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.J
-HWA-RD-75-,128 I
4. Title and Subtitle
LATERAL SUPPORT SYSTEMS AND UNDERPINNING
Volume I. Design and Construction 6. Performing Organirotion Code
Other reports developed from the study are FHWA-RD-75-129, Volume II, Design
Fundamentals; FHWA-RD-75-130, Volume III, Construction Methods; and FHWA-RD-
75-131, Concepts for Improved Lateral Support Systems.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
...
111
TABLEOFCONTENTS
INTRODUCTORY SECTION
Page Number
TITLE PAGE i
PREFACE ii
...
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 111
TABLEOFCONTENTS iv
...
CONVEIRSION FACTORS Vlll
SYMBO:LS X
TEXT
Page Number
CHAPT:ER 1 DISPLACEMENTS 1
1.10 General 1
1.20 Characteristics of Wall Deformation 1
1.30 Magnitude of, Displacements 4
1 . 4 0 P a r a m e t r i c Studies 15
1.50 Distribution of Deformations 20
1.60 Lateral Deformations in Adjacent 22
Soil Mass
1.70 Effect of Construction Procedures 27
1. 80 Estimating Settlements 28
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS (dont1
Page Number
V
TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont)
Page Number
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont)
Page Number
vii
LIST OF CONVERSIONS
General Notation
gal gallon
g, gr grams
hr hour
in in the s
.
XII2 square inches
3
in cubic inches
k kilo (thousand)
kg kil0gra.m
m meters
2
m square meters
3
cubic meters
min minute
...
Vlll
mm millimeters
2
mm square millimeters
3
mm cubic millimeters
ml milliliters
N Newton
Lbs pounds
set second
Conversions
1 ft 30.48 cm = 0.3048 m
2
1 ft2 929 cm = 0, 0929 m2
1 ksf (kips/ft)
1 psi (lbs /in)
1 lb 4.45 N
ix
List Of Svmbols
The following list of symbols has been prepared to aid the inter-
pretation of symbol use in the text. This list identifies only the ,major
symbols used in the text and their general meaning. Each symbol (with
subscripts) is defined in the text for its particular usage. This list is
not a complete List of all symbols or all symbol usage. in the text but
is a summary of major symbols and their usage.
OL
symb Represents Reference
A general symbol for area
F. s . factor of safety
H depth of excavation; also
genera.L symbol for height
X
Symb o 1. Reoresents Reference
pore pressure
xi
Represents Reference
xii
CHAPTER 1 - DISPLACEMENTS
1.10 GENERAL
Tied-Back Walls
If the top of the tied-back wall remains fixed, then the deformation
mode is similar to that of an internally braced wall (see Figure 2b, left
panel). On the other hand, settlement of the wall, partial yielding of the
ties, gross movement of the soil mass, or shear deformation of the soil
mass may result in inward movement of the top and rotation about the
bottom as shown in Figure 2b, right panel.
-l-
(a) I N F I N I T E L Y R I G I D W A L L S
I
i
I
I
I
I
I
+-
I
I
l-RANSLATION ROTATION ROTATION FIXED
ABOUT BOTTOM ABOUT TOP
/ / /
I
I
I
I I
I \
\
i i
TRANSLATION ROTATION _ ROTATION FIXED
ABOUT BOTTOM ABOUT TOP
-2-
(a) TYPICAL FOR INTERNAL BRACING
II
I
II
\
/
1
FIXED OR SLIGHT ROTATION
TRANSLATION ABOUT TOP
II
\\
FIXED OR SLIGHT
TRANSLATION
1 ROTATION
ABOUT BOTTOM
-3-
Comparison of Braced Walls with Tied-Back Walls
-4-
VERY STIFF TO HARD SOFT TO STIFF
OTHER SOIL
SAND AND GRAVEL CLAY CLAY
SIJ~ 2000 psf Su2000 psf CONDITIONS
PRESTR. BRACING PRESTR. BRACINB PRESTR. BRACING PRESTR.
TIEBACKS TIE BACKS TIEBACKS TIE BACKS BRACING
BRACING ( S T A N D .) BRACING BRAGINO (sTANn) BRAGINO
(STAND.) (sTANDJ
0 4 7 04w 041
l 28 .* 025 OS 042
1 I
~32
~2~~uL2~~~
03
WI
l30052
1 I
00 ou lJji;;AD,*wRm
048 1 I
*I6
.I3 044 036 WALLS 033
- - - - -
l 4 I I 024
l 31 t I I
(oRK%
I I
I I I I I I
0.5
-I I I
l 23bx
- 034
- - - I 950
I I I I I
.I?! w 21
oae* (OR;%&
I SOILS)
I I I 011 I I I
I I
*
I I I I I I I (ORi:NC I
m 035
- - m - 022 .I4
SILT)
I.5 75% OF CASES EXPERIENCED LESS l 1 1
MAXIMUM MOVEMENT. STEEL (SOFT CLP
WALLS 061
/ /ANDZKT
- - - - - 100% OF CASES EXPERIENCED LESS
MAXIMUM MOVEMENT. OS7
I I-
r,
+ ATYPICAL OR UNUSUAL CASES. REFER STEEL
TO THE TEXT AND TABLE I. WALL I
I I
2.0
NOTE: NUMBERS REFER TO REFERENCES 059
IN TABLE I. I I I 1
O= DIAPHRAGM WALLS
Figure 4. Normalized horizontal movements. . = SOLDIER PILES OR
STEEL SHEETING
Table 1. Summary of references on displacement.
Ref. k Author(sI
Burland (1974) and DW Tlcbacks Very Stiff clay 26 I. 1 2. L Murh of the wall movcmcnt was pure
St. John (1974) (7.9ml (2.8cm) ( 5 . (Kllll translation dnrl continued with time.
Evtrr~nvly small crtical s e t t l e m e n t s
c\cept d i r e c t l y behind the xvall.
13 D~Biagllo and DW Floor slabs Medium clay 62 I. 6 l-1.2 str\,rt,,rc ( 2(0. km) Iron1 w a l l .
Roti (1372) U%-tt to (18.9ml (4. Lcml(Z.S-3.0cml All scttlcmcnt appeared to be due
support wall to lateral wall dcfloction.
-7-
Table 1. Summary of references on dk.placement. (Continued. 1
Swatek, Asrow, SSP struts Soft to stiff 70 9 2.3 Largr scttlcment attributed t o
and Seitz (1972) (Prestressed) clay (21.4m) (22.9cm) ( 5 . Rem) locallzcd heavy truck traffic.
Typically settlements < 5( 12. 7cm).
I8 Scott, Wilson and SSP St*UlE Dense fine 50 _- 8 Ioor porfurn>ance attributcrl t o
Bauer (1972) sands (15.3d (20. 3cm) poor construction techniques and
dewatcring p r o b l e m s . N e a r b y
structures damaged.
I9 Chapman, Cording SP Struts and Sand and 451 . 25 I Running soil ncountcred in one
and Schnabel (1972) Rakrrs gravel and (13. 8m) (0.64cm) ( 2 . 5cm) section.
(Prstrcsscd) stiff clay
20 Boutsma and SSP struts Soft clay and 33 14 6 Sornc scttlemcnt du to extensive
Horvat (1969) soft peat (IO. Imj (35.6cml (15.2cm) dcwatcring for l o n g time pcr~od.
AlfV< 11:d struc,urus 600 I , ,
vxravation. Liquefaction f back-
fill during uxtract~on.
21 In&y (1972) SkJ Rakers soft t o mod,um 2 5 __ 2.5 vne SCCtl tcstcrt t o fsilurc.
clay (7. bm) (6. 4cm)
22 Tait and Taylor, SSP Struts and Soft to 45 6 7.5 1,~ rk<r n~vc~n~~nts dttributcd t o
(19741 Rakers medium (13.8m) (15.2cm) (19. ICI,,) Ia< k i firm hottow for wall.
(Prestrcssed) clay Utility lines dan,?gcd; no major
danra,w lo ad>.lccnt s,ructu,Bs.
23a Hansb, Hoiman, SSP Rakers sdrt clay 23 13.M I I, 8 Por sheet p:lv i n t e r l o c k i n g . Long
and Moseeson (7. Om) ( 3 5 . Icm) (29.9~11) tit,w bctnvcn excavation o f vcnt<,r
(1973) portion a n d bracing. D~sturbancc
rlurins ~11 driving for foundation.
23b Hansbo. H o i m a n , SSP TIcbacks and Soft clay 23 2 2 Improved construction techniques.
and Mosesson Rakers ( 7 . Om) ( 5 . lcm) ( 5 . Icm)
(19731
24 Prasad, Freeman, SP Ticbacks Very stiff 45 _- -2 1 cap of wall mowd anay from
and Kla,nerman Clay (13.8m) (-5. Ic,n, L\C.latl. Maximum movcmcnt
(1972) at top.
26 Sandqvist (1972.1 SSP Tirbacks Sand and silt 19.5 7.9 2 b<~ttlcnwnt i n rpanics tlur to
with organic (5.9m) ( 2 0 . Icm) ( 5 . Icm) Iubc~ *cd g r o u n d water lcvcl. Iilc
soils driving also caus~tl settlement.
-8-
Table 1. Summary of references on displacement. (Continued. 1
30 Clough, Weber, a n d SP Tiebacks Very stiff 64 I. 25+ I i Top of wall moved away from
Lament (1972) day (19. 6m) ( 3 . 2,:) ( 2 . SC;,) excavation.
32 Liu and Dugan SP Tiebacks Dense sand and 55 , 8l I/ Tops of soldier piles pulled away
(1972) gravel. very (16. Em) ( 2 . Ocrnl (2.5<E+rnl from excavation during prcstress-
stiff clay ing.
34 Dietrich, C h a s e , SP Tiebacks Silty sand 23-54 2.5 1.X l.ate~ral lYernetS measured a t
and Teul (1971) (7- 16. 5m)(6. 3cm) (4. bcmt top of wall.
36 Cole and Burland DW Rakers Very stiff 60 I. 5 2. 51 hlost movements o c c u r r e d while ear0
(19721 clay (18.4114 (3.&m) (6.3cm) berm supported wall. Excavation in
heavily ovurconsolldated c l a y .
38 Armento (1973) DW struts Sand and soft 70 1. 7 I borne settlement may have beon
(Prestressed) to medium (21.4m) (4.3cm) (2.5cm) <dusod by other excavattons in
clay the at-e=.
39 Cunningham and DW struts Suit and 32 5.5 3.5 Undcrpinninp o f ncarby footinKs
Fernandez (1972) medium (9.8ml (13.9cml (8.9cm) rc,quired after 5. 5(13. 9cm) of
Clay scttlan,ent. 50.700; o f lovemcllt
during caisson construction.
__
40 Tan (1973) DW lhsemcnt soit clay 43 6t __ S<,ttlcnwnt cslitnatcd on basis of
slab as (13.2m) (15.2cm) substantial damage to structure
support lO(I2. Lm) irun excavat,on.
-9-
Talble 1. Summary of references on displacement. (Continued. )
46 Breth and Romberg SP Tiebacks Stiff clay __ 5.9 Lateral movement of entire
(L972,, Rornberg and sand (14.9cml soil block.
(1973,
47 Schwarz (1972) and SW Tiebacks Clayey marl 97.5 . 2 . 6 Many levels of tiebacks at very
Andra, Kunzl, a n d (stiff clay, (29.8ml ( 0 . 5 lcrn, (I. 5cmt close spacing.
Rojek (1973)
50 Corbett and SP Tiebacks Fill, sand -- 8 Heave observed 18m from *all.
Strau (1974, and m a r l (2. ncm)
53 Saxena (1974, DW Tiebacks Organic Silt __ 2. 7 Tops of some wall sections moved
and sand ( 156: &II, (6.9cml toward soil by same amount.
-lO-
Table 1. Summary of references on displacement. (Continued. )
57 N. C. I. (19h2) bSP SLruts Medium and 26 3.9 5.5 bipnificant ~1~~~w~nwnls alter
Telecommunications (Prestresscd) soft clay (7.9ml (9.9cmt (13.9cn,l SII! rcnluval,
CCkI
60 N.G.1, (1962) SSP Slabs as Medium t o 371 7.5 -- Air prcssute a n d upside donn
Grlnland # 1 suppurt soft clay (I 1.3nl) (I9.OCrn) construction ~b~l.1.
Sheet 5 of 5
Notes:
-ll-
Vertical and horizontal displacements in the ground outside
the excavation arise from:
-12-
2. Soft to Stiff Clay
where:
-13-
-14-
L* 33 Wall Movement Versus Settlement
-15 -
I I
T 026
0
*012
1
50 0%6, /
) 0.4 0.6 1.2 1.6 2.0
//
~~~~~~~T
&nox
0 SOFT TO MEDIUM CLAY (SOME STIFF CLAY)
sv m o x
( b)
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF RATIO
OF MOVEMENTS
2 4 6 8 IO 12
sh max. NOTE: NUMBERS REFER TO CASE STUDIES
inches
(a) LISTED IN TABLE I.
AVERAGE FOR
./ SOFT TO MEDJ
12
IO
is
.--
::
E
s
6
4 12
-17-
+ VERY STIFF TO HARD CLAYS
* +31
FOR OTHER SYMBOLS, SEE FIGURE 6
2 4 6 8 IO i2
6h mm. inches
-18-
-
- - -/--
7
4 ,I
1 I
- 7 - -
0
- - -
- -
- 20-
D/H
kERA6E r-r; 10
DISTORTION / /_f- - A - A - 14
II
__-----
6 5
- - - 1 3
brnax --- ---I2.-
r LEGEND
= SETTLEMENT AT DISTANCE D
6
-v -4- 30
-o-o- 15
-v-v- 7
-A-A- 6
&l
0.5 - - - - 9
s IlXIX
I P
-X-Y- 2 8 3
AVERAGE ANGULAR
-o-o- 8
-Ia-
6
OS-
b Vmax NUMBERS REFER TO PROJECTS
SUMMARIZED IN TABLE I.
The results indicate that for tilting about base and flexure
the settlements are concentrated within a distance one-half the excavation
depth. On the other hand, when rotation is the predominant mode of
deformation, significant deformations may occur at distances up to
1.5 times the excavation depth from the excavation face.
-22-
D/H
WALL DEFORMATION
6 = 1.9
max
Cl) TILTING
D/H
1.0 1.5 2.0, 2.5
I I
WALL DEFORMATION
rn - I DATA BEYOND REFLECTED
ELASTIC STRAINS AND IS
D/H
-9 q,s I.9 I,5 2.0 2.5
WALL DEFORMATION
I---D
-23-
D/H
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
0 I
0 y GATA BEYOND REFLECTS
t-+- ELASTIC STRAINS AND IS
/ NOT REPRESENTATIVE
OF FIELD BEHAVIOR.
WALL DEFORMATION
Q5.O
d
6 6h mox~ Bin
D/H
0,5 I;0 I.,5 2,.0 2,5
I I I
/
WALL DEFORMATION
-0
D/H
0 0.5 I.,0 I.,5 2.0 2;5
0 I I 1
- I %I&TIMATE~ F I E L D PERFOR MAN CE
- -
WALL DEFORMATION
l---+-D
6h max= 6 in..
-24-
WA/LL DEFLECTION
WALL OEF LECTION
O/H
ghJ 13 05 1.0 I.5 2.0
mqx
\
\
\
\
I 0.5
I -7
i ii
I
I 1.0
I FROM SHANNON AND STRAZER
I (1970)
D/H
0.5 1.0 I.5 2.0 25
-25-
WALL DEFLECTION
-26-
The aforementioned field data suggest two trends. First, the
pattern of the lateral movement follows closely with the deflected shape
of the sheeting. Second, the lateral movements can extend a substantial
distance from the excavation face, and may involve general movement of
the soil mass embodied by the tiebacks. Discussion of several case
historties is made in Volume II (Design Fundamentals).
-27-
Even though the entire support system may be in place, the sides
of the excavation may continue to creep inward with time. This problem
appears to be particularly acute in tied-back walls in very stiff to hard
clays. There is also some evidence to indicate that lagging in soldier
pile walls tends to pick up more load with time in all soils. Excessive
bulging or even failure of some lagging has been observed.
-28-
CHAPTER 2 - GROUND WATER IN OPEN CUTS
Lienera
4,. To cut off pervious water bearing strata within or just below
the bottom of the excavation; thus, protecting against the possibility
of a lblolwt condition or other source of ground loss.
Interlocked Sheeting
Provided that the steel sheet pile wall remains intact and
penetrates into an underlying impervious stratum, the effectiveness of
sheet piling as a cutoff will be very significant in pervious sands and
gravel. On the other hand, in granular soils of low permeability (for
example:, silty or clayey sands) interlocked sheeting will have relatively
little effect on the flow into the excavation. In all cases, however,
sheeting effectively cuts off flow in pervious interbedded layers, which in
the case of soldier pile walls, may lead to ground loss at the face.
-29-
The above discussion applies only to intact sheeting. The presence
of boulders, difficult driving conditions, or obstructions can lead to
ripping of the sheeting and/or jumping out of interlocks which will seriously
impair if not destroy the effectiveness of the cutoff wall.
-3o-
INTERLOCKED STEEL SHEETING
ROCK (IMPERVIOUS)
( 0.50h
xi >
- INDICATES CHANGE IN TOTAL HEAD
FROM INITIAL CONDITION TO STEADY STATE
SEEPAGE CONDITION.
-31-
CHAPTER - 3 LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE
where:
KO
= coefficient of earth pressure at rest
-32-
(a) FULLY ACTIVE
ACTIVE
KJE
T
\ \
\ \
ARCHING ACTIVE
-33-
of both. The earth pressure distribution is triangular and the resul-
tant occurs at the third height of the wall.
G
=- = K,
6?
= 1 - 2su
Ka
H
wher e :
-34-
(a) RANKINE ACTIVE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
IN COHESIVE SOILS
rH
TENSION
N= *
- 2% H
(I- ;I
I =dH(I-2S, 1
I<p,IjH
6H I
(N =
= 4
pn H- (6H-4 S, 1
= & YH*(l-
-35-
(or cannot) develop and therefore tension cannot occur. However,
the net total lateral force on the wall is equivalent to that described
by subtracting the negative pressure at the top from the positive
pressure at the bottom. Assuming that this net force increases line-
arly with depth of wall, it can be represented by a net pressure diagram
with a triangular distribution of the same force magnitude as shown
on Figure 17b. The ordinate at the base of the wall is:
= dH-4S
a U
3.20 INTERNALLYBUCEDCOFFERDAMS
General
-36-
/- ., l l * * I
/ -1
/ I
-----A
\
I \
,I
\
-y-+
d 1
., *:.._
. \
\
.. ..
., 1. o
--A
\ - 6 -6
DENSE
STRATUM
// /
DENSE
STRATUM
-37-
lf , D
w LD
RD b
L4 I
. . . . .
A LA
-38-
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION TOTALFORCE
a) a) Sands
Sands
:
lrGf---\
\
!
\
\
lrGf---\ \
L
H
KA
= tan2(45
-Rankine
Rankine Acti
Active
ve
-- $m
$/2)
P,
P
A
= Trapezoid
= Rankine
Pt = .65 KAyH2
PA= . 5 0 KAyH2
Pt
f\ - = 1.30
- 0 . 6 5 KAyH + pA
Stiff-Clays 2
Pt = . 15yH to . 30yH2
For Nd 4 pA
For 44 Nh 6, use the larger N
-=4, PAZ0
of diagrams (b) and (c). Ne 4 , PAL 0
NOTE: Equivalent
Rankine Active = 0
-39-
a. Sands : This diagram, which was developed from de-
watered sites applies to cohesionless soils. If the soils outside the
excavations remain submerged, then the earth pressure should be
computed using the buoyant unit weight of the soi.L. Hydrostatic pressures
are treated separately and added to the effect of the earth pressure.
-40 -
(a) RELATIVELY UNIFORM C-QOtu-TIONS
Pt =0.112h-12 T O 0.1881(H2
l-
H
4
RANGE
0.25h-l 1
(b) UPPER THIRD OF CUT DOMINATED BY
T
COHESIONLESS SOIL
C Pt =O. 135 YH2 TO 0.225ifH2
T-
:I
H 0.80H
0.20H
1
-4l-
regarding the effect of weak strata within the depth of cuts, contingen-
cies arising from construction (for example, over -excavation below
support level, or ineffective toe berms), and cuts in excess of 60 or
70 feet deep.
Cohesive soils near the top of the cut will justify pressure
reduction as shown in Figure Zla. Absence of cohesive soils near
the top of cut will require the higher pressures associated with Figure
21b.
3.30 TIEBACKS
Background
-42 -
Recommendations for Tiebacks
-43-
C. Cohesive Sand, Very Stiff Sandy C.Lays: Compute the total
force associated with the diagram for braced excavations (Figure 2) and
distribute uniformly with depth. Relatively uniform conditions :
General Backvround
Theoretical Considerations
1. Point Loading
-44-
2. Uniform line loading
Practical Considerations
-45-
co P h (TOTAL FORCE)
II
C FOR m5 0.4:
0.6
2
3
0.8
(b)
FOR ma.4:
I0 hI 0.5I I H
ch $1 u
l.77m2n2
3 (rn4+#j3
VALUE OF 0-h (!$)
P
NOTE:
(a) me+
n=+-
SECTION a-a
-46-
0 cl2
-.- 0.4 0.6 0.8 . 1.0
m-n,
0.2 0.2
$ 0.4 0.4
II
!i! 0 . 6 0.6
0.8 I 0.8
I 1111 Y I 1 I I I I
1.0 1.0
VALUE OF(& ( tL)
LINE LOAD QL (a)
FOR m 5 0.4:
P ph = 0.55 QL
RESULTANT P = o64
.h (ma+ I )
-47-
A( t 0.5
q = SURCHARGE
B
mt - L L = LENGTH PARALLEL TO WALL
2 =z, p=q x Ip
B = LENGTH PERPENDICUL
V.-t
TO WALL
0.3
0.2
CL
0.1
-48-
0.58
INTENSITY OF LATERAL STRESS
uh=K*n
tu \RRlGlD WALL
- I.OE
z
1.5F
-49-
A second approach is to apply an earth pressure coefficient,
K, to the surcharge loading and to consider the surcharge effective
within some portion of the cut. The magnitude of this coefficient
will range from K, (active earth pressure) to K, (earth pressure at rest).
-5o-
CHAPTER 4 - PASSIVE RESISTANCE BELOW BASE OF EXCAVATION
4.10 GENERAL
The design should provide that the soils below the base of an ex-
cavation mobilize sufficient passive resistance for force equilibrium or
for limiting movement. The performance of the wall will depend upon
the spacing of the support levels since the greater the spacing, the
greater the passive resistance (and movement) that will be required
below the lowermost support level. Figure 26 illustrates the case of
a wall in which the passive resistance of the soil is insufficient to
limit exce s sive wall movement.
Granular Soil
-51-
Figure 26 Movement at wall base due to
insufficient passive resistance.
-52-
b. Ultimate Condition: Pore pressures generated by unloading
and strain are dissipated by drainage. Effective stresses can be
computed on the basis of static water levels. Use strength parameters
from the efffective stress envelope, c and 3.
C = cohesion intercept
-53-
For the above drained condition, in which by definition there is
no excess pore pressure, the total stress at any depth, z, will be
=iipt 1 z
% W
where:
= lateral stress
h
5P = cTvt2s
U
= Yzt2s
U
where:
o- V
= total vertical stress = #m z
Soldier pile walls are not continuous walls, therefore the passive
earth pressure coefficients must be modified from those used for
continuous walls. Broms (1965) showed the passive resistance of
laterally loaded piles based on pile width and on K values for continuous
walls was too conservative, His study showed tha: soil arching and non-
plane strain conditions increase the capacity of individual piles. Broms.!
recommendations are given in the charts shown in Figure 27. It should
be noted that for cohesive soils the lateral resistance of the soil
should be neglected to a depth of 1. 5 Pile diameters. In cohesionless
soils where the depth of penetration is greater than one pile diameter,
soil arching causes an effective increase of 3.0 in the value of K .
P
A factor of safety of 1. 5 is recommended for use in passive
pressure calculations.
-54 -
h
v-
D -7-L
-
D
-
b
1
w 3UvbKp
-55-
4.40 OVERCUT DESIGN DETAILS
4.50 BERMS
-56-
CHAPTER 5 - DESIGN ASPECTS OF LATERAL PRESSURE
General
gontinuous Members
M=Cwl
where:
M = moment
C = moment coefficient
w = distributed load on span
1 = span length
-57-
AREA A
AREA B
AREA C
AREA 0
AREAE
Rc ---
-58-
Discontinuous Wales
Member Connections
Lagging
-59-
SOLDIER PILE
F
2 ks
2 FLS
-6O-
-
u IkLEAR SPACE v
IF NO BUTT
WELDING
PLAl F =y
, M PLATE
, w-w-
/ - 1 .- - a -
h a SHEAR
PLATE
\
STIFFENER
AT STRUT
-61-
l----lb - .-_ - -
y CONTACT LAGGING
,~~ A+---;kkS&;FFENERS
1/
S P A C E R p--.-c
USED
--_ -_--.WITH.--__.-
SOLDIER
PILE
-62-
For bracing:
For tiebacks use the stress values stated in Volume III, Chapter
6, (Tiebacks).
Lateral Resistance
In cases where the soils below the base of the cut are soft
clays the passive may never equal the active pressure, no matter how
deeply it is driven. Since the passive resistance from the weak layer is
small the sheeting acts much like a cantilever member; thus, a large
load is developed in the lowest strut. For these conditions, where the
base is stable against bottom heave, little is gained from driving the
sheeting deeply below the bottom of the cut (see Figure 33),
-63-
pt (F R O M DESIGN E A R TH P RE S S U RE
FIGURE 28)
BOTTOM OF CUT
1. Compute RE = 0. 5 p
t Ld-e
2. Compute depth x such that: Pp = R + P
E A K
IJsc m i n i m u m F . S . = 1. 5 f o r pass.ivedoefficienL, KL = e
.
3. Check M 5 yield moment of sheeting
max
4. Drive to depth D = 1. 2x
-64-
BOTTOM OF
PASSIVE
S u = i& = 0.208H
RANKINE ACTIVE=)JH-2(.20ijH)=
0.601/H AT L = H
RANKINE PASSIVE
AT z=H=O t 2(.20ifH) = 0.401H
-65-
Therefore, a minimal penetration of five feet or 20 percent of
the excava.tion depth, whichever is greater, is recommended. In
situations where the base is unstable, consideration may be given to
deeper penetration and stiffer sheeting as a possible means to prevent
bottom heave.
-66 -
As the excavation proceeds below level D to level E, little
passive resistance is provided because of the soft soil above F; hence,
the wall d.eflects inward. Effectively, the wall spans from level D to
F (the excavation base) with full active pressure applied and negligible
passive resistance above F. The deformation of the sheeting is such
that during this excavation stage it resists essentially the same load
over the mrpan D to F whether or not strut level E is installed. This
would be particularly true in the stiffer diaphragm walls. The effect
of this large unsupported length is twofold:
Came Studies
-
-67-
Distribution of Earth Pressures
Cornparing Case la with Case lb, the analysis shows that walls
in the soft clay are expected to experience relatively higher pressures
near the base of the cut than the wall in the medium-stiff clay. This
trend is more obvious for the stiffer concrete walls. As Case lb shows,
this behavior becomes Iess pronounced as the soil becomes stiffer, One
possible remedy for reducing this effect in soft soils would be to prestress
the second lowest strut and lock in a high residual compressive force,
Fo:r Case 3, where the soils within the depth of cut are
stiff (N< 411 and soft soils exist immediately below the base of the
excavation, the results show that the strut loads are greatest in the
lower two struts. This occurs for the same reasons given for Case
la, that is, lack of support below the excavation base. For this soil
profile, the pattern of pressure distribution appears independent of
wall rigidity since both give essentially the same normalized pressure
diagram.
-68-
P/P m a x PP m a x
O& Oo:5O
4
A-h A
LA
B+ B
LB
;I- ;
C
I
PZ-38
Pmax = 121K
SHEETlNG
Pe= LB
/e
STRUT LOAD Pmox = 20sK
48 CONC. WALL
N 6.8 AT BASE OF CUT
CASE la - HOMOGENIOUS SOFT CLAY
ppmax
Pprnax
0
l---=-GO Oo;s
1x1 /A\
A-ft A++
B - k e-w
C-f+ CYf+
1
D--f, Dt,
E-f+ E*
i
PZ -38
48 CONC. WALL
N = 4.8 AT BASE OF CUT
CASE lb - HOMOGENIOUS MEDIUM-STIFF CLAY
-69-
P/P mox P/P max
0 0
+--z--A a0
r - -r II /&
LA LAB
2
B B PB
L
B i $g- FJ -,:
2
C C-+
D D--H
*g? I
E E++
/p
Pmox = 5oK /#(A
STRUT LOAD Pmax s 73K
PB=
LB
o+--=4
Oq.5
, /o
/7+
AT+ A+p
B-h B-H
CT+ C-f+
D-h* D-p+
E-H E-+b
/& I /h\
Pmox = 17K = MAXIMUM STRUT LOAD Pmax = 62K
PZ - 3 8 48 CONC. WALL
N= 6.4 AT BASE OF CUT
CASE 3 - STIFF OVERLYING SOFT CLAY
-7o-
APPARENT LATERAL PRESSURE ( psf)
0 I 2,000 , I 4,000
, I 1
6,000 0woo
\
A \
B \
C I
D
EsI
E I
_ft I
t+
-roMJti+f
PZ -:38 WALL
I-- l.OK,IIH 4
48CONC. WALL
B- 0-m
I
11
I
C- C--+
I I
ID e I 1.
Dj
I I
/
E-+ / E - c 1
1
i/
7//F/N/
+0.4q 7//m77
e 0.4 #Hj
-71-
There is scant field evidence to support the trends illustrated
by the finite element analyses. One cannot accept these implications
literally, but nevertheless, pending further advances in the state of
the art, they are a matter of concern. Therefore, when overconsolidated
soils are present, one should be aware that loads may build up on the
support system causing overloading, especially if a relatively rigid
wall is used which restricts the lateral swelling of the soil.
-72-
CHAPTER 6 - STABILITY ANALYSIS OF SHEETED EXCAVATIONS
6.10 GE:NERAL
where:
IHtq
N = stability number =
sU
H = depth of excavation
-73-
:v GTTLEMENT
I I
xm I
I I
I 1
H
I II
1
I
------ I
I 1 S
,/ \
BOTTOM HEAVE FAILURE- -
. ROTATION
Qc FNTER
RESISTING STRUT
-74-
4
II0
9 SQUARE@
i.
8
Ncb 7
6
L= LENGTH OF TRENCH
5 (FROM BJERRUM & EIDE, 1956) -
H/B
-75-
sue This average should be taken over a zone described between -
below the excavation base and 2.5B above the base.
-76-
CURVES PREPARED FROM
RESULTS OF FINITE ELEMENT
COMPUTER PROGRAM- BRACE
- - --_- -.-.--- - - - - -__--
- - - I - -
( FROM DAPPOLONIA, 1971)
8 ,
-77-
-0.5 0 to.5 + 1.0 t1.s
SHEAR STRESS RATIO, f
-78 -
0 9
d
NiqN :A13jVS JO tlO&d
-79-
BRACED WITH EITHER
CROSS LOT OR RAKED
-COMPETENT
SOIL LAYER
Forces to consider:
Safety Factor = x f w a
ZR
(N tan @I t CL) R
T w - P1ll - P212 - HsR
D
-8O-
the retaining wail (Hs) should be considered in the analysis. The soil
shear resistance should be taken equal to the passive force determined
in accordance with Chapter 4, (Passive Resistance).
-81-
PASSIVE
ACTIVE WEDGES
1: 1. WGES .J
Stratum III
-82-
CHAPTER 7 - BEARING PRESSURE OF DEEP FOUNDATIONS
7.10 GENERAL
7.31 General
7. 32 Sand
-83-
Table 2. Abstract of presumptive bearing capacity, ksf.
A B C D E
Mass. State New York Atlanta National Board BOCA
Code (1974) City (1968) (1950) of Fire Under- (1970)
writers (1955)
Glacial Till:c 20 -- -- --
Hardpan* -- 16 - 24 20 20 20
Fine sand 2 - 4 4- 83 - - 4- 6 1 --
Hard clay 10 10 -- -- --
Stiff clay -- -- 4 5 --
Medium clay 2 4 -- 5 --
Massachusetts and New York Code allow 5 percent increase in bearing value per foot of additional
embedment, but not more than twice tabulated value.
1 - Range reflects compactness, gradation, and/or silt content
2 - 0. 1 x N, but not less than 6 ksf nor more than 12 ksf (where N= no. of blows in SPT)
3 - 0. 1 x N, but not less than 4 ksf nor more than 8 ksf (where N= no. of blows in SPT)
where:
7. 33 Clay
where:
Circle: N = 9
C
Strip: = 7.5
NC
Rectangle: NC = 7 . 5 (ltO.ZB/L)
where: B = breadth
L = length
-85-
10
2Y 30 350 400 450 500
ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION 4
FROM VESIC (1965)
-86-
Note that for clays the net ultimate bearing pressure is
independent of depth (and therefore overburden stress). It is a function
only of the shape of the loaded area and undrained shear strength of the
soil.
S &S
eff = U
where:
d = reduction factor
Surface Loading
P =q E
BIP
(1 - 1) 2, Eq. 7.41.1
-87-
0.6 - 1.5
AVERAGE
d
0(x S
isf
AA I
-88-
where:
P = settlement
q = distributed load
E = modulus of deformation
0 = Poissons Ratio
E
k = Eq. 7.41.3
B ( I - V
k = kg (
B Eq. 7.41.4
-89-
It is common to express the coefficient of subgrade
reaction in terms of the value for a 1 foot square plate (kl) as this is
the size for conventional plate loading tests. Therefore,
kl
kg = 7
Rectangular Footins
(1 t 0.5 B/L)
k = kg
LxB 1.5 Eq. 7.41.5
where:
Effect of Depth
7 = Eq. 7.41.6
B
where:
-9o-
FINE GRAINED SOIL
k, =COEFFlClENT OF SUBGRADE
REACTION FOR I FOOT
SQUARE BEARING PLATE
AT GROUND SURFACE.
L
200
G3
E
150
z
at-
100
50
-91-
1.0
LENGTH TO
BREADTH RATIO
0.9
VS
SHAPE FACTOR
0.8 FOR A CIRCLE OF
DIAMETER B, 5 0.89
0.7
t
TERZAGHI (1955)
.v) 0.6
IL
ELASTIC THEORY
0
I 1.0 IO.0 100
L/e LENGTH To BREADTH RATIO
Surface Loading
2
= kl( B2;1 1 Eq. 7.42. 1
kB
Depth Effects
where:
-93-
1.0
I .&I
ii0 .70
x .65
.60
.55
-50 I I I \I I I I
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.8 Q6 0.4 0.2 0
I D I l
l - KS= COEl=rlClENT
$F SUBGRADE REACTION AT SURFACE.
RECTANGULAR AREAS FROM FOX ( 1948 1
II II
l KD=
DEPTH, D
. LxB = FOOTING DIMENSIONS CIRCULAR AREAS FROM WOODWARD et al (1972)
NOTE: THIS FIGURE BASER UPON THEORY WITH
CONSTANT MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
(DEFORMATIONJ
where:
-s n
n = 0.3 for gravel and 0.5 for sands
[1
ks
B d3
f = Eq. 7.42. 3
FDG
kD iT3D
B
Clays
= q/k
P
-95-
DEPTH RATIO
0.9
fn P
YY DEPTH FACTOR
0.8
BASED ON
JANBU(1963)
1.0
q = load in tsf
P = settlement in feet
kl FS
k =
B (F )
D
where:
Sands
2
kl x FS Btl
k =
2B
FD x FDG
where:
-97-
CHAPTER 8 - OVERVIEW OF CONSTRUCTION METHODS
-98-
f. When the excavation is in deep deposits of weak
soils, the cumulative total of all displacements occurring below the
last placed strut Level amounts to about 60 percent of the total
measured movement.
Wall Type
8.22 Underpinning
-99-
8.30 WALL TYPE
8, 31. 1 Applicability
8. 32. 1 Applicability
-lOO-
sand for example). A common, difficult situation is when such soils
are underlain by rock or by impervious soils within the depth of the
excavation. This sequence makes it extremely difficult to fully dewater
to the lowest extent of the water-bearing formation.
8.33. 1 Applicability
8.41 Tiebacks
8. 41. 1 ApplicabiLity
-lOl-
8.41.2 OperationaL Considerations
.I
Excessive Prestressing
Lateral Creep
8.42. 1 Applicability
-102-
intermediate support, As the distance between the sides of the excava-
tion increases, internal bracing becomes less efficient, and therefore
tiebacks become more attractive. In some cases inclined rakers are
economical alternatives.
8.50 UNDERPINNING
8. 51 Applicability
8. 52 Operational Considerations
-103-
A number of factors may cause ground Loss. Lagged
underpinning pits for construction of piers have many of the same
contingencies mentioned previously for soldier pile walls. The potential
for ground loss also exists when blow conditions develop in open
shafts or open-ended piles below gound water table,
8. 61 Scope
8. 62 Grouting
8. 63 Ground Freezing
-104-
been used in difficult ground water situations where more conven-
tional methods have failed or are inadequate. However, the use of
ground freezing as a primary construction method is increasing.
-105-
bottom of the excavation at intermediate stages and at final depths.
These uncontrolled displacements represent about 60 percent of the
total.
8. 80 COSTS
8. 82 Walls
Concrete Diaphragm
Tangent Pile
(single row) $15 to $18 $19 to $23
Cast-in-place Slurry1
WaLL (30 f thick) $20 to $35 $31 to $44
*c When applied to the exposed portion of the wall, this includes carrying
the toe penetration to about 25 percent of exposed wall height below the
bottom of the excavation.
8.83.1 Tiebacks
-107-
8,83,2, Internal Bracing
1
When applied to the exposed portion of the waL1, this includes toe
penetration to about 25 percent of the exposed wa.11 height below the
bottom of the excavation
2
Water pressure is assumed to act on the sheeting, but is absent from
the soldier piles.
8. 84 Underpinning
c . Pali Radice
-108-
8. 85 Ground Freezing
1. Geometry of excavation.
2. Earth and water pressures to be supported.
8. 86 Grouting
-109-
CHAPTER 9 - SOLDIER PILE WALLS
9.10 INTRODUCTION
9.21 Lagging
-llO-
(a) WF SECTION OR H-PILE SECTION
I.... . . . . . - ., . ,. .
. -. . *. . .*\
-. - .~ ...: ,
\\\\\x\\9
^ *. a* .
.
. . .. . LAGGING CAN ALSO BE
ATTACHED TO FRONT
FLANGE
WEDGE
e.g. WOSSERBDARRAGH
LANGE (1970)
Y-6. TIEBACK
LAGGING LAGGING
TO FRONT
- WELDED BOLT. O R
ST SECTION TIEBACK
e.g. DONOLO (1971)
-lll-
(a> CONTACT SHEETING
( NYACK , N .Y.)
t///./
THREADED BOLT ATTACHED BY
NELSON STUD OR RAM SET,
EL SECTION HOLDS
NEL
TOP AND BOTTOM LAGGING.
-112-
ing soil to protect against ground loss from seepage. In slow
draining ground the louvres are filled with salt hay. mis material
permits water to bleed through but also acts as a filter which pre-
vents loss of ground (see Figure 52).
-113-
PLAN
I L2-29
LAGGING
BOARD
I
WOOD CLEAT
LOUVRE OR
SPACE
FRONT ELEVATION
1 SOLDIER PILE
-114-
(a) C A S T I N P L A C E
L S T E E L W SECTION
L- CONCRETE WA
(b) SHOTCRETE
.
:*:* *. . . . . .
., - .
.***... * * . :
. . . . .
*. **l . * .
. . .** - ..
-115-.
PREFABRIC
ELEMENT
REINFORCING
GROUT
\
EXPbSE HORIZONTAL SET REBARS AND FORMS
STEEL AS EXCAVATION PROCEEDS
DOWNWARD.
CAST-IN-PLACE
t SECTION
-116-
PREFABFiCATED CoNOCRRETE
ELEMENT
-117-
9.32 Wood Lagging
9.32.2 Arching
-118-
Table 3. Strength properties for
typical grades of timber.
Allowable Modulus of
Flexural S t r e s s
Wood Type and Grade fb, p s i
I
Douglas Fir - L a r c h , s u r f a c e d
dry or surfaced green used at
max. 19% M. C.
Construction 1200 1,500,000
Select Structural 2050 1,800,OOO
t
American Institute of Timber Construction, Timber Construction
Manual, 2nd Edition, Wiley, 1974.
-119-
diagram but allows a 50 percent increase in the allowable flexural
stress of stress graded lumber.
9.33.1 General
9. 3 3 . 3 Gvercut
-120-
Table 4. Recommended thicknesses of wood lagging.
Recommended Thicknesses of
Unified Lagging (roughcut) for Clear Spans of:
Soil Description Classification Depth 5 6 7 8 9 IO
Sands and gravels (medium GW, GP, GM, 0' to 25' 2" 3" 3" 3" 4" 4"
iense to dense). CC, S W , S P , S M -_
Clays (stiff to very stiff): CL, CH 25' to 60' 3" 3" 3" 4" 4" 5"
non-fissured.
Clayey sands (medium SC 0' to 25' 3" 3" 3" 4" 4" 5"
dense to dense) below
water table.
Clays, heavily over- CL, CH 25' to 60' 3" 3" 4" 4" 5" 5"
consolidated fissured.
Note:
*
In the category of potentially dangerous soils,
use of lagging is questionable.
-121-
with cement and dry packed. Louvres also aid in backpacking. Louvres
also provide an opportunity to take remedial measures to improve
filtering or to correct for ground loss behind previously installed lagging.
-122-
(a) CURVED SOIL FACE AND DOUBLE WEDGING.
(b) CONCRETE
ER PILE
STEELSHEET
STEEL
SHEET
OETAIL
EDGE
SOLDIER PILE
; ; ;., - W A L E
I
1 iI/, I
I I
SFCTIC)N A - A
w-v . .-.. . . . \
-123-
collapse of soil into the augered hole. This can be prevented by using
casing or by using a bentonite slurry suspension to stablilize the hole.
-124-
for driving. In hard ground, bearing piles may be equipped with a
driving point to help penetrate boulders and/or to get sufficient depth
for adequate lateral resistance or bearing capacity.
-125-
9,42 Installation of Lagging
9.43 Removal
-126-
Table 5. AWPA minimum retention standards
for sawn timber below ground.
lbs/cu. ft.
Retention
Creosote 12
Creosote-coal tar solution 12
Pentachlorophenol 0. 6
Trade Names:
(1) Chemonite
(2) Erdalith, Green salt
(3) Boliden K - 33
Osmose K - 33
*Data from AITC; Timber Construction Manual, 2nd Edition, Wiley, 1974.
-127-
CHAPTER 10 - STEEL SHEET PILING
10.10 INTRODUCTION
-128-
PZ 3 8 PZ 32 8 PZ 27
.I ;c_ -
.- -
---L --<
PMA 22 PDA 27
-1297
Table 6. Domestic steel sheet pile sections.
-130-
FRODINGHAM IBXN,2N,3N,4N
I--------\ .
I/-------
//
I
//
#
/
/
,----------e--.
,,,---------w-e,,
---g
,s.
11
-L= 19.68 A
-131-
Table 7. Foreign steel sheet pile sections.
-132-
therefore takes advantage of the full section modulus of both piles
(Tschebotarioff, 1974).
-133-
Table 8. Steel types used for sheet piles.
fb, psi
fy, psi AISC:: Design
ASTM Grade Yield Point Flexural Stress
A 572
:::
fb = .66 f
Y
-134-
may, of course, consolidate as a result of vibrations during driving
or extraction. It is believed, however, that the influence of such
vibrations in loose granular soil will be confined to within about 10
to 15 feet of the sheet pile wall.
-135-
CHAPTER 11 - CONCRETE DIAPHRAGM WALLS
11.10 INTRODUCTION
-136-
i
.,i
. .
:
\.
-137-
/ REINFORCING STEEL CAGE BEING LOWERED
INTO SLURRY- FILLED TRENCH.
I,
_ ._-
. . . . -: I. ,,/
__. -:
- -
_:.. .I,
*. _I... . .
. . . , I
,-;
i :,,
. ;_... .
_-
-.
-141-
11.30 SLURRY TRENCH STABILITY
11.31 General
1 1 . 3 2 Mudcake
11.33.1 General
-142-
11. 33.2 Stability Analysis
11.34 Arching
-143-
11.35 Factors Contributing to Trench Stability
-144-
11.40 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF SLURRY STABILIZED EXCAVATIONS
11.42.1 General
-145-
c. Salt Contamination. Excessive salinity
changes the electrolytic properties and may cause the clay particles
to flocculate and settle. This makes it more difficult for the slurry
to form an effective mudcake and may lead to a loss of fluid and stabil-
ity. The problem would be especially acute in pervious granular soils.
11.42.3Slurry Mix
-146-
d. Fluid Loss in Highly Pervious Soils.
Merely increasing bentonite concentration in soils having permeabilities
greater than about 101 to 10 cm/set will not be effective (Sliwinski
and Fleming, 1974). Hutchinson, et al (1974) propose the.addition
of about 1 percent fine sand as a means to penetrate and block the pores
of pervious soils having permeability greater than 10lcm/sec. Other
additives include a range of inert plugging substances such as; nut
shells, plant fibres, rayon, cellophane flakes, mica, ground rubber
tires, etc.
Fann Viscometer.
-147-
/ iI
/. I
_ --------------------- $1
II t------i,
I
I If
YIELD STRESS&
YIELD STRESS
= ~300&00 -&oo>
Filtering Performance
-149-
11.43.1 Hiphly Pervious Soils
-150-
severe pH contamination due to presence of iron oxides. The slurry
became so thick and viscous that it was necessary to totally replace
before concreting.
-151-
the tremie concrete will satisfactorily displace the bentonite mud-
cake and develop effective bond against the soil. British practice
with cast-in-situ piling formed in slurry stabilized holes bears out
the successful development of soil adhesion, especially in cohesive
soils. In more pervious granular soils the mudcake is more difficult
to displace and may reduce side friction by about 10 to 30 percent
(Sliwinski and Fleming, 1974).
11. 52 Concrete
11.52.1 Mix
11.52.2 Placement
-152-
11.53 Steel
11.53.2 Bond
11.53.3 Cover
-153-
ROUND JOINT, USING STOP- END TUBE
CONDARY PAN L
PRIMARY PANEL
CONCRETED
-m--v
f
----e-w
-154-
TWO-STEP EXCAVATION
AUGER PRIMARY
HOLES.
TREMIE PRIMARY
PANEL.
TREMIE SECONDARY
PANEL.
TREMIE PRIMARY
PANEL.
TREMIE SECONDARY
PANEL.
-155-
reinforcing steel in cast-in-place walls. Figure 67 shows guide wall,
sections.
11.62 Trenching
11,62.1 General
Procedures are:
BACKFILL
. :*
. I
. .
.
. . l I
I -
. I . .
. NOTE: ADD CEMENT TO
. I
I v
;. l BACKFILL TO
PREVENT UNDER-
MINING AND TO
INCREASE STABIL-
ITY
-157-
Clam Shell
-15%
Sliwinski and Fleming (1974) report a method
to penetrate soft rock by first boring 30 inch diameter holes at regular
spacing and then removing the material between the bored holes with
a hydraulically operated grab tool. Tamaro (1974) reports a similar
procedure used by ICOS to penetrate bouldery formations.
11.71 General
11.72. 1 General
-159-
(a) TONGUE &GROOVE
EXCAVATION. SIDE
\ GROUT RE[MOVED DURING EXCAVATION
EXCAVATION SIDE
OUT REMOVED DURING EXCAVATION
-160-
panel size. Depending upon wall thickness the depth limitation is
normally in the range of 30 to 50 feet.
11.73.1 General
-162-
11. 73.2 Two Step Excavation: First for Piles:
Second for Panel
11.74. P General
-1630
I. SET SOLDIER PILE IN PRE-EXCAVATED HOLE
-164-
SET SOLDIER PILE 1N PRE- EXCAVATED HOLE.
. .
(2b) I 1
\ \ Ir
. ./
CAST-IN-PLACE
CONCRETE
-165-
REBARS
0I s cIz=LL~
SET SOLDIER PILES AND REBARS
IN ALTERNATE PANELS.
02
CONCRETE ALTERNATE PANELS.
03
EXCAVATE INTERVENING PANELS
AND SET REBAR CAGE.
04
CONCRETE
-166-
(a) SMALL DIAMETER (COMMONLY @@TANGENT PlLES)
d. 12 TO 16
\ ---+-I~~
ROW 2 83 etc.
AS REQUIRED
COUCRETE FlCLEO
-167-
The grout is a mixture of Portland cement,
fluidifier, sand, and water. Sometimes a mineral filler may be added
as well. The grout is injected under pressure through the central hole
as the auger is withdrawn, and soil cuttings are removed from the
auger flights as they emerge from the ground. Immediately following
grouting, a cage of reinforcing steel or a wide flange beam section
is inserted into the wet mortar.
-168-
CHAPTER 12 - INTERNAL BRACING
12.10 INTRODUCTION
12.23 Connections
-169-
SUFFICIENT WELD
TO HOLD IN PILACE> WALE
BRACE 2 -
(WEB HORIZOTAL)
m---P-P - -
-
m-------
STIFFENERS
(TACK WELD
IN PLACE)
-170-
SUFFlClENT WELD I
TO t4DLD IN PLACE
BRACE 3
,
t (WEB VERTICAL)
--- ---
PLATE
-171-
INCLINED KICKER OR
SPUR BRACE \ 1
PLATE IF
STIFF TB B
AT BRACE 9LDIER
(6 THICK) BEAM
)
WELDA=WELD BbC*
VERTICAL COMPONENT HORIZONTAL WOOD
SHEETING \
OF BRACE LOAD
(3 THICK)
-172-
12.30 INSTALLATION
12.31 General
12.34 Preloading
-173-
01 WEDGING
STIFFENERS
/ WALE
b) TELESCOPING PIPE
-174-
WALE
JACKING BRACKET
JvELD
.ATE
WEDGES
-175-
made using a telescoping strut or a split pipe which fits over the pipe
brace.
AP = AsEs (w x A0 F)
where:
= area of strut
AS
-6
gC = thermal coefficient of expansion (6. 5 x 10
in/in/OF for steel)
Since the soil behind the wall yields under the increased
load, the actual stress increase will be less than that indicated by
the limiting case condition.
-176-
Case Decked or Open Load Variation
-177-
CHAPTER 13 - TIEBACKS
13.10 INTRODUCTION
During the last 20 years the use of soil and rock anchors to
support side walls of excavations has increased significantly. Tie-
backs (or anchors) have been used to support both temporary and
permanent excavations.
Since the wall reaction is the only part of the tieback in the
excavation, a tied-back system provides an open work area. At pre-
sent the design of tied-back walls in the United States is based largely
on empirical relationships obtained from successful tied-back in-
stallations. The purpose of this chapter is to present the techniques
used in tied-back wall design and construction.
13.2 1 General
13.22 Deformations
-178-
I
W A L L q
REACTION
SUPPORT MEMBER (TIE)
ANCHOR
ZONE
-179-
detail in Volumes II (Design Fundamentals) and III (Construction
Methods) of this research.
b. Wall stiffness
c. Tieback prestress
g* Volumetric strain
-180-
Figure 80. Sketch of tied-back wall failing by
ove rtqrning.
,181-
Free Bodv Diagram and Forces
the vector sum of the tieback forces at point B and point D. Since the
force at B must exceed the force at D, the force acts in the direction shown.
-182-
Figure 81. Free body diagram for a failure surface
in single anchor tieback system (internal free body).
-183-
the ratio of the maximum possible tieback force to the design tieback
T
force; F. S. = F. The maximum tieback force is determined from
des
the appropriate vector diagram.
-184-
A E
T
F.S. == > 1,s
Tdes
(b)
-185-
d l $ ON FAILURE PLANE
-186-
de8 a. Upper Tieback
T1
F. S. = T max 2 1 . 5
dce
Note: only the directions of Sq and
T are known.
max
d = 9 on failure pI8ne.
P
a2
i 1-2
2 es
max
B. Lower Tieback
T,L -7
IS
F. S. = -2
T 1 . 5 w2
2
92
des
-187-
-
Pa 2
a( = B ON FAILURE PLANE
-188-
T
1
F. S. = T max 2 1.5
1
des
d= q on failure plane.
1
des
T w
1-2 2
max
F.S. = 1. 5
T1 +T1
de8 des
-190-
- B Pa.2
e - - J
S
Cl
F.S. =
T2 max
T2
des
1.5
L
l-2
max
F. S. = 1.5
Tl tT
2
des des
13.23.4 Discussion
-193-
S c avail -32 xL Shear strength available N tana
F. S. -s F. S. =
c m o b -Su mobXL Shear strength mobilized = N tano(
(a) (b)
Free Bbdy (Cohesionless Soil) Vector Diagram
-196-
,~:,i/, / ,/ ,,(I f /
, ,
Table 9. Summary of tieback types and applicable soil types.
. LOW PRESSURE
Straight Shaft Friction 6-18 NA NA 30 - 150 Very stiff to hard clays Friction
(Hollow stem auger) (15 - (200 - Dense cohesive sands
45cml 1035kN/m2) Loose to dense sands
(12-14
most
common)
Underreamed Single 12-18 30-42 A NA Very stiff to hard co- Friction and
Bell at Bottom (30 - (75 - hesive soils bearing
45cn-I) 105cm) Dense cohesive sands
Soft rock
Underreamed Multi- 4-8 8-24 A NA Very stiff to hard co- Friction and
bell (10 - (20 - hesive soils bearing
20cm) 60~1x1) Dense cohesive sands
Soft rock
2. HIGH PRESSURE-
SMALL DIAMETER
Regroutablc (3) 3-8 NA NA 200-500 Same soils as for non- Friction and
(7.5 - (1380 - regroutable anchors bearing
20cml 3450kN/m2) plus:
a) stiff to very stiff
clay
b) varied and difficult
soils
A - applicable
NA - not applicable
-198-
Large Diameter Anchors
=wS 7fdsL
pU U S
where:
b. Belled Anchor
=WSuVds Ls + n/4 (D2 - ds2) NcSu (Littlejohn, 1970a)
pU
where:
d s, Su and d. are as before
s L
D = diameter of anchor bell
-199-
.-I
/
ESTIMATED LOAD FOR
ANCHORS IN COHESIVE SOIL
Pu= &SuL fl dS
S
d = 0.3-O. 5
(a)
Friction Anchor
d = 0.3-O. 5
N = 9
C
(b)
Belled Anchor
Multi-Belled Anchor
where:
d sI Ls sus oc tN c and D are as before
= length of underreamed portion of anchor
LU
a. Theoretical Relationshins
where:
= 8.7 - 1 1 . 1 k/ft ( 1 2 7 - 162 kN/m)
nl
-201-
(4
Friction Anchor
(No Grout Penetration)
(b)
Bulb Anchor
(Grout Penetration)
^ ^-
2. Grout penetration in anchor zone (very pervious
soils)
pu = A 6v nDLs tan de t B -
Qv@ end7//4 (D2 - ds2)
(Littlejohn, 1970a)
where:
= Ls n2 tan de
pU
where:
= 26 - 40 kips/ft (380 - 580 kN/m)
n2
L =3 - 1 2 ft ( 0 . 9 - 3.7m), D = 15 - 24 inches
S
(400 - 610 m m ) .
depth to anchor = 40 - 50 ft (12.2 - 15. lm).
b. E m p i r i c a l R.elationships
-203 -
Iery Dense
Iense
EXe
vfed. Dense
hnre -Medium to
- C o a r s e S a n d
lense
,led. Dense
5 10 15 20 21 3
Length of Anchor, Ft.
-204-
The following table summarizes the load capacity of
single injection small diameter anchors :
Ultimate Load
Soil kips /ft kN/m
Clean sand/gravel soils 10 - 20 145 - 290
Clean medium to coarse 7 - 15 100 - 220
sands
Silty sands 5 - 10 70 - 145
C. Re gr outable Anchor s
The last two modes of failure are true of all anchors and will be discussed
in Section 13.25.
ST. JEAN-DE-LUZ
-l Clayey Sand and
Gravel
8
- -h ST. CLOUD BRIDGE
Soft Chalk
BAGNOLET
- - 4 Gypsum Marl
w-m--
.Oetermayer (1974)
Very Stiff Clay
I = 48 to 58
I wI
I I wP
= 25 to 35
I I
LJU 400 600
Maximum Grouting Pressure, psi
Without With
Soil Type Post-Grouting Post-Grouting
Note:
1. Tieb,acks 3-l/2 to 6 0. D.
-207.
Anchor Load in Cohesive
Soil I
6
Without Post
Grouting ////
With
, Post\\\\
Grouting
v
\ Without
O------O EF%ting
With
0-a P o s t
Grouting
I I .
Med. M d Stiff Stiff V. Stiff V. Stiff
Stieff V. Stiff to hard
Clay Consistency
Ostermayer (1974)
11 Marl Clay wl= 32 to 45; w = 14 to25
12 Marl Sandy Silt w1=45; wp= 22
13 Clay-medium to w145 to 59; w;=16 to 35
highly plastic
G o l d b e r g - Z o i n o &,Associates NOTE: I K/f?= 47.9 KN/m*
21 Medium Plastic Clay
-208-
a point on the anchor and extending to the top of the rock. Figure 98
illustrates the geometry for this case. The criteria used to evaluate the
value of the angle, 8, and the location of the apex of the cone vary with
the type of rock, method of load transfer, and designer (Littlejohn, 1975).
Grout-Rock Bond
pu = 7/ds Ls s k i n
where:
= diameter of anchor shaft
ds
= length of anchor shaft
LS
-209-
e= 600 - 90'
I? = Apex of Cone
(Varies from Midpoint
to Base of Anchor)
PU =x x VOLUME OF ROCK
IN CONE
-210-
Table 11. Typical values of bond stress for selected rock types.
-711-
13.24. 5 Safety Factor of Soil or Rock
13.24.6 Discussion
-213-
No Backfill Within 1 of
Wall,
Grout . /
,
\ I Tic Member \ Sheathing \
1 Tie Member
Figure 99.
Recommended treatment for bond free zone.
-214-
High strength steel wire strands, cables, and
bars are most commonly used for tie members. Often the choice of
the type of tie is limited by the method of installation or convenience.
Table 12 Lists typical properties and dimensions of steel wires, strands,
and bars for tie members.
Resin Grouts
Cement Grouts
Concrete
-215-
Table 12. Typical steel properties and dimensions for ties.
TYPe Diameters Ultimate Stress Yield Stress Ultimate Load Yield Load
of Tie (inches). fu (ksi) fy (% fu Wps) hips)
(1) Many wires are used in anchor to obtain load carrying capacity.
(2) Several cables or strands are used in an anchor.
(3) There are many bar or rod types and manufacturers. The data presented
here is typical and is not meant to indicate the only bar types available.
a
-21?-
13.25.5 Corrosion Protection
-218-
1. Excavate a hole for the tieback
The type of tie, the treatment of the bond free zone, the
method of tensioning the tie, and anchoring of the tie at the wall are all
virtually independent of the type of tieback.
-220-
cause of their flexibility. In small diameter holes steel bars or rods
often require centering while cables and wires generally will not because
of their irregular surface.
13.32.3 Tendons
13.41 Reasons
-221-
Figure 101. F rlction
* connection used to tie anchor to wall.
-222-
Figure 102. Button-head connection for wire ties.
-223 -
.
* l 0
a 0 *
l . 0 . 0
. 0 0 b 0
. .. . . .
. ..e..
. . . . . . *
. . ..b.o
0 l 0 . 00 . l
l e 0 0 0 i 0 0 De sign
9 * . 0 0 . 0 L .
l # . . * . . . . Tic
~*b.*ea~*.
.* 6 * . 0 0 0 c 0 .
rr....r*cre
.oo*.....*
l . . . . ..~...
0 l b. 0 0 0 0 l e I.
, b . I e 0 0 . 0 . * , .J:::*
. *
.eCee.....
l * e * * * . * c
..+e~o.**. . . .
l e . . . . . l . . . . . .
9 b . . . . a I ,/
.::.
w,rs....
..*.~~
HO..... . .*,
.
.
1 8 l 0 e 0 / .
0 l
. 0
. .
4 0
e 0
. .
l 0
. l
. l
0 .
. 9
r .*..........
.,.........
.r..e......
l 0 e 0 . 0 . 0 . .
l . . . . . . ..b
0 . . . . . . .
. . . . 0 . 0 0
. ..o..
*e.oo.
- b 0 0
- .
-224-
Table 14. Typical equipment for construction of tiebacks.
Range in SpXe*S Angle of
Anchor Preferred Soil Diameter Typical and Inclination
TYPO TYPO Equipment (typical) Lengths Grout Type Plate (to horizontal) Bond Free Zone
Straight
Shaft-
Large
Diameter
(1) Solid Competent cohe- Truck-mounted 12-24 50-130 Pumped con- Spacers and 00 - 9o Lean concrete or
stem sive soil which crawler-mounted (30cm- (typical) crete. plate gener- (better at sand backfill.
Augers can remain open or crane-sup- 60cm) (15x-n - ally used. shallow Plastic sheathing.
unsupported. ported augers 40m) angles)
guided by Kelly
Bars.
(2, Hol- Preferred in Truck-mounted f,- 18 Reported High strength No spacer 00 - 900 Lean concrete or
low stem competent cohe- crawler-mounted (15 cm- to 160. concrete *eCeSSZ&*y (proprietary sand backfill.
Augers sive soils. or crane-sup- 45 cm) (50 In) pumped water since hollow methods may Plastic sheathing.
Often used in ported with 12- 14 p*l?SSU*e stem serves not be able to
sandy soils. guides. most through hol- as guide. achieve lower
c CnnmOn low stem Points are angles)
-150 psi or generally used
less. (1035 in anchor.
kN/m2)
Belled Competent cohe- Truck-m&ted 12-24 Typical Pumped con- Spacers used Generally in- Lean concrete or
Anchor sive soils which crawler-mounted (30cm - length to crete. to center ties. stalled at sand backfill.
can remain open or crane-sup- 60cm) bell of Plates or angle (300 - Plastic sheathing.
unsupported. ported augers Shaft approxi- washers usu- 60)
with guides. mately ally aid load
Belling equip- 30-42 50 (15m). transfer.
ment same as (75cm - Lengths
used for caisson 105cm) up to loo+
work. B e l l (30x-n) in
California,
Multi- Competent cohe- 4- 8 Total cement grout Spacers used Generally in- Lean concrete,
Under- sive soil or rock (10cm - lengths in or concrete. to center ties. stalled at weak cement grout,
reamed that can remain 20cn-l) excess of [Concrete for Plate used in angle (300 - or sand. Entire
Anchor open unsupported Shaft 50 (15I-n). larger dia- some methods 60) tie length except
(Multi- To date experi- Spacing meter an- to transfer for plate is un-
B e l l ) ence in United *~~- 24 between chors] entire load. bonded in some
Kingdom. (20cm - bells methods.
60~1x1) approxi-
Under- mately
reams 1.5 - 2.0
x diameter
I,,>- 1.5ds bell.
Table 14. Typical equipment for construction of tiebacks, (Continued).
Range in spacers Angle of
Anchor Preferred Soil Diameter Typical and Inclination
TYPO Type Equipment (typical) Lengths Grout Type Plate (to horizontal) Bond Free Zone
SIIdl
Diameter
Anchors
(Not Re-
groutable)
(1) Driven Sands and gravels Crawl&-mounted 4-8 Generally High early spacers may Generally in- Weak grout or
preferred but can percussivadriv- (10cm - lengths strengthczemnt be used if ties
stalled at sand used to back-
be installed in all ing equipment. 20cm) about 70 grout. Grout are not 150 - 60 fill. In some
soils except Casing driven Shaft (2Omb. has high ce- attached to de- angle. cases. holes lift
t h o s e w i t h ob- and then extract- merit to water tachable points o p e n . Ties
structions. ed. ratio. High with threaded typically sheathed
prl?**tl*e rods more and greased.
grouting (>150 common.
psi) (1035&N/
m2)
:2) Drilled Sands and gravela Crawler-mounted 3- 8 Generally High early Spacers may Generally Weak grout or
LSI Anchors Generally used drilling equip- (7.5cm- lengths strength ce- be required installed at sand recommended
in soils with ob- n-lent. Drill bit 20cm) less Ix-lent grout if fletible tie angle of 150 - or hole left open.
structions or precedes casing ahoft, if than 70 with high ce- is used or no 60. Ties sheathed or
where driving or inside crsine, soils are (20m). ment to water plate or point greared or both.
casing is diffi- perlYlC!*- r a t i o . Grout- is med.
cult. ble, bell ing pressure
may form. generally
>15Opsi
(103%iWm~)
legrouta- All soil types. Same equipment 4- 8 As before Cement grout spacers not As before As before.
ale Usually used in as before for (10cm - for small (1) 1st grout generally for small
inchors softer soils, drilling or driv- 2Ocm) diameter at 100 psi needed for diameter
variable con- ing casing Shaft anchors. (690 kN/m2) bars although anchors.
ditions, or (depends on soil (2) 2nd grout good forfled-
where obstruc- conditions). t h r o u g h indi- ble ties.
tions *re Grout pipe for vidual packers Points be-
encountered. each anchor. at pressures coming
up to 800 psi co-on.
(5520kN/m2)
(3) succes-
sive grouts
as needed.
Lock
Lnchors
(2) Drilled All competent As above for soil 3- 8 Generally Cement grout Bolts or Rock anchors Weak cement or
Anchors rock types. anchors. Rotary (7.5cm- 4 30 (9m) at high pres- washers in generally at aand backfill in
drilling equip- 20cm) into rock. crure 150psi bottom with 450 angle.. roila above.
n-tent for rock shaft (1035kN/m2) spacers. Ties sheathed
drilling. Per- depend- or quick and greased.
cussive drills ing on setting resin.
also. rock and
load.
Gravel Competent cohe- Both augering 4- 8 As before Cement grout Casing serves As before As before.
Packed aive soils that and driving (10cm - .at high pres- as spacers.
Anchors will remain equipment is 2Ocm) sure >150 psi Points usu-
open when not required. Driv- Shaft (1035kN/m2) ally used.
supported. ing equipment
for casing in-
serted after
gravel in hole.
1 . L o a d - Theoretical bases for establishing design
load are given in Section 13.24. These are crude at best and should only
be used for preliminary estimate of safe load. Field testing of anchors is
the only method of assuring that the design anchor load can be carried by
the anchor.
13:43 Recommendations
Test Loads
-232-
2. Reasonable experience with soil 150% 5% of production ties
and anchor. Nearby structures of should be tested in this
within the zone of influence. de sign manner. In addition, 3
ties in each soil forma-
tion should be tested to
200% of design.
-233 -
Acceptable Creep Rate,
- - - - - - - - km = 0.08 / log cycle -SC------x- * . -* Observed and Predicted
Creep Rates for Production
Unacceptable Creep Rate,
Tieback Tested for 20 min.
kc > 0.08 1 log cycle
(km = 0.06 /log cycle)
0
0.05
0.10
I \ .
\ .
0.15 I \
\ \
I \ \
\
I \
\
1 \ \
0.2a \
I \
I \
\
I= 25.4 mm I
\
\
I \ \
I \ \
0.25 1i-I
*
3n 1no
- - - 1 nnn
- - - - 1 nnt
I - - - -
2. Unload to zero
Test Load
2. Unload to zero.
-235-
13.43. 3 Evaluation of Anchor Test Loading
Anchor Capacity
Creep Considerations
-236 -
100
Theoretical Elongation
-mm Curve with l,ff=O
Theoretical Elongation
- - - - - - Cume with leff=O. 5 lg
25 Theoretical Elongation
- -a- Curve with l,rr=l. 0 1,6
CXL
I
Observed Elongation for
Typical Tie During Testing
Elongation, inches
Figure 109. Typical plot of load vs. elongation during test loading.
r- - .-
I /
II
I II
I
I I
E I
t-
-
-238-
13.43.4 Recommended Lockoff Loads
Lock-off
Earth Pressure $6 of design
-239-
CHAPTER 14 - UNDERPINNING
14.10 INTRODUCTION
14.22 Deformations
-240-
shifts relative to another portion of the structure. Tiebacks or braces
may be used to proide the resistance needed to withstand horizontal
forces. Vertical displacement below the bearing level obviously
cusses settlement. Vertical displacements above the bearing level
contribute to additional load on underpinning elements. This may
also cause settlement,
14.23.1 General
-241-
14.23.3 Group Action
14.32.1 General
14.32.2 Procedure
Load Tranfer
-242 -
OPEN PIT w
ELEVATION
2x4 CLEA
PLAN PLAN
(0) (b)
SHEETED PIT
UNDER FOOTING
ELEVATION
ELEVATION
(d)
P AN
1cl
DRYPACK Cjff PL ATES
AND WEDGES
APPRWH PIT
CONCRETE
DERPINNING
ELEVATION
kJ)
-243 -
foundation is normally filled with dry-pack- -a mixture of cement and
moist sand that is rammed in place. Plates and wedges may also be
used.
Belled Piers
14.32.5 Examples
14.33.1 General
Jacked Piles
-245 -
load on the jacks. As a final step, the wedging beam and plates are
encased in concrete (see Figure 114).
Driven Pile s
-248-
I
6
STRUT WEDC
PREVENT RE
AFTER PRES
BE PILE USUAL
PEN-ENDED.
-249-
COLUMN
l-w I IWU
-------- I, , I I
I I.
WALL DR COLUMN
FOOTING
-250-
Transfer load with drypack, plates and
wedges, or jacks. This transfer of load
can be made at either the bottom of the
footing, the top of the pile, or a combination
of the two.
Driven Piles
-251-
LAUGER H O L E
FILLED WITH
.- LEAN CONCRETE.
WEDGES
BRACKET
STEEL BEAM /
ELEVATION
NOTE: SIMILAR DETAILS IF
STEEL PILE IS DRIVEN
IN PLACE.
-252-
ORYPAC
OR
PLATES
AND
WEDGES
STEEL
COLUMN
SLOT - I
I !
s AUGER HOLE
I t
Ll- - -I
fk
-253 -
- -
d FOOTING .
1
DRYPACK
OR
m
:I: A\ I+ CAISS( IN
PLATES
AND
WEDGES
REIN. STEEL
CAISSON REIN-
T
FORCING STEEL
CONCRETE--J
BRACKET ( I F REQD)
I - I I
I PLAN
I
I -\ AUGERED
CAISSON
BELL IF REQUIRED
-254 -
DRYPACK OR
PLATES 8
UNDERPlNNlNG
ELEMENT
I AU&R H O L E
-255-
14.40 GROUTED PILES
14.42.1 General
Installation
-256 -
-257-
(generally 6 to 12 inches nominal diameter) are usually reinforced with
a spiral cage. The steel is placed after concreting in the smaller
pile and before concreting in the larger piles.
Design Considerations
14.51 General
-258-
Table 15. Reslrlts of load tests in Pali Radice.
12** 8 47.5 47.5 59.4 0.035 0.0187 G Main Switching Plant, Genoa
*
Bares, F.A.. Personal Communication, September 1975.
**
Bares, 6 A. (1974).
Table 15. Results of load tests in Pali Radice. (Continued).
17** a 73.5 73.5 27.5 0.252 0.4490 Special Foundations for Transmission
(Electrical Towers between Garigliano-
Latina)
22** a 59.5 59.5 68.3 0.061 0.0354 G Swimming Pool - Scandone Pool, Naples
c
Bares. F.A. (1974)
EXISTIN@
bUlLDING
DILP I ATE
QLES 1 NO
NRE
II i r .I,
-261-
FOOTING Q CWJMN
CM MOVE MMPENOCNTLY
FooTammuwEL FnssEs
UUW)
(0)
BRACKETS INSTALLED, ANCHDR BOLTS
LOOSENED, JACKS INSTAlLED.
(b)
-262-
from the footing and is maintained in place by jacks, The footing can
settle while the column remains in place. After construction the column
is reconnected to the footing.
14.55 Bridging
-263-
(01 CONSTRUCTION
. . - - . - ~ :,... * -. . . . - -. ,- * . r
.,* . . . . . .
..,._. - *..-
. . - -. .
Sequence
1. Underpin bridge with steel piles and jacks to rdjurt for settlement.
2. Construct jacking pits on each side of highway, jack 1. 2 m plpee
and cone rete pipes.
3. Construct 3 m wide x 2 m high tunnels below pipe& Concrete em h
tunnel before building next one.
4. Construct walls of highway tunnbl.
-264-
\
0) PLAN
\ \ ~RRYING BEAM
\
\ TUNNEL -j
v
b) SECTION
4 WILDJNQ 4
RUBBISH
FILL
-265-
ORAVEL
SAND
s&
u
r STIFF FISSURED
a+sCLAY WITH SAND
* 8 SILT LENSES
c:
-266 -
*. . %*..
PILk *
.CO*UETEr)
*
.
.
*
a.
.
*
r .
*
.
. .
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
. -. - .
.. * .
* . *
. . .
. - .
. . . -. UNO6RF+tNNIN@ LImEWENT
TUNNEL ,: * .:
1
. - . .-
. . .
. .: .
.
;. 01 *
. *
. .
.
c>* c
.
* .
-267-
14.62 Plates and Wedges
14.63 Jacking
-268-
DRYPACK & P L A T E S
OR WEDGES
r-k- WALL
~-BLOCKING A N D FOOTING
-COLUMN
7
F-FOOTING
I I
T I I
A I I1
I--->
rk 1
1
FOOTING
NEEDLE BEAM
-269-
14.73 Inclined Shoring
14.80 PERFORMANCE
-270-
t
;i
l. CUTNOTCH IN FOOTING
. .
:,
i.;
TEMPORARY SHORING
TEMPORAHY JACK IF
REOUIRED
FLOOR 3
FLOOR
?
~WHORE
FLOOR
FOUNDATlON
*
WALL
I
-271-
(a) WELD STEEL SHORES DIRECTLY TO
COCJJ IutN
-BRACKET -
*
-272-
I-. C O N C R E T E C O L U M N
ROUGHEN
EXISTING
V-
STEEL
L RElNFORClNG STEEL SHORE
CONCRETE
COLUMN
-STEEL [OR 1
//I 1 \r STEELSHOREti/, I\
-273 -
CAST IRON COLUMN
&--GROUT HOLE
BOLTS
CLAMP TYPES
Figure 130. Pin and clamp details for a cast iron column.
-274-
CHAPTER 15 - GROUTING
15.10 INTRODUCTION
15.21 Purpose
-276-
a) PERVIOUS LAYERS WITHIN DEPTH OF CUT
(IMPERMEABLE)
- - - A - -
- - - - - -
GROUTED ZONE
(IMPERMEAB LE)
f
DIAPHRAGM Z
WALL
-. 31* ::.-,. -
SAND 8 GRAVEL
(PERVIOUS)
By1
( NOTE: X 8&Z 8 w)
HARDPAN (IM
-277-
c) BOULDERSORSHATTEREDROFK
y-[ ,STEEL S H E E T I N G r
ROCK- BADLY
EETING
NETRATION
CERTAIN
I --------a-----
J
-278-
prevent running of soils, or protect overiying structures during bored
tunnel construction. Figure 133 Uustrates several examples of soil
stabilization through grouting.
-279-
a) CUT AND COVER
SOLDIER PILE
\ WALL
STIFF CLAY
.. _
STIFF CLAY
-280-
STRUCTURE
SHEET PILE
WALL 7
, . BENEATH.. _ . .
EXCAVATION FOR CUT FOOTING . .- .
ANDCOVERTUNNEL
r
_ .
. a ., ,. *
. ,* . -
.
-*_ -. .P
._
25
r i,. , -;. .
_ I. . . I. . , _ .
1 . I -. 4 ,I-
f ,,
8. ,
~
ROCK
-281-
soil samples. Therefore, laboratory and field permeabilities may
differ considerably. An assessment of all parameters --grain size
distribution, stratigraphy, laboratory permeability tests--provides
a basis for judging whether a soil deposit can be successfully grouted
and what grouts are like.ly to be most efficient.
D15 >(soil) 25
Groutability ratio =
D 85 kFOut)
-282-
Table 16. Classification of common grout types
(from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1974).
Chemical Grouts
P ret ip tat ion Silicate Chemicals
Aluminate Chemicals
Chromelignosulfates
-283 -
Chemical grouts are therefore idealized to behave as Newtonian fluids
of characteristic viscosity. Viscosity of the grout, together with the
permeability of the soil and the injection pressure will control the
groutability. E. Maag in 1938 (Ischy and Glossop, 1962) developed a
simplified model of the behavior of a Newtonian fluid:
ocn
t 5 (R3-ro3)
3khr o
where:
t time of grouting
-284 -
Table 17. Limits of grouting ability of some mixes.
-285-
Table 18. Grout types for ground stabilization.
-286 -
Figure 135 provide guidelines for grout selection.
15.31 Materials
-287-
AASHO CLASSIFICATION
GRAVEL SAND
OARSE kW4 t fINE SILT
I
CEMENT SOIL
Cl AY I
I
SILICATE SOI ,UTiONS 1
TS)
-288-
Table 19. Physical properties of chemical grouts (after Neelands and James, 1963).
Special Fields
15.32 Procedures
-290-
- . -
.
* , .
*
.
7. T
. . .
. .
.,
\. . / 2: . . .
\
,
I * , ..
\
1
/ . .-
. , .
. . t /
.: 1. . *
\*, :1 I
t
1
: -/ -1
II
. I .
* 1 .:/ : . .
1
I
I . -
/ .
f . .
. . /
\ ; . .
I / .
\ . 9 . / * .
1 .
, r . / .
.
/ *. ,
/ I
/ , /
. I
-291-
,OOUBLE PACKER
OF GROUT H6LE
RUBBERMANCHE1TE
GROUTING ORIFICE
GROUTING PIPE
DOUBLE-PACKER
(a)
(b)
-292 -
15.32.3 Injection Pressures
Vibratory Lances
15.41 General
-293 -
can then be tested in a laboratory to determine the permeability
characteristics of samples. Since the samples are difficult to obtain
and since there are no standarized procedures for testing grouted
soils, this method is of limited value.
-294-
CHAPTER 16 - GROUND FREEZING
16.10 INTRODUCTION
-295-
b. Volumetric heat (C) of both the fluids and
solids in the zone to be frozen, or the ratio
of the amount of heat required to change the
temperature of a unit mass of material one
degree to the amount of heat required to raise
the same mass of pore water one degree.
Frozen and unfrozen soils have different heat
capa citie 8. Moisture content (w) (weight of
water in percent of dry weight of soil) is the
major factor that must be considered in
calculating heat capacity. The approximate
volumetric heat capacity is:
where:
Typical Values
if
Soil Type (% drrwt. ) (PC:)
Stiff verystiff
to clay 20 - 3 0 9 5 - 80
-296-
C. After the temperature of water is just
lowered to 32 F, Latent heat of fusion (L)
of the pore water is the amount of heat
removal needed to convert the water to ice.
Because latent heat is large compared to all
other heat losses, it usually represents the
most important factor in the freezing process.
144 BTU are required to convert one pound of
water into ice (or approximately 80 cal/gm).
L = 1 d 1.44~ BTU/ft3
General
Creep
-297-
30
GRAY, SILTY CLAY
W=45%, sds 1180per cu m.
e= -2sc, Cs 5 0.0 kq per sq cm.
25
t& = (0; - c3> = DEVIATOR STRESS
20
15
IO
IO I5 20
Tf3
DURATION Of= LOADING (T), HOURS
(AFTER SHUSTER.1972)
Figure 138. Stra in versus time and load.i ng for a frozen soil,
I60 G-l-7
tf= TIME TO
CREEP FAILURE
-299-
Stress is held constant for each of the three curves.
Ultimate Strength
-3oo-
ULTIMATE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (Q&,kg/cm*
I
owc
I
2000
.a
%
c
T
a 1500
iz
E
cn
5 IOOC
Gi
%
E
5 5oc
v
( 5 IO 15 20 23 53
WATER CONTENT (w), %
% 1200
.
E
4 1000
Is
g 800
y 600
z
it
w 400
8 200
WATER CONTENT(w:,%,
(GENERAL UNDERGROUND
STRUCTURES INC. 1975)
-302-
In the design process , increased freezing rates
can be obtained by decreasing freeze element spacing and/or increasing
the temperature differential by increasing the capacity of the cooling
equipment.
-303-
temperature, T2. Therefore, the total
heat loss from a unit volume of soil is:
*u =: Cu (T - Tf) 0
:: #, (1.44) w
*L
:: Cf tTf - T2)
*f
where:
= Freezing temperature.
Tf
= Final temperature.
TZ
Cu and C = are as previously defined, heat
f
required to drop temperature
one degree per unit volume.
-304-
Ground freezing below pavement differs from
ground freezing as a construction method in severa. ways: (1) it is
much slower; (2) the ice front is usually parallel to the stratigraphy;
and (3) it is typically in the capillary zone above the water table.
-305-
REFRlGERATlON
lJNlT
LIQUIFIED
BRINE CONDENSOR GAS
CHILLER
t
.
f1 c
l
I
C. Expendable Refrigerants
-307-
connections between a series of freezing pipes is shown in Figure 144.
-309-
16.34 Construction Monitoring
-312-
Technical Report Documentation Poge
r 1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipients Catalog No.
f-HWA-RD-75-129
4, Title and Subtitle
LATERAL SUPPORT SYSTEMS AND UNDERPINNING
Volume II. Design Fundamentals 6. Performing Organization Code
I
13. Type of Report and Period Covered
12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address
Offices of Research and Development
FHWA Final report
U. S. Department of Transportation 14. Sponsoring Agency C$OQ 5 1 4
Washington, D. C. 20590
15. supplomentary N o t e .
16. Abstract
1
I
19. Security Classif. (of this report) 20. Security Clarsif. (of this page\ 21. No. of Pager 22. Price
ii
Part of this program involves a synthesis and evaluation
of existing knowledge and part involves a Research and Development
effort. These volumes fall under the category of the former, State
of the Art, aspect of the program from which it is hoped that pro-
gress through development of bold innovative approaches will emanate.
...
111
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTORY SECTION
Page Number
TITLE PAGE i
PREFACE ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS V
...
CONVERSION FACTORS Vlll
SYMBOLS X
TEXT
Page Number
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.10 Purpose and Scope 1
1.20 Organization and Usage 1
CHAPTER 2 DISPLACEMENTS 5
2.10 General 5
2.20 Characteristics of Wall Deformation 6
2.30 Magnitude of Displacements 12
2.40 Parametric Studies 27
2.50 Distribution of Deformations 30
2.60 Lateral Deformations in Adjacent Soil 39
Mass
2.70 Effect of Construction Procedures 42
2. 80 Estimating Settlements 43
2.90 S u m m a r y 43
Appendix A 45
-v-
TABLE OF CONTENTS (conIt)
Pape Number
-vi-
TABLE OF CONTENTS (cant)
Page Number
BIBLIOGRAPHY 183
-vii-
LIST OF CONVERSIONS
General Notation
CXY-L centimeter
2
Cl-l-l square centimeter
3
cm , cc cubic centimeter
ft feet
gal gaLLon
Ei? gr grams
hr hour
in inches
.
ln2 square inches
.
ln3 cubic inches
k kilo (thousand)
kg kilogram
m meters
2
m square meters
3
m cubic meters
min minute
..*
VLLL
rt-run millimeter 8
2
mm square millimeter 8
3
mm cubic millimeters
ml, mil.liliter s
N Newton
lbs pounds
Conversions
1 lb 4.45 N
Lin- lb 0.1127 N-m
ix
List Of Symbois
The following .list of symbols has been prepared to aid the inter-
pretation of symbol use in the text. This list identifies only the major
symbols used in the text and their general meaning. Each symbol (with
subscripts) is defined in the text for its particular usage. This list is
not a complete list of all symbols or all symbol usage in the text but
is a summary of major symbols and their usage.
0s y m. b 1 Represents Reference
A general symbol for area
F. S. factor of safety
H depth of excavation: also
general symbol for height
K general symbol for coefficient
of lateral earth pressure
coefficient of lateral earth pressure
KO
at rest
coefficient of active earth pressure
Ka
K coefficient of passive earth pressure
X
Svmbol Represents Reference
U pore pressure
w general symbol for weight
genera.l symbol for water content
Poissons Ratio
Poissons Ratio
xi
Symbol Represents Reference
xii
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
-L-
flexible soldier pile or steel sheet pile walls. Some preliminary
conclusions can be drawn from the displacement data analyzed
which may be used as an aid in predicting movements behind a
wall.
-2-
concepts, and presents recommended design earth pressure distribu-
tions for internally braced and tied-back walls. Lateral pressures
caused by surcharge are also discussed.
-3-
The reasons may be to verify design assumptions, assure structure
stability, observe performance for possible legal litigations, or to
advance the state-of-the-art. The general procedure to be followed
in plannin g a monitoring scheme is outlined.
-4-
CHAPTER 2 - DISPLACEMENTS
2.10 GENERAL
2. 12 Significance of Displacements
-5-
2. 13 Relationship to Underpinning
-6-
(a) INFINITELY RIGID WALLS
\ F
I
III
I
I \
\
II
/ I
I I
I \
I I
II
F-
-7-j
I
TRANSLATION
-Jm
ROTATION
Y ROTATION FIXED
ABOUT BOTTOM ABOUT TOP
/ /
I
I
I \
\
\
i i
TRANSLATION ROTATION ROTATION FIXED
ABOUT BOTTOM ABOUT TOP
/
I
BULGE
. Ii 5
I
4
FIXED OR SLIGHT ROTATION
TRANSLATION ABOUT TOP
If the top of the tied-back wall remains fixed, then the defor-
mation mode is similar to that of an internally braced wall (see Figure
2b, left panel). On the other hand, settlement of the wall, partial
yielding of the ties, gross movement of the soil mass, or shear deforma-
tion of the soil mass may result in inward movement of the top and
rotation about the bottom as shown in Figu:re 2b, right panel.
1. High prestressing pulls the tiop of the wall into the soil,
thus leading to a deformation mode of outward rotation about the bo-ttom.
In sensitive clays, this condition could induce consolidation (McRostie,
et al, 1972).
-9-
K WALL
-L2-
VERY STIFFTOHARD SOFT TO STIFF
CLAY CLAY OTHER SOIL
SAND AND GRAVEL
S& 2ooopsf su 2 0 0 0 p s f CONDITIONS
PRESTR. BRACING PRESTR. BRACING PRESTR. BRACING PRESTR
TIEBACKS TIEBACKS TIE BACKS BRACING
(STAND) TIEBACKS BRACING
BRACING BRACING (STAND.) BRACING (STAND) BTAND)
---- I I I I---- + I I
025 031 OS
I II
*30
I I I I
0.5
l 23b
I I
a\.
,,, ,,,I ,,,,,,,
1 /////./I////
1.0
&
::
EX
I -LIMITS OF ZONE1 (PECK, 1969)
I I I
I I
:3 75% OF CASES EXPERlENCED LESS
MAXIMUM MOVEMENT. I I I
I
+ ATYPICAL OR UNUSUAL CASES. REFER
I
I I
2.0 TO THE TEXT ArD TABLE 1.
I I
NOTE: NUMBERS REFER TO REFEdENCES
I
IN TABLE 1.
l Ir 5 o/o - DISPLACEMENT OFF SCALE, SOFT CLAY
MAGNITUDE EQUAL TO 5O/& I (ORGANIC AND PEAT)
.p, 3.1 F SOlLS)
1 I I I I
2.5
0 = DIAPHRAGM WALL
Figure 4. Normalized vertical movements, 0 = SOLDIER PILE OR
STEEL SHEETING
VERY STIFF TO HARD SOFT TO STIFF OTHER SOIL
SAND AND GRAVEL CLAY CLAY
Su2000 psf CONDITIONS
su-,2000 psf
PRESTR. BRACING PRESTR. SRACINS PRESTR. BRACING PRESTR. BRACINS
TIEBACKS TIEBACKS TIEBACKS TIE BACKS SRACCINB
BRACING (STAND.) BRACING (STAN D-1 BRACING (sTAW ISlANa)
0 4 7 04s 041
l 20 l 25 OS 042
~32 l * 03 3QQS2 06 058
I I I I lJY;;!D,AwR, 1 1
~2&-:-oM- a%-- 051 040
+
P I 1 l II 1 I I
I
I coRgfTy I
I I
085 I I
8
I I I I 014
022
-4-e-
75% OF CASES EXPERIENCED LESS I L
1.5 MAXIMUM MOVEMENT. STEEL (SOFTCLP
WALLS 061 / ~AN~~IZ*
,
- - - - - 100~ OF CASES EXPERIENCED LESS - .I7 - a
MAXIMUM MOVEMENT. a87
I-
I I
I ,,
ATYPICAL OR UNUSUAL CASES. REFER STEEL
+
I *se
TO THE TEXT AND TABLE t. WALL
2.0
NOTE: NUMBERS REFER TO REFERENCES
*ail ** 4:
I I 1
I I
1I
IN TABLE I.
I-----
I I I I I
0 4 5 % - DISPLACEMENT OFF SCiLE, MAGNITUDE 1
EQUAL TO 5%
I I 1
I
2.5
O= DIAPHRAGM WALLS
Figure 5. Normalized horizontal movements. . = SOLDIER PILES OR
STEEL SHEETING
;. -_--_ .,.
Table 1. Summary of references on displacement,
2 ORourke and SP St*UtS Dense Sand and 60 1.5 9! Removal of struts increased settle-
Cordmg (1974) (Prcstressed) gravel, Stiff (18.3111) ( 3 , 8cm) (2.3cm) lent from 0.9(2.3cm) to 1. 5
(G St. Excavatmn) day (3.8cm).
4 ORourke and SP Tiebacks Dense Sand and 40 , 7 2 Street settlements small while
Cording (1974) and gravel, Stiff (12.2m) (1.8cm) ( 5 . Icm) soldier piles settled due to down-
W a r e , Mirsky, day 2 drag from tiebacks. Soldier piles
and Leuniz (1973) (5. lcm) settled 2/5. lcml maximum.
7 Burland (1974) and DW Tiebacks Very Stiff clay 26 1.1 2. 2 Much of the wall movement was pure
St. John (1974) ( 7 . 9m) (2.8cm) ( 5 . 6cm) translation and continued with time.
(Neasden Under- Extremely small vertical settlements
8 OlRourke and SP struts Dense Sand and -- 2% _- Did not report depth of excavation or
Cording (1974) (Prestressed) gravel and stiff amount of settlement.
I I 1th & G Streets1 Cl?l
10 N.G.I. (1962) SSP struts Soft to medium 19. 5 3 -_ Consolidation settlements due to
(Oslo Technical clay (5.9m) (7.6cm) lowering of head in underlying
School) sand.
1, N. G. I. (1962) SSP struts Soft to medium 36 8.9 5.1 Nearby underpinned structure
(Vaterland #2) (Prestressed) clay (llm) (22.6cm) (13cm) settled significantly.
13 DiBiagio and DW Floor slabs Medium clay 62 1.6 1-l. 2 Structure ( 2(0. 6cm) from wall.
Roti (1972) used to (18.9~1) (4. lcm)(2.5-3. Ocm) All settlement appeared to be due
support wall to lateral wall deflection.
I 14 N. G. I. (1962)
(Grdnland #2)
SSP struts S o f t t o m e d i u m 37,
Cl.XV (11.3ml
7
(17.8cml
6. 3
llb.Ocml
Part of excavation performed
under water. I
16 Swatek, Asrow, SSP struts Soft to stiff 701 9 2. 3 Large settlement attributed to
and Seitz (1972) (Prestressed) clay (21.4m) (7.2.9cm) (5.8~1) localized heavy truck traffic.
Typically settlements < 5( 12. 7cmI.
18 Scott, Wilson and SSP struts Dense fine SO _- 8 Poor performance attributed to
Bauer (1972) sands (15.3m) (20.3cm) poor construction techniques and
dewaterina problems. Nearby
20 Boutsma and SSP struts Soft clay and 33 14 6 Some settlement due to extensive
Horvat (1969) soft peat ( 1 0 . lm) (35.6~1) ( 1 5 . 2cm) dewatering for long time period.
Affected structures 600 from I
excaatl0. Liquefaction of back-
fill during extraction.
21 Insley (1972) SP Rakers Soft to medium 25 -_ 2.5 One sectron tcstcd to fallurc.
Clay (7.6m) (6.4cm)
22 Tait and Taylor SSP Struts and Soft to 45 6 7.5, Larger movements attributed to
(1974) Rakers medium (13.8m) (15.2cm) ( 1 9 . Icm) lack of firm bottom for wall.
(Prestressed) clay Utility lines damaged; no ma~ol
damage to ad,acont structures.
23a Hansbo, Hofman, SSP Rakers Soft clay 23 13.8 11.8 Poor sheet pile interlocking. Lotis
and Mosesso (7. Or) ( 3 5 . Icm) (29.9~1) time between excavation of center
(1973) portion and bracing. Disturbance
durmg pile driving for foundation.
26 Sandqvist (1972) SSP Tiebacks Sand and silt 19.5 7.9 2 Scttlemcnt in organics due to
with organic (5.9m) ( 2 0 . lcm) ( 5 . ICI) lowered ground water level. filc
soils driving also caused settlement.
-16-
Table 1. Summary of references on displacement. (Continued. )
30 Clough, Weber, a n d SP Tiebacks Vary stiff 64l I 25t Top of wall moved away from
Lamont (1972) clay (19.6m) (3.. 2c$ (2.:& excavation.
31 Nelson (1973) SP Tiebacks Sandy over- 90: 1 4 Cracking instreet indicated poten-
burden, hard (27.5m) (2.5~~11 (10.2cm) tial stabiliti failure (bhax[ 15. Zcm])
clay shales Maljian & Van Beveren (1974).
32 Liu and Dugan SP Tiebacks Dense sand and 55, 8~ 1i Tops of soldier piles pulled away
(1972) gravel, very (16.8m) ( 2 . Ocm) (2.5Cm) from excavation during prestress-
stiff clay ing.
34 Dietrich, Chase, SP T,ebacks Silty sand 23.54 2.5 1.8 Lateral movements measured at
and Teul (1971) (7.16.5m)(h. 3cm) ( 4 . 6cm) top of wall.
36 Cole and Burland DW Rakers Very stiff 60 1.5 2.5 Most movements occurred while earth
(1972) Clay (18.41~1) (3.8cm) ( 6 . 3cm) berm supported wall. Excavation in
heavilv overconsolldated clav.
-17-
Table 1. Summary of references on displacement. (Continued. )
Wall Bracing D e p t h d dh
Ref. # Author(s) TYPO TYPO Soil Type of Cut max max Comments
44 Barla and Mascardi SW Tie backs Stiff clay 85 2.6 Cracking in nearby structures.
(19741 (25.9m) - - (6.6cmI
I 45 Heeb, Schurr, B o n e , S P
Hake, a n d Mu&r
struts Sand
(142Y2m,
_- . 8
(2. Ocm)
46 Breth and Romberg SP Tiebacks Stiff clay __ 5.9 Lateral movement of entire
(19721, R o m b e r g and sand (2: Bm, (14.9cm) soil block.
(1973)
47 Schwarz (1972) and SW Tie backs Clayey marl 97.5 ,211 . 6 Many levels of tiebacks at very
Andra, Kunzl, a n d (stiff clay) ( 2 9 . Em) (0.5lcm) (1.5cm) close spacing.
Rojek (1973)
50 Corbett and SP Tiebacks Fill, sand Heave observed 18m from wall.
Stroud (1974) and marl (15516,) -- (Z..cL,
53 Saxena (1974) DW Tiebacks Organic Silt __ 2.7 Tops of some wall sections moved
and sand (Id: Em) (6.9cm) toward sail by fame amount.
-18-
Table 1. Summary of references on displacement. (Conthued. )
57 N . G . I . (1962) SSP struts Medium .and 26 3.9 5.5 Significant movements aflu)
Telecommunications (Prestressed) soft clay (7.9m) (9.9cm) (13.9~1111 strut removal.
Center
60 N . G . I . (1962) SSP Slabs as Medium to 371 7.5 -- Air pressure and upside dorm
GrBnland # 1 support soft clay (11.3rnl (19.0cm) construction used
Sheet 5 of 5
Notes:
-19-
slurry trench walls, voids created from pulling of sheeting, etc. (See
Volume IlI, Construction-Methods, for a more detailed discussion
of various construction techniques. )
-2o-
2. Soft to Stiff Clay
where:
-21-
Concrete walls generally have a much higher EI value than
soldier pile or sheet pile walls, and with comparable wale spacing,.~are
much stiffer. On the other hand, soldier piles or sheet pile walls with
closely spaced support levels may be stiffer than concrete walls with
widely spaced support Leveis .
-22-
c
I I I
i
=- E
=
=w N y 2
6 >=.q = X i=
I
+v - - =t-u *y I cl
examine the relative change in anticipated lateral displacement for
a given change in wall stiffness and/or stability number of the soil.
-24-
IO
g IO
H
6
i?
1r-u- - O-5
----b
I
e-2
0-5
1
1
_-__
-1 0- ---- l
~~~~~~~~
(b)
~-~~~~~~~T
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF RATIO
OF MOVEMENTS
019
2 4 6 8 IO 12
sh max. inches NOTE: NUMBERS REFER TD CASE STUDIES
(0) LISTED IN TABLE I.
MAXIMUM VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL
DEFORMATIONS
12
IO
:
5 8
.c
-
a
E
Lz
6
6 8 IO 12
sh mo. inches
-26 -
This difference is believed to be directly attribu-
table to consolidation settlements which are usually the result of
changes in water levels adjacent to the excavation. This situation
becomes more acute where deep deposits of soft clay underlie the
excavation.
-27-
14
12
IO
ia
.-.
::
E /
ci, I
6 /
2 4 6 a IO Ii
Sh mar. inches
-28-
3. A uniform soil profile was assumed in which the shear
strengths were varied to obtain different stability numbers
(N). The value of N used to develop this plot was based on
the shear strength of the soil at the base of the 60 foot
deep excavation,
The results of the finite e.Lement analyses should not be taken in the
quantitative sense, The intent is that such analysis should be used
as a guide in the design and in the consideration of various options
for a bracing system.
2. 50 DISTRIBUTION OF DEFORMATIONS
2. 51 Vertical Deformations
-3o-
distance of twice the excavation height from the excavation face
depending on workmanship and soil profile, A refinement of this plot
was undertaken to provide more information on settlement patterns
adjacent to cofferdams. This was accomplished through a series of
normalized plots of vertical deformations versus distance from the
excavation face for three general soil classifications.
Reviewing Figure 11, it appears that both soft clays and the
granular soils experience a significant angular distortion outside a
distance equal to the excavation depth (D/H = 1). The average
lines of settlement ratio versus normalized distance, shown as
dashed lines on the figure, may be used as a basis of comparison of this
distortion. On the other hand, the stiffer clays(Su) 2000 psf) seemto
experience more gentle distortion slope, even though the zone of influence
-3L-
0 OiS I*,0 Ii5 2LO 2;5
I t
AWERAGE ANGULAR
DISTORTION -v-v;IO
- A - A - I4
II
ENVELOPE - - - - - - - 5
CLAY - - -13
St,< 2000 DSf - - - ---I2
LEGEND
: SETTLEMENT AT DISTANCE D
6
-v -o- 3(J
- o - o - 15
-q--J- 7
- A - A - 6
- - - - 9
D/H
7 I
AVERAGE ANGULAR
DlSTORTlON y
,: / p/
I
-Xx%-
-o-o- 8
283
-n-cl-4
d=ocn x6
V
max
where:
4 = differential settlement over distance D
-33-
6v (x3 . . 6v,, = 1.9
J
6 Vmox I
\
0) TILTING
a
O/H
I;0 I;3 2;0, 2.5
VlEILL DEFDRMAfKm
MTA SEYWD REFLECTED
ELASTIC STRAINS AND I3
NOT REPRESENTATIVE
OF FIELD BEHAVIOR.
6v 05
fi,
-34-
D/H
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
01 y GATA BEYDND REFLECTS
I/ ELASTIC STRAINS AN0 IS
NOT REPRESENTATIVE
/ OF FIELD
FIELD BEHAVIOR.
I
I 6 vmax = 5.4 WALL DEFORMATION
I
a5t -0
- 0
V 1 / & h=4in
Ii 2 /
rnax 6h,,8in
14 j
; I!\
I.01
\ I
a) LATERAL T RANS L A T I O N PLUS FLEXURE \ I
D/H
0.5 1.0 I.,5 &.O 2,5
O0 / 1
/
WALL DEFORMATION
l----+0
WALL DEFORMATION
I I -0
6 VmX= 5.6
i
-35-
D/H
o-5 1.0 I,5 2,x, qs
o .
WALL DEFORMATION
D/H
I.0 Ii5 q.0 2.5
a V .
MLL DEFORMAllO)(
\ I-----CD
SV mox = 3.0
6, 0.:
6 ?TUlX
1.0 b) ROTATION
sv 0.5
d
vmax
1-a
-36 -
Two soil conditions were analyzed:
The results indicate that for tilting and flexure the settlements
are concentrated within a distance one -half the excavation depth. Settle-
ments beyond this distance are elastic and probably not representative
of actual field conditions. For both cases, the severe angular distortion
occurs within this zone as expressed by the slope of the settlement
profile. On the other hand, when rotation is the predominant mode of
deformation, significant deformations may occur at distances up to
1. 5 the excavation depth from the excavation face, This should be ex-
pected since the maximum lateral deformation is deep. The over-
stressed zone of soil is also deep, hence leading to a greater zone of
influence. However, the settlement profile for this latter case
suggests a less severe angular distortion along the ground surface.
-37-
increases from the excavation face, the settlementprofile will have a
gentler slope. Hence, even though the area affected increases, the
actual danger to a structure may not be as severe since the angular
distortion is less.
-38-
2.60 LATERAL DEFORMATIONS IN ADJACENT SOIL MASS
-39-
,L DEFLECTION
0.5
1.0
1.0
?+ 1.5
\-
I
I
I
I
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
I FROM BURLAND (1974)
I AND ST. JOHN (1974)
-40.
WH
I 0 0.5 0.75 1.0 I.5 $0
+I 01 I I n
II -i-,
- II/
1 1.5 v
Ic WALL DEFLECTKIN
D/H
-4l-
There are .littLe data available regarding the distribution of
horizontal displacements for excavations in a normally consolidated
clay for comparison with the observed data for the heavily over-
consolidated clays. Therefore, the results of the finite element studies
used to develop Figure 13 were reduced to provide some insight
as to the distribution which might be expected for ideal conditions.
These results are shown in Figure 16. In contrast to the data from
Burland (1974) and St. John (1974) for heavily over consolidated clays,
the finite element analysis indicates that in this normally consolidated
soil the z&e of significant movement is confined to an area described
by a 1 on 1 slope from the base of the sheeting. As expected, it is
within the theoretical yield zone. The movements are largely controlled
by the sheeting displacement. The zone of significant movements
increases with depth in the same pattern as the sheeting movements.
Even though the entire support system may be in place, the sides
of the excavation may continue to creep inward with time. This problem
appears to be particularly acute in tied-back walls in very stiff to hard
-42-
clays. There is also some evidence to indicate that lagging in soldier
pile walls tends to pick up more load with time in all soils. Excessive
bulging or even failure of some lagging has been observed,
2.90 SUMMARY
-43.
The maximum settlements for all wall types in sands and gravels
is typically less than 0. 25 percent of the excavation depth. For cuts in very
stiff clays, the maximum settlements may be slightly larger although
most of the maximum movements are still less than 0.25 percent of the
height of the cut.
-44-
APPENDIX A to CHAPTER 2
A. 10 INTRODUCTION
A. 21 General
A, 22 Program Description
-45-
Tt;lis technique was used in the development of a computer
program, BRACE II, for analyzing the behavior of braced excavations.
This current program is a second generation of the original program,
BRACE, developed by Wong (1971). The program models soil by discrete
elements with bilinearly-elastic stress/strain properties. Within each
element the strain is assumed constant. The retaining wall for the
excavation is simulated by one-dimensional linearly elastic bar elements.
The program simulates a specified excavation and bracing-construction
sequence by applying the load relief due to an excavation stage or by
applying a force at a node as a strut is prestressed. The loads from
a particular construction operation are applied incrementally. Fb r
each load increment a specified modulus is used until the yield strength
of the soil is attained. Thereafter, a reduced modulus is used for
each additional load increment.
-46-
To account for anisotropic shear strength properties the
following yield criterion recommended by Davis and Christian (1971)
was used:
S -s 2
,cT,-
\
uv uh ) + zxy2 &= a2
2 2
b2
where:
-47-
Table 2. Summary of case studies for analysis of strut loads and sheeting deformations.
Pz-38 Medium
Uniform Steel 60 29 5. a 3 4. 78 Uniform 0. 6 0.406 0.250, 2905 i aoq
26.5 Soft
Uniform Diaphragm
Wall 60 29 38.40 6. a 2 Uniform 0.5 o.za*, 0.156 2ooa; 1205
v
26.5 Medium
Uniform Diaphragm 60 29 38.40 4. 78 Uniform 0. 6 0 . 4 0 6v 0.25q 290% 186
Wall
48 Soft
Uniform Diaphragm 60 29 228.96 6. a 2 Uniform 0.5 0.2aS-~ 0.15C 2ooCv 1205
Wall
48 Medium
Uniform Diaphragm 60 29 2 2 8.96 4. 78 Uniform 0. 6 0.405 0.25e 29O?Q iaoCv
Wall v
Fz-38 Stiff Psf Psf Psf
10 5. a3 2. 25 Uniform Psf
Uniform Steel 60 1.0 3,200 3.200 3,000,000 3,ooo.ooo
f
00
8 Soft Fz-38 Soft
Over Steel 60 29 5. a3 2.25 0.5 800 540 800,000 500.000
Stiff Stiff 1.0 3,200 3,200 3,000,000 2.500.000
Soft Fz-38
Soft
Over Steel 60 10 5. a3 2.25 0.5 800 540 800,000 500,000
Stiff Stiff 1.0 3,200 3,200 3,000,000 2.500.000
Soft 48
Soft
Over Diaphragm 60 29 228.96 2.25 0.5 800 540 800,000 500,000
Stiff Wall Stiff 1.0 3,200 3,200 3,ooo.ooo 2,500,000
Stiff PZ-39
, Stiff
Over Steel 60 29 5. a3 6. 37 1.0 3.200 3.200 3,000,000 2.500.000
Soft Soft 0.5 0.3(s; 0.25 3608~ 216&J
Stiff 48 Stiff
Over Diaphragm 60 29 228.96 6.37 1.0 3.200 3,200 3,000,000 2.500.000
Soft Wall Soft 0.5 0. 3sv 0.2% 36@ 216%
Stiff Fz-38 Stiff
Over Steel 32. 5 17.5 1. 52 4. 30 1.0 2,000 2,000 2,400,000 2,400,000
Soft Soft 0.5 0.38 0.2v 3607& 216q.
Stiff 48 Stiff
Over Diaphragm 32. 5 17.5 59.60 4.30 1.0 2,000 2.000 2.400,000 2.400,000
Soft Wall Soft 0.5 0. 3Zv 0.2% 360& 21@v
_.
Notes: For all cases Ilsat = 120 pcf
GWT = 5.0 ft. below GL
Vertical strut spacing - 10
Table 3. Summary of case studies for analysis
of zone of influence of deformations.
Type yatxiri;m
of a S
uh
Movement Movement
Top tilt 6
Rotation 6
about top
Flexure
Top tilt 6
and flexure
Rotation 6
and bulge
Lateral shift 8
and flexu re
-49-
I
t i i i i i i i i i I I
I I 1 I
-5o-
CHAPTER 3 - BASIC CONCEPTS OF SOIL MECHANICS
3.10 GENERAL
is=&u
where: _
O-= effective stress
c= total stress
-51-
Fh
Ko= o
6 0
-52-
Moist Unit Weight Saturated Unit We#t*
(above water table) (below water table)
Soil Type , pcf r sat, pcf
I
3.41 General
=E-k? ff tan. 3
Zff
where:
= shear stress on the failure plane at
-c ff
failure
-53-
Figure 18. Failure envelope for soil,
general Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion.
P
ss3kLl.s w3l-6
-55-
As ,mentioned previously, sands and gravel.s are free draining
and therefore, pore pressure changes generated by loading or shear
strains dissipate quickly. Therefore, the shear strength of the soil
is related to the loading condition and the 2 value. For all practical
purposes, the pore pressure remains unchanged during the loading.
Loose 28O - 3o 5 - 10
Medium 3o - 36 10 - 30
Dense 36 - 41 30 - 50
Very dense 41 - 44Ot >50
>::
N, standard penetration resistance, is dependent on soil
density, gradation, drilling procedures, sampling procedures,
and depth below s-urface.
-56-
At113 031v0170s
-NO3 AllVUWON UOJ
3d013hN3 HI9N3US XV13
lOSN03U3AO tlOj
031VO llOSN03
SU 30
B
-7!!
3.43.1 Undrained Strength
-58-
CURVE I = EFFECTIVE NORMAL STRESS ON FAILURE PLAM w SHEAR STRENGTH
CURVE 82 = CON9oLlDATtON PRESSURE v s UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENOTH
9I SHEAR
STRENGTC
* ec = coNsocIDAfloN PRESSURE
-6o-
3.43.5 Consistency
-61-
CHAPTER 4 - GROUND WATER IN OPEN CUTS
4.11 General
4. 13 Interlocked Sheeting
-63-
4.14 Concrete Diaphragm Walls
-64-
INTERLOCKED STEEL SHEETING
EQUI POTENTIAL
ROCK (IMPERVIOUS)
-65-
430 GROUND WATER RECHARGE
-66-
CHAPTER 5 - LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE
where:
-67-
K = 1 - sin 6
0
where:
5.12.1 Mobilization
5. 12, 2 Distribution
-68-
36
28 SYMBOL RI.%
IO
- - - - 20
2.6
- - 30
60
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.6
1.6
6
1.4
6
:
y 1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
. I I
0.4
2 4
-69-
(a) FULLY ACTIVE
FULLY ACTIVE
.
\ 2
\ \
\
\
-7o-
For a rigid retaining wall, the arching
active case occurs by rotation about the top (Taylor, 1948). The
resulting earth pressure distribution is parabolic in shape: it
exceeds active near the top but is Less than active near the bottom
of the wall. On a more flexible cofferdam wall the pressure dis-
tribution may be highly irregular due to the sequence of excavation
and bracing or variation in the tightness of braces, both of which
affect Load concentration.
5.12. 3 Coefficients
ch @a
ifc = ii, = Ka
Ka = I-
2sU
H
where:
-71-
vertical effective stress
za = XH-4S
U
5.21 General
-72-
(a) RANKINE ACTIVE PRESSURE: DISTRIBUTION
IN COHESIVE SOILS
. ,
1 I-2s, j,,..dH-*Sud
4I-2$,1
I
<-\bH bH_ I
(N =
= 1/2 H*(%I-45,)
pn
= $ xH*- 2Sui4
= 4 11H*(l-
p+4S, -+
=rH(I-4Su)=8H(I-+)
3T
-73-
i
1 I
,I
/ I
\
,I
. -Y+
, I
\
--iA\
DEI
STR
DENSE
STRATUM
For bracing:
-75-
passive resistance in front of the cofferdam wall. )
Lb-
. . .- *- ,
3
D
RD
L4
. .
.
I .
RA
P =- * etc.
A LA
-77-
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION TOTALFORCE
a) Sands
\ pt = Trapezoid
= tan2(45 - $/2)
KA PA= Rankine
H
\
F!if---- Pt = . 65 KAyH2
Rankine Active PA= . 50 KAyH2
\, Pt
t\ = 1.30
- 0 . 6 5 KAyH * PA
/- KA yH 4
2
c) Stiff-Clays Pt = . 15yH to . 30yH2
For NK 4 pA
-=4, p =o
For 44 N1. 6, use the larger N A
0. 50H
of diagrams (b) and (c). NK 4, PAL 0
NOTE: Equivalent
Rankine Active = 0
0.4yH-
I--
-78
5.22.1 Sands
-79-
5.22.4 Heavily Overconsolidated Very Stiff Fissured Clays
-8O-
C h a p m a n , et al (1972) report that for a number of cases
studied in Washington, the ordinate of the apparent pressure diagram
increased from 0.15gH for 30-foot cuts to 0.23 8 H for 60-foot deep
cuts. The attribute the low pressures at shallow depth to the relative
importance of soil cohesion. ORourke and Cording (1974) in their report
to the Washington Metro also noted an increase in the ordinate of the
apparent pressure diagram with depth.
Cohesive soils near the top of the cut will justify pressure
reduction as shown in Figure 29a. Absence of cohesive soils near the
top of cut will require the higher pressures associated with Figure 29b.
-81-
(a) RFI ,ATlVE;Lv UNIFORM CONDITIONS
P ? =0.112\6.H2 T O 0.188&H2
T
H
*T
COHESIONLESS SOIL
Pt 00.135 #H2 TO 0.225x H2
1
H 0.80H
0.20t-l
i
-82-
parison with the simplified cases. Serious questions may need field
measurements to provide data input during construction.
5. 30 TIEBACKS
5. 31 Background
-83-
b. Temperature: Bracing loads may be significantly
affected by temperature increase, especially by direct sunlight - to
the extent that some projects require remedial measures to reduce
thermal effects. Tiebacks are not subject to severe temperature changes
since they are insulated in the ground. Thermal effects are more pro-
nounced in prestressed struts when the strut is essentially between two
unyielding supports.
-84-
installed tiebacks would probably exceed the force on a braced wall.
This is because of the .prestressing of tiebacks.
Loose sand:
= 0.33; K. = 0.50
Ka
K = 0.42
avg
Force, Pt = L/2 x 0.42 XH2 = 0.21 1(H2
-85-
Dense sand:
= 0.24; Ko = 0.40
Ka
K = 0.32
avg
Force, Pt = L/2 x 0.32 YH2 = 0.16 YH2
Where the upper third of the cut is dominated by cohesionless soi .L use:
-86 -
e. Stratified Soils: As with braced excavations an approach
based upon active earth pressure or wedge equilibrium should be inves-
tigated. Section 5.22.6 generally describes a procedure for increasing
the computed force in the same proportion as that of the most closely re-
lated simplified soil profile that exceeds active earth pressure. Use
the force distribution most closely related to the simplified case.
5. 42 Theoretical Cansiderations
I. P o i n t l o a d i n g
-87-
3. Irregular area Loading
-88-
be as sumed. An isolated footing for a struciture or a heavy object
resting on a small base may be cases that can best be analyzed as
point Loadings a
For ,m<O. 4:
0.28 n2 Q
crh = P
(0. 16 t nL) H2
where:
H = height of cut
Figure 3Oc shows how the Lateral stress for a point Load varies along
the Length of the wall. The calculation of uh gives the horizontal stress
on a vertical plane lying perpendicular to the wall and through the point
Load. The horizontal stresses along the wall vary asbh = bh cos 2 (1. L0).
-89-
0.2
I 0.4
\
hi
II
t FOR m I 0.4:
0.6
w
3
s
0.8
(b)
FOR rnm.4;
H2 l.77m2n2
uh(q
(rn+ d3
VALUE OF O-h (8)
QP
NOTE:
(a) mm-&
n=+-
X=mH
k) SECTION a-a
-9o-
5.45 Line Load
-91-
0 0.4
I
\ h .
0.2
II
c 0.6 0.6
5
a
> 0.8
VALUE OFch (#
LINE LOAD QL (a) -L
FOR m 5 0.4:
t-l
I z= nH
.r
P ph = 0.55 QL
-92-
dq r0.S
q =SUF?cHAf?GE
0.3
0.2
0.1
-93-
5.47 Uniform Area Loading
-94-
0.08.
0.5B
INTENSITY OF LATERAL STRESS
rtJ
E
- I.OB v RIGID WALL
1.5E
-95-
CHAPTER 6 - PASSIVE RESISTANCE BE:LOW BASE OF EXCAVATION
6.10 GENERAL
The design process frequently requires that the soils below the
base of an excavation provide passive resistance for force equilibrium
or to limit movement. The performance of the wall will depend upon
the spacing of the support Levels since the greater the spacing, the
greater the required passive resistance (and movement) below the
Lowermost support level. Figure 34 illustrates the case of a wall in
which the passive resistance of the soil is insufficient tolimit ex-
cessive wall movements.
-96-
Figure 34. Movement at wall base due to
insufficient passive resistance.
-97-
negative. ) This may be accompanied by heave caused by swelling
of the soil.
-98-
6.30 ANALYSIS OF PASSIVE RESISTANCE
z= cohesion intercept
-99-
The passive resistance of cohesive soils in an undrained
condition should be evaluated on the basis of the undrained shear
strength, S , and the in situ total vertical stress, 0 For a contin-
U V'
uous wall, the passive pressure at a given depth will equal:
tTp=crv + 2s U
=v z t 2s Eq. 6.30.3
U
where:
-LOO-
II --
/)
/
T T -T-=
l.Sb
m- b
,- -
* D 0
E
FILE L c
WIDTH >
b 1 1
38vbKp
-lOI-
6.40 OVERCUT DESIGN DETAILS
6.50 BERMS
-102-
CHAPTER 7 - DESIGN ASPECTS OF LATERAL PRESSURE
For example, steel sheet piling and soldier pile walls with a typical
wale spacing of eight feet or more and generally greater
horizontal distance between support members are considered
to be flexible walls Design earth pressure diagrams should be
determined in accord&e with Chapter 5.
7. 21 General
-LO3-
* ; :;
AL,
/*
li I
AREA A
RA
k
2
12 1
RB
L.IL
2
3 AREA B
RC AREA C
AREA D
RD
AREAE
- --
,.: , :.;. RE
. b
bp = KifH ~-4
-104-
diagram (100 percent) is used. This recommendation is linked to a
number of other associated design recommendations -- the pressure
diagram itself, methods for moment computation, preload practice,
allowable s tre s se s, etc.
M=Cw12
where:
M = moment
C = moment coefficient
1 = span length
7. 23 Discontinuous Wales
-105-
to transfer shear hut not moment, zero moment should be assumed
at that point.
7. 24 Member Connections
7. 25 Lagging
-106-
SOLDIER PILE
-I
Figure 37. Typical splice with butt welding,
u loCLEAR SPACE
IF NO BUTT
WELDING
+-@41 SHEAR
- PLATE
$
/
1
SPACER
, f PLATE IF STRUT
-- -- -- m
- -- -L e-
/
L
f- 1
CONTACT
/
a_
\
LAGGING
I
i /
/ -STIFFENER
AT STRUT
c
Figure 38. PLan view of typical wale splice and strut connection.
-108-
SPACER
llccn
YLY
WITU
..I I
:ONTACT LAGGING
ERECTION SUPPORT
AS REQUIRED
-109-
7.30 BRACING AND TIEBACKS
For bracing:
7. 41 Lateral Resistance
When design pressure diagrams are used, a reaction
at the base of the cut is assumed to ,exist which is equal to the
lowest area shown in Figure 36. This reaction is provided by the
passive resistance of the soil beneath the cut. The magnitude of the
passive resistance is analyzed for continuous walls using the modified
Coulomb earth pressure coefficients given in Section 6. 30. Passive
resistance for soldier piles reflects an added resistance due to soil
arching as explained in Chapter 6.
-llO-
Pt (FROM DESIGN EARTH PRESSURE
FlGURE 28)
\
BOTTOM OFCUT I \
1. Compute RE = 0.5 pt Ld e
2. Compute depth x such that: P = RE + PA
P K
Use minimum F. S. = 1. 5 for passivedoofticient, K = fi
. P l
-lll-
b. Determine the depth required to satisfy force equili-
brium on the horizontal plane.
In cases where the soils below the base of the cut are very
loose to loose granular soils or soft to medium clays, the sheeting
should penetrate to only a minimal depth of approximately 20 percent
of the excavation depth and be designed as a cantilever below RD.
The reason is that in loose granular soils the sheeting must ex-
perience large lateral deformation befo,re building significant passive
resistance. It is probable the sheeting will be overstressed before
this deformation is attained. Hence, the sheeting will either act as
a cantilever, or if it is driven to great depths it will act as a simple
beam with a substantial span. In either case, the sheeting would
most likely be overstressed at the lowest strut level. If the cut is
underlain by soft to medium clays, the net pressure on the sheeting
often is in the active state, hence there is theoretically a net active
pressure. This situation can arise in deep cuts even when the base
of the cut is stable as illustrated in Figure 41.
7. 51 Introduction
Three example problems are analyzed to illustrate methods
of evaluating the depth of penetration required for sheeting stability
and to show the effect soil stratification can have on the variation in
strut load. The se example s, shown at the end of this chapter, con-
sider the following three conditions:
-1l.2-
SAND
- BOTTOM OF
Yf!Iv
su 8 + D 0.20ifH
-113-
Case I. Homogeneous soil profile.
-
Case II. Soft soil stratum to base of excavation underlain
by a dense stratum.
i. 52 Results of Analysis
-114-
large unsupported length is twofold:
7.61 Introduction
-115-
used as an aid to the design engineer, the program BRACE II (see
appendix to Chapter 2 for description) was used to analyze three
different soil profile s. These profiles are similar in concept to
those described in Section7. 50, except that cohesive soils are
assumed due to program limitations.
For all cases, the ground water table was taken at a five
footdepth, andundrained soil parameters were assumed for both the
shear strength (S,) and deformation modulus (E,). For soft and
medium soils, these parameters increased linearly with depth
within a stratum as a function of the vertical effective stress (8v).
For the stiff soils, the strength and modulus were considered
constant with depth. The soil parameters used in the analysis are
summarized as follows:
-116-
Sheark So il*<
Strength Modulus
mu) tEu)
0.28B I 2005
V V
0.4oq 290?v
3200 3 x 1Obpsf
Also, two wall types were considered in order to provide some in-
formation on the effect of wall stiffness. The wall types were a
steel sheet pile wall (PZ-38) and a 4 foot thick concrete diaphragm
wall.
-117-
E
I-J
PZ-38
43 CONC. WALL
N~4.8 ATBASEOFCUT
CASE lb- -ENlOW hEMUM-STIFF CLAY
-118-
TwDl
E
+LJ
7 Pnwl~ K
PZ -36 SHEETING
Pa
0 srRU
Lla
48coNc. WALL
Oo;5 94JLp
/ /Ic\
A-+-P A-++
0-c+ 7 b++
I
C-V C-t+
D+@ Dj--
I
E+ Ed
/jq 7fi
Pmx = VK = MAXIMUM STRUT LOAD Pmox = 62K
- 1 1.9 -
Comparing Case la with Case lb in Figure 42, the analysis
shows that walls in the soft clay should be expected to experience
relatively higher pressures near the base of the cut than the wall in the
mediu.m- s tiff clay, This trend is .more obvious for the stiffer concrete
walls. In addition, the predicted earth pressures in the soft soil may
be much higher, as shown by the maximum strut loads. The apparent
reason for this behavior is the lack of lateral support be.low the base
of the excavations; hence, an inward rotation around the lowest strut.
The stability number of N = 6. 8 in Case la results in a factor of safety
of less than 1. Hence, a bottom heave failure occurred which resulted
in the Loss of passive resistance below the excavation Level. On the
other hand, the stability number for Case lb is low (N = 4. 8), resulting
in a stable bottom. With increasing wall stiffness less curved deform-
ation is expected, and the potential for unloading the second lowest
strut and overloading of the lowest strut is increased. As Case lb
shows, this behavior becomes less pronounced as the soil becomes
stiffer . One possible remedy for reducing this effect in soft soils
would be to prestress the second lowest strut and lock in a high
residual compressive force.
For Case 3, where the soils within the depth of cut are
stiff, stability number N<4, and soft soils exist immediately below
the base of the excavation, the results show that the strut loads are
greatest in the second lowest strut. This occurs for the same
reasons given for Case la, that is, lack of support below the exca-
vation base. For this soil profile, the pattern of pressure distri-
bution appears independent of wall rigidity since both give essentially
the same normalized pressure diagram.
-L20-
7.64 Magnitude of Strut Loads
-L2L-
APPARENT LATERAL PRESSURE ( psf)
I , I 1 1 f
b
C
I
0 I
P I
I
PZ-38 WALL
---I=--
48CONC. WALL
PZ-38 WALL
-122-
Table 4. Summary of structural behavior for
braced walls from finite element analysis.
4 Diaphragm
Wall 4. 8 8.2 229. 0 )lO ft. 13 ft. 19 ft.
I 4 Diaphragm I
N
w Wall 6. 8 11.8 1
I 229. 0 > 10 ft. >30 ft. )30 ft.
I
I
2 PZ-38 2. 3 9.0 5. 8 2ft. 230 ft. 2 ft.
Stiff
Soil 1PZ-3815) 2.3 9. 0 5. 8 3 ft. ) 10 ft. 4 ft.
Below
Base of 4 Diaphragm
cut Wall 2. 3 9. 0 229. 0 ) 10 ft. 2 ft. 7 ft.
(11All excavations 60 ft. deep; wall penetration 30 ft. (3hased on average S, within the depth of the excavation
below base of excavation.
r u s acing 10 ft. c/c; lowest strut 10 ft. above
(based on S, at base of excavation. (4k.set 0P excavation .
(5)
Assumed depth of penetration below base was 10 ft.
except one; the sheeting penetration was assumed to be 30 feet,
The exception was for Case 2 where, for one analysis, the PZ-38
sheeting penetration was assumed to be 10 feet to provide a compari-
son of the effect of sheeting penetration in stiff soils.
-124-
7. 67 The Use of the Finite Element Method in Design
-125-
Case 'i ' case 2 &se '3'
-126-
I
._. ---_- __.^.. -_-. ___-
-127-
x= /5: y= 0
= - /Q44
- - -
Gbc/bl 77/l
70)4*
/ I \
-131-
SUMMARY Ah!! CG?MPAHSON Of 77fEE c%5ES
--.. 1
/O IJand/ 1 , I /
\
\
I
-132-
CHAPTER 8 - STABILITY ANALYSIS OF SHEETED EXCAVATIONS
8.10 GENERAL
Of these modes, b). and c). are related to the overall stability of
the excavations. They often will dictate the procedures to be used
in constructing a cofferdam. These condi.tions of instability may
also result in heavier strut loading than predicted by the method
described in Chapter 5. An example of th.e potential for increased
loading if bottom heave occurs is described in Section 7. 50
-133-
I
I I a
I H &n I
II I T 1) I
I
I HEAVE
i
T \ \/
I
I /- ,I- - -
w--w--
s
t u
I
/
1 /
\ /l
\ -A 1 / /.
a) BOTTOM HEAVE FJULWE- -
. ROTATION
Qc FNTER
1134-
L* LENGTH OF TRENCH -
0 I 2 3
H/B
-13!j-
S N
F. S = Ncb ( = cb
YH+Uq N
where:
Figures 47a and 47b can be used to estimate when local failure is
imminent in cohesive soils where flexible sheeting is used The failure
is related to the shear strength (Su) and to -the initial state of stress
in the ground. Figure 47a shows the factor of safety against bottom
heave necessary to prevent local yield as a function of excavation
geometry and the shear stress ratio. The shear stress ratio (f) is
a convenient dimensionless parameter which defines the initial state of
-136-
I
CuRwiS PNlEmNED Fnou
RESULTS OP PINITE ELEMENT
cwPuTERPRcxMM-m&E
-
( FROM DAFIOLONI A. 1971)
-137-
stress in the ground and the strength of the soil. Figure 47b gives
the variation of the ratio (f) versus over consolidation ratio for Boston
Blue Clay.
8.40 DEEP
- SEATED
- - FAILURES
-138-
BRACED WITH EITHER
C R O S S L O T OR RAKED
e7m, ITCI
3
*COMPETENT
SOIL LAYER u
-140-
the minimum factor of safety against a rotational failure. The con-
ditions shown are for the case of a homogeneous soil where the driving
forces are the total weight of the soil mxss plus any surcharge loads.
Resisting forces consist of the strut loads (PL, P,), the shear strength
along the failure arc, and the shear capacity of the sheeting below
the failure arc. If the soil is stratified,then the stability analysis should
be made using the classical Method of Slices.
-141-
ACTIVE WEDGES
L-
Stratumv I 1%
(P Tt CT, T
PI
P2
WlV
5 itratum II
4 11 51 d TT
Stratum III
III9 %I Y III
For general solution varyd, 8, and&angles to obtain minimum value
for factor of safety.
Method of Analysis:
1. Assume o(, ,&, & angles.
2 . Sequentially analyze the active and passive segment for loads
P and P Include water pressure.
III V
3 . Sum forces in horizontal di rection for factor of safety
p1 +p2
i.e. F.S. =
pIII - p v
w.u
PI
v
<I
--9\P WI \
%+2 4 o*IT \
\P
(% :?I
\% P P = horizontal water pres sure
ij - - -\
wI wII
a
PI F u= uplift water force on Wedge II
-1421
8. 42 Tied-Back Walls
TzY T
C
XfY
where T c is the total force in the anchor. In cases where ties are
anchored in rock or belled anchors in highly competent soils are used,
the full tension force may be assumed since the failure surfaces will not
cut through these strata.
-143-
Safety Factor:
=R
F. S. = -
CM
0
-144-
CHAPTER 9 - BEARING PRESSURE OF DEEP FOUNDATIONS
9.10 GENERAL
9.31 General
-145-
Table 5. Abstract of presumptive bearing capacity, ksf.
A B C D E
Mass. State New York Atlanta National Board BOCA
Code (1974) City (1968) (1950) of Fire Under- (1970)
Glacial Till:: 20 -- -- -- --
Hardpan:: -- 16 - 24 20 20 20
Coarse sand+ 6 6 - 12 -- 6- 8l 6- 8l
Fine sand 2 -4 4- 83 -- 4- 6l --
Hard clay 10 10 -- -- --
Stiff clay -- -- 4 5 --
Medium clay 2 4 -- 5 --
*
Massachusetts and New York Code allow 5 percent increase in bearing value per foot of additional
embedment, but not more than twice tabulated value.
1 - Range reflects compactness, gradation, and/or silt content
2 - 0. 1 x N, but not less than 6 ksf nor more than 12 ksf (where N= no. of blows in SPT)
3 - 0. 1 x N, but not less than 4 ksf nor more than 8 ksf (where N= no. of blows in SPT)
9. 32 Sand
N = 58 (Veeic)
Q
= 75 (Berezantsev)
- 147-
1 I I I I 10
250 300 350 400 450 so0
ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION 4 -e
FROM VESIC (1965)
-148-
Thus, the ultimate bearing pressure will range from:
9.33 Clay
where:
net ultimate bearing capacity (load per
9, unit area)
N = dimensionless bearing capacity factor
c
that is a function of the shape of the loaded area
S undrained shear strength of soil
u
For deep foundations (at depth greater than 4 to 5 times
the breadth of the Loaded area) values of Nc are as follows:
Circle: N =9
c
Strip: N = 7.5
c
Rectangle: N = 7 . 5 (1 t 0 . 2 B / L )
c
where: B = breadth and
L - length
-149-
adhesion along the shaft. In soft clays, the adhesion is equal to or only
slightly less than the undrained shear strength. However, in stiff to
hard clays the adhesion is typically less than one-half the undrained
strength. Tomlinson (1969) presents a summary of data for adhesion
in both driven and bored piles.
S eff =o(s
U
where :
oc = reduction factor
where:
A = shaft area
9.41 General
-150-
0.8 2
0.6 I.5
d AVERAGE
0(x S
tsf
0.4 I
0.2 0.5
-151-
9.42 Soils Having Constant Modulus of Deformation with Depth
where:
/p = settlement
q = distributed load
E = modulus of deformation
9 = Poissons Ratio
k = Eq. 9.42. 2
p
And thus, the settlement is computed as follows:
Eq. 9. 42. 3
p=+-.
where:
-152-
The value of the coefficient of subgrade reaction is
commonly determined by plate loading tests or by correlation with in
situ soil indices such as relative density and standard penetration resis-
tance. By comparison of Eq. 9.42. 1 and 9.42.3, the coefficient of
subgrade reaction is related to the theoretical settlement as follows:
E
k =
B(1 - 9) Ip Eq. 9.42.4
kl
kB = B
Typical values for kl are shown in Figure 54.
=k (L+.5B/L) Eq .
k 9.42.6
LxB B I. 5
where:
-153-
FINE GRAINED SOIL
300
300
k, =COEFFlClENT OF SUBGRADE
REACTION FOR I FOOT
250 SQUARE BEARING PLATE d
AT GROUND SURFACE.
200
150 ~
100
GRAt NEd SOILS
50
IO 20 3% 40 50 60 40 Jo Jo loq
0
I VERY 1 LOOSE I MEDIUM DENSE 1 DENSE 1 oEENRsyE 1
LOOSE
COARSE GRAINED SOIL
-154-
This relation suggests that the subgrade modulus
for an infinitely Long footing approaches a value equal to 2/3 of that
for a square footing.
ks
B = -
I; Eq. 9.42.7
-
kD Is
B P
where:
S
= coefficient of subgrade reaction for a footing (breadth B)
33 at the surface.
-155-
1.0
LENGTH TO
BREADTH RATIO
0.9
vs
SHAPE FACTOR
0.8 FOR A CIRCLE OF
DIAMETER 8,G 0 . 8 9
0.7
TERZAGHI (1955)
ELASTIC THEORY
0 I I
0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0
L/B LENGTH TD BREADTH RATIO
DEPTH Fm
:LE
.05 g0.5)
\
K I
80
co
gkloy .I5
XII
Lo .?O
x .65
.60
.55
.50
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.0 I.0 0.0 46 \ 0.4 42
. K= II ,I
DEPTH, D RECTANSULAR AREAS FRDM FOX( l940)
. LxB = FOOTING DIMENSIONS CIRCULAR -S F- WOOD-0 ti al (lS72)
NOTE: THIS FlGURE BASED UPON THEORY WITH
CONSTANT MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
(DEFORMATIONJ
S u
9.43.1 r f a c e
Eq. 9.43. 1
-158-
A second method of evaluating the effect of increasing modulus
of deformation is to consider the coefficient of subgrade reaction to be
directly proportional to the initial tangent modulus Eit. Janbu (1963)
shows that Eit for granular soils is proportionaL to a power function of
stress Level. SpecificaLLy:
where:
cr3= It
a era1 stress (assumed to be effective Lateral stress)
ks
B = Eq. 9.43.4
FDG
n
ks
B = F Eq. 9.43.5
DG
D
kB
-159-
1.0
I
UJ P
YY
2 07.
0.9
BASED ON JANBU(l963)
%
J 0.5
z
$
(3 0.4
JANBU(1963)
1.0 too
-161-
9.44 Recommended Procedure for Determination of
Settlements of Deep Foundations
9.44.1 Clays
P,= q/k
where:
4 = load in tsf
P= settlement in feet
9.44.2 Sands
-162-
where:
kB
2
4t1
k4 = 200 r 8 3 = 78 tons/ft3
-163-
D/B = 30/4 = 7.5
from Figure 57
d) Settlement Computation
= q/k
P
20k/ft
4=- = 5 ksf
4ft
a) Determination of k
1
kl = 60 tons/ft3
-164-
c) Make correction for depth
JLfB,
=5+ = 1 . 6 7
FD= 0.64
e) Settlement Computation
p= q/k
J
45k
q = - = 5 ksf
9 ft.2
3
k = 31 tons/ft. = 62klft. 3
5
=- = . 0.08 = 1.0
P 62
-165-
Under a 4 foot wide load at 30 feet with the water
table at 10 feet.
- S
03 375
= - =0.17
-D 2190
a3
e) Settlement computation
-166-
b) Shape effect - None required for square footing.
= 1.0
Fs
F = 0. 85
D
2) Consider the effect of increasing modulus with
depth.
FS
k=36x = 36x I. 0
FDx FDG 0.85 x I. 0
3
k = 4 2 tons/ft.
e) Settlement computation
P= q/k
2
80 tons
q= = 3 . 2 tons/ft.
5x5
3.2
= - = 0.076 = 1. I
P 42
-167-
CHAPTER 10 - CONSTRUCTION MONITORING
10. 10 INTRODUCTION
10. 11 General
-168-
Legal: To establish a bank of data for possible
use in litigation
Research: To advance the state-of-the-art by
providing better future design data
10.3 1 General
10. 32 Instruments
-169-
Table 6. Steps for planning construction monitoring programs.
-170-
Table 7. Types of available instruments.
Surface movement of Optical survey for settlement Simple and direct. Care required to prevent
buildings and using settlement reference pin disturbance. Requires
adjacent ground points. reliable benchmark.
(horizontal and
vertical). Optical survey for horizontal Simple and direct. R equires immovable
movement, using offsets from reference stations.
Tilt using tidal quality Very precise, hence Expensive and complex.
resolution tiltmeters. give useful data in
short monitoring
Subsurface settle- Single or multi-point rod Simple and reliable. Rods can hang up within
merit of adjacent extensometer with mech- surrounding sleeves if
ground. anical readout. many anchors in one hole,
thereoy falsifying readings.
Requires manual access to
read (may create traffic
interference and danger to
reading personnel).
Single or multi-point embedded Can be read remotely, Rods can hang up. More prone
rod extensometer with elec- without traffic inter- to malfunction, damage and
trial readout. ference. vandalism than mechanical
Subsurface horizontal Horizontal or inclined Only few required to Expensive. Must relate to datum
movement of adjacent extensometer. locate zone of no for absolute movements.
ground. displacement.
Movement of soldier Optical survey. Simple and direct. Requires reliable benchmark
piles, sheet piles, and immovable reference
walers and diaphragm stations. No readings
walls (horizontal possible at depth until
and vertical). member exposed.
Inclinometer installed on Readings at all depths Not suitable for driven piles.
pile or in wall. available immediately For soldier piles, must install
after pile or wall inclinometer casing inside pipe
installation. for protection during pile install-
ation. Best to weld pipe and
install casing after pile is in
place.
-171-
Table 7. Types of available instruments. (Continued).
Movement of tieback During proof test: Dial gage, Simple and direct.
anchors. mounted on survey tripod.
After proof test: Sleeved Simple and direct. Measures only relative movement
unstressed telltale rod of soldier pile and anchor. Must
attached to anchor. relate to datum for good under-
standing of anchor load test.
Single or multi-point em- Precise. Cann connect Risk of electrical failure and
bedded rod extensometer with several sensors at damage during excavation.
electrical readout. different elevations to Bottom anchor must be deep
one anchor. Can enough to serve as benchmark.
become settlement Rage.
Load and stress in Mechanical strain gage. Inexpensive. Simple. Access problems. Many temper-
struts, soldier piles, Easy to install. ature corrections required.
sheet piles, walers Minimum damage Limited accuracy. Readings are
and diaphragm walls. potential. subjective.
Vibrating wire strain gage. Remote readout. Read- Expensive. Sensitive to temper-
out can be automated. ature, construction damage.
Potential for accurracy Requires substa. tial skill to
and reliability. Freq- install. Risk of Nero drift. Risk
quency signal permits of corrosion if not hermetically
data transmissionwer sealed.
long distances. Gages
-172-
Table 7. Types of available instruments. (Continued).
Backfiguring from strut load As for strain gages As for strain gages above.
measurements. above.
-173-
10. 33 Related Parameters
10.40 EXAMPLES
-174-
I
--k @
.4H
rt
2
.6H
SECTION A-A
.6H
LEGEND
0
SECTION A-A
LEGEND
10.51 General
-177-
The problem of thermaL response, in particular caused
by temperature differentiaL between gage and strut, and the problem
of zero drift remain the most severe. Estimates of long term zero
drift are necessary to judge the reliability of measurement. Individ-
dual gages set to different frequencies should be mounted on unloaded
sections of strut steel and monitored throughout the life of the project.
No-load gage readings should be taken after strut removal and then
compared with the initial no-load readings taken before strut installa-
t ion. Temperatures should be measured at the time of each recording,
and readings should be appropriately corrected on the basis of temper-
ature changes between the initial and subsequent values.
-178-
gage points must be rigidly attached,to the structural member, by
drilling into the member or by welding. Third, proper temperature
correction procedures must be used, taking into account thermal
coefficients of strut, gage, and gage reference bar.
-179-
a loaded condition. Readings can be examined for drift, and the cells
can be checked periodically by calibrating in the normal way. Second,
it may be possible to check and calibrate selected cells in place by
pulling a tie to unload the cell and then releasing the tie. For this test,
it is necessary to connect a calibrated load cell, in addition to the
stressing jack, in series with the cell under test.
-180-
Table 8. Contracting for instrumentation.
-182-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abbreviations:
-183-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
-184-
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-191-
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-192-
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-193-
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-194-
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-195-
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-196-
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-198-
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-199-
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-201-
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-205 -
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-zoq-
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