ELEC 6011

LEARNING OUTCOME

When you complete this module you will be able to...

Demonstrate a working knowledge of electricity, electrical circuits and electrical accessories.

Learning Objectives

Here is what you will be able to do when you complete each objective.

a. Explain what electricity is and describe the make-up of an electrical circuit.

b. Estimate the power cost for a facility.

c. Describe the accessories found in use in an electrical circuit.

d. Describe a good lighting system and explain how to operate and maintain it.

e. Trouble shoot a basic electrical circuit.

f. Describe how to select, care for and troubleshoot an electric motor.

INTRODUCTION
Because electrical work is a highly technical occupation, the average building operator is not
expected to actually master it. Years of study and experience are required to become a
competent electrician. However, building operators can remedy minor electrical problems and
effect savings and safety if they have some knowledge of electricity and electrical work.
The laws governing the handling of electricity are rather simple; as simple, in fact, as those
governing any mechanical device that converts energy of one kind to another. Students should
get an understanding of these laws and apply them to solving the problems which will present
themselves. This will prove much more effective than merely trying to remember what to do in an
emergency or under some particular circumstance.
WHAT IS ELECTRICITY?
All matter is composed of tiny particles called molecules. A molecule is the smallest identifiable
particle of a substance. We cannot see them, yet modern physics has proved that copper wire,
electric fuses, heating elements and the like are not solid, but each is composed of separate
molecules.
Each molecule, in turn, is made up of smaller particles called atoms and atoms are described as
the building blocks of all matter. Electricity can readily be explained by the nature of atoms and
the manner in which they behave when subjected to various forces and conditions.
Figure 1 roughly portrays the modern concept of the structure of an atom. The center consists of
an arrangement of protons carrying a positive charge. Arranged in circles, or shells, around the
protons are negative charges called electrons. In the copper atom there are a total of 29 electrons
revolving about 29 protons.
Notice in Figure 1 that the outer ring has only one electron spinning in orbit. This single electron is
loosely attracted to the mass of protons and is easily freed from the atom. A battery or generator
can force an electron to move, allowing an electron from an adjacent atom to rush in and take its
place. Such a flow of electrons along a conductor is an electric current.
Figure 1
The Atom
The flow of electrons cannot be maintained unless there is a continuous, unbroken path from the
current-producing device to the current-consuming device, usually a light bulb or an appliance.
Not all substances possess a free electron in the outer ring of their structure. Such substances do
not have electron flow or current. They are called non-conductors, or insulators and include
rubber, glass, plastics, ceramics and similar materials.
Electric Circuits
The rate of flow of electrons along a wire is determined by the cross-sectional area of the wire, its
length and the resistance in the wire or in the appliances or light bulb at the end. A generator or
battery causes an electrical pressure (volts) and this pressure (voltage) will cause electrons to
move from the high-pressure (hot) wire towards the low-pressure (neutral) wire.
Figure 2 compares electric circuits to water systems. If the switch is closed (resistance removed
so that there is a continuous electric path) electricity flows through the black or hot wire from the
generator to the iron. After doing useful work by heating the iron, the current flows at a much
lower voltage through the neutral or white wire back to the generator. The switch is always
installed in the higher voltage or black wire.
In the water system, water may be supplied at 413.7 kPa (60 lbs. psi) and it is this pressure that
causes the water to flow. If the valve is used only either wide open or tightly closed it corresponds
to the electric switch. After the water motor has done useful work, water returns to the pump at
greatly reduced pressure.
Figure 2
An Electric Circuit Resembles a Water Circuit
Voltage Drop
Whenever work is done, a drop in pressure results. Figure 3 illustrates the similarity between an
electrical pressure drop and a water pressure drop. The practical significance of voltage drop is
that if larger loads are placed in a circuit, thicker wires must be used so that voltage will not drop
to the point where it cannot force sufficient current through the wires. When wires are too small
they get hot. Many older buildings have had to be rewired to accommodate all the appliances in
use today.
When undersized wires get hot they cause fires inside walls or ceilings where they are hard to get
at to extinguish.
The rate at which current flows is expressed in amperes. Every appliance usually has this value
recorded on its name plate. It may be that the wattage can also be found on the name plate. It is
voltage drop and hence current flow or amperage, that is affected by wire length, size, resistance
(including poor connections) and condition of the wire.
Figure 3
Voltage Drop is Pressure Drop
MEASURING POWER
Power is defined as the rate at which work is done, measured in watts.
1 watt = 1 volt x 1 ampere
All calculations of wattage are made by multiplying the voltage by the amperage rating.
Example 1:
What is the wattage when 3.5 amperes flow under a pressure of 12 volts?
Solution:
Power = volts x amperes
= 12 V x 3.5 A
= 42 watts (Ans.)
Example 2:
An electric kettle is rated at 1000 watts and 230 volts. What is the current flowing through its
element?
Solution:
power
Amperes =
volts
1000 W
=
230 V
= 4.35 (Ans.)
The length of time that energy is delivered to an appliance determines the cost. If one watt is
delivered for one hour, one watt hour must be paid for. Since the watt is a rather small unit,
electrical energy is measured and billed for in kilowatt hours (kW-h). A kilowatt hour is 1000 watts
delivered for one hour. It is also 100 watts delivered for 10 hours, or 50 watts delivered for 20
hours.
Example 3:
An electric iron uses 1,260 watts for two hours. What will this show on an electric meter?
Solution:
Energy = power x time
= 1260 watts x 2 h
= 2520 watt hours
= 2.52 kW-h (Ans.)
Example 4:
A certain television receiver draws 1.5 amperes at 115 volts. What does it add to the meter
reading if it is switched on for five hours?
Solution:
Power = volts x amperes
= 115 V x 1.5 A
= 172.5 watts
In 5 hours the meter will advance:
172.5 x 5 = 862.5 watt hours
= 0.8625 kW-h (Ans.)
Electric motors are rated in terms of kilowatts or horsepower such as 0.373 kW (1/2 hp) or 0.746
kW (1 hp). In terms of electrical energy, 746 watts is equal to one hp, but a good deal of energy is
lost in heat and friction, so that a one hp electric motor may require 1800 watts. Also, a one hp
motor is more efficient than two, 1/2 hp motors.
ESTIMATING THE COST OF POWER
Electric companies use the kilowatt as the unit of electric power. If one kilowatt is used for one
hour, the charge will be for one kW-h. That is, ten, 100 watt light bulbs burning for one hour will
advance the electric meter by one kW-h.
For estimation purposes, the load or wattage values of Table 1 are often suggested by designers.
Table 1
Wattage Usage
Appliance Wattage

Heaters: 1,000 to 1,500

Portable, household type 1,000 to 2,300
Wall type, permanently installed

Fan, portable 50 to 1,500

Air conditioner, room type 800 to 1,500

Blanket, electric 150 to 200

Sewing machine 60 to 90

Vacuum cleaner 250 to 800

Refrigerator, household 150 to 300

Freezer, household 300 to 500

Clock 2 to 3

Iron, hand (steam or dry) 660 to 1,260

Hot plate, per burner 600 to 1,000

 Range (all burners and oven "on") 8,000 to 14,000

Range top (separate) 4,000 to 6,000

Range oven (separate) 4,000 to 5,000

Toaster 500 to 1,200

Coffee maker (percolator) 500 to 1,000

Waffle iron 600 to 1,000

Roaster 1,200 to 1,650

Rotisserie (broiler) 1,200 to 1,650

Fryer, deep fat 1,200 to 1,650

Frying pan 1,000 to 1,200

Food mixer 120 to 250

Dishwasher 600 to 1,000

Garbage disposal unit 200 to 400

Washing machine 350 to 550

Sunlamp 600 too 800

Dryer, (clothes) 4,000 to 5,000

Water heaters 2,000 to 5,000

Motors: 400 to 600

0.1865 kW (1/4 hp) 750 to 1,100
0.373 kW (1/2 hp) 1,550 to 1,800
Over 0.373 kW, per 0.746 kW
To determine the cost of operating an appliance for one month, the following procedure is
suggested:

1. Either from the name plate or sales literature, find its wattage rating.
2. Make an accurate estimate of the number of hours in actual operation. Be sure to include
fractions of hours.

3. Multiply the number found in (1) by the number found in (2) and divide the product by
1000.

4. Multiply the resulting figure by the average cost per kilowatt hour.

Example 5:
What is the cost of operating 4 washing machines, each rated at 800 watts, for a total of 120
hours per month and 2 clothes dryers, each rated at 4000 watts, operated for 82 hours in the
same month, if cost of electricity is $0.02 per kW-h?
Solution:
4 x 800 W x 120 h
Energy used by washers =
1000 W/kW
= 384 kW-h
2 x 4000 W x 82 h
Energy used by dryers =
1000 W/kW
= 656 kW-h
Total Energy = 1040 kW-h
Cost of Operation = 1040 kW-h x $0.02/kW-h
= $20.80 (Ans.)
Example 6:
In a certain building the following energy expenditures are known to occur in a 7-hour period each
day for 1 month:
21 television sets averaging 180 watts each
54 light bulbs averaging 100 watts each
6 ovens, each rated at 8000 watts and operating for 3/4 h
108 rooms air conditioned at 1/2 kW per room

At 1.7 cents per kW-h, what is the operation cost of this 7 hours for 30 days?
Solution:
Televisions 21 x 180 x 7 = 26,460 watt hours
Light bulbs 54 x 100 x 7 = 37,800 watt hours
Ovens 6 x 8000 x 3/4 = 36,000 watt hours
Air conditioners 108 x 500 x 7 = 378,000 watt hours

watt hours
478,260
Total Cost = 30 days x 478.260 kW-h/day x $0.017/kW-h
= $243.91 (Ans.)
Electricity charges are usually based on a varying rate. The customer pays most for the first block
of, say, 25 to 50 kW-h. Each succeeding block of 50 kW-h or so costs progressively less, in what
becomes a sliding scale. There is always a minimum charge for the first 50 to 100 kW-h, whether
or not the minimum amount is used. This, in effect, pays the utility company for providing a
reserve of electricity that can be tapped at any time.
An alternative method of assessing charges is to set a minimum rate and to that minimum add a
flat rate for each kilowatt hour regardless of the number shown on the meter reading.
READING A METER
Reading meters of the cyclometer type shown in Figure 4 is relatively easy. Write down the
current monthly reading at the same time that the utility meter reader reads the meter. Then
subtract the previous month's reading from the current reading. The result is the actual number of
kilowatt hours that must be paid for.
Figure 4
Typical Electrical Meter
Another type, known as the pointer register, is shown in Figure 5. Certain makes do not have the
small dial, called a test dial, visible. The meter reader reads only the four large dials, on two of
which the figures read from left to right in a clockwise direction, on the other two in a counter-
clockwise direction. Considering the direction in which the pointer moves, merely record the
number the pointer has passed on each dial.
Figure 5
Pointer Register

Figure 6 shows two different readings of a meter, taken one month apart, the upper reading being
the more recent. On the latter, the first (left-hand) pointer has passed 4 and that is the first digit
that we write down. The second pointer appears to point to 2. However, the third pointer has
reached and passed a complete revolution as indicated by the 0. Then the second pointer must
be slightly past 2 and that is the digit we write down. Write 0 for the third digit and 7 for the fourth,
making the total reading 4207 kW-h.
The bottom register reads 2726 kW-h. The difference between the two readings (4207 - 2726 =
1481) is the number of kilowatt hours used between readings.
Figure 6
Kilowatt Hours Meters
Example 7:
If the above metered power is charged at a minimum rate of $1.75 plus 1.3 cents per kW-h, what
is the amount payable?
Solution:
Minimum charge to all customers = $1.75
Cost of metered power = 1481 x 0.013
$19.25
=

Total Billing = $21.00 (Ans.)

CIRCUIT ACCESSORIES
This group includes switches, wall receptacles, ceiling fixtures, fuses and circuit breakers.
Switches
A two-way wall switch controls lighting outlets at one location while a three-way switch provides
control from two different locations. Three-way switches are required to control outlets from two
entrances to a room or to control lighting for a stairway or other out-of-the-way location.
Older wall switches often have an annoying click as they are turned on or off and noiseless
switches, sometimes called "mercury" switches have generally replaced them. Both of these
types require that a handle be moved. A third type requires that the handle be merely touched
and slightly depressed to turn it on. Touch it again and it is turned off.
Every switch has a maximum current rating that should not, for safety's sake, be exceeded. A
switch stamped thus: "10 A 125 V-5A 250 V AC" must not be used for appliances totaling more
than 10 amperes on the ordinary 115 volt household circuit. On the higher 230 volt circuit, the
current is limited to 5 amperes.
Fuses
When the temperature of a wire increases due to high amperage caused by circuit overloading,
the wire may get sufficiently heated to start a fire. It is therefore necessary to carefully limit the
possible current flow in any circuit. Any device that limits the number of amperes to a
predetermined flow is called an overcurrent device. The two types of overcurrent devices most
widely used are fuses and circuit breakers.
In addition to protecting wires, overcurrent devices also protect electrical devices. An electric
motor will withstand considerable overload for a short time but if overload continues for a long
time, the motor may burn out. The overload device protects the motor from possible damage. For
protection of wires and electrical devices, then, fuses and circuit breakers should always be
properly selected.
A fuse is merely a short length of wire or flat metal strip. This strip is made from an alloy with a
low melting point and is sized so that it will carry the rated amperage indefinitely but will melt or
"blow" when a large amperage flows. Figure 7 shows the metal strip in a case which prevents the
metal from spattering when the strip melts. The window allows inspection of the strip, a blown
fuse showing a gap in the strip.
Figure 7
Fuse
The largest fuse of this type is stamped "30 amperes". Smaller standard sizes are 10, 15, 20 and
25 amperes. Placing a coin under a burned out fuse in effect gives the fuse a very high amperage
rating, far higher than wires or appliances can carry. Such a situation is obviously very
dangerous.
The only type of fuse that can be used for ratings exceeding 30 amperes is the cartridge fuse.
The ferrule-contact type is available in sizes up to 60 amperes while the knife-blade-contact type
is made in larger sizes exceeding 60 amperes. (Figure 8).
Figure 8
Cartridge Fuses

Circuit Breakers
The circuit breaker is another device used to protect circuits and appliances against overload. On
overload, the circuit breaker opens itself and must be closed manually. One single-pole breaker
protects a 115 volt circuit. One double-pole breaker (Figure 9(b)) protects a 230 volt circuit. In
some makes it looks similar to two single-pole breakers side by side, each with its own handle,
but with the two handles tied together with a rigid bar to become a single handle.
Figure 9
Circuit Breaker
Circuit breakers are rated at 15, 20, 30, 40, 50 and higher amperes. They are usually placed side
by side in distribution cabinets. Sometimes the cabinet will include a main breaker to protect all of
the branch circuits. Each circuit breaker is a plug-in device and is easily and quickly replaced if its
rating is too low or if it has become defective.
A circuit breaker consists of a carefully calibrated bimetallic strip. When enough current flows
through the strip it bends to release a trip and instantly interrupt the circuit just as it is interrupted
when a fuse blows.
Wall Receptacles
Most wall receptacles are of the duplex grounded type which provides for two places to plug in at
each outlet. Appliances should always be fitted with three-prong plugs (called "caps"). The wall
receptacle has three openings: two parallel slots plus one U-shaped opening. The latter is
provided so that every appliance is grounded. The third wire in every cord is connected to the
frame of the appliance or motor. With proper grounding, any appliance that accidentally becomes
hot internally has little likelihood of severely shocking anyone. This means that there must be a
three-conductor cord, a three-prong plug and a three-opening receptacle known to be grounded.
Is an Electric Shock Likely to be Lethal?
Only a small amount of electricity can kill a person. Although voltage is involved, it is current that
is lethal. Often only 1/4 ampere will stop the heart of the average adult. This is about the current
rating of a 25 watt light bulb. Obviously it is extremely dangerous to stand on wet ground or to
hold a water pipe in one hand and touch an electric circuit.
One is much more likely to be alert to obvious dangers than to apparently trivial ones such as
this. It seems trivial to place a penny under a fuse, yet it represents just as great a danger.
Ungrounded appliances constantly cause deaths.
GOOD LIGHTING
The two common electric light sources are incandescent and fluorescent. There are advantages
and disadvantages to both types. If unshaded, the incandescent light produces glare. The soft
daylight glow of the fluorescent light makes it ideal for reading, sewing and other close work.
Fluorescent units are slightly more expensive but they produce about three times more usable
light than do incandescent lights. They give off little heat and last much longer. Unlike the
incandescent light, different wattages are not interchangeable.
Every good lighting system must provide four important things:

1. Sufficient quantity of light

2. Light free from glare

3. Light free from objectionable shadows

4. The right kind of light

Those who have defective vision require all of the above features. Since there are few families or
groups among whom there is not at least one individual with defective vision, most modern
lighting arrangements are intended, not for those with perfect vision, but for those whose vision is
impaired.
Glare is any brightness that causes discomfort, eye fatigue, or straining to see objects. It is
produced by exposed light bulbs that are seen rather prominently while a person is looking at
some other object. It may also be caused by reflection, as from the top of a table. What is
required is diffused light, light that does not appear to come from one point or source. Such light
is partially produced by placing a translucent shade over the source. Another approach is the
luminous ceiling consisting of translucent squares placed below fluorescent tubes so that there is
reasonably uniform light from most of the ceiling.
When a room is fitted with fixtures that do not permit any light to fall on ceilings and walls but
instead throw all of the light directly on the area to be lighted, the method is called direct lighting.
When the fixtures throw all the light on the ceiling and reflected light illuminates the area to be
lighted, the method is called indirect lighting.
To eliminate shadows as much as possible, fixtures should let some light fall on both ceiling and
downward. Good lighting combines both direct and indirect methods in an even distribution of
light for comfort and pleasing appearance.
Incandescent lamps do not produce the same proportion of various colors that exist in natural,
outdoor light. They tend to be more orange and red, less blue and green. Lamps that approximate
light in the northern sky, rather than sunlight, are in use under such names as "daylight type" and
"sky blue". When it is necessary to highlight colors, use of such lamps is important. In fluorescent
types the "deluxe cool white" is widely favoured.
Replacing Lights
Unlighted sockets reduce illumination and may lead to accidents. The following suggestions may
be helpful in preventing excessively bad lighting conditions:

1. New lamps should be of the same wattage, type, color and voltage as the burned out
lamps. This information can be found on the end of the lamp as in Figure 10.
2. Replace blackened or discolored lamps even though they may still be burning.
Blackening usually indicates that the lamp is likely to burn out anyway.

3. Where lights are in hard-to-reach locations, such as the area above stairwells or lobbies,
replace all lamps when one needs replacement.

4. Always replace flashing fluorescent lamps as soon as possible, otherwise flashing will
destroy the starter.

5. Make a lamp check throughout the entire building at frequent intervals.

Figure 10
Lamp Information
Cleaning Light Fixtures
Tests using light meters have proved that thorough washing of average dirty lighting equipment
and not mere wiping with a dry cloth, reclaims 10 to 15% more light. Furthermore, dry wiping is
often unsatisfactory because grit will scratch reflecting surfaces.
The following cleaning procedure has been recommended by manufacturers. When reflectors or
glassware can be taken down:

1. Scrub with a sponge or soft brush while the unit is immersed in the cleaning solution.
2. Rinse with clean warm water.

3. Do not immerse the lamp base.

The cleaning routine is faster if an extra clean reflector, or piece of glassware, is on hand. Thus
on a trip up a ladder a person can carry clean parts and then come down with dirty equipment.
Sometimes metal brackets clamped to the top of the ladder will help hold pieces.
When reflectors or glassware cannot be taken down:

1. Use a cleanser, such as a spray, that removes dirt quickly and thoroughly and requires no
rinsing.
2. Wipe off excess dampness with a clean cloth.

While cleaning, checks should be made for the following defects:

1. Loose or broken sockets

2. Insecure suspension fittings

3. Damaged reflectors

4. Broken or cracked glassware

5. Broken switches or faulty breakers

In large buildings it is useful to stock lamps, fluorescent tubes, starters and ballasts for
fluorescent assemblies, reflectors and glassware.
Troubleshooting Guide
Incandescent Lights
Indication of Cause Remedy
Trouble

1. Lamp not burning Lamp loose Tighten in socket.

but apparently o.k. Loose or broken a) Secure terminals
connections b) Repair wiring

2. Lamp burns dim Low voltage a) Match lamp rating to line

voltage
b) Increase line voltage

3. Short lamp life High voltage a) Match lamp rating to line

voltage
b) Improve voltage
regulation and avoid surges

Bulb cracked due to a) Replace lamp

mechanical shock b) Be sure water does not
drip on bulb

Incorrect lamp Replace with lamp of size for

which luminaire is rated

Excessive vibration Use shock-absorbing device

4. Lamp breakage Water contacts lamp a) Use enclosed, vapor tight

bulb luminaire if water spray is
present
b) Seal joint where conduit
stem enters luminaire

Bulb touches a) Use correct size of lamp

luminaire b) Straighten socket

Possible open circuit Have wiring checked

Fluorescent Lights
Indication of Cause Remedy
Trouble

1. Blinking on and Normal end of lamp life, Replace lamp

off: emission material on
a.) Accompanied by electrodes depleted
shimmering effect a
during "lighted"
period

b.) Blinking of Incorrect or defective Replace starter

relatively new lamp starter

Loose circuit contact Seal lamp securely,

indicator "bumps" should
 be directly over socket
slot. Check if lamp
holders are rigidly
mounted and properly
spaced; tighten all
connections

Low circuit voltage Have voltage checked

and correct if possible

Low ballast rating Replace with ballast of

proper rating

Cold drafts hitting lamp Enclose or protect lamp

2. Ends of lamp Starter contacts stuck Replace starter

remain lighted together

3. No starting effort, Open circuit in Check lamp in another

or slow starting electrodes or air leak in fixture, if no fluorescent
lamp end glow replace lamp

Starter sluggish or at Replace starter

end of life

4. Short life Mortality rate of lamps Replace lamp

(lamps of shorter life will
be balanced by those of
longer life to give rated
average life); normal
failure

Too frequent starting of The average life of

lamps fluorscent lamps
depends on the number
of starts and the hours of
operation. Published life
rating is generally based
on operating periods of
three hours per start.

Ends of lamp remain Replace starter

lighted because of
starter failure

Starter defective causing Replace starter

on-off blink or prolonged
flashing at each start

Loose circuit contact Be sure the lamp holders

causing on-off blink are rigidly mounted and
that the lamp is securely
seated; check the circuit
wiring
 Too low or too high Check the line voltage
voltage and be sure it is within
the range on the ballast
nameplate.

Low ambient Use special auxiliaries

temperature for temperatures below
10C (50F)

5. Bad blackening - a
normal sign of age in
service but if unusual
check the following:

a) Dense blackening Normal end of lamp life; Replace lamp. Check for
at one end or both with rapid start lamps proper socket spacing or
extending 50 to 75 accompanied by short poor socket construction
mm (2 to 3 inches) life - poor contact not providing proper
from the base between lamp pins and "wiping" of pins when
socket lamp is installed

b) Blackening Mercury deposit Should evaporate as

generally within 25 lamp is operated
mm (1 inch) of ends

c) Blackening early in Starter defective, Replace starter

life which indicates causing on-off blink or
emission material on prolonged flashing at
electrodes being each start
sputtered off too
rapidly

Ends of lamp remain Replace starter

lighted because of
starter failure

6. Dense spot - black Normal sign of age in Check for off rating of
about 12.7 mm (1/2 service; if early in life, ballast
inch) wide, extending indicates excessive lamp
about half way starting
around tube,
centering about 25
mm from base

7. Rings - brownish This may develop on Will not affect the lamp
at one end or both, some lamps during performance
about 50 mm from operation
base

8. Radio interference Lamp radiation Small condenser in

causing "buzz" in "broadcast" through starter or ballast may be
radio radio receiver defective or not included
- replace with high
quality starter or ballast
 Line radiation and line Apply radio-interference
feedback filter at lamp or fixture;
sometimes possible to
apply filters at power
outlet or panel box

9. Noise - humming Internal variation in Tighten fixture louvres,

sound which may be ballast glass, side panels, etc. If
steady or come and ballast continues to be
go noisy, replace it

Overheated ballasts Prolonged blinking of

lamp tends to heat
ballast - replace ballast

10. Decreased light

output:

a) During the first The light output during

100 hours of use the first 100 hours of
operation is above
published rating,
sometimes as much as
10%. (The published
rating is based on output
at the end of 100 hours
of operation.)

b) Any time Cold drafts hitting tube, Enclose or protect lamp.

heat confined around Better ventilation of
lamp, results in lower fixture
light output

11. Color and

brightness
differences:

a) Lamps operated at Low circuit voltage on Check voltage and

unequal brilliancy two-lamp lead-lag ballast correct if possible.
Possible poorly designed
or defective ballast

b) Different color May be due to reflector Interchange lamps to

appearance in finish, wall finish, other determine cause
different locations of nearby light, etc.
same installation

May be wrong color Check lamp marking. If

lamp or color variation normal small differences
are objectionable, the
production batches
involved should be
blended or installed in
separate rooms
 12. Lamp tight or Holders spaced wrong Correct fixture
loose in fixture dimensions

Push-pull holder spring Replace holders

weak or plunger jammed

Holders loose or Repair mounting

mounting plate bent
SIMPLE ELECTRICAL TROUBLES
Even though building operators cannot solve complicated electrical problems which may be
present in a circuit, they can meet simple problems with simple remedies.
If an electric circuit is to do its job properly it must be continuous and it must have enough voltage
and amperage to operate the devices in it. Failure to meet these requirements causes trouble.
Lack of continuity through a circuit can be caused by short circuits, grounds and bad connections.
Short Circuits
Electrons flowing through a circuit seek the shortest possible route necessary to make a complete
circuit. If a short cut can be found, the electrons will bypass the regular conductor. A short cut of
this type is called a short circuit and is shown in Figure 11. One common source of short circuits
is a break in the insulation between two wires, which makes it unnecessary for current to pass
through the entire circuit. Excessive heat is produced by a short circuit and the place where the
short circuit occurs becomes hot.
Figure 11
Short Circuit

Note -
The heat produced can be hot enough to melt the wiring or to damage devices in the
circuit, if the circuit is not protected as required by the National Electrical Code, which
means that all circuit changes should be done only by competent personnel.
The presence and the location of a short circuit is often easy to detect. Indications of a short
circuit include charred insulation, melted metal, extreme heat, or even smoke. A bad smell caused
by burning insulation may be the first evidence of a short circuit. The remedies for short circuits
are also often obvious. If a wire is charred or melted, it may need to be replaced. If an electric
motor is extremely hot, it may need to be repaired or replaced.
Grounds
Figure 12 shows how some of the current can bypass part of a circuit by going to the grounded
conductor through an individual and the earth. Most house circuits and many appliances have a
special grounding wire leading to the cold water piping system. Any stray current can thus be
taken to the ground. If this were not done, a person touching an electrical appliance might be
electrocuted by current using their body as a route to the earth. Grounding should be in
accordance with the Electrical Code.
Figure 12
Short Circuit to Ground
Bad Connections
Current flow through a circuit can be reduced or completely stopped by bad connections. A loose
wire, or a wire that is loosely connected to a terminal, can cause a bad connection and produce
enough resistance to heat the connector and the conductor (Figure 13). Bad connections can
also consist of connections which are so corroded that they do not have enough copper in actual
contact. Similarly, dirt on a connection can reduce the amount of electricity that flows through a
circuit. In a circuit that uses so little current that its voltage must be measured in millivolts, dirt can
be a serious obstacle to current flow. The thermocouple that controls natural gas flow in a furnace
is an example.
Figure 13
Causes of Bad Connections
Bad connections are usually easy to remedy. If a terminal connection is loose, it may simply need
to be tightened by turning a nut or screw. Dirty contact points are easy to clean but should be
cleaned carefully. Many manufacturers recommend that a piece of smooth paper or cloth be used
for this job, because sandpaper or a sharp tool can damage contacting surfaces. Badly corroded
contacts have to be replaced.
STATIC ELECTRICITY
A wire or a washing machine or a door handle is said to be "charged" when it has either an
excess or a deficiency of electrons. In the former it is a negatively charged body, whereas a
deficiency of electrons describes a positively charged body. Like charges of electricity repel each
other; unlike charges attract each other. All charges are out on the surface of the conductor and
their energy constitutes an electrostatic field. A static charge is energy at rest, not moving as in
the case of an electric current.
A charge can be built up when a liquid flows over metal, such as heating oil flowing through tank
filling lines. In a dry atmosphere, the charge may discharge through a person touching such a
pipe, or through a metallic conductor close to the pipe. The discharge will ignite any vapors in its
path, including vapors from cleaning fluid. Since it is impractical to run a ground wire to every
possible source of static electricity, an inflexible rule must be made forbidding use of any vapor-
producing volatile cleaning fluids.
Many modern fabrics are efficient sources of static electricity, especially when rubbed. They, too,
should not be cleaned indoors in a solution that may ignite.
People who complain of static and nausea when they scuff across a carpet are easily
accommodated by using special carpets in which fine copper wires have been woven, the wires
in turn being grounded.
Is your building protected against the very intense static discharge of lightning? In an egg-shaped
conductor, the pointed end becomes more highly charged than the remainder and the charge will
leak off more readily from the pointed end. Similarly, the charge on a building will leak off from
pointed rods placed at the highest point of the building and the charge is neutralized in the air.
TRANSFORMERS
It is most convenient to have a way of changing current from one voltage to another. For
example, doorbells, chimes, buzzers and thermostats usually require less than 24 volts and a
device called a transformer decreases or "transforms" 115 volt household current to the required
value.
Usually the transformer with which the building operator is concerned consists of two windings of
insulated wire on a metal core. The primary winding receives power from the 115 volt supply; the
secondary winding supplies proper voltages for the appliances that the transformer serves. There
is no metal connection between the primary and secondary winding. Because of the low voltage
and limited current in the secondary, there is little danger of shock and fire. The electrical codes
place no limitations on the type of wire used nor on the installation of it.
Generally, wires used for such work require and have little insulation. Ordinary bell wire, often
called annunciator wire, consists of bare copper with a layer of insulation. These may be molded
together to appear as one wire. It may be run through walls or stapled to a surface without further
protection.
ELECTRIC MOTORS
Most building equipment and appliances operate with the proper size and type of motor. However,
it may be necessary to replace a motor for a different size and type and the building operator
must know how to make a selection from a number of different sizes and types on the market.
The building operator should also understand how to care for the motors that already exist in their
building and should be able to grasp the nature of repair as outlined by the service company.
The important parts of a motor are a stationary set of windings called a staler, the part that rotates
called a rotor, a bearing at each end of the shaft and a capacitor to give necessary starting torque
or turning force. The frame must also be fitted with a wiring box inside of which an extension cord
is connected to the motor lead wires. The frame is designed with a drip-proof cover.
The purchase price of a motor is of less importance than the necessity of getting the right motor
for a job. Cheap motors often prove to be the most expensive by burning out in a short time.
The voltage and current rating, or wattage, of a motor can be found on the nameplate. Other
information includes the current, frequency, speed, horsepower and allowable heat rise. Motors
up to and including 0.5595 kW (3/4 hp) are referred to as fractional-horsepower motors. Sizes
from 0.746 kW (1 hp) up are known as integral-horsepower motors.
A 0.1865 kW (1/4 hp) motor can be used in place of a 0.746 kW motor providing gears or belts
and pulleys are fitted to give it a 4 to 1 mechanical advantage. To do the same amount of work,
the 0.1865 kW motor will have to work four times as long. The advantage is obvious: the original
cost of motor, wiring and equipment is much less.
A 0.5595 kW electric motor will replace a 0.746 kW gasoline engine. A 1.492 kw (2 hp) motor
should be adequate to handle the work of a 2.611 kW (3 1/2 hp) engine, without overheating.
If a motor gets too hot to hold with bare hands it is either too small for the job or too enclosed to
adequately dissipate its heat to the surrounding air.
Which Type of Motor?
Most of the electric motors sold today are built to operate on single-phase, 60 Hertz (cycles per
second) current. The majority of motors over 0.373 kW can and should be operated on 220 volts.
The main drawback of electric motors is their low starting torque, a feature especially important
when a motor must start under a load. Only after a motor has reached 75% of maximum speed
does it become efficient.
Generally, motors have one or more "extras" to help them start. For light starting a split-phase
motor is often chosen. An extra winding is added to the stator in the split-phase motor to give
added torque until it reaches about 75% full speed, at which speed a centrifugal switch
disconnects the extra or starter winding. The motor then operates on the regular running winding.
Starting current is at least six times normal running current.
Available in sizes up to 0.2487 kW (1/3 hp), this type is simplest in construction, the least
expensive and easiest to maintain of any electric motor. It operates at constant speed from low
load to fall load and its direction of rotation can be changed.
For medium starting loads a capacitor-start motor is preferred. It has about three times the
starting ability of split-phase motors and requires less starting current. The extra on this motor is
the capacitor which enables the motor to start under much heavier loads, with greater efficiency
at running speeds. The limit of this type of motor is not much above 4.476 kW (6 hp) in building
applications.
For starting heavy loads, the repulsion-start motor is favoured. It draws a minimum amount of
starting current and will operate on 115 or 230 volts. It has brushes and other parts that have to
be serviced periodically.
The end covers or housings for electric motors are designed for various services. Three types are
used in building services:

1. Open, drip proof housing, installed where the surrounding air is clean and dry.
2. Splash-proof housing, which costs more, installed where liquids are liable to splash
against the ends.

3. Totally enclosed housing, installed where excess dust is present. Although more costly,
this type saves on bearings and motor windings.

Bearings Require Care

An analysis of motor failures proves that bearings are one of the principal offenders. For this
reason, correct maintenance and lubrication of bearings are of great importance.
Electric motors are equipped with one of two types of bearings:

1. Sleeve bearing, usually found in smaller motors.

2. Ball bearings more costly, found in the totally enclosed motor.

The latter have less friction and may be mounted in any position, as in power drills and lawn
mowers. Practically all sleeve-bearing motors must work with their shaft horizontal.
Many ball bearings come prelubricated and sealed against the intrusion of dust and liquids and
will operate satisfactorily for years without further lubrication.
Sleeve bearings and regular ball bearings need periodic lubrication if they are to give dependable
service. Avoid overlubrication. A few drops of oil added periodically to sleeve bearings is better
than a massive oiling that will work into motor windings and brushes. The bearing housing for a
ball bearing should be kept from 1/3 to 1/2 full.
Motor Troubles
Many simple defects in motor operation can be easily recognized by a building operator. The
troubleshooting guide sets out malfunctions and suggests remedies. It is recommended that a
service company be called in for troubleshooting. They know how to avoid accidents, particularly
electric shocks and fires.
The materials in this module have been presented so that the operator may talk intelligently with
the service company and form some idea of the extent of necessary repairs.
Troubleshooting Guide
Electrical Motors
Trouble Remedy

Motor stalls Wrong application, change type or size. Consult service

company. Overloaded motor, reduce load. Open circuit.
Fuses blown - starter or pushbutton may be defective.

Motor connected Motor may be overloaded. Reduce load

but does not
start

Motor runs and Power failure. Check for loose connections to line, fuses
then dies down and switches

Motor does not Not applied properly. Consult supplier for proper type.
come up to Check load motor is supposed to carry at starts
speed

Motor takes too Excess loading, reduce load. Replace motor. Applied
long to voltage too low, get power company to check
accelerate

Wrong rotation Have connections of motor or at switch board reversed

Motor overheats Check for overload, reduce load. End shields may be
while running clogged with dirt and prevent proper ventilation of motor.
under load Good ventilation is manifest when a continuous stream of
air leaves the motor. Check terminal voltage. Check for
faulty leads, connections and transformers. Rotor rubs
stator bore. Have worn bearings replaced

Motor vibrates Motor misaligned, realignment by service company

after corrections
have been made
APPROVED APPLIANCES
Manufacturers are not allowed to offer their appliances for sale unless the appliances have been
examined as to performance and safety by an independent organization designated by
government authority to test equipment and where the equipment conforms to minimum
specifications, to place their label on that equipment.
The Canadian Standards Association is a national association of technical committees with
members representing producer, consumer, scientific and technical societies and federal and
provincial interests. The CSA, the emblem or label of which appears in Figure 14(a), recognizes
many standards developed by corresponding organizations in the United States. CSA Testing
Laboratories test and certify equipment such as switches, electric motors and electric drills. CSA
establishes essential requirements and minimum standards for the equipment so tested and
when you see their label on any device it certifies that the device meets these requirements.
Figure 14
Safety Approval Labels

If you have ever noticed a label on a device bearing the letters "ULC" you may have wondered
what this meant. These letters (Figure 14(b) mean that the item has been tested by Underwriters'
Laboratories of Canada and has been approved as meeting standards of safety. Its purpose is to
eliminate or reduce fires started by faulty wiring and inferior electric products.
A similar label of approval is affixed to appliances by the Underwriters' Laboratories in the United
States. While manufacturers are not required to have their products tested, an increasing number
of people will buy only approved products bearing the label shown in Figure 14(c).
Another Canadian organization making similar tests is the Canadian Gas Association. The CGA
specializes in fuel-fired equipment and their approval label, (Figure 14(d)), includes the electrical
features of fuel-fired equipment such as gas clothes dryers.

Learning Module: 027-41-60-02 ELEC 6011 Assignment

[ Print Assignment ]

1. Why is the switch for room lighting or for an appliance placed in the hot wire of an electric
circuit?
2. a. What is voltage drop and why is it of great importance in electrical wiring?

b. The name plate of an electric heater states that the appliance requires 115 volts and is
rated at 12 amperes. What is its wattage?

3. a. What is a grounded circuit?

b. What is a circuit breaker and where is it used?

c. What is the reading on the following meters?

4. What are the advantages of fluorescent lights?

What are probable causes of short fluorescent lamp life and how are they remedied?

5. What causes a motor to run hot?

Copyright (c) 2000 All Rights Reserved