2.

3 Macroeconomic objectives: Low unemployment

Unemployment: when a person is actively searching for a job, which they are able and
willing to do, but cannot find one.

Unemployment rate: the proportion of unemployed in the labour force

=number of unemployed/labour force x 100

Labour force: the total number of people that are able to work, therefore including both the
unemployed and the employed.

Difficulties in measuring unemployment:

Hidden unemployment: the stated unemployment rate may be overstated because some
individuals conceal their true employment status as they fear the loss of transfer payments,
like benefits, or are employed in illegal industries.

Discouraged workers: these are people that would like to work and have previously been
seeking employment, but have since stopped because they could not find a job.

Underemployment: individuals that are employed but they are unsatisfied as the work is
inadequate. This may be because the only work they could find was part time, when they
wanted full time, or they are highly skilled but have a low paid job.

Average ignoring disparities: the unemployment rate is only an average so does not account
for disparities in age, gender, ethnicity and region. For instance, youth unemployement tends
to be higher as well as the unemployment rate amoungst ethnic minority groups.

Consequences of unemployment

Economics consequences:
Loss of GDP: the distance between actual and potential output grows as fewer goods and
services are being producted due to fewer workers.

Loss of household income: inevitably the loss of a job will mean lower income for the
individual and therefore a lower standard of living. In order to prevent more job losses,
employers may cut the pay of those still employed which again leads to a loss of household
income.

Loss of tax revenue: with lower real incomes, households will pay the lower rates of direct
tax and private spending will decrease, so tax revenue from indirect taxes also decreases.

Increased cost of unemployment benefits: governmnet spending will increase as more

people will be in need of tranfer payments, like benefits, in order to maintain an adequate
standard of living.
 Large income disparities: certain groups of people are more geographically mobile than
others and therefore more likely to find work whilst others may remain unemployed for a
long time. Also individual industries tend to fair an economic downturn differently. For
instance, owners of dicount stores and bankrupcy lawyers may do better than holiday
companies and furniture stores during a recession.

Social consequences:
Increased crime rates: prolonged unemployment may lead individuals to go to extrem ends,
like theft, in order to maintain a sustable standard of living. In addition, frustration with the
policies may lead to greater violence and riots. Some people also resort to alcohol and drug
abuse due to a loss of self esteem.

Increased stress levels: even those that are still employed are likely to suffer from greater
stress because they constantly fear lossing their own job. This can reult in a higher instance
of mental health issues.

Increased indebtedness: with lower household incomes, families are likely to be less able to
make their mortgage repayment and therefore their debt will increase.

Homelessness: the government's policies to redistribute wealth may not be adequate under
the pressure of high unemployment, leading those that are unable to support themselves to
be left homeless.

Family breakdowns: the increase in stress from unemployment tends to cause greater
friction within families and therefore more separations.

Types and causes of unemployment

Frictional unemployment: this occurs when people move between jobs and are in a transitory
state on unemployment as they seek a new job. It is regarded as a natural and inevitable form
of unemployment as even in a vibrant and growing economy some people will be changing
their job.

Structural unemployment: this is a more permanent form of unemployment as it is when

certian sectors or industries of the economy experience joblosses. It is caused by changes in
the demand for particular labour skills, changes in the geographical location of industries,
and labour market rigidities. For instance, the miners in 1980s Britain suffered severe job
losses in particular.

Seasonal unemployment: this is when people are unemployed at certain times of the year,
often due to weather conditions. For instance, ski instructors are only employed in the winter
months, whereas lifeguards may be in more demand in the summer months.

Cyclical unemployment: this is also referred to as demand deficient unemployment as it is a

result of a lack of aggragate demand for goods and services. High levels of this tends to occur
when economic growth is low. This is a particuarly dangerous form of unemployment as it
can result in a perpetual cycle of unemployment. For example, as individuals lose their jobs,
their real income decreases and so they usually reduce their consumption. This means that
firms recieve lower revenues and profits, so they have to cut jobs and decrease their
investment. Therefore, the unemployment rate increases further as aggregate demand moves
from AD to AD1.

Government policies to deal with unemployment

 Frictional unemployment:
Improving information for job seekers as imperfect information worsens frictional
unemployment because people are unaware of job opportunities.
Lowering unemployment benefits can incentivise people so they become more willing to
find a job. However, this reduction in benefits can result in people becoming more
vulnerable if they cannot find work and social dissatisfaction which may lead to uprisings.

Seasonal unemployment:
Improving the skills of individuals in order to increase their occupational mobility. For
example, a ski instructor may go on a lifeguarding course so that he can more easily change
jobs. This training results in higher costs for firms which they may not be willing to pay for
and so firms may reduce the number of workers that they hire.

Structural unemployment:
A broader range of training programmes and university courses could be introduced to
allow individuals to retrain in areas that are experiencing stronge economic growth.
However, this has an opportunity cost as it would mean that the government may have to
increase taxes or run into a budget deficit.

Cyclical unemployment:
Expansionary fiscal and monetary policy is used in order to increase aggregate demand and
therefore job opportunities. (see Monetary Policy and Fiscal Policy)
o Expansionary fiscal policy: the government reduces taxes and/or increases government
spending to stimulate growth.
o Expansionary monetary policy: the central bank reduces the base rate to decrease the
banks' interest rates and/or increase the money supply.

Low and stable rate of inflation

Inflation: an increae in the average price level of goods and services in a nation over time.
 Disinflation: a decrease in the rate of inflation

Deflation: decrease in the average price level of goods and services over time.

Consumer price index (CPI): this measures inflation and deflation by calculating the change
in the price of a basket of goods and services consumed by the average household. It is
therefore a type of weighted price index.

Weighted price index (HL): weights are attached to each category of good or service, these
are then multiplied to the price index of each item of spending for a given year.

The price index a year: the sum of (price x weight) / sum of the weights

Problems with CPI:

Different income earners may experience a different rate of inflation when their pattern of
consumption is not accurately reflected by the CPI.

The wieghts of particular products are fixed so the inflation rate may be overestimated.

Substitution bias: if the price of a product in the sampled basket of goods increases, then
consumers may begin to purchase a cheaper alternative. Therefore, the CPI would be
overestimated as it would still be based on the original product.

New product bias: new products are not immediately taken into account in the CPI
calculations, which may make the inflation rate less accurate espically if these new products
become suddenly very popular.

New retail outlet bias: new retail outlets may also not be sufficiently sampled.

Quality bias: improved quality of goods and services may not be considered in the
construction of CPI.

Core inflation: economists measure a core/underlying rate of inflation to eliminate the effect
of sudden swings in the prices of food and oil, for example.

Producer price index (PPI): measures changes in the prices of factors of production may be
useful in predicting future inflation.

Causes of inflation

Demand pull inflation: this tends to happen when the economy is reaching full employment.
An increase in any components of AD which then cause AD to increase will in turn rise the
average price level, and therefore demand pull inflation.

Exchange rate depreciation: this increases the price of imports and reduces foreign prices of
UK exports. If consumers buy fewer imports, while foreigner by more exports, AD will rise,
as the value of (X-M) increases.
 Reduced direct or indirect taxation: consumers will have more real disposable income
causing demand to rise. A reduction in indirect taxes will mean that a given amount of
income will now buy a greater real volume of goods and services. Both factors can take
aggregate demand and real GDP higher and beyond potential GDP.

Rapid growth in money supply: perhaps due to increased bank lending and low interest
rates. Consumers and firms are more able to borrow money and therefore spend more on
goods and services causing AD to rise.

Confidence: an increase in the value of assets, such as higher house prices, may cause
people to gain confidence (wealth effect) and therefore increase consumption.

Economic growth in trading nations: this may give a boost to exports and so increase AD.

Keynesian diagram showing demand-pull inflation

 Cost-push inflation: when the costs of production to a nations firms increases. A primary
determinant of the SRAS curve is the productivity of a nations resources and the costs of
production, therefore an increase in the costs of production will shift the SRAS to the left.

Incease in oil prices: oil is used in an incredible amount of production processes, so this
would incearse many firms costs of production and lead to higher prices.
 Increase in the National Minimum Wage: trade unions in some countries have the power to
bargain for increases in the national minimum wage. An increase in this, or its
implementation, raises costs of production and reduces production, so unemployment rises.

Currency depreciation: if the value of the currency falls then the relative price of imports
increases. These imports may be raw materials or semi-finished products used in the
production process that will increase the costs of production to firms. If the imports are
finished products then this will directly increase the price level. With higher priced imports
domestic firms also have less incentive to reduce costs and they face less competition which
can lead to higher prices.

Natural factors/war: natural disasters can destroy a nations infrasture and reduce their
productive capacity. This will increase a firms costs of production and reduce national
output. Poor weather can destroy crops or reduce the yields and this can lead to higher
prices of foodstuffs.

Higher taxes: corporate taxes will increase a firms costs of production and may result in an
increase in prices. In addition a rise in the rate of excise duty on alcohol and cigarettes, an
increase in fuel duties or perhaps a rise in a standard rate of sales tax (e.g. VAT) or an
extention to the range of products to which sates tax is applied. These taxes are levied on
producers who, depending on the price elasticity of demand and supply for their products,
can opt to pass on the burden of the tax onto consumers. For example, if the government
was to choose to levy a new tax on aviation fuel, then this would contribute to a rise in cost-
push inflation.

Diagram showing cost-push inflation

Consequences of inflation

The severity of the consequences of inflation depends on whether or not it has been
anticipated.

Anticipated inflation: when people can accurately predict the inflation rate, they can take
steps to protect themselves from its consequences. For instance, trade unions may negotiate
with employers for increases in money wages so as to protect the real wages of union
members. Households may also switch savings into deposit accounts that offer a higher
nominal rate of interest. People can therefore protect the real value of their financial assets.
 Firms may also adjust their prices or buy more raw materials in advance, to avoid higher
costs of production and protect their profit margins.

Unanticipated inflation: prediction about inflation become very difficult to make when the
rate of inflation is particularly volatile. Unanticpated inflation is when economists make
errors in their inflation forecasts. This means that the effects of inflation are exacibated as
people cannot adequately prepare for it.

Money illusion: this is when money, such as in the form of wages, appears to increase in
value. However, in reality this is merely due to inflation. Therefore, although the nominal
value is increasing, the real value is not.

Consequences:

Savers: inflation leads to a rise in the general price level so that money loses its value.
When inflation is high, people may lose confidence in money as the real value of savings is
severely reduced. Savers will lose out if nominal interest rates are lower than inflation -
leading to negative real interest rates.

Wage demands: inflation can get out of control because price increases leads to higher wage
demands as people try to maintain their real living standards. Businesses then increase
prices to maintain profits and higher prices then put further pressure on wages. This process
is known as a 'wage price spiral'. Rising inflation leads to a build up of inflation
expectations that can worsen the trade-off between unemployment and inflation.

Redistribution of income: inflation tends to hurt those employees in jobs with poor
bargaining power in the labour market - for example people in low paid jobs with little or no
trade union protection may see the real value of their pay fall. Inflation can also favour
borrowers at the expense of savers as inflation erodes the real value of existing debts. And,
the rate of interest on loans may not cover the rate of inflation. When the real rate of interest
is negative, savers lose out at the expense of borrowers.

Investment: budgeting becomes very difficult because of the uncertainty created by rising
inflation of both prices and costs - and this may reduce planned capital investment spending.
Lower investment then has a detrimental effect on the economy's long run growth potential.

Balance of payments: inflation is a possible cause of higher unemployment in the medium

term if one country experiences a much higher rate of inflation than another, leading to a
loss of international competitiveness and a subsequent worsening of their trade
performance. If inflation in the UK is persistently above our major trading partnerss, British
exporters may struggle to maintain their share in overseas markets and import penetration
into the UK domestic market will grow. Both trends could lead to a worsening balance of
payments.

Unemployment: as firms' costs of production rise production becomes less profitable and
firms reduce their output as a consequence and therefore less labour is required to produce
lower levels of output.
 Menu costs: costs associated with firms having to change price lists, reprogramme
computers, change vending machines etc to deal with the higher prices.

Shoe leather costs: during times of rising inflation consumers find it difficult to know what
price to pay for certain goods and services and therefore spend much more time 'shopping
around' to check whether the prices they have been quoted are appropriate.

Relationship between inflation and unemployment (HL)

In 1958, Alban Philips found that there was a trade-off between the inflation rate and the
unemployment rate of an economy. He suggested that falling unemplyment might cause
rising inflation and a fall in inflation might only be possible by allowing unemployment to
rise. Therefore, if a government wanted to reduce unemployment, it could increase aggregate
demand but, although this might temporarily increase employment, it could also have
inflationary implications in labour and the product markets.

Reasons for trade off:

The labour market: as unemployment falls, labour shortages may occur where skilled labour
is in short supply. This puts pressure on wages and prices to rise.
Other factor markets: cost push inflation can also come from rising demand for
commodities such as oil, copper and processed manufactured goods such as steel, concrete
and glass.
Product markets: rising demand allow suppliers to lift prices to increase profit margins. The
risk of rising prices is greatest when demand is out stripping supply capacity.

As a result of supply shocks, such as natural disasters or wars, the SRAS curve may decrease.
As shown in the diagram this means that the inflation rate (average price level) would
increase but real GDP would decrease, therefore increasing unemployment. This means that
the economy is experiencing stagflation - inflation accompanied by stagnant growth,
unemployment or recession. This in turn causes the philips curve to move upwards and to the
right as inflation and unemployment has increased.
Classical economists accept that the short run philips curve existed - but that in the long run,
the philips curve should be drawn vertical and, as a result, there would be no trade-off
between unemplyment and inflation.

The classicalists highlighted that each short run philips curve was drawn on the assumption
of a given expected rate of inflation. So if there were an increase in inflation caused by
monetary expanision and this had the effect of driving inflation expectations higher, then this
would cause an upward shift in the short run philips curve.

The classical view is that attempts to boost AD to achieve faster growth and lower
unemployment have only a temporary effect on jobs. Friedman argued that a governmnet
could not permanently drive unemployment down below the natural rate - the result would be
higher inflation which in turn would cost jobs and hit growth but with inflation expectations
also increased.

With reference to the diagram, if the government increases AD to reduce unemploymnet,

then initially unemployment will fall from U1 to U2, but inflation will rise to r. So there is a
movement along the SRPC. However, some workers who accepted a job in the belief that
there real wage had increase, would realise that due to inflation there purchasing power had
not increased and so leave the labour market. In addition, those remaining in the jobs would
demand higher wages and firms' costs of production will rise, therefore, firms will reduce
output and labour so PC1 moves outwards to PC2.

Economic growth

Economic growth: increase in real GDP through time.

Economic growth is depicted on a production possibilities curve (PPC) by an outward shift as

the economys actual output increases.

A point within the PCC, like A, moves closer to the PPC, like B, due to various factors
including a decline in unemployment and an increase in productive efficiency. This means
that the actual output increasing closer to the potential output as existing resources are being
used more fully. On the AD/AS diagram this actual growth is illustrated by an increase in
AD.
When the quality and quantity of factors of production increases the volume of output
increases and the economy experiences an increase in its potential output. Therefore, the PPC
increases from PPC1 to PPC2. On the AD/AS diagram this potential growth is illustrated by
an increase in LRAS.

Improved labour productivity is necessary to achieve economic growth in the long run, as it
implies greater output per worker. In order to create greater productivity investment in
natural, physical and human capital is required. Improvements in institutional framework are
also needed.

Consequences of economic growth:

Living standards: if economic growth is greater than population growth, then it may result in
higher real incomes and therefore improved living standards.

Unemployment: when the economy expands, unemployment tends to fall as more employees
are required to expand production. However, jobless growth can occur if inappropriate
technologies that do not rely on labour are utilised.

Inflation: if the growth in demand exceeds the growth of the productive capacity then higher
incomes may cause the economy to overheat. Demand pull inflation may result from
economic growth if it causes AD to increase too quickly. Also cost push inflation may be
created if the growth puts pressure on input prices. However, non-inflationary growth is
possible if the LRAS increases at least as fast as AD.

Distribution of income: economic growth tends to reduce government spending and increase
government revenue as fewer people require transfer payments and more people pay higher
rates of tax due to increases in real wages. The government is then able to fund redistribution
programmes with the additional revenue. However, if the government were not to do this
then the benefits would likely be unbalanced, with certain regions or areas profiting more
than others.
Balance of payments: if growth is export driven then the trade deficit will decrease and a
trade surplus may result. However, if it is due to domestic demand, then households may
spend more on imports and therefore the trade deficit may widen.

Sustainability: economic growth may threaten sustainability as industries create many

externalities, such as air, water and sound pollution. Firms may not take account of the future
and therefore exhaust resources.

Equity in the distribution of income

Equitable: fair, not necessarily equal. Due to the unequal ownership of factors of production,
the market system may not result in an equitable distribution of income.

Measuring income inequality:

Inequality ratios: the ratio of disposable income of the the top 10% (decile) over the bottom
10% of the population.

Lorenz curve: a curve showing the proportion of national income earned by a given
percentage of the population.

Gini coefficient: the ratio of the area between the Lorenz curve and the diagonal over the area
of the half square.

=(area A)/(area A + B)
0=total equality 1=total inequality

Poverty:

Absolute poverty: the minimum income necessary to satisfy basic physics needs.

Relative poverty: the extent to which a household's income falls below the national average.

Those with low incomes have low human capital as they cannot afford the opportunity cost
of schooling. However, they also do not have the funds to invest in physical capital and often
deplete the natural capital in order to survive. This results in low productivity which in turn
creates a poverty trap. Therefore, living standards remain low and individuals continue to be
unable to access health care and education.

Taxation to redistribute income:

Direct taxes: taxes whose burden cannot be shifted onto someone else. This is because they
are on income, profits or wealth. For example, income tax.

Indirect taxes: taxes whose burden can be shifted onto someone else. This is because they are
on goods and expenditures. For example, sales tax.

Direct can be used in order to redistribute income.

Marginal tax rate (MTR): the extra tax paid due to an extra pound earned.

MTR= T/Y

Average tax rate (ATR): the ratio of tax collected over the tax base, which is the amount
taxable such as income.

ATR=T/Y

Progressive tax: the higher income individuals pay proportionately more as the marginal tax
rate is greater than the average tax rate. In most societies income taxes are progressive in
order to redistribute income.

Proportional tax: the higher income earners pay proportionately the same as low income
individuals as the marginal tax rate is equal to the average tax rate.

Regressive tax: the higher income earners pay proportionately less as the marginal tax rate is
less than the average tax rate. For example, sales tax.

Governments undertake expenditures to provide directly, or to subsidize, a variety of socially

desirable goods and services, thereby making them available to those on low incomes. For
example, health care services, education, and infrastructure that includes sanitation and clean
water supplies.

Transfer payments: payments by the government for which no goods or services are
exchanges. For example, old age pensions, unemployment benefits and child allowances.

Relationship between equity and efficieny

Government intervention can put greater pressure on taxpayers and disincentivise workers. In
order to avoid this, governments aim to keep taxes equitable so that they are based on the
taxpayer's ability to pay and to make taxes convient to pay by taking into account the
timmings and methods. Also the cost of collecting tax should be small in comparison to the
tax yield, otherwise it is no longer economical.