Materials Research Innovations

ISSN: 1432-8917 (Print) 1433-075X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ymri20

Coconut-based bacterial cellulose carbon

nanofibers

Zhiming Zhao, Yingjie Hua, Chenghang You, Yi Li, Huan Liu, Huihao Huang,
Xiaofang Wu, Yizhen Wang & Chongtai Wang

To cite this article: Zhiming Zhao, Yingjie Hua, Chenghang You, Yi Li, Huan Liu, Huihao Huang,
Xiaofang Wu, Yizhen Wang & Chongtai Wang (2016): Coconut-based bacterial cellulose carbon
nanofibers, Materials Research Innovations, DOI: 10.1080/14328917.2016.1192015

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14328917.2016.1192015

Published online: 10 Jun 2016.

Submit your article to this journal

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=ymri20

Download by: [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] Date: 12 June 2016, At: 04:01
 Coconut-based bacterial cellulose carbon
nanofibers
Zhiming Zhao1, Yingjie Hua1, Chenghang You1, Yi Li1, Huan Liu1,
Huihao Huang1, Xiaofang Wu1, Yizhen Wang*2 and Chongtai Wang*1
A series of porous carbon nanofibres, with network-like structures and high surface area, were
prepared using low-cost renewable bacterial cellulose, fabricated from the raw materials of coconut.
The performances of these coconut-based bacterial cellulose carbon nanofibres (BCCNFs) strongly
rely on their porous network-like graphitised structure. The carbonisation temperatures affect both
the graphitic degree of BCCNFs and the uniformity of their porous structure. The specific capacitance
of BCCNFs at 900C drops off due to the decrease in the uniformity of their porous structure. The
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 04:02 12 June 2016

prepared BCCNFs materials exhibited high electrochemical energy storage performance (with its specific
capacitance in 6M KOH solution being 289Fg1) and cycling excellent stability (after 5000 charge
discharge cycles, the material still maintained more than 80% of its initial capacitance), making them
potential for the practical application of supercapacitors.
Keywords: Bacterial cellulose, Porous carbon nanofibres, Coconut, Specific capacitance, Supercapacitors

Introduction Carbon materials are considered to be the ideal electrode

With the development of human society, the contradictions
between the demand of human for energy and the gradual
depletion of the fossil energy resources become more promi-
nent.1 At the same time, the environmental pollution, resulted
from the production and consumption of energy, provides
a serious threat to both the human health and the social
development. Therefore, the development of the renewable
energy and related energy storage technology is of great sig-
nificance. Supercapacitor is a new type of energy storage
element, which relies on electric double-layers for the direct,
fast physical storage and release of electric energy,1 and can
thus offset the deficiencies of other power sources such as
batteries and fuel cells. Compared with batteries, fuel cells
and other conventional capacitors, supercapacitor has the
advantages of high capacity, high power density, high effi-
ciency and long chargedischarge cycle life,3, 4 and has been
demonstrated to have the applications in both the human life
and industrial production. In recent years, supercapacitor has
attracted considerable attention in both scientific and techno-
logical areas because of their prominent merits, multifunc-
tional properties and great potential applications. However,
the energy density of the developed supercapacitors is still
significantly low, which greatly limits their further promo-
tions and applications.5, 6 The energy density of the super-
capacitor depends mainly on its electrode material used. To
develop the high-performance supercapacitor, the electrode
material with the good thermal and chemical stability, good
electrochemical properties and high electrical conductivity
is essentially required.
1
School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal
University, Haikou 571158, China
2
School of Physics and Electronic Engineering, Hainan Normal University,
Haikou 571158, China
*Corresponding authors, email wangxuesu1980@163.com (Y. Wang)
wct581@sina.com (C. Wang)
materials for the supercapacitors, owing to their good electri-
cal conductivity and stability, as well as the low-cost merit.10
In recent few years, the bacterial cellulose (BC), which can
be easily acquired from green plants in land and crustaoc-
ean in ocean, is of interest for preparing the novel carbon
materials for supercapacitor. BC is a kind of renewable bio-
logical material with the characteristics of low cost-efficient
production, high mechanical strength, light weight, large
surface area and sufficient porosity, as well as a unique fibre
network-like structure designed by nature.20, 21 Moreover, it
has been shown recently that BC can produce abundant het-
eroatom functional groups in the resultant carbon materials,
which further enhance the pseudocapacitance effects except
for the electric double-layer one, thus leading to the improve-
ment of the electrochemical properties of supercapacitors.
Coconut is one of the popular raw materials for preparing
BC materials by bacterial fermentation.21 Hainan, an island in
the tropical region in China, is rich in the resource of coconut.
In this work, we report on the bacterial cellulose carbon-
ised nanofibres (BCCNFs) with the porous network struc-
ture, fabricated from the raw materials of coconut. Detailed
electrochemical and structural analysis has been provided to
characterise the electrochemical and structural properties of
all prepared BCCNFs, especially the dependence of which
on the carbonisation temperature. We show that the prepared
coconut-based BCCNFs exhibit the excellent physical and
chemical properties including porosity, electrical energy
storage and long-cycle stability; and that the carbonisation
temperature affects both the graphitic degree of BCCNFs and
the uniformity of their porous structure, thus changing their
electrochemical properties.
It is believed that our work can provide an experimental
basis for the application of BC materials and the resultant
device in the field of energy storage.

2016 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

Received 24 February 2016; accepted 16 May 2016
DOI 10.1080/14328917.2016.1192015 Materials Research Innovations2016 1

Experiment section
The BC pellicles were cultured and provided by Hainan
Yeguo Foods Co., Ltd, China. The samples of BCCNFs were
prepared by one-step carbonisation of the coconut-based
bacterial cellulose in the same procedure as reported by Yuan
et al.22: freeze-drying the BC pellicles and carbonising under
flowing nitrogen from 600 to 900C.
The phase structures of samples were analysed by a D8
ADVANCE X-ray diffractometer (Cu K, 40kv, 40 mA,
=1.54). The morphologies were observed by scanning fibres with porous structure could act as fast electronic and
electron microscope (SEM, HITACHI S4800). The Raman
spectrum was recorded in a backscattering configuration using
the 514-nm line of an Ar+ ion laser and a Renishaw in via
Raman spectrometer.
The electrochemical performances of the BCCNFs were
measured by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and galvanostatic
chargedischarge in 6 mol/L KOH solution. The experi-
ments were carried out in a standard three electrodes cell.
The working electrode was fabricated by pressing the mix-
ture of the PCNFs powder and 5%-PTFE (85:15 wt%) into a
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 04:02 12 June 2016
foam nickel electrode, and a platinum electrode as auxiliary
electrode and a saturated calomel electrode as reference elec-
trode, respectively.
Result and discussion
Morphological analysis of BCCNFs
Figure 1 shows the SEM images of the freeze-dried BC and
the resulting carbonised BC nanofibres. We can see that the
1SEMs of the coconut-based BC a, and the resulting carbon nanofibres b, c, d, which were carbonised at temperature 600C,
700C and 800C
 Materials Research Innovations2016
Zhao et al. Coconut-based bacterial cellulose carbon nanofibers
freeze-dried BC has the network structure consisting of a large
number of fibres with the diameter of 2060nm. Through
carbonising the BC samples in the nitrogen atmosphere and
at temperatures from 600 to 900C, the water inside the BC
samples was evaporated and some heteroatoms were left
from polycarbonhydrate, which leads to the formation of the
carbonised BC nanofibres with the worm-like microporous
structure, as shown in Fig. 1b. The higher the carbonising
temperature is, more compact the network structure of the
carbonised BC nanofibre will be. These linked carbon nano-
ionic conducting paths for energy storage.
Figure 2a shows the nitrogen adsorptiondesorption
isotherms for investigating the porous structure of the as-
prepared carbon nanofibres. All of the isotherms with a hys-
teresis loop near the relative pressure of 0.5 in the desorption
branches illustrate the presence of mesopores. Additionally,
the following sharp increase in the adsorption curves at high
relative pressure of 0.97 illustrates the presence of the mac-
ropores formed among the carbon nanofibres. From Fig. 2a,
we can see that the nanofibres carbonised at low temperature
of 600 C have the small nitrogen adsorptiondesorption
quantity and the unobvious hysteresis loop, suggesting the
few pores existing; and that with increasing the carbonised
temperature (e.g. up to 800 C), the nitrogen adsorption
desorption quantity increases and the hysteresis loop of the
nitrogen adsorptiondesorption isotherm in the 0.5 pressure
becomes more obvious. This result indicates that the high
carbonised temperature helps produce the micropores and
mesopores in the carbon nanofibres. Figure 2b and its inset
2
 Zhao et al. Coconut-based bacterial cellulose carbon nanofibers

2 Nitrogen adsorptiondesorption isotherms of carbonised BC nanofibres a and the pore size distribution curves (b and its inset)

Table 1BET surface area and pore structural parameters The crystallinity of BC pellicles was characterised by
of BCCNFs XRD, as shown in Fig. 3a. The three main peaks located at
14.36, 16.6 and 22.58 (see Fig. 3a), which could be respec-
SBET (mg1) Vtotal (cmg1) Daverage (nm)
tively ascribed to the (110), (110) and (200) diffraction
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 04:02 12 June 2016

BCCNF-600 252.07 0.165 8.28 planes of cellulose I structure,24 confirm the high crystallin-
BCCNF-700 405.74 0.321 5.04
ity nature of the BC samples used in this work. Figure 3b
BCCNF-800 422.43 0.560 9.02
BCCNF-900 756.82 0.722 10.52 shows the XRD patterns of corresponding BCCNFs. It is
clear that after carbonising, the three characteristic peaks at
14.36, 16.6 and 22.58 disappear, there instead appears two
broad and weak diffraction peaks around 24.00 and ~44.00,
shows the pore size distribution of the as-prepared BCCNFs.
indicating the formation of the amorphous carbon phase with
All the BCCNFs have the noticeable pore size distribution
some hexagonal graphitic structure in the (002) and (100)
with the peaks centred around ~7 nm, consistent with the
facets in the carbonised nanofibres.
previous result reported by Yuan.22 There to, the PCNF car-
The Raman spectra of the BCCNFs, as shown in Fig. 4,
bonised at 700C evidently has the better uniform mesopores
provide further evidence to quantify the effect of the carbon-
than those of the BCCNFs obtained at the other carbonised
isation temperature on the BC samples. From Fig. 4, it can
temperature. The BET surface area and pore structure param-
be seen that the Raman spectra of four investigated BCCNFs
eters calculated from the isotherms are list in Table 1. The
present two peaks around 1340cm1 and 1596cm1. It has
BET surface area and total pore volume become larger with
been demonstrated in previous studies that the two character-
increasing the carbonisation temperature. The average pore
istic peaks of 1340cm1 and 1596cm1 correspond to the D
sizes are at 510nm and quite different for various carbonisa-
(disorder) and G (graphite) bands in porous carbon nanofibres,
tion temperatures due to the different uniformities of the pore
respectively. The G band is associated with the sp2-bonded
structure (as indicated in Fig. 2b). Here, our result shows that
carbon atoms in a 2D hexagonal lattice (such as a graphite
the BCCNF carbonised at 700C has best uniformity structure
sheet), while the D band is related to the disorder-induced
and the smallest average pore size, 5.04nm. This effect of
feature as a result of the finite particle size effect or lattice
carbonisation temperature results mainly from the faster and
distortion of the graphite crystals. The ratio of the intensity of
the nitrogen or stream flow rate at the higher carbonisation
D band to G band, R=ID/IG, can be used to evaluate the gra-
temperature, which is not only helpful to enlarge the pore size,
phitic degree of carbon materials.22 From Fig. 4, the R values
but also to produce more micropores and mesopores in the
for four BCCNF samples can thus be obtained as 0.85, 0.82,
carbon nanofibres. Besides, it has also been reported that the
0.77 and 0.73, respectively. It can be seen that the R values
high carbonisation temperature would decrease the heteroa-
of BCCNFs decrease with the increase in temperature, indic-
toms,26 thus affecting the worm-like microporous structure in
ative of the higher graphitic degree at the higher carbonisation
the carbon nanofibres.

(a) 22.58
(b) BCCNF-600
25000 BCCNF-700
BCCNF-800
BCCNF-900
20000
Intensity

15000
14.36 (002)
2600
10000 2080
Intensity

16.6
1560
5000
1040 (100)

0 520
10 20 30 40 10 20 30 40 50 60
2 (Degree) 2 (Degree)

3 XRD patterns of coconut-based BC a and BCCNFs b

 Materials Research Innovations2016 3

 Zhao et al. Coconut-based bacterial cellulose carbon nanofibers

Table 3Specific electric capacity of the BC carbon nano-

PCNF-600 G fibre
PCNF-700
D Carbon nanofibre Specific electric capacity (Fg1)
PCNF-800
PCNF-900 BCCNF-600 158
Intensity

BCCNF-700 289
BCCNF-800 169
BCCNF-900 128

in Fig. 5a obviously shows that the BCCNF-700-based elec-

trode has the highest chargingdischarging current among
all BCCNF-based electrode materials. The galvanostatic
chargedischarge curves of BCCNFs, given in Fig. 5b, further
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 indicate that the BCCNF-700-based electrode has the longer
1
Wavenumber (cm ) discharge time than those of the other BCCNF electrodes.
The high energy density (or specific capacitance) is essen-
4
Raman spectra of BCCNFs yielded at different tial for a good electrochemical energy storage device operated
temperatures at a high chargedischarge current. The specific capacitance
of the BCCNFs-electrode materials can be calculated from
the discharge time (obtained from the galvanostatic charge
Table 2 Element analysis of BCCNFs discharge curves as given in Fig. 5b) based on the following
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 04:02 12 June 2016

Materials N C
BC sample 0.6
BCCNF-600 0.84
BCCNF-700 0.86
BCCNF-800 1.31
BCCNF-900 0.75
temperature, which is in good agreement with the above XRD
analysis and the element analysis (results of which are given
in Table 2). The Raman result verifies the improvement of
the graphitisation of BCCNFs with increasing temperature,
which is well consistent with the previous results of other
porous carbon materials27 and implying that the BCCNFs will
perform better conductivity and corrosion resistance.
The electrochemical performances of BCCNFs
As previously done,22 the electrochemical performances of
the as-prepared BCCNFs were studied by CV and galvanos-
tatic chargedischarge within the potential range from 0.9
to 0.1V in alkaline media. Figure 5a shows the CV curves
of BCCNFs at a scan rate of 100mVs1. The shape of the CV
curves shows that the capacitive responses mainly ascribe
to the double-layer capacitance, and there might exist a side
reaction,28 which is closely related to the intrinsic oxygen
functional groups derived from bacterial cellulose. The result
equation22:
H
40.69 7.64
C = itmV (1)
71.79 3.445 where i denotes the discharge current, t denotes the total
75.81 2.71 discharge time, V is the total potential deviation of voltage
77.19 2.37
78.69 2.31 window, and m represents the mass of active materials in the
electrodes. The calculated results are summarised in Table 3.
Table 3 shows that the specific capacitance of the BCCNFs var-
ies with changing the carbonisation temperature. Despite the
BCCNF carbonised at 900C has the best graphitic degree and
the largest BET surface area as indicated in Fig. 4 and Table 1,
the BCCNF carbonised at 700C is up to 289 Fg1, exhibit-
ing the best energy storage capability among all four BCCNF
materials. It was argued by Yuan et al. that despite the high
carbonisation temperature can improve the graphitic degree of
porous carbon nanofibres, it would also further volatilise the
heteroatoms to decrease the pseudocapacitance in total specific
capacitance, thus resulting in the lower specific capacitance
for the porous carbon nanofibre at the higher carbonisation
temperature. From the result of Fig. 2, it is suggested that
the uniformity of the micro and mesopore structure of the
BCCNFs materials is advantageous to the high specific capac-
itance. Therefore, the decrease in the uniformity of the micro
and mesostructure of the BCCNFs materials at the higher
carbonisation temperature would also lead to the lower spe-
cific capacitance. Furthermore, Fig. 5c shows the CV curves
of BCCNF-700 with varying the scanning rate from 8.0 to
80.0mVs1. As can be seen the dischargecharge current of the

(a) 10 (b) 0.2

BCCNF-600
(c) 8 8 mV s
-1

BCCNF-600
Potential (V vs. Hg/HgO)

8 -1
BCCNF-700 16 mV s
)

BCCNF-700 0.0
-1

6
Current density (A g

BCCNF-800
-1

6 BCCNF-800 32 mV s
-1
Current density (A g

BCCNF-900 BCCNF-900 -1
4 -0.2 4 48 mV s
-1
64 mV s
2 2
-0.4 80 mV s
-1

0 0
-2 -0.6
-2
-4 -0.8
-4
-6
-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2
Potential (V vs. Hg/HgO) Time (s) Potential (V vs. Hg/HgO)

5
a cyclic voltammograms of the as-prepared BC carbon nanofibres at a scan rate of 100mV/s; b the galvanostatic charge
discharge curves of BCCNFs at a current density of 0.125A/g; c cyclic voltammograms of BCCNF-700 at different scan
rates. Electrolyte: 6molL1KOH

 Materials Research Innovations2016 4


(a)
Specific capacitance (F g )
1
300
250
200
150
100
50
0 1000 2000 3000
Cycle number
6The relationship of the specific electric capacity a and its retention b of the BC carbon nanofibres with the chargedischarge
cycle numbers. Scan rate:10 mVs1
BCCNF-700 electrode increases with gradually increasing the
scanning rate, further indicative of the good capacitive prop-
erties and dischargecharge kinetics of BCCNFs electrodes.
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 04:02 12 June 2016
Cycling stability is another key factor for supercapacitor
electrodes. To confirm the electrochemical performances of
the BCCNFs, we have measured the cycle life of BCCNFs
by CV at 10 mVs1, as shown in Fig. 6a and b. It can be seen
that BCCNF-700 exhibits the highest capacitance among four
materials, but BCCNF-900 with the improved graphitisation
has the higher cycling stability, only 5% loss capacitance
after 5000 cycles, as well as the better durability. Previous
studies have shown that both cycling stability and durability
strongly of porous carbon fibres rely on their carbonisation
temperature. The higher the carbonisation temperature, the
higher the graphitisation and the larger the BET surface area,
and thus the better conductivity, stability and anti-corrosion
of the carbonised materials will be. However, we need to
emphasise that as discussed above, the higher carbonisation
temperature might also lead to losing more heteroatoms or
functional groups, or to decreasing the uniformity of the micro
or mesostructure of the carbonised nanofibres, thus causing
the decrease in pseudocapacitance.
Conclusion
In this work, the network porous carbon nanofibres for elec-
trochemical energy storage have been successfully prepared
by one-step carbonisation of BC derived from the low-cost
renewable raw materials of coconuts. The electrochemical
performances of the prepared BCCNFs present high specific
capacitance and good cycling stability. Moreover, the effects
of the carbonisation temperature on the porous structure,
BET surface area and graphitisation degree of the carbon-
ised BCCNF materials, which are key factors for the electro-
chemical energy storage, are carefully investigated. We have
shown that the higher carbonisation temperature (e.g. 900C
reported in this work) is advantageous to the formation of the
stable micro and mesoporous structure of BCCNFs materi-
als with the higher graphitic degree and larger BET surface
area, which can help obtain the good conductivity, stability
and anti-corrosion of the BCCNFs electrode. Moreover, we
further show that the uniformity of the porous structure plays
an important role in controlling the specific capacitance of
the BCCNFs electrode. The higher carbonisation temperature
might result in the decrease in the uniformity of the porous
structure of BCCNFs materials probably due to losing the
more volatilised heteroatoms or functional groups, thus caus-
ing the decrease in the pseudocapacitance. Our results indicate
 Materials Research Innovations2016
Zhao et al. Coconut-based bacterial cellulose carbon nanofibers
(b)
Capacitance retention (%)
BCCNF-600
BCCNF-700 100
BCCNF-800
BCCNF-900 80
60
BCCNF-600
BCCNF-700
40 BCCNF-800
BCCNF-900
20
0
4000 5000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Cycle number
that the BCCNF material carbonised at around 700C has
the higher specific capacitance than that was carbonised at
900 C. Therefore, the carbonisation procedure, especially
the choice and control of the carbonisation temperature, is of
great importance in preparing the BCCNFs materials. How to
obtain a BCCNF material with the porous network structure
of high graphitisation degree, large BET surface area and the
good uniformity is a challenge for our work.
Funding
This work was support by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China [grant number 11504073]; the Natural
Science Foundation of Hainan Province, China [grant num-
ber 20151014 & grant number 20154175]; the University
Education Research Foundation of Hainan Province,
China [grant number Hnkyzx2014-06]; the Hainan Normal
University graduate research university innovation [grant
number Hsyx2015-52]; the Key research and development
project of Hainan Province [grant number ZDYF2016207].
References
1 P. J. Meier, P. P. H. Wilson, G. L. Kulcinski and P. L. Denholm: Energy
Policy, 2005, 33, 10991108.
2 D. R. Rolison, J. W. Long, J. C. Lytle, A. E. Fischer, C. P. Rhodes, T. M.
McEvoy, M. E. Bourg and A. M. Lubers: Chem. Soc. Rev., 2009, 38, (1),
226252.
3 B. E. Conway: Electrochemical supercapacitors: scientific, fundamentals
and technological applications, 1999, New York, NY, Plenum.
4 A. G. Pandolfo and A. R. Hollenkamp: J. Power Sources, 2006, 157, (1),
1127.
5 G. Yuan: Electrochemical capacitors, 2005, Chemical Industry Press,
Beijing.
6 M. Deng: Electrochemical capacitor electrode materials research, 2009,
China Science and Technology University Press, Hefei.
7 F. Wang, S. Xiao, Y. Hou, C. Hu, L. Liu and Y. Wu: RSC Adv., 2013, 3,
13059.
8 X. Cai, M. Peng, X. Yu, Y. Fu and D. Zou: J. Mater. Chem. C., 2014, 2,
1184.
9 H. Sun, X. You, J. Deng, X. Chen, Z. Yang, P. Chen, X. Fang and H. Peng:
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 1849, 2014, 53.
10 S. T. Senthilkumar and R. Kalai Selvan: Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2014,
16, 15692.
11 P. Xu, T. Gu, Z. Cao, B. Wei, J. Yu, F. Li, J. Byun, W. Lu, Q. Li and
T. Chou: Adv. Energy Mater., 2014, 4, 1300759-11300759-6.
12 B. Zheng, T. Huang, L. Kou, X. Zhao, K. Gopalsamy and C. Gao: J. Mater.
Chem. A, 2014, 2, 97369743.
13 Z. Zhang, X. Chen, P. Chen, G. Guan, L. Qiu, H. Lin, Z. Yang, W. Bai, Y.
Luo and H. Peng: Adv. Mater., 2014, 26, 466470.
14 Q. Lu, M. W. Lattanzi, Y. Chen, X. Kou, W. Li, X. Fan, K. M. Unruh, J. G.
Chen and J. Q. Xiao: Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2011, 50, 1683.
5

15 H. Sun, X. You, J. Deng, X. Chen, Z. Yang, J. Ren and H. Peng: Adv.
Mater., 2014, 26, 2868.
16 J. Ren, W. Bai, G. Guan, Y. Zhang and H. Peng: Adv. Mater., 2013, 25, 5965.
17 V. T. Le, H. Kim, A. Ghosh, J. Kim, J. Chang, Q. A. Vu, D. T. Pham,
J. Kim, S. Lee and Y. H. Lee: ACS Nano, 2013, 7, 5940.
18 S. T. Senthilkumar, B. Senthilkumar, S. Balaji, C. Sanjeeviraja and R. K.
Selvan: Mater. Res. Bull., 2011, 46, 413.
19 A. N. Nakagaito, S. Iwamoto and H. Yano: Appl. Phys. A, 2005, 80, 93.
20 A.Svensson, E. Nicklasson, T. Harrah, B. Panilaitis, D. L. Kaplan,
M. Brittberg and P. Gatenholm: Biomaterials, 2005, 26, 419.
21 E. E. Brown and M. P. G. Laborie: Biomacromolecules, 2007, 8, 3074.
22 D. Yuan, X. Huang, J. Yan, W. Yu, H. Meng and J. Rong: Sci. Adv. Mater.,
2013, 5, 1.
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 04:02 12 June 2016
 Materials Research Innovations2016
Zhao et al. Coconut-based bacterial cellulose carbon nanofibers
23 K . Xie, X. Qin, X. Wang, Y. Wang, H. Tao, Q. Wu, L. Yang and Z. Hu: J.
Phys. Chem. C, 1093, 2009, 113.
24 Z. Cai and J. Kim. Cellulose, 2010, 17, 83.
25 C. M. Yang, C. Weidenthaler, B. Spliethoff, M. Mayanna and F. Schuth:
Chem. Mater., 2005, 17, 355.
26 Y.-R. Nian and H. Teng: J. Electrochem. Soc., 2002, 149, A1008A1014.
27 M. Ishikawa, A. Sakamoto, M. Monta, Y. Matsuda and K. Ishida. J. Power
Sources, 1996, 60, 233238.
28 A. C. Ferrari and J. Robertson: Phys. Rev. B, 2000, 61, 1409514107.
29 C.-H. Kim, S.-I. Pyun and H.-C. Shin: J. Electrochem. Soc., 2002, 149,
A93A98.
6