Copernicus (14731547) was a Polish scholar who postulated an alternative description

of the solar system. Like the Ptolemaic geocentric (Earthcentered) model of the solar
system, the Copernican heliocentric (Suncentered) model is an empirical
model. That is, it has no theoretical basis, but simply reproduces the observed motions
of objects in the sky.

In the heliocentric model, Copernicus assumed Earth rotated once a day to account for
the daily rise and set of the Sun and stars. Otherwise the Sun was in the center with
Earth and the five nakedeye planets moving about it with uniform motion on circular
orbits (deferents, like the geocentric model of Ptolemy), with the center of each offset
slightly from Earth's position. The one exception to this model was that the Moon moved
about Earth. Finally, in this model, the stars lay outside the planets so far away that no
parallax could be observed.

Why did the Copernican model gain acceptance over the Ptolemaic model? The answer
is not accuracy, because the Copernican model is actually no more accurate than the
Ptolemaic modelboth have errors of a few minutes of arc. The Copernican model is
more attractive because the principles of geometry set the distance of the planets from
the Sun. The greatest angular displacements for Mercury and Venus (the two planets
that orbit closer to the Sun, the socalled inferior planets) from the position of the Sun
( maximum elongation) yield right angle triangles that set their orbital sizes relative to
Earth's orbital size. After the orbital period of an outer planet (a planet with an orbital
size larger than the orbit of Earth is termed a superior planet) is known, the observed
time for a planet to move from a position directly opposite the sun ( opposition) to a
position 90 degrees from the Sun ( quadrature) also yields a rightangle triangle, from
which the orbital distance from the Sun can be found for the planet.

If the Sun is placed in the center, astronomers find that planetary orbital periods
correlate with the distance from the Sun (as wasassumed in the geocentric model of
Ptolemy). But its greater simplicity does not prove the correctness of the heliocentric
idea. And the fact that Earth is unique for having another object (the Moon) orbiting
around it is a discordant feature.

Galileo Galilei and the invention of the telescope

Settling the debate between the geocentric versus heliocentric ideas required new
information about the planets. Galileo did not invent the telescope but was one of the
first people to point the new invention at the sky, and is certainly the one who made it
famous. He discovered craters and mountains on the Moon, which challenged the old
Aristotelian concept that celestial bodies are perfect spheres. On the Sun he saw dark
spots that moved about it, proving that the Sun rotates. He observed that around Jupiter
traveled four moons (theGalilean satellites Io, Europa, Callisto, and Ganymede),
showing that Earth was not unique in having a satellite. His observation also revealed
that the Milky Way is composed of myriads of stars. Most crucial, however, was
Galileo's discovery of the changing pattern of the phases of Venus, which provided a
clearcut test between predictions of the geocentric and heliocentric hypotheses,
specifically showing that the planets must move about the Sun.

Johannes Kepler

Because the heliocentric concept of Copernicus was flawed, new data were required to
correct its deficiencies. Tycho Brahe's (15461601) measurements of accurate
positions of celestial objects provided for the first time a continuous and homogeneous
record that could be used to mathematically determine the true nature of orbits.
Johannes Kepler (15711630), who began his work as Tycho's assistant, performed the
analysis of planetary orbits. His analysis resulted
in Kepler's laws of planetary motion, which are as follows:

The law of orbits: All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus.
The law of areas: A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas in
equal time.
The law of periods: The square of the period ( P) of any planet is proportional to
the cube of the semimajor axis ( r) of its orbit, or P2G (M (sun) + M) = 4 2 r 3,
where M is the mass of the planet.

Isaac Newton. Isaac Newton (16421727), in his 1687 work,Principia, placed physical
understanding on a deeper level by deducing a law of gravity and three general laws of
motion that apply to all objects:

Newton's first law of motion states that an object remains at rest or continues
in a state of uniform motion if no external force acts upon the object.
Newton's second law of motion states that if a net force acts on an object, it
will cause an acceleration of that object.
Newton's third law of motion states that for every force there is an equal and
opposite force. Therefore, if one object exerts a force on a second object, the
second exerts an equal and oppositely directed force on the first one.

Beyond Newton: Relativity Theories

Newton's Laws of Motion and Gravity are adequate for understanding many phenomena
in the universe; but under exceptional circumstances, scientists must use more accurate
and complex theories. These circumstances include relativistic conditionsin which a)
large velocities approaching the speed of light are involved (theory of special
relativity), and/or b) where gravitational forces become extremely strong (theory
of general relativity).

In simplest terms, according to the theory of general relativity, the presence of a mass
(such as the Sun) causes a change in the geometry in the space around it. A two
dimensional analogy would be a curved saucer. If a marble (representing a planet) is
placed in the saucer, it moves about the curved rim in a path due to the saucer's
curvature. Such a path, however, is the same as an orbit and nearly identical with the
path that would be calculated by use of a Newtonian gravitational force to continually
change the direction of motion. In the real universe, the difference between Newtonian
and relativistic orbits is usually small, a difference of two centimeters for the EarthMoon
orbital distance ( r = 384,000 km on average).