of the will make suggestions for improving the design based on infor-
design, the system will provide an initial estimate of manufactur- mation supplied by manufacturing experts.
ing costs including indicators of what the cost drivers will be. To The intent of this system is to break a costly, recurring
do this, the system employs a number of estimation techniques, engineering/manufacturing cycle. Traditionally, a design starts
such as a statistical distribution of a typical netlist as an alternative into production and perhaps, because of the large size of the board,
to having a real netlist. The system can then compare this manufacturing begins to experience yield problems because holes
theoretical netlist against unblocked routing channels and drilled through the mounting pads cannot be drilled accurately
estimate the number of layers needed to route the board. It can enough to prevent some of the holes from breaking out of the pads.
then use a system called MOSS, which we will discuss next, to Manufacturing then requests a change and engineering responds
estimate manufacturing costs and indicate decisions that can by using larger pads for both this and all new designs. However,
improve the manufacturability of the design. In this particular different boards (for instance, boards with a large number of pin
example, by knowing the process line which will be used to make grid arrays) may find that the bigger pad size causes even more
the bare board, the system can recommend that a different size or problems because of excessive shorts between pads and runs. This
aspect ratio will get more boards per panel during manufacturing. could be corrected by reducing the width of the runs, but what will
As the design progresses (and the input data becomes more exact), that do to the etching yield? The best approach would be to model
the analysis is rerun with, for instance, a real netlist and the the system so that each board, with its own routing characteristics,
manufacturability re-evaluated. can have the optimum set of design rules assigned to it.
MOSS addresses this by establishing a model of the manufac-
MOSS: The Manufacturing Feedback Tool turing process and its associated yield, The role of transition to
Earlier in this case study, we mentioned that the process manufacturing teams then becomes one of providing continuous
planning part of the system had been designed around a roles- refinements to the process model, in terms of yield factors and
based system. This allowed manufacturing to update the process yield drivers. Requests for engineering changes must be explored
plans and VAS simply by updating the rules. While we were still by examining how the process model should be enhanced to point
in the process of writing programs to post-process the RAN- engineers toward more manufacturable designs.
A-41
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AT HEWLETT PACKARD
The Use of MOSS for Managing built into MOSS in terms of the physical configuration that causes
Change in the Factory a certain failure and the statistical probability of that failure
For MOSS to continue to be successful and stay up with current occurring. MOSS can then predict which failure modes will be
technologies, a change must take place in the way engineering significant for a given board design. MOSS will then allow
investigations are requested by the manufacturing sites and re- designers to continue to optimize onpararneters used during the
sponded to by the engineers. A good way to do this is to route layout of a board, with these new conditions being included in the
investigation requests from manufacturing through the product trade-offs to produce a more manufacturable design.
assurance group. Their responsibility is to work with the engineers
and refine the process model to reflect whatever new conditions Contributed by Jim Babish, Robert Bryant, and Mitchell H.
arise on the manufacturing floor. These new situations are then Heller, Raytheon Service Company.
A-42
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AT HEWLETT PACKARD
f
Critique
Oesi n
prc$ct
Investigate i +
Zelop
process
t t
Execute
contingency
plan
% >
#2 Critical daiivercbles #5 Critical deliverables
Also important is early definition of the key features and CROSS-FUNCTIONAL TEAMS
specifications. The principal reason for schedule slippage is Concurrent or simultaneous engineering is an increasingly
changing product definitions, which sends designers back to the popular practice which can prove to be advantageous in the
drawing board. Being responsive to customer needs is crucial to product development cycle. The proper implementation of this
product success, but there are trade-offs. Trying to dominate the concept, however, is crucial to its success. Simply assigning a
market in a single stroke will accomplish little if the product gets manufacturing engineer to a product under development will not
tothe market two years late. Meanwhile, aproduct that is released necessarily yield an advantage. Designers often are forced to
in a timely manner has much to offer, even if it provides only endure more design reviews where they are told that their product
essential core contributions. In this case, the product will generate is too difficult to build. More paperwork delays occur because a
revenue and buy time to incorporate new market information into manufacturing engineer must sign all drawings before they can be
a follow-on or next-generation product. released. Meanwhile, they are wrestling with schedule pressures
One difficult decision about the 54600 had to be made at anddesign problems that remain unsolved. Thedesigners have no
checkpoint two. The basic design of the product was completed, opportunity to optimize their products for manufacturability, and
and tooling was about to commence when information from the they will, at best, tolerate occasional intrusions bytheirmanufac-
focus groups indicated that the screen size of the display was turing representatives. Isthisconcurrent engineering? Maybe. Isit
perceived as too small. The design team decided to redesign the effective? Not really.
product with a larger display. This involved changing virtually Successful concurrent engineering does not involve simply
every structural part in the box as well as designing a custom assigning representatives from all functional areas to a new
display to replace the off-the-shelf unit selected earlier. The effort project. Competitive product development requires building a
involved stretched the schedule, but it was felt that addressing team of people who possess the skills necessary to take that
consumer perceptions merited the work. product from conception to full-scale production, regardless of
No matter how short the development cycle, there may be late- who these individuals report to. It involves giving the team
breaking information from customers that causes the design plan to autonomy and the authority to make the decisions they deem
be questioned. On many modern products, however, critical necessary for the success of their product. Team members must
features are obtained via software. This generally offers the look beyond functional areas and focus on the job at hand. Simply
flexibility to respond to the market by adding or changing features ask, How would I run my own company with the sole respon-
up to the point of manufacturing release. The design team of the sibilityof developing, building, andmarketing this one product?
54600 took advantage of this flexibility, updating the system Instead of saying, I am a manufacturing engineer and that is not
software nearly one-half a dozen times in the month before my job, examine skills and capabilities and look for any
full-scale production. opportunity to make a contribution.
A-43
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AT HEWLETT PACKARD
Hewlett Packards first attempts at DFM involved simply including quality, purchasing, materials engineering, software,
assigning manufacturing engineers to products under develop- QA, service, accounting, and production. This team has the
ment. After experiencing the frustrations just described, a cross- authority to make most decisions regarding the project, such as
functional development team was formed for the 54600, Full-time features, introduction schedule, and specifications, as well as
members of the development team consisted of a project manager, dealing with the standard day-to-day crises. In addition to weekly
mechanical and electrical design engineers, software engineers, PMT meetings, part-time members are involved in all team-
mechanical manufacturing engineers, manufacturing test develop- building activities and are kept current by receiving copies of all
ment engineers, an industrial engineer, and a marketing engineer, project-related memos. There is also an expectation that part-time
Team members worked with each other on a daily basis and grew team members will take the proper initiative to maintain a level of
to appreciate each others contributions. If any member noticed an currency with their projects.
area for design improvement, he/she was free to develop altern-
atives, have them prototype, and present them as solutions,
Manufacturing test engineers had the opportunity to add test COST ACCOUNTING
specific hardware and software to the product, eliminating the The ability to evaluate the real cost of different design
need for capital-intensive test systems in production. In this alternatives is critical to the success of projects such as the 54600.
situation, everyone was working together toward a common goal Most project managers are graded on the estimated profitability of
instead of attempting teamwork in an adversarial environment. their projects. Material costs and labor times are relatively easy to
In addition to the roles outlined earlier, there are several determine, but pinpointing overhead costs may be a greater
functions and services involved in developing a product that do not challenge. Most cost accounting systems assign overhead as a
require a full-time member on the design team. While their percentage of material, labor, or a combination of the two. Some
functions are critical, it is difficult for these people to be involved DFM improvements will yield significant savings, but the standard
on a day-to-day basis, since most of them have responsibility for cost accounting model may say otherwise. When the product is
several projects at any given time. To address these concerns, released, its profitability will be calculated based on standwd
Hewlett Packard adopted the concept of the project management accounting procedures, which may make otherwise sound deci-
team, PMT (see Fig. A-31). This group is formed in the investi- sions look incorrect.
gation phase of a project and usually meets on a weekly basis until The approach to this dilemma at Hewlett Packard was the
the product is well into production. The group consists of members adoption of an activity based cost accounting system. This system
of the design team including design, marketing, and manufactur- assigns overhead to a product based on the activities it requires,
ing engineering, along with representatives from other groups thus assigning more overhead to the products that consume more
Q
Marketing
Manager
I i
I I I 1 I
i I I I I
I I
i i I
I I
Q
I I cd
I Accountant
I Reliability
I Engineer
I
/ 1
A-44
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AT HEWLETT PACKARD
resources. Under this system, the overhead costs are divided into halfway through the project, this approach was seriously ques-
functional areas such as procurement, material handling, assem- tioned. Tounderstand the reasoning, itisnecessaty to review the
bly, or test. Each of these cost buckets is investigated to find a history of DFM.
driver that is easy to measure and tracks linearly with the The field of DFM came about as a result of the push toward
resources that are consumed. For instance, procurement overhead automated assembly in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Robots
consists of buyers and some engineering support. The activities in generally had a difficult time assembling the labor-intensive
this area were found to be closely correlated to the number of products of that period. To make effective use of automation,
different parts for which a buyer or engineer had responsibility. products must be designed with automated assembly in mind. Zero
More parts equal more work and fewer parts equal less work. If, screws and straight-down assembly becametbe theme of the day
for example, a total of $250,000 was spent in procurement every andthefield ofdesign formanufacturability was born. These same
six months, and during that six months there were 500 active parts, principles drastically increased the effectiveness of manual assem-
it can be concluded that every unique part consumes about $500 of bly, making them applicable to all products and industries. The
procurement overhead every six months. In this case, a product result was an obsession with assembleability evahtation and
will be burdened with procurement overhead based on the number metrics, and design guidelines mostly focused on reducing the
of unique part numbers it contains. Armed with this information, labor content of products.
a designer becomes aware that he or she will be rewarded for As the years passed, manufacturers realized that individuals are
leveraging existing parts where possible in the new design. This more flexible producers than robots, and focused solely on
system may seem like a gross oversimplification, but in reality it reducing labor limited opportunity. In fact, on the average
doesnt have to be perfectly accurate to encourage the correct product, labor amounts to only about 3% of total production cost.
behavior. However, the simpler designs brought about by DFM did yield
Another advantage to this system is its highly dynamic nature. significant savings in other areas such as inventory, support
During the development of the 54600 family, cases were often activities, quality levels, and development time. The initial focus
found where the assignment of overhead costs seemed inequitable. on assembly and labor led to more competitive products and
In these situations, the system was changed, and the result was an opened the door to global opportunities for improvement in
increasingly accurate system as more was learned about actual product design.
expenditures. Since the implications went far beyond what was known as
One example involved the allocation of test overhead, The first design for manufacturability, industry began examining the actual
cut at a driver for this area calculated cost based on the number of goals that were desired. Success comes with the introduction of
PC board components. This driver was exceptionally accurate for competitive products. To be competitive, the right product must
our current products, but it overburdened the 54600. This product go to market in the shortest possible time, at the lowest overall
had virtually the same number of PC board components as its cost, and at the highest quality. As Dr. Anderson mentions in the
predecessor, yet it required only about 10% of the effort to test. As title of his book, it all boils down to Cost, Quality, and
a result, the driver was changed to estimated minutes of test time, Time-to-Market.
rewarding the effort in designing the product for testability. DFM paved the way to this seemingly obvious revelation, and
it provides tools that will continue to be helpful in making it a
DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURABILITY reality. What is important to remember, however, is to keep
The 54600 set anew dkection for the division since it had to proper perspective. Despite all of the great tools and metrics
compete in a much lower cost market. Previously, customers had available today, the number one rule should be to use common
been looking for the highest performance at virtually any price. sense. When faced with a decision, evaluate thealtematives based
The challenge was to take the basic function of an entry-level on how they affect time, cost, and quality. Products and market
product anddcsign oneto be built forabout half the cost. It was situations vary so greatly that oversimplification and over-reliance
felt that adhering to a design for manufacturability methodology on rules and metrics can have catastrophic results. For instance,
was vital to achieving this. To be effective, this methodology had many questionable decisions have been made by trying to elimi-
to be adopted at the conceptual stage of product design. For the nate all unnecessary parts. For example: a design engineer is
54600, the mechanical design engineer and mechanical engineer designing an injec[ion-molded part that at~dches to another pm via
responsible for manufacturing developed conceptual alternatives two screws. The designer realizes that the screws could be
and criteria by which to evaluate the merits of each. Both eliminated by inventing a clever snap-fit detail in the molded part,
engineers worked closely, brainstorming for new ideas. The but at what cost? This new detail may take another four weeks of
issues by which the initial concepts were graded went beyond ease development time and prototyping time, require an extra two
of assembly and included: weeks oftool build time, add$lO,OOO tothe tooling bill, and push
the process to its absolute limit by requiring extremely tight
Radio Frequency Interference (RFI).
tolerances. This could open the door for potential y serious quality
Ease of assembly.
problems, Meanwhile, a solution already exists, marketing says
Safety.
they need the product immediately, screws cost $.02 each, and
Ruggedness.
sales projections are only 200 units per month. From a competi-
Cosmetic appeal.
tiveness point of view, thesolution is obvious, butmanyindivid-
Serviceability.
uals may have opted for the snap-fit without giving it a second
Material costs.
thought .
Tooling costs.
On the 54600, designers opted for screws that were standard-
Total production costs.
ized on one or two types, used them judiciously, and designed the
Once the conceptual starting point had been selected and the product so that it would be obvious if any screw was omitted.
detailed design phase had begun, the standard DFM doctrine of When it comes to ruggedness, serviceability, and cost, screws are
minimizing parts and eliminating fasteners was adopted. About often an unbeatable solution. In addition, advances in robotics
A-45
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AT HEWLETT PACKARD
have removed many of the barriers to automated assembly that . Product test stations cost less than 10% of those required by
once existed. One situation that led to this new attitude involved predecessor.
the front panel that attached to a sheet metal deck via snap-fits. . Versatile package that can be used for other divisions
Because of the need to meet environmental goals, the team wished portable products.
it had opted for a more traditional attachment method. The
The success of the 54600 was due in large part to the ability to
customer doesn t care if the product snaps together, but rather is
broaden the focus from manufacturability to overall product
looking for a quality product that meets his/her needs at a
competitiveness. One key factor to achieving this was the ability to
competitive price.
evaluate each element of the product design based on how it
Another critical aspect to making the 54600 a competitive
affected time, cost, and quality. The use of this approach was not
product involved increasing flexibility. The team wanted custom-
limited to the design itself, but also included the way the design
ers to get exactly what they needed without having to pay for
team was staffed and organized, the way decisions to make or buy
unwanted features. The most visible illustration of this involved
were performed on critical subassemblies, as well as material
computer interfaces. Not all customers had the need to connect
specifications for certain components.
their scope to a computer. Some only needed to access a printer,
and others required full over-the-bus programmability. On top of
this, these options needed to be available in RS-232, HPIB, and BREAK-EVEN TIME
Centronics formats. This was a significant manufacturability One metric that bears mention at this point reflects this
concern since the factory did not operate on a build-t~order basis. approach. Break-even time (BET) is a measure that has been
Several different products needed to be available in the same recently adopted by HPat the corporate level. It is defined as the
chassis without carrying finished goods inventory of products in length of time from the start of a project until the cumulative net
every possible configuration. The design team solved this problem profit equals thecumulative project investment. BET is corrected
by developing interface modules that the customer could easily for the time value of money as well as projected warranty
plug onto the back of an oscilloscope. This allowed leveraging of information, and therefore traps theeffects of changes to cost,
a higher volume in manufacturing since all of the instruments were quality, and time-to-market. This metric also provides abasis for
the same. It also provided flexibility since orders were easily comparing the relative performance of different product develop-
customized by adding separate options and accessories during the ment efforts. The goal is to minimize break-even time, which
shipping process. In addition, this system made it easy for the Hewlett Packard seeks to reduce by 50% on all future projects.
customer to upgrade his oscilloscope at a later date, and it
provided the designers with a simple platform for future product
enhancements. Before this issue was raised, the assumption of the WHAT WAS LEARNED FROM THE 54600
designers was to simply produce a different version of the main The development of this product can be viewed as a huge
scope board for each type of interface. If manufacturing hadnt success. Cost goals were met, and the cross-functional design
voiced concern earl y, the modular approach would never have team got the product to market with relatively little deviation from
been pursued, and the resuh would likely have been 14 variations the schedule. The market and trade press received the product with
of the main scope board. The cost savings of leveraged volume open arms. Only a little over six months into production, several
and an elegant platform for application-specific solutions would internal corporate records were broken. However, a few lessons
never have been realized. were learned, and some areas for improvement were identified.
In the end, this common-sense approach to DFM yielded many The next Hewlett Packard project will probably place less
successes and was a key factor in the competitiveness of the emphasis onmetrics and labor reduction, and focus more attention
product. Compared to the previous product, the 54600 delivered a on optimizing overall product competitiveness.
50% reduction in the number of parts and a 62% reduction in the There will be more emphasis on making sure that all the right
number of screws. Assembly time was reduced by 6070, and test people areinvolved inthe PMT. One example of where the team
time was reduced by 90%. Total production cost was reduced by fell short on the 54600 involved the strategy for options and
over 5070. Some of the notable manufacturability features include: accessories. A representative from the shipping department was
not involved, and thus the team was unaware of some constraints
One-piece injection molded tilt bail handle, which attaches
imposed by a new shipping system. Instead of flowing smoothly
to the cabinet without any hardware. This feature combines into production, a bottleneck in shipping resulted, which required
the functions of a tilt stand, feet, and a handle into one part. quite a bit of suboptimizing to solve.
Since the attachment of the handle is so simple, and both the Another area for improvement involves systems compatibility.
handle and the cabinet come from the same vendor, this part Designers and documentation people are seemingly forever work-
was received preassembled, saving shipping and inventory ingwith incompatible systems. Thiscreates extra work since many
costs schematics and drawings are completely redrawn to produce
. One-piece injection molded cabinet requires no paint, and suitable documentation. In the future, more emphasis must be
can be removed by taking out two screws, providing easy placed on a strategy for computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM)
access for serviceabilityy. specifically focused on these problems.
. Sheet metal deck provides room for additional boards for
Probably one of the biggest lessons that was learned was that
future products. no matter how hard we try to avoid it, some unexpected road-
. Modular interface system attaches to the back of the unit blocks will appear. Despite the efforts in vendor evaluation, one of
with one screw, which makes the product easy to customize the key suppliers decided to file Chapter 11 just as the product was
and provides a platform for inexpensive future product to be released. To make matters worse, this vendor owned a
enhancements. proprietary plastic metalization process that wasvital to passing
. All circuitry on one single-sided surface mount board radiated emission standards, leaving no easy alternatives. While
including test specific hardware and software.
this problem was eventually solved, it led to more than a few
A-46
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
REDESIGN OF AIR HANDLERS DOOR LATCH PLATE
sleepless nights as the team scrambled for a solution. In the future, do occur. Even though this may seem pessimistic, it is valuable
teams can either work diligently to eliminate all possible oppor- insurance against unexpected disaster.
tunities for catastrophe, or save their energy and focus on
remaining flexible and ready to respond when inevitable problems Contributed by Richard E. Huber, Hewlett Packard Company.
A-47
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
REDESIGN OF AIR HANDLERS DOOR LATCH PLATE
38 r ----7[
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A-48
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
AUTOMATED DFM
1
QUANTIFIABLE SAVINGS
The company policy requires approved changes to cost no more Labor cost per year to repaint part $5,220
than three years costs of present corrective actions. Figure A-34 Less cost of retooling press dies -3,000
shows the results of the change in design.
First year cash savings $2,220
freed from checking for this paint problem and using the same time Repaint Fudge Factor $1,566
toward increased production. The overall appearance will be the Total cost $5,166
same and the product will continue to function as originally
planned. Grand total three-year savings $7,494
AUTOMATED DFM
This case study, adopted from the September 1991 issue of ate y. A senior engineer experimented with the software and its
Design for Manufacture Alert, reports on enhancements to the various modes for four or five hours. By the end of the day, they
design for assembly software packages offered by Sapphire Design were experimenting with real-world design alternatives.
Systems (SDS) Palo Alto, CA. The Altair team has the Assembly View system set up in an
This case study highlights the design team at Motorolas Radio informal manner. It resides on a Macintosh II which sits in the
Telephone Systems Group. The companys use of the program middle of their workspace. Anyone in the group can work with it.
represents one way to use the system: in a focused, informal For example, they are conducting feasibility studies for some new
manner. products. The files for that program are placed in a folder on the
systems <desktop. When numbers need to be checked, there is
PRODUCT APPLICATION OVERVIEW no need for system authorization.
The product that Muniers team first used Assembly View on is
called Altair, It is a wireless, Ethernet Local Area Network (LAN) Operating Philosophy
system that is meant to replace the lengths of cable that often litter Before beginning a DFA project, it is important to carefully
office environments. Altair consists of two units: one is the define goals. The Altair team was clear from the beginning what
Control Module and the other is the Desktop Module. they hoped to achieve with the software:
The Motorola Radio Telephone Systems Group is at the cutting The way were using the system is to benchmark ourselves
edge of technology because the competition has not matched the against ourselves, Munier explains. Were not trying to use the
throughput levels of Ahair. Some competitors are using infra-red absolute values of each of the assembly steps against the outside
as the transmission medium instead of radio waves. In the radio world. We want to use the program to reflect improvements in our
spectrum realm there are a few spread-spectrum products, such as own development cycles from one product to the next, We re not
NCRs WaveLAN. Motorola has obtained FCC frequency licenses necesswily interested in comparing ourselves to what HP or IBM
in most of the major markets. They can operate on any of five pairs are doing. You hear a lot of people saying, our DFA score is 45,
of channels on the DTS band, and the distance between the and theirs is 50, and therefore were this much better. Thats not
Control Module and the Desktop Module is approximately our intent.
40 (12m). One of the teams major goals was that the estimated assembly
times should reflect reality. But since Altair was the first version
DECIDING ON ASSEMBLY VIEW of the product, and it was not clear which plant would be doing the
manufacturing, the assembly time estimates were not available.
Team Considerations They decided to turn to themselves. The Altair team has a
The recommended DFA software from the corporate level is dedicated engineering prototype lab on-site. The product team
the BDI (Boothroyd Dewhurst Inc. ) system. But the Altair design measured the planned assembly steps. For example, team mem-
team wanted something that would run in its Macintosh-based bers at a workbench measured the amount of time to attach a
environment, which at the time was not available from BDI. power cord. They then customized the software to account for
(Since then, BDI added this capability.) They also wanted some- those times.
thing that would mesh with the prevailing team culture.
The Altair team is a fairly small, tightly knit group consisting System Operation
of five mechanical engineers, four printed-circuit designers, and Assembly View contains several palettes with graphic icons
Munier, the project leader. Assembly View was applied immedi- representing parts and processes. Each icon has DFM attributes
A-49
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
AUTOMATED DFM
attached to it, including features, standard times, and cost infor- assembly time did not warrant it. By the time they had settled on
mation. To describe an assembly, a user selects part and process the final product configuration and assembly sequence, they were
icons from palettes and places them into assembly diagrams. confident that they had made the right choices.
Insertion and fastening operations are indicated by linking
icons. Icons also represent additional operations, such as inspec-
MEASUREMENT RESULTS
tion or painting. A parts-tree diagram also is created in another
As previously mentioned, the Altair teams goal was to
window to represent the products overall structure.
measure themselves against their own goals. How did they do?
By answering a series of questions that are presented by the
This question can break down into its cost, speed to market, and
system, DFM principles can be applied. A user is asked: whether quality components.
a given part can be eliminated or combined with another part; what
part features will affect ease of assembly; whether tooling, labor,
and material cost are standard or custom, etc. cost
Judging the cost variable was tricky because Altair was a new
Defining Manufacturing Constraints product, so there was no reliable baseline measurement. But on
At the Radio Telephone Systems Group, the production con- one important aspect of this (i.e. parts count) they did very well
straints are conveyed through a concise set of manufacturing indeed. They wanted to come in under 30, and ended up using
goals, which the team received at the outset of the development only 21. As for assembly efficiency, another indicator of cost,
phase. Among the most important imperatives: do not use threaded they also did very well. Efficiency is measured in terms of
fasteners. This decision was reached because the technology was percentages the higher the better. This number is derived by
cutting edge, and the company expected to begin with rather dividing the minimum number of parts times three seconds
small production volumes. Anything under 1000 units per month which is the assumed minimum amount of time it takes to snap
would not justify an automated assembly system, so ease of together two parts-by the programs calculated assembly time. In
manual assembly was essential. Snap-fit components were the the case of the Desktop Module, there were 15 parts (with each of
ideal solution. the subassemblies counting as one part). Fifteen multiplied by 3
Knowing that 100% snap-together assembly was the goal, the equals 45. Divide that by 199 seconds, (what the system calculated
Altair team also aimed to have top-down assembly, which meant as the total assembly time), and the result is 0,23, or 23%. The
no re-orientation of the product during assembly. This would not Altair team had been hoping to reach about 28 or 29%, but they
be easy because of the sensitive nature of the components used and were not too discouraged. They had good reason not to be because
the importance of package design in electronic products. they met their other goals with flying colors. In the end, the only
threaded fasteners they used were in the waveguide and shield
Defining the Assembly Sequence assemblies; this was necessary to form an RF seal that would
The assembly diagram in Fig. A-35 was printed from the comply with FCC regulations.
system. It is for the assembly of the Altair Desktop Module. The
sequence goes as follows (no tools are required): Speed To Market
The production worker starts with a plastic base with snap Another major benefit of the emphasis on early design analysis
features molded into it. He or she sets the base on the was the speed production. Because of the time they put in
worktable (because of the snap features molded into it, there optimizing the design for manual assembly startup problems were
is no chance that it will be positioned wrong-side up). The virtually nonexistent.
worker snaps in the wave guide component and the first On the Altair project, the team was pleased to find that no
board. The worker then snaps in the second board and changes were required to make the assembly work. The only thing
attaches a ribbon cord between the two boards. A coaxial that had to be changed was a rework step. A connector was fitting
cable is then connected between the two boards. (The order too close to another part; the operator could not get his or her hand
in which the ribbon and coaxial cables are connected does around the connector to make repairs if a board was faulty or a fit
not matter leaving less room for costly errors. ) had to be tightened. In this case it was disassembly, rather than
The next stage is the backplate assembly: The third board is assembly, that was the problem,
snapped onto the back plate; the back- plate (with clip) is
attached to the fan assembly; and the fan hold-down is Quality
snapped into place. Then the entire backplate assembly is One way to judge quality is the defect rate, which, thanks to the
snapped into the base (enough room was left to make this an assembly efficiency discussed already, was extremely low. An-
easy-to-perform operation). Two more ribbon and coaxial other quality issue is the quality of the analysis. In other words,
connections are made, the cover snaps on, and the unit is once the product went into production, how accurate were their
complete. Reliability is ensured by duplicate checkpoints: assembly time estimates? They were within eight or nine seconds
Each board is tested at the subassembly level, and then the of what they had predicted.
whole unit is tested before the cover is put on.
To reach this level of efficiency, the Altair team went through Summary
several iterations of the product structure. Doing so was naturally On the next version of Altair, Munier plans to do more passes
somewhat frustrating, but not difficult, because the product through the system. Now that the first stage is complete, they will
structures on the system could be constantly updated. Each time be able to use the cost summary portions of the software,
they tried a different sequence, they could calculate the overall something they avoided doing the first time because they had too
time and see where they stood. For example, they considered little information. They also may use the newly released Custom
having more subassemblies to make the final assembly easier for View feature of the software, which allows the user to incorporate
the production workers to comprehend, but the increase in a companys own parts and process capabilities into the system.
A-50
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX A
AUTOMATED DFM
xl
em
m.-..
)==
.L. . ~
.0
x,
{#4} ou-pwmon EIB/Bactcplate
connector
8 assembly
~~&
7
~#6) 40-position
cc.nnacbr
1
Q/o s5
(-a
T\
@4 /e&
.
,,3)E3=-DE!Z
connector
8 / +@,
@
JiP 7
/ /Ll\ ffi@
wov~uide/
IDM assembly (s-. 0
L&lvdd
..-. . . . . . . . ..- . . . . . .
rm,lg. a-m
. -.= .
..Wsemmy alagram 01 Motorolas lJesKtop MCKtU1e.
Because Motorola as a corporation is standardizing on the BDI that Motorola will require Muniers group to switch over to the
system, the Altair team needed to perform a rough-and-ready BDI system. Though they want to standardize the systems in use,
translation of its results into BD1 efficiency numbers so that the companys management realizes the need for local autonomy.
another Motorola group which uses BDI and is working on a Moreover, other groups within Motorola also are using Assembly
similar product could have something to compare itself to. Munier View.
plans to eventually tailor the parameters that are set on Assembly Adapted with permission from Design For Manufacture Alert,
View to match the BDI system for more valid comparisons. September 1991. (Published by Management Roundtable, Inc.,
Getting within 2-3% should he sufficient. There is no indication 1050 Commonwealth, Boston, MA., 02215 (61 7) 232-8050).
A-51
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX B
B-1
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX B
Bussey, John and Sease, Douglas R. Speeding Up. Manu- Goldstein, Gina. Integration of Product and Process De-
facturers Strive to Slice Time Needed to Develop Products. The sign. Mechanical Engineering (April 1989).
Wall Street Journal (February 1988). Gordon, Fred. Simultaneous Engineering. Engineering
Byme, Diane M. and Taguchi, Shin. The Taguchi Approach Manager (January 1989).
to Parameter Design. Quality Progress (December 1987). Graham, G. Bridging the CAD to Assembly Gap. Electron-
Co ffman, Cathy. Make Me A Match. Automotive Industries ics in Manufacturing, Fourth Quarter (1989).
(December 1987). Gregory, Jack G. and McIlroy, Dan P. Rule-Based Methodsfor
Coleman, John R. NCR Cashes In On Design for Assem- Composites/Plastics Design and Tooling: Tools That Design
bly. Assembly Engineering (September 1988). Themselves. SME Technical Paper MS89-717, (1989).
Coleman, John R. Design for Assembly Users Speak Out. Gunter, Bert. Statistically Designed Experiments. Quality
Assembly Engineering (July 1988). Progress (August 1990).
Concurrent Engineering, Bi-monthly publication (Boston, Hauser, John R. and Clausing, Don. The House of Quality.
MA: Auerbach Publishers). Harvard Business Review (May -Jtme 1988).
Conti, Tito. Process Management and Quality Function Heidenreich, Paul. Designing for Manufacturability. Qual-
Deployment. Quality Progress (December 1989). ity Progress (May 1988).
Corcoran, Mick. Waterjet Cutting Systems. The Fabricator How to Build and Operate a Product Design Team. Industry
(April 1990). Week (April 16, 1990).
Corcoran, Mick. Growth Spurt for Waterjets. Design News Inglesby, Tom. How They Brought Home the Prize. Man-
(July 1990). ufacturing Systems (April 1989).
Clark, Kim. What Strategy Can Do for Technology. Hur- Integration of R & M into the Automated Design Process.
vard Business Review (November-December 1989). CALS Technical Report 001: Study of the CALS R & M Summer
Clausing, Don and Simpson, Bruce. Quality by Design. Study on Complex Electronics (Gaithersburg, MD: NIST, March
Quality Progress (January 1990), 17, 1988).
Daetz, Douglas. The Effect of Product Design Alternative s. Johnson, Robert. Reaching New Heights in Solid Model-
Quality Progress (June 1987). ing. Computer Graphics World (December 1989).
Dean, J. W. and Susman, G. I. Organizing for Manufacturable Kackar, Rahgu. Taguchi Quality Philosophy: Analysis and
Design. Harvard Business Review (January-February 1989). Commentary. Qualiry Progress (December 1986).
Design Integrated Manufacturing. Plastics World (Decem- Kessel-Hunter, Kathy. Knowledge-based Engineering Tech-
ber 1988). nology Case Study: Jet Engine Turbine Blade Design. SME
Dewhurst, Peter and Boothroyd, Geoffrey. <Design for As- Technical Paper MS89-0726, 1989.
sembly In Action. Assembly Engineering (January 1987). Kirkland, Carl. Meet Two Architects of Design-Integrated
Dixon, John. New Goals in Engineering Education. Me- Manufacturing. Plastics World (December 1988).
chanical Engirreering (March 1991). Koelsch, James R. Use the Beam for Better Cutting.
Dumaine, Brian. How Managers Can Succeed Through Manufacturing Engineering (January 1991).
Speed. Fortune (February 13, 1989). Kotter, John. What Leaders Really Do. Harvard Business
Eade, Robert. Automatic Assembly: the Key is Orientation. Review (May-June 1990).
Manufacturing Engineering (March 1989). Krag, William B, Dynamic Standardization Using Expert
Evans, Bill. Simultaneous Engineering. Mechanical Engi- Systems. SME Technical Paper MS89-0389, (1989).
neering (February 1988). Lin, Paul; Sulli%an, Lawrence; and Taguchi ,Genichi. Using
Fabrycky, Welter J. Designing For the Life Cycle. Mechan- Taguchi in Quality Engineering. Quality Progress ( September
ical Engineering (January 1987). 1990).
Foreman, John W. Gaining Competitive Advantage by Using Madsen, Claus. A Case Study of Simultaneous Engineering.
Simultaneous Engineering to Integrate Your Engineering, Design, SME Technical Paper MS89-0742, (1989).
and Manufacturing Resources. SME Technical Paper MM89- Martin, John. A Team Approach to Success. Manufactur-
0715, (1989). ing Engineering (August 1989).
Frameworks: New Applications, New Environments. Man- Martin, John. The Final Piece to the Puzzle. Manufacturing
ufacturing Systems (January 199 1). Engineering (September 1988).
Francis, Philip H. Toward a Science of Manufacturing. Migliore, Leonard and Hoffman, Donald. Why Isnt There a
Mechanical Engineering (May 1986). Laser in Every Sheet Metal Job Shop? The Fabricator (October
Funk, Jeffrey L. Design for Assembly of Electrical Prod- 1990).
ucts. Manufacturing Review Vol. 2 No, 1 (March 1989) pp Miller, Bernie. Design-for-assembly Slashes Cost of
53-59. Hoovers All-plastic Vacuum Cleaner. Plastics World (April
Gager, Russ, Designing for Productivity Saves Millions. 1989).
Appliance Manufacturer (January 1986). Mills, Robert. Mechanical Design. Computer-Aided Engi-
Gerhardt, Don J. and Ferguson, Robert G. <Waterjet Cutting neering (December 1990).
Systems for Factories of the Future. 3rd International Confer- Mills, Robert, CAD/CAM Drives Auto Making. Computer-
ence on CADICAM Robotics and Factories of the Future, Pro- Aided Engineering (February 1990),
ceedings (Springer Verlag, New York, 1988). Myers, Charles F. Partners for Productivity. Production
Gerhardt, Don J.; Hutchinson, W. Roger; and Mistry, Dilip K. Engineering (June 1987).
Design for Manufacture and Assembly at Ingersoll-Rand. Norman, Rick. Concurrent Product/Process Development
Proceedings of the 1990 International Forum on Design for (CPIPD): Concurrent Design Methodology: Making It Happen,
Manufacture and Assembly (Boothroyd Dewhurst, Inc., Wake- International TechneGroup Incorporated (1988).
field, RI, 1990).
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX B
Nwosa, Harold. Evaluating Product Design Alternative s. Turtle, Quentin C. Synchronous Engineering: Implementation
Journal of Computing and Applications (Spring 1989). of Modern Techniques. SME Technical Paper MM89-0495,
Potter, Caren. NURBS vs. Bezier. Computer Graphics (1989).
World (October 1990). Tustin, Wayne. Shake and Bake the Bugs Out. Quality
Rado, Leonard. Enhance Product Development by Using Progress (September 1990).
Capability Indexes. Quality Progress (April 1989). Van Loon, Rudy. Working the Informal Channels. Data-
Ramberg, John. Improvements on Taguchi Methods for Semi- mation (May 1, 1991).
conductor Design/Manufacture. SME Technical Paper MS89- Vasilash, Gary S. Simultaneous Engineering. Production
0798 ( 1989). (.hdy 1987).
Reinertsen, Donald. Whodunit? The Search for New Product Vasilash, Gary S. Make Em When You Need Em,
Killers. Electronic Business (July 1983). Production (August 1990).
Reinertsen, Donald. Blitzkrieg Product Development: Cut Von Trotha, Lebrecht. Laser or Punch: Which One? h40d-
Development Times in Half. Electronics Business (January 15, ern Machine Shop (March 1990).
1985). Waterbury, Robert. Applying Design for Assembly Princi-
Robinson, Phillip. The Emergence of Smart CAD Soft- ples Assembly Engineering (March 1986).
ware. Computer Graphics World (July 1990). Warthen, Barbara. PDES Shapes Data Exchange Technol-
Rooks, Brian. Bridging the Gap Between Design and Assem- ogy. Computer-Aided Engirwering (February 1990).
bly. Assembly Automation (May 1987). Yamada, Takuruo. Analysis of Production Line Ejjiciencyfiom
Rouse, Nancy. Designers Gain Insight into the Factory. the Viewpoint of a Japanese Production Engineer. SME Technical
Machine Design (June 1989). Paper MS89-0476, (1989).
Rutt, James and Samson, Andrea, Laser Cutting of Nested Zajicek, Lada. DFM Support for Simultaneous Engineer-
Parts. The Fabricator (April 1990). ing. Manufacturing Engineering (March 1988).
Sackett, P.J. and Holbrook, A.E.K. DFA as a Primary Zorowski, Carl F. Analyzing Product Assembleability
Process Decreases Design Deficiencies. Assembly Automation Merit. North Carolina State University (March 1989).
(August 1988).
Schenk, Phil. Guidelines for Successful Installation of a
Turret Punch Press with Plasma. The Fabricator (September
1990).
Schreiber, Rita R. The Power of the Punch Press. Manu- PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
facturing Engineering (September 1990).
Schuch, Linda K. DFA Promises and Delivers. Assembly
Engineering (May 1989). Concurrent Engineering and Training
Simultaneous Engineering Conference Papers (Dearborn MI:
Society of Manufacturing Engineers, 1989). Concurrent Engineering Research Center (CERC), West Vir-
Simultaneous Engineering as a Competitive Advantage. ginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506 (304) 293-7226.
Computer-Aided Engineering (October 1990). DRM Associates: Kenneth Crow, 2613 Via Olivera, Palo
Sprague, William. Design for Manufacturability: the Key to Verdes, CA 90274-2809 (213) 377-5569.
Manufacturing Excellence. Mechanical Manufacturing Systems
(September-October 1990).
Stauffer, Robert N. Converting Customers to Partners at
Ingersoll. Manufacturing Engineering (September 1988).
Sterner, Bob. Control-Sensor Ties Give Flexibility to Punch- DFM Analysis Tools,
ing, Pressing Operations. Metalworking News (November Training and Consulting
1989).
Stoll, Henry W. Simultaneous Engineering in the Conceptual Dr. David M. Anderson, P. E., 3623 Boyer Circle, Lafayette,
Design Phase. SME Technical Paper AD88-0775, (1988). CA 94549 (414) 284-2337.
Stoll, Henry W. Design for Manufacture. Manufacturing Boothroyd Dewhurst Inc., 138 Main Street, Wakefield, RI
Engineering (January 1988). 02879 (401 ) 783-5840.
Sullivan, Larry. Quality Function Deployment. Quality Coopers and Lybrand, Management and Consulting Services.
Progress, (June 1986). Jerome Hahn, 1999 Bryan Street, Suite 3000, Dallas, TX 75201
Szakonyl, Robert. Worlds Apar-Bridging R&D and Manu- (214) 754-5000.
factoring. Manufacturing Engineering (December 1987). David A. Curtis and Associates, P.O. Box 429, Concord, MA
Taguchi, Genichi and Clausing, Don. Robust Quality, 01742 (508) 635-0177.
Harvard Business Review (January-February 1990). CWA Engineering, C. Wesley Allen, Ph. D., P. E.; P.O. Box
Tanner, John P. Product Manufacturability. Automation 1827, Martinsville, IN, 46151 (317) 342-7187.
(May 1989). DRM Associates, Kenneth Crow, 2613 Via Olivera, Palo
Team Tactics Can Cut Product Development Costs. The Verdes, CA 90274-2809 (213) 377-5569.
.Journa/ of Business Strategy (September-October 1988). Ernst & Young, William B. Krag, P. E.; 2000 National City
Thurmond, R,C. and Kunak, D.V. Assessing the Develop- Center, Cleveland, OH 44114 (216) 861-5000.
menbProduction Transition. IEEE (1988). Institute of Global Competitiveness (IGC), Dr. Jay Desai, 5
Tillotson, Bob and Carr, Ron. Forming Metal with Press Hearthstone, Monroe, CT 06468 (203) 268-1154.
Brakes. The Fabricator (December 1990). The Institute for Competitive Design (ICD), Bart Huthwaite,
530 N. Pine, Suite A, Rochester, MI 48307 (313) 656-2195.
B-3
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX B
Juliard Associates, Pierre Juliard, 24 Kellogg Street, Brook- DFMA Insight3, 138 Main Street, Wakefield, RI 02879 (401)
field, CT 06804 (203) 775-2987. 783-5840.
Munro Associates, Inc., Nancy Loerch, 911 W. Big Beaver Rapid Prototyping Report: the Newsletter of the Desktop
Road. Suite 309, Troy, MI 48084 (313) 362-5110. Manufacturing Industry. Adam Cohen, Editor/Publisher, 10717
PPM Associates, Phil Marcoux 599 N. Mathilda Ave., Suite Wilshire Boulevard, Suite 802, Los Angeles, CA 90024 (213)
15, Sunnyvale, CA 94086 (408) 735-9680. 470-0955.
Riley Associates, 221 Hilltop Lane, Cincinnati, OH 45215 Value Digest: Engineering and Management. Tufty Commu-
(513) 521-3088. nications Co., 499 National Press Building, Washington, DC
Sapphire Design Systems, Inc., 845 Oak Grove Avenue, Suite 20045 (202) 347-8998.
115, Menlo Park, CA 94025 (415) 321-3595.
Stargate, Inc., Carl M. Jacobson, P.O. Box 14051, Scottsdale,
AZ 85267 (602) 494-4572.
Technology Management Group, Dr. Quentin Turtle, 200 Processes Related to Rapid Prototyping
Midway Ro=d, P. O.- Box 20382~ Cranston, RI 02920 (401)
942-1607. Perception System Inc., William Maters, PO. Box 8002, 1110
Powdersville Rd., Easley, SC 29640 (803) 859-7518.
B-4
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX B
Quality TrainingQFD and Taguchi Methods Hall, Valencia, CA 91335 (805) 295-5600. Stereolithography.
Wielgus Product Models, Inc., John Metelnick, 320 West Ohio
American Supplier Institute, P.O. Box 567, Dearborn, MI Street, Chicago, IL 60610 (312) 943-1950.
48121-0567, (313) 336-8877. Books, training, and videotape
courses.
DRM Associates, 2613 Via Olivera, Palo Verdes, CA 90274-
2809 (213) 377-5569. Training and consulting.
MIT Center for Advanced Engineering Study. Taguchi Quality
Rapid Prototyping Training and Education
Engineering System for Robust Design videotape training. Avail-
able from CAD/CIM Management Roundtable, 1050 Common- National Conference on Rapid Prototyping: Sponsored by
wealth Ave., Boston, MA 02215 (800) 735-4400.
Rapid Prototype Development Laboratory Center for Advanced
Technicomp, 111 I Chester Ave., Cleveland, OH 44114-2213
Manufacturing at University of Dayton. 300 College Park, KL
(800) 735-4440. 465, Dayton, OH 45469-0190 (513) 229-2966.
Society of Manufacturing Engineers, One SME Drive, P.O.
Box 930, Dearborn, Michigan 48121-0930, (3 13)271-1500, FAX
(313) 271-2861.
QFD Software
International Technegroup Inc., Milford, OH 45150 (513)
576-3900 (Rick Norman). QFD/Capture (MS-DOS).
Qualisoft, 7395 Bridge Way West, West Bloomfield, MI
48322 (313) 626-4070. QFD Designer-Microsoft Windows (MS- Rule-Based Systems
DOS).
Technicomp, 1111 Chester Ave. ,Cleveland, OH 44114-2213 ICAD, 201 Broadway, Cambridge, MA 02139 (617) 868-
(800) 735-4440. 2800.
Wisdom Systems, 30100 Chagrin Blvd., Suite 100, Pepper
Pike, OH 44124 (216) 831-2880.
B-5
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
APPENDIX B
B-6
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base Copyright 1998 Society of Manufacturing Engineers
INDEX
materials available, 12-72 size of parts, 12-24 Human factors engineering, 4-1 1 .
part shapes, 12-71 (Table 12-9) thickness, 12-24 Human performance improvement, 4-7
shape capabilities, 12-70 tolerances, 12-24 Hydraulic ports, 7-28 (Fig. 7-25)
size limitations, 12-71 forgings, 12-58
size ranges, 12-72 (Table 12-11) cold, 12-70
steels, 12-73 (Table 12-13) impression die, 12-59 1
strengths of, 12-72 near net, 12-65
tolerance capability, 12-73 (Table 12-12) open die, 12-62 Inactive-state controller cells, 16-34 (Fig. 16-
tolerances, 12-71, 12-73 (Table 12-12) purpose of, 12-58 26)
impression die forgings, 12-59 seamless rolled rings, 12-64 Industry preferred components, 16-8
design considerations, 12-59 types of, 12-59 Injection molding, 15-40
equipment consideration, 12-61 metal forming, 12-1 Inspection, 2-9
general trends, 12-61 (Table 12-5) finishing, 12-19, 12-23 Instructional systems development, 4-16
hot forging, 12-60 (Table 12-4) lubricants, 12-18 Intangibles, 5- I 1
materials consideration, 12-61, 12-62 preferred conditions, 12-8 Intelligent tutors, 4-20
(Table 12-6) preferred die conditions, 12-11 Interactive videodisc, 4- I9
shape consideration, 12-60 stamping design, 12-1 Inventory, 1-14, 7-29, 10-6
size consideration, 12-60 tolerances, 12-14 Inventorykad time cycle, 7-29
near net shape, 12-65 tooling, 12-1, 12-14 Investment casting, 7-13
basic shapes, 12-67 (Fig. 12-77) weld flanges, 12-13
close to finish, 12-65 metal spinning, 12-42
close tolerance. 12-66 (Table 12-8) advantages, 12-42
in controlled impact hammers, 12-68 geometries, 12-44
in forging presses, 12-67 materials, 12-44 J
hot die for in0 12-68 surface finishing, 12-43
isothermal % r & g , 12-68 tolerances, 12-43 Joining, 10-11, 13-7
open-die. 12-62. 12-64 (Fig. 12-75) precision forming, 12-36 Just-in-time, 1-3, 4-7
continuous improvements, 12-63 backward extrusion, 12-4 1
materials, 12-63 bending, 12-42
value-added, 12-63 coining, 12-41
seamless rolled rings, 12-64 design implications, 12-36
selection of, 12-58 drawing, 12-41 . 1
for steels, 12-63 (Table 12-7) forward extrusion, 12-41
types of, 12-59 metal flow 12-39 Laser machining, 11-33, 11-35, 11-36
Forming nosing/flaring, 12-42 Laser sintering, 7-2 1
bending, 12-44 shear forming, 12-42 Lateral thinking, 9-6, 9-7
anchors, 12-48 upsetting, 12-39 Learning concepts, 4- I2
approaches, 12-45 roll forming, 12-26 Level of activity, 5-2
clamping, 12-47 assembly, 12-35 Liquid composites molding, 15-15
compound bends. 12-47 bending radius, 12-26
design considerations, 12-46 " discontinued bend lines, 12-28
equipment, 12-48 flat elements, 12-30
field welds. 12-48 material, 12-33
lubricants, 12-48 material handling, 12-35
material, 12-46 packaging, 12-35 ~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
1-3
INDEX
additives for, 11-34 die side thrust, 12-6 suitable materials, 1 1-4 1
material considerations, 11-2, 11-3, 11-4, draw dies, 12-2 (Fig. 12-3) laser machining, 1 1-33, 1 1-35, I 1-36
11-5 drawing conditions, 12-3 capabilities, 11-33
metalworking fluid selection, 1 1-28 edge waviness, 12-2 distortion, 11-36
milling, 11-16 elongation, 1 2 4 edge finish, I 1-36
nontraditional machining, 11-33 flanged holes, 12-7 edge profile, 11-35
abrasive flow, 1 1-36 flange dies, 12-4, 12-5 (Fig. 12-8) kerf, 1 1-35
abrasive waterjet, 1 1-36 preferred conditions, 12-2 part design, 1 1-35
electrochemical, 11-40 recessed holes, 12-7 process, 11-33 ,
1-4
INDEX
adhesive bonding, 15-13 Producibility, 10-24 (Fig. 12-44), 12-32 (Fig. 1245)
automated shape cutting, 15-1 1 Producibility assessment, 10-32 bending radius, 12-26
classifications, 15-3 Producibility assessment tools, 10-27 design interaction, 12-34
processing methods, 15-3 Producibility metrics, 10-30 flat elements, 12-30
typical properties, 15-3 Product cost model, 2-1 1 (Fig. 2-12) flat strip, 12-27 (Fig. 12-36)
decorative process, 15-14 Product development teams, 2-15 lines, 12-31
design consideration, 15-5 Product goals, 8-7 material handling, 12-35
chemical exposure, 15-5 Product structure, 10-8 materials, 12-33
draft angles, 15-6 Product usability, 10-65 operations, 12-35 (Table 12-1)
ejector pins, 15-8 Project decisions, 10-1 packing, 12-35
electrical exposure, 15-5 Prototyping, 7-9, 10-54, 15-3 residual stresses, 12-27 (Fig. 12-37)
fillets, 15-8 Purchasing, 10-3, 10-52 springback, 12-30 (Fig. 12-42)
flammability ratings, 15-6 PWA, See: Printed wire assembly strip edge, 12-33 (Fig. 12-46)
gates, 15-8 tolerances, 12-33
moisture exposure, 15-5
optical products, 15-6
parting lines, 15-8
radii, 15-8 Q
recyclability 15-9 5
temperature exposure, 15-5 QFD, See: Quality function deployment
undercuts, 15-7 Quality Safety, 1-5, 10-16, 10-65
wall thickness, 15-7 basic concepts, 6-2 Sales trends, 16-3
weatherability, 15-6 Deming Cycle, 6-2, 6-30, 6-33, 6-35 Self-fastening features, 8-9, 8- 10
failure analysis, 15-1 process view, 6-3 Serviceability, 8-13, 10-68
machining, 15-11 terms drefined, 6-2 Setup errors, 10-60
material selection, 15-4 costs, 1-15, 5-2 Shaft coupling design, 9-41
prototyping, 15-3 in factory design, 1-5 Shape cutting, 15-11
shrinkage, 15-9 impact of design on, 10-15 Sheet metal parts, 8-8
causes of, 15-10 as a goal, 3-7 (Table 3-2) Shipping, 10- 11
effects of, 15-10 planning, 6-30 Simulation, 10- 12
shrinkage prediction, 15-10 and producibility, 10-30 Site selection, 8-5
types. 15-9 in production operations, 6-36 Skill transfer, 4-14
supplier checklist, 15-2 t d s , 6-6 Software, 5-8
surface preparation, 15- 13 benchmarking, 6-27 Solids with booleans, 7-8 (Fig. 7-8)
acid etch, 15-14 plan elements, 6-6 SPC, See: Statistical process control
corona discharge, 15- 14 pianning methods, 6-6 Spinning, 12-42
flame treatment, 15-13 process documentation, 6- 14 Spray metal tooling, 7-13
plasma process, 15-14 quality function deployment, 6-10, 6-1 1 Springback, 12-5, 12-30 (Fig. 12-42)
welding thermoplastics, 15-12 (Fig: 6-8) Stack assemblies, 8-10
Poke-yoke, 6-18 (Fig. 6-12) . statistical methods, 6-19 Standard components, 7-2
Powder coating, 13-10 in transition, 6-32 Standard parts, 7-2
Powder forgings, 15-40 Quality function deployment, 2-5, 6-10, 6-1 1 Standard test architecture, 16-30
Powder metallurgy, 15-40 (Fig. 6 4 , 6-12 (Fig. 6-9), 6-13 (Fig. 6-10), Standard test strategy, 16-29
advantages, 15-41 6- 14 Statistical process control, 1040, 13-2
compared to other processes, 15-41 Stereolithography
design, 15-43 draw parameters, 7-17
gears, 15-44, 15-45 (Fig. 15-35) guidelines, 7-16
limitations of, 15-41 and investmcnt casting, 7-13
materials, 15-42 metal arc spray, 7-15 (Fig. 7-13)
metal injection molding, 15-40 processing constraints, 7-16
powder forging, 15-40 Rapid prototyping, 7-9 resin selection, 7-16
shapes, 15-43 ballistic particle manufacturing, 7-21 safety, 7-17
tooling, 15-43 benefits of, 7-9 and spray metal tooling, 7- 13
Precision forming, 12-36 constrained polymers, 7-24,7-25 (Fig. 7-20) sweep volume model, 7-12 (Fig. 7-7)
backward extrusion, 12-41 desktop modeling, 7-26 viscosity, 7- 17
bending, 12-42 fused deposition modeling, 7-22, 7-23 (Fig. Strategic planning, 5-5 (Fig. 5-2)
coining, 12-42 7- 17) Stress relieving, 12-23
cold extrusion, 12-38 (Table 12-2) laminated object manufacturing, 7-24, 7- 15 Supplier certification, 10-73
design implications of, 12-36 (Fig. 7-19) Supplier checklists, 15-2
drawing, 12-41 materials, 7-24 Suppliers, 2-3, 10-52
flaring, 12-42 polymers, 7-24 Surface mount technology, 16-15
forward extrusion, 12-41 selective laser sintering, 7-21
metal flow, 12-39 simultaneous irradiation, 7-24
nosing, 12-42 solid ground curing, 7- 18
shear forming, 12-42 stereolithography, 7-10
upsetting, 12-39 three-axis desktop modeling, 7-26
Predetermined time standards, 5-9 Raw materials, 10-10 T
Printed wire assembly, 16-4, 16-13, 16-14 Recyclability, 8-15, 15-9
Priority assessment, 5-13 (Fig. 5-10) Reliability calculation, 16-26 Taguchi analysis, 10-14
Problem solving methodologies, 9-2 (Table 9- 1) Reorientation, 8-11 Taguchi methodology, 6-25
Problem visualization, 9-3 (Fig. 9-1) Resins, 7-17 Taguchi quality engineering, 2-6
Process advice, 7-33 (Fig. 7-31) Resource planning, 2-17 Target costs, 5-7
Process design, 2-14 Ring torque terminal configuration, 7-28 (Fig. Team building, 4-1
Process-driven designs, 7-6 7-26) Team operation, 2- 16
Process flexibility, 10-2 Robustness assessment, 10-9 Team personnel, 10-16
Process-level approach, 10-17 Roll forming, 12-26 Testability, 2-9, 16-21
Process management, 6-2 assembly, 12-35 Test access port, 16-33
Process view of DFM, 6-4 (Fig. 6-2) bend lines, 12-28, 12-29 (Fig. 12-40), 12-31 Test migration, 16-36
INDEX