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UNIT II

EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODIES 12 Free body diagram Types of supports Action and reaction
forces stable equilibrium Moments and Couples Moment of a force about a point and about an
axis Vectorial representation of moments and couples Scalar components of a moment
Varignons theorem Single equivalent force -Equilibrium of Rigid bodies in two dimensions
Equilibrium of Rigid bodies in three dimensions

3.1. INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter, we have been discussing the effects of forces, acting on a body, through
their lines of action or at the point of their intersection. But in this chapter, we shall discuss the
effects of these forces, at some other point, away from the point of intersection or their lines of
action.

3.2. MOMENT OF A FORCE

It is the turning effect produced by a force, on the body, on which it acts. The moment of a force is
equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular distance of the point, about which the
moment is required and the line of action of the force. Mathematically, moment,

M=Pl

where P = Force acting on the body, and

l = Perpendicular distance between the point, about which the moment is required and the line of
action of the force.

3.4. UNITS OF MOMENT

Since the moment of a force is the product of force and distance, therefore the units of the moment
will depend upon the units of force and distance. Thus, if the force is in Newton and the distance is
in meters, then the units of moment will be Newton-meter (briefly written as N-m). Similarly, the
units of moment may be kN-m (i.e. kN m), N-mm (i.e. N mm) etc.

3.5. TYPES OF MOMENTS

Broadly speaking, the moments are of the following two types:

1. Clockwise moments. 2. Anticlockwise moments.

It is the moment of a force, whose effect is to turn or rotate the body, about the point in the same
direction in which hands of a clock move

It is the moment of a force, whose effect is to turn or rotate the body, about the point in the
opposite direction in which the hands of a clock move as shown in Fig. 3.2 (b).
3.8. VARIGNONS PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS (OR LAW OF MOMENTS)

It states, If a number of coplanar forces are acting simultaneously on a particle, the algebraic sum of
the moments of all the forces about any point is equal to the moment of their resultant force about
the same point.

Example 3.1. A force of 15 N is applied perpendicular to the edge of a door 0.8 m wide as shown in
Fig. 3.3 (a). Find the moment of the force about the hinge. If this force is applied at an angle of 60 to
the edge of the same door, as shown in Fig. 3.3 (b), find the moment of this force.
3.9. APPLICATIONS OF MOMENTS

Though the moments have a number of applications, in the field of Engineering science, yet the
following are important from the subject point of view :

1. Position of the resultant force 2. Levers.

3.10. POSITION OF THE RESULTANT FORCE BY MOMENTS

It is also known as analytical method for the resultant force. The position of a resultant force may be
found out by moments as discussed below :

1. First of all, find out the magnitude and direction of the resultant force by the method of resolution
as discussed earlier in chapter Composition and Resolution of Forces.

2. Now equate the moment of the resultant force with the algebraic sum of moments of the given
system of forces about any point. This may also be found out by equating the sum of clockwise
moments and that of the anticlockwise moments about the point, through which the resultant force
will pass.

Example 3.5. Three forces of 2P, 3P and 4P act along the three sides of an equilateral triangle of side
100 mm taken in order. Find the magnitude and position of the resultant force.
Example 3.6. Four forces equal to P, 2P, 3P and 4P are respectively acting along the four sides of
square ABCD taken in order. Find the magnitude, direction and position of the resultant force.

Example 3.7. ABCD is a square, each side being 20 cm and E is the middle point of AB. Forces of 7, 8,
12, 5, 9 and 6 kN act on the lines of directions AB, EC, BC, BD, CA and DE respectively. Find the
magnitude, direction and position of the resultant force.
Example 3.12. The lever ABC of a component of a machine is hinged at B, and is subjected to a
system of coplaner forces as shown in Fig. 3.19
Vectorial Representation of Moments. The moment of a force is a vector which is the product of
distance and force. Hence in case of moment* of a force the cross-product of distance and force
would be taken. Consider the Fig 2.31.

Let F = Force vector (Fxi + Fyj + Fzk)

r = Distance (or position) vector with respect to O

= xi + yj +zk

M = Moment of force about point 0

* A quantity which is the product of two vectors and the quantity is also a vector, then cross product
of the two vectors will be taken. But if the quantity is scalar, then dot product is taken.
Mz = Moment of F about z-axis.
Also Mx, My, and Mz are known as scalar components of moment.

A force F=2i + 4j 3k is applied at a point P(1,1, 2). Find the moment of the force F about the
point (2,-1, 2).

Sol.Given:
Force F = 2i + 4j 3k
The position vector r of the point P w.r.t. O. ,
= Position vector of point P
Position vector of point O.
= (i + j 2k) (2i j + 2k)
r = (1- 2)i + [1 + (1)]j + [- 2 2]k
= -i + 2j 4k
The moment M is given by
= [(2)(- 3) (- 4)(4)] i + [(- 4)(2) (- 1) (- 3)]j + [(- 1)(4) (2)(2)]k
=(- 6 + 16) i + (- 8 3)j + (- 4 4) k = 10i -11j 8k. Ans.

Scalar Component

Scalar component of a vector quantity is defined as the magnitude of the vector in the different
axis or directions .

Any three dimensional vector can be represented with a rectangular coordinate system. Let (A1, A2,
A3) be the rectangular coordinates of the terminal point of vector with initial point at origin. The
coordinates (A1, A2, A3) are called the rectangular component or simply the scalar component of the
vector in the x, y and z directions respectively.

The sum of these coordinates with the appropriate use of their unit vectors is nothing but the vector
thus we can write the vector as

A1i +A2j + A3k.

SUPPORT REACTIONS

12.2. TYPES OF LOADING

Though there are many types of loading, yet the following are important from the subject point of
view :

1. Concentrated or point load,

2. Uniformly distributed load,

3. Uniformly varying load.

12.3. CONCENTRATED OR POINT LOAD

A load, acting at a point on a beam is known as a concentrated or a point load as shown in Fig. 12.1.
In actual practice, it is not possible to apply a load at a point (i.e., at a mathematical point), as it must
have some contact area. But this area being so small, in comparison with the length of the beam, is
negligible.
12.4. UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD

A load, which is spread over a beam, in such a manner that each unit length is loaded to the same
extent, is known as uniformly distributed load (briefly written as U.D.L.) as shown in Fig. 12.2 The
total uniformly distributed load is assumed to act at the centre of gravity of the load for all sorts of
calculations.

12.5. UNIFORMLY VARYING LOAD

A load, which is spread over a beam, in such a manner that its extent varies uniformly on each unit
length (say from w1 per unit length at one support to w2 per unit length at the other support) is
known as uniformly varying load as shown in Fig. 12.3. Sometimes, the load varies from zero at one
support to w at the other. Such a load is also called triangular load.

12.6. METHODS FOR THE REACTIONS OF A BEAM

The reactions at the two supports of a beam may be found out by any one of the following two
methods:

1. Analytical method 2. Graphical method.

12.7. ANALYTICAL METHOD FOR THE REACTIONS OF A BEAM

12.11. TYPES OF END SUPPORTS OF BEAMS

Though there are many types of supports, for beams and frames, yet the following three types of
supports are important from the subject point of view:

1. Simply supported beams, 2. Roller supported beams, and 3. Hinged beams.


12.12. SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS

Example 12.1. A simply supported beam AB of span 5 m is loaded as shown in Fig. 12.7. Find the
reactions at A and B.

Example 12.2. A simply supported beam, AB of span 6 m is loaded as shown in Fig.12.8. Determine
the reactions RA and RB of the beam.
Example 12.3. A simply supported beam AB of span 4.5 m is loaded as shown in Fig. 12.9. Find the
support reactions at A and B.
Example 12.4. A simply supported beam AB of 6 m span is subjected to loading as shown in Fig.
12.10. Find graphically or otherwise, the support reactions at A and B.

12.13. OVERHANGING BEAMS

A beam having its end portion (or portions) extended in the form of a cantilever, beyond its support,
as shown in Fig. 12.11 is known as an overhanging beam. It may be noted that a beam may be
overhanging on one of its sides or both the sides. In such cases, the reactions at both the supports
will be vertical as shown in the figure.
Example 12.5. A beam AB of span 3m, overhanging on both sides is loaded as shown in Fig. 12.12.
Determine the reactions at the supports A and B.

Example 12.6. A beam AB 5 m long, supported on two in termediate supports 3 m apart, carries a
uniformly distributed load of 0.6 kN/m. The beam also carries two concentrated loads of 3 kN at left
hand end A, and 5 kN at the right hand end B as shown in Fig. 12.13. Determine the location of the
two supports, so that both the reactions are equal.
12.14. ROLLER SUPPORTED BEAMS

In such a case, the end of a beam is supported on rollers, and the reaction on such an end is always
normal to the support, as shown in Fig. 12.17 (a) and (b). All the steel trusses, of the bridges, have
one of their ends as supported on rollers. The main advantage, of such a support, is that the beam
can move easily towards left or right, on account of expansion or contraction due to change in
temperature.
12.15. HINGED BEAMS

In such a case, the end of a beam is hinged to the support as shown in Fig. 12.18. The reaction on
such an end may be horizontal, vertical or inclined, depending upon the type of loading. All the steel
trusses of the bridges have one of their end roller supported, and the other hinged. The main
advantage of such a support is that the beam remains stable. A little consideration will show, that
the beam cannot be stable, if both of its ends are supported on rollers. It is thus obvious, that one of
the supports is made roller supported and the other hinged.

Example 12.7. A beam AB of 6 m span is loaded as shown in Fig. 12.19. Determine the reactions at A
and B.

Solution. Given: Span = 6 m

Let RA = Reaction at A, and

RB = Reaction at B.

We know that as the beam is supported on rollers at the right hand support (B), therefore the
reaction RB will be vertical (because of horizontal support). Moreover, as the beam is hinged at the
left support (A) and it is also carrying inclined load, therefore the reaction at this end will be the
resultant of horizontal and vertical forces, and thus will be inclined with the vertical. The example
may be solved either analytically or graphically, but we shall solve it by both the methods, one by
one.
Example 12.9. A beam has hinged support at A and roller support at B as shown in Fig. 12.23. The
beam is subjected to loads as shown. Determine analytically the reactions at A and B.
`

12.16. BEAMS SUBJECTED TO A MOMENT

Sometimes, a beam is subjected to a clockwise or anticlockwise moment along with loads. In such a
case, magnitude of the moment is taken into consideration while calculating the reactions. Since the
moment does not involve any load, therefore it has no horizontal or vertical components.

Example 12.10. Fig. 12.25 shows as beam ABCD simply supported on a hinged support at A and at D
on a roller support inclined at 45 with the vertical. Determine the horizontal and vertical
components of reaction at support A. Show clearly the direction as well as the magnitude of the
resultant reaction at A.
EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY IN THREE DIMENSIONS

These equations can be solved for no more than six unknowns, which generally will represent
reactions at supports or connections. In most problems the scalar equations (4.2) and (4.3) will be
more conveniently obtained if we first express in vector form the conditions for the equilibrium of
the rigid body considered. We write and express the forces F and position vectors r in terms of scalar
components and unit vectors. Next, we compute all vector products, either by direct calculation or
by means of determinants (see Sec. 3.8). We observe that as many as three unknown reaction
components may be eliminated from these computations through a judicious choice of the point O.
By equating to zero the coefficients of the unit vectors in each of the two relations (4.1), we obtain
the desired scalar equations.

4.9 REACTIONS AT SUPPORTS AND CONNECTIONS FOR A THREE-DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURE

The reactions on a three-dimensional structure range from the single force of known direction
exerted by a frictionless surface to the force-couple system exerted by a fixed support.
Consequently, in problems involving the equilibrium of a three-dimensional structure, there can be
between one and six unknowns associated with the reaction at each support or connection. Various
types of supports and connections are shown in Fig. 4.10 with their corresponding reactions. A
simple way of determining the type of reaction corresponding to a given support or connection and
the number of unknowns involved is to find which of the six fundamental motions (translation in the
x, y, and z directions, rotation about the x, y, and z axes) are allowed and which motions are
prevented. Ball supports, frictionless surfaces, and cables, for example, prevent translation in one
direction only and thus exert a single force whose line of action is known; each of these supports
involves one unknown, namely, the magnitude of the reaction. Rollers on rough surfaces and wheels
on rails prevent translation in two directions; the corresponding reactions consist of two unknown
force components. Rough surfaces in direct contact and ball-and-socket supports prevent translation
in three directions; these supports involve three unknown force components. Some supports and
connections can prevent rotation as well as translation; the corresponding reactions include couples
as well as forces. For example, the reaction at a fixed support, which prevents any motion (rotation
as well as translation), consists of three unknown forces and three unknown couples. A universal
joint, which is designed to allow rotation about two axes, will exert a reaction consisting of three
unknown force components and one unknown couple. Other supports and connections are primarily
intended to prevent translation; their design, however, is such that they also prevent some
rotations. The corresponding reactions consist essentially of force components but may also include
couples. One group of supports of this type includes hinges and bearings designed to support radial
loads only (for example, journal bearings, roller bearings). The corresponding reactions consist of
two force components but may also include two couples. Another group includes pin-and-bracket
supports, hinges, and bearings designed to support an axial thrust as well as a radial load (for
example, ball bearings). The corresponding reactions consist of three force components but may
include two couples. However, these supports will not exert any appreciable couples under normal
conditions of use. Therefore, only force components should be included in their analysis unless it is
found that couples are necessary to maintain the equilibrium of the rigid body, or unless the support
is known to have been specifically designed to exert a couple (see Probs. 4.119 through 4.122). If the
reactions involve more than six unknowns, there are more unknowns than equations, and some of
the reactions are statically indeterminate. If the reactions involve fewer than six unknowns, there
are more equations than unknowns, and some of the equations of equilibrium cannot be satisfied
under general loading conditions; the rigid body is only partially constrained. Under the particular
loading conditions corresponding to a given problem, however, the extra equations often reduce to
trivial identities, such as 0 5 0, and can be disregarded; although only partially constrained, the rigid
body remains in equilibrium (see Sample Probs. 4.7 and 4.8). Even with six or more unknowns, it is
possible that some equations of equilibrium will not be satisfied. This can occur when the reactions
associated with the given supports either are parallel or intersect the same line; the rigid body is
then improperly constrained.
A 20-kg ladder used to reach high shelves in a storeroom is supported by two flanged wheels A and B
mounted on a rail and by an unflanged wheel C resting against a rail fixed to the wall. An 80-kg man
stands on the ladder and leans to the right. The line of action of the combined weight W of the man
and ladder intersects the floor at point D. Determine the reactions at A, B, and C.
Solution:
A 5 X 8-ft sign of uniform density weighs 270 lb and is supported by a ball-and-socket joint at A and
by two cables. Determine the tension in each cable and the reaction at A.
A 450-lb load hangs from the corner C of a rigid piece of pipe ABCD which has been bent as shown.
The pipe is supported by the ball-and-socket joints A and D, which are fastened, respectively, to the
floor and to a vertical wall, and by a cable attached at the midpoint E of the portion BC of the pipe
and at a point G on the wall. Determine (a) where G should be located if the tension in the cable is to
be minimum, (b) the corresponding minimum value of the tension.
EQUIVALENT SYSTEMS OF FORCES:

In the preceding chapter it was assumed that each of the bodies considered could be treated as a
single particle. Such a view, however, is not always possible, and a body, in general, should be
treated as a combination of a large number of particles. The size of the body will have to be taken
into consideration, as well as the fact that forces will act on different particles and thus will have
different points of application. Most of the bodies considered in elementary mechanics are assumed
to be rigid, a rigid body being defined as one which does not deform. Actual structures and
machines, however, are never absolutely rigid and deform under the loads to which they are
subjected. But these deformations are usually small and do not appreciably affect the conditions of
equilibrium or motion of the structure under consideration. They are important, though, as far as
the resistance of the structure to failure is concerned and are considered in the study of mechanics
of materials. In this chapter you will study the effect of forces exerted on a rigid body, and you will
learn how to replace a given system of forces by a simpler equivalent system. This analysis will rest
on the fundamental assumption that the effect of a given force on a rigid body remains unchanged if
that force is moved along its line of action ( principle of transmissibility ). It follows that forces acting
on a rigid body can be represented by sliding vectors, as indicated earlier in Sec. 2.3. Two important
concepts associated with the effect of a force on a rigid body are the moment of a force about a
point (Sec. 3.6) and the moment of a force about an axis (Sec. 3.11). Since the determination of
these quantities involves the computation of vector products and scalar products of two vectors, the
fundamentals of vector algebra will be introduced in this chapter and applied to the solution of
problems involving forces acting on rigid bodies. Another concept introduced in this chapter is that
of a couple, i.e., the combination of two forces which have the same magnitude, parallel lines of
action, and opposite sense (Sec. 3.12). As you will see, any system of forces acting on a rigid body
can be replaced by an equivalent system consisting of one force acting at a given point and one
couple. This basic system is called a force-couple system. In the case of concurrent, coplanar, or
parallel forces, the equivalent force-couple system can be further reduced to a single force, called
the resultant of the system, or to a single couple, called the resultant couple of the system.

EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL FORCES


Forces acting on rigid bodies can be separated into two groups:
(1) external forces and (2) internal forces.
The external forces represent the action of other bodies on the rigid body under consideration. They
are entirely responsible for the external behavior of the rigid body. They will either cause it to move
or ensure that it remains at rest.

(2) The internal forces are the forces which hold together the par ticles forming the rigid body. If the
rigid body is structurally composed of several parts, the forces holding the component parts
together are also defined as internal forces.
A 100-lb vertical force is applied to the end of a lever which is attached to a shaft at O . Determine (
a ) the moment of the 100-lb force about O ; ( b ) the horizontal force applied at A which creates the
same moment about O ; ( c ) the smallest force applied at A which creates the same moment about
O ; ( d ) how far from the shaft a 240-lb vertical force must act to create the same moment about O ;
( e ) whether any one of the forces obtained in parts b , c , and d is equivalent to the original force.
A force of 800 N acts on a bracket as shown. Determine the moment of the force about B.

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