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G 190 06
3. Terminology 6.3 Documentation of the result of a wear test is also an
3.1 Definitions: element of this methodology, and this is important for assess-
3.1.1 See Terminology G 40 for terms used in this guide. ment and interpretation of the data obtained, as well as for the
3.1.2 weardamage to a solid surface, generally involving reporting of such data.
progressive loss of material, due to relative motion between 6.4 Simulation:
that surface and a contacting substance or substances. 6.4.1 Simulation ensures that the behavior experienced in
3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard: the test is the same as in the application. Given the complexity
3.2.1 wear testany test for the determination of wear of wear and the current incomplete understanding of wear and
characteristics of materials. its phenomena, test development is subject to trial and error
and is dependent on the capability of the developer. Ideally, the
4. Summary of Guide test would exactly duplicate a wear situation. However, this
4.1 This guide describes the generic elements that need to generally is neither practical nor possible. Some differences
be considered in the selection and development of a wear test will have to be accepted. While this is the case, any difference
for it to be relevant to an application. General recommenda- between the test and the intended application should be
tions and considerations regarding these elements and their evaluated carefully to obtain relevant and useful wear data for
significance in the process of selecting and developing a wear the application.
test are provided. Variability to be expected with a well- 6.4.2 The literature, prior data, and results of auxiliary or
controlled test is discussed as well as the correlation with an preliminary tests are useful in assessing the possible effects of
application. differences.
4.2 This guide describes a general methodology for the 6.4.3 The engineer concerned with reliability and life gen-
implementation of a wear test. This methodology comprises erally requires precise simulation. However, the material de-
the elements of simulation, acceleration, apparatus design, veloper interested in a convenient test to rank the wear
specimen preparation, test protocol, measurement, and docu- resistance of materials usually requires only that the test
mentation of results. simulates the general area of application.
6.4.4 Contact conditions, primarily, the motion, contact
5. Significance and Use stress, wear agent, lubrication, and environment, generally
5.1 The guidance and methodology provided by this guide need to be representative of the application for adequate
is applicable for any wear situation and is not limited to simulation.
material or lubrication. This guide is intended to provide 6.4.5 Wear test simulation does not require that an applica-
general information and guidance regarding the selection and tion be replicated to provide valid data, provided the essential
development of a wear test and does not provide specifics elements of a wear situation are replicated. For example, a
about any one wear test or intended application. In general the sliding wear test is used to evaluate the wear resistance of
variability and correlation that is obtained with any wear test is material used for print elements in mechanical printers. In this
determined by the degree to which the various elements of the application, the apparent key element is impact. Print element
wear test methodology described in this guide are followed. wear, however, is caused by sliding abrasive action that occurs
during impact, which is simulated in a sliding test (see Test
6. Elements of Method Method G 56). As another example, the configuration of the
6.1 Wear behavior is a complex phenomenon, involving two dry-sand rubber wheel test (see Test Method G 65), useful in
or more bodies, one or more materials, and dependent on a ranking material wear situations involving dry abrasion, is not
wide range of factors, such as motion, loading, and environ- typical of some situations to which the test is applied. In the
ment. A material can wear by different mechanisms in different test, a rotating rubber wheel presses and rubs sand across the
situations and different materials can wear by different mecha- face of a specimen. A typical use of this test is to select
nisms in the same wear situation. Wear of one surface or body materials for farm tools operating in sandy soils, where dry
can also be influenced by the wear of the other contacting body. abrasion often dominates the wear situation.
As a result, wear behavior, or simply wear, is best viewed as a 6.4.6 Wear Scar Morphology and DebrisAlthough gen-
system property not a material property. The group of elements eral knowledge and experience can aid in assessing the
that affect wear behavior is referred to as a tribosystem. differences between test and application, correlations in wear
6.2 Because of this complex nature of wear, the primary behavior between test and application should also be studied.
element involved in the selection of a wear test for an The most helpful correlation in developing a test is comparison
application is the simulation of the tribosystem of the applica- of the worn surface and wear debris produced in the test to
tion in the wear test. Another element of the methodology for those produced in the application. The morphology of the scar,
selecting a wear test is acceleration of wear results, which is the presence or absence of oxidized or other surface layers,
related to the consideration of simulation. Apparatus design, changes in the microstructure of the material, and wear debris
specimen preparation, test protocol, and measurement are size, shape, and composition can be compared. If major
additional elements of this methodology. In addition to their features of the wear scar and debris are different, valid
relationships with the need for simulation, these further ele- simulation is unlikely. Wear mechanisms frequently result in
ments are important in obtaining acceptable repeatability of characteristic wear particles. Consequently, comparing wear
test results. debris can be very useful.
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G 190 06
6.4.7 Test Geometry: wear tests. However, when properly addressed, scatter can
6.4.7.1 Selection of test geometry is another factor that must generally be reduced to acceptable levels for most engineering
be considered when simulating wear conditions. For example, application.
laboratory sliding contact wear tests employ three general 6.6.2 In general, the test apparatus should be designed with
types of contactpoint contacts (such as a sphere on a plane) enough ruggedness and precision to provide repeatable and
for example, Test Methods G 83 and G 133, line contacts (such stable wear conditions.
as a cylinder on a flat), for example, Test Method G 77, and 6.6.3 To reduce scatter in wear testing, a test should be built
conforming contacts (such as a flat on a flat), for example, Test around uniform, consistent, and readily obtainable reference
Methods D 3702 and G 75. In addition to simulation aspects, material. Periodic standard tests should monitor the condition
each of these geometries has advantages and disadvantages. of the test rig, skill of the operator, and such factors as the
Point-contact geometry eliminates alignment problems and influence of ambient environment, for example, room tempera-
allows wear to be studied from the start of the test. However, ture and humidity, effects. Examples of the use of a reference
stress levels change as wear progresses, requiring more com- material in wear testing can be found in Test Methods D 2714,
plex data analysis and comparison techniques. Furthermore, in G 56, and G 75.
the presence of a lubricant, point, line, and conforming 6.6.4 Generally, close simulation or replication exists in
contacts will differ greatly with respect to viscosity and tests that show good correlation to practice, and tight controls
anti-wear additives. are evident in tests that provide good repeatability and low
6.4.7.2 Because of the differences in stress behavior, a point scatter. The ASTM wear test methods provide examples of the
or line contact is more sensitive to stress-dependent wear detail and care that are necessary to obtain good repeatability
mechanisms than a conforming contact. For example, a point and minimum scatter (see Test Methods D 2266, D 2670,
or line contact results in a different relationship between wear D 3704, D 4170, D 4172, F 732, G 32, G 73, G 76, G 81, G 98,
and sliding distance when the wear is a function of stress, G 99, G 105, G 119, G 132, G 134, G 137, G 163, G 171,
compared with when it is not, because the stress level changes G 174, G 176, and G 181). The precision of the apparatus,
as wear progresses. A conforming contact with constant stress specimen preparation, conditions of the counterface and the
does not show this response. Stress dependency of the line abrasive (when appropriate) and details of wear measurement
contact lies between the point and conforming contact. The and reporting are discussed in each procedure.
differences in these geometries must be recognized to obtain 6.6.5 Specimen preparation and the details of test control
the required simulation. vary with the test and materials involved. For metals, surface
6.4.7.3 Conforming-contact tests generally allow the parts roughness, geometry of the specimens, microstructure, homo-
to wear-in to establish uniform and stable contact geometry geneity, hardness, and presence of surface layers usually must
before taking data. As a result, it is difficult to identify wear-in be controlled. Similar controls are also necessary for the
phenomena, because there is no continuous observation of counterface and the wear-producing mediums. For example, in
wear behavior. Consequently, it is difficult to differentiate a test using sand as an abrasive, the purity, particle shape and
surface modifications from simple alignment improvements. In size, and moisture content of the sand must be controlled (see
addition, for applications in which allowed wear is small, the Test Method G 65). In wear tests involving fluids (for example,
wear-in period of these tests may be the most relevant portion as an erosive medium or lubricant), the properties of these
of the test. However, conforming contact provides constant fluids must be controlled.
load and stress conditions once the parts are worn-in. 6.6.6 Parameters such as load, speed, rigidity of apparatus
6.5 Test AccelerationAcceleration in a test is desirable, construction (see Related Material for references regarding the
since unaccelerated tests frequently are more costly and time effect of stiffness (rigidity) and vibration on wear), ambient
consuming. However, acceleration may threaten simulation by environment, location and alignment, and supply of abrasive or
significantly altering or introducing different phenomena. Wear fluid require adequate control. In test development, investiga-
mechanisms generally have threshold acceleration values for tion is necessary to assess the degree of control required and to
transition from mild to severe wear behavior. In addition, establish repeatability.
acceleration of such parameters as load or speed can emphasize 6.6.7 Because of the complexity of wear behavior and the
one wear mechanism over another, thus causing different wear possibility of large variation in test result, multiple tests should
behavior. Nevertheless, most wear tests incorporate some be done. A minimum of three replicate measurements is
element of accelerationcontinuous operation, measurement recommended for most situations. However, a larger number of
of smaller quantities of wear, or higher loads, speeds, and replicates (as many as six) may be needed, particularly if there
temperatures. All acceleration aspects associated with a test is large scatter in test results or a need to develop a statistical
need to be evaluated in terms of their possible effect on characterization.
simulation and should focus on potential changes in wear 6.7 Measurement:
mechanism. 6.7.1 Common wear measures are mass or weight loss,
6.6 Apparatus Considerations, Specimen Preparation and volume loss or displacement, scar width or depth or other
Test Protocol: geometrical measures, and indirect measures, such as the time
6.6.1 Apparatus design, specimen preparation, and test pro- required to wear through a coating or the load required to cause
tocol are important elements for precision and repeatability. severe wear or a change in surface reflectance. The selection of
Lack of attention to these areas cause unacceptable scatter in parameter to measure wear is often based on convenience, the
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G 190 06
nature of the wear specimens, significance to an application, 6.7.7 In engineering applications for which material life and
and available techniques. (See Guides G 117 and G 118 for reliability are concerns, the wear curve provides more com-
guidelines regarding reporting and analysis of wear data.) plete information about material behavior and aids in data
6.7.2 For large amounts of wear, weight-loss measurement extrapolation. However, single-point measurement frequently
is suitable, because it is simple and scales usually are available. is selected when quick evaluation and simple ranking of
However, weight-loss measurement has two major limitations. materials are desired.
First, wear is related primarily to volume of material removed 6.8 Precision:
or displaced. If the tested materials differ in density, weight 6.8.1 The precision of a wear test result, in terms of
loss does not provide a true ranking. Second, this measure does within-lab repeatability, depends on several factors, including
not account for wear by material displacement; a specimen the design and fabrication of the apparatus, materials, nature of
may gain weight by transfer. Therefore, weight-loss measure- the wear, test implementation, and measurement technique. As
ment is valid only when material densities are the same and a guideline, existing standardized wear tests show coefficients
when material displacement and transfer do not occur. of variation in wear measurement ranging from 5 to 50 % or
6.7.3 Volume loss or displacement, although directly attrib- larger.
utable to wear, frequently is difficult to measure. Except for 6.8.2 A method for determining the precision of a wear test
simple wear scar geometries, determination of volume loss is is described in Guide G 117.
complex and time consuming. A linear dimension, such as the 6.9 Documentation:
depth or width of the scar, often is measured, because it is 6.9.1 Wear is a system response. When reporting wear data,
related to volume through the test geometry. However, the supply a description of the wearing system that includes:
applicability of this type of measurement is limited to each 6.9.1.1 Apparatus,
specific test geometry and test. 6.9.1.2 Geometry of contact,
6.7.4 Wear measurement by indirect techniques is viable in 6.9.1.3 Type of motion,
some cases. For example, when comparing the wear resistance 6.9.1.4 Load,
of very thin coatings, the time required to wear through may be 6.9.1.5 Speed,
the only convenient way of measuring performance. However, 6.9.1.6 Description of materials,
indirect techniques generally are limited in scope and applica- 6.9.1.7 Surface and material preparations,
bility and do not easily provide or establish fundamental wear 6.9.1.8 Roughness,
parameters. 6.9.1.9 Environmental condition,
6.7.5 In wear tests used to rank materials, the wear data are 6.9.1.10 Condition of wearing mediums,
often used directly. However, the wear measurement may also 6.9.1.11 Description of lubricant and lubrication used,
be used to establish parameters that rank material performance 6.9.1.12 Description of wear-in period, if appropriate, and
and used to project behavior in an application. Examples of this 6.9.1.13 Unusual observation, for example, evidence of
are the wear coefficient often used for sliding wear, K (volume transfer.
lost/loadsliding distance), and the zero-wear factor, gr, used in 6.9.2 The report should describe the material tested, general
a stress models for sliding and impact wear, which are used to nature of the test, conditions of the counter face, testing
determine the relationship between wear and parameters, such environment, and any other significant features. For example,
as load and usage. These latter uses often involve multiple wear in metal/metal wear, transfer film formation should be recorded
measurements as a function of usage, for example, sliding and reported. Frequently, such observations lead to a greater
distance, rather than a single, end-value measurement, typical understanding of the wear situation and material response and
of the former use. to improved test development.
6.7.6 Material wear behavior can be compared by determin- 6.9.3 Additional information concerning the reporting of
ing a wear curve, wear as a function of test duration, or by wear test data can be found in Guides G 117 and G 118.
measuring wear at a single point, that is, at the end of a test.
Because wear behavior frequently is nonlinear and transitions 7. Correlation to Application
in wear behavior with test duration are possible, a wear curve 7.1 While the selection of a wear test involves the element
provides more information and allows evaluation of more of simulation, the existence of correlation between a wear test
complex behavior than single-point measurement. With non- and an application is not necessarily ensured, since the simu-
linear behavior it is possible to obtain different rankings of lation is typically not exact. Consequently, correlation between
materials with tests of different durations. Therefore, the a test and an application, while expected, should not be
potential for nonlinear and transitional behavior should be presumed. Correlation needs to be demonstrated by compari-
considered when a wear test is developed. When a single-point son of results.
measurement is used, it is generally necessary to select a test
duration that ensures stable wear behavior to provide valid and 8. Keywords
consistent data. 8.1 erosion; erosion test; tribology; wear; wear test
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RELATED MATERIAL
ASTM STP 615, Selection and Use of Wear Tests for Metals, ASTM Aronov, V., DSouza, A. F., Kalpakjan, S., Shareef, I., Experimental
International, 1977. Investigation of the Effect of System Rigidity on Wear and Friction-
ASTM STP 701, Wear Tests for Plastics: Selection and Use, ASTM induced Vibrations, Journal of Lubrication Technology, Vol 105, 1983,
International, 1980. pp. 206-211.
ASTM STP 769, Selection and Use of Wear Tests for Coatings, ASTM Aronov, V., DSouza, A. F., Kalpakjan, S., Shareef, I., Interactions
International, 1982. Among Friction, Wear, and System StiffnessPart II: Effect of Normal
ASTM STP 1010, Selection and Use of Wear Tests for Ceramics, ASTM Load on System Stiffness, Journal of Lubrication Technology, Vol 106,
International, 1988. 1984, pp. 54-58.
ASTM STP 1199, Tribology: Wear Test Selection for Design and Aronov, V., DSouza, A. F., Kalpakjan, S., Shareef, I., Interactions
Application, ASTM International, 1993. Among Friction, Wear, and System StiffnessPart II: Vibrations
ASTM STP 1247, Effects of Mechanical Stiffness and Vibration on Wear, Induced by Dry Friction, Journal of Lubrication Technology, Vol 106,
ASTM International, 1995. 1984, pp. 59-64.
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