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Equipment Associated with Low-Temperature Systems

5.1. HEAT EXCHANGERS

A critical component in any low-temperature liquefaction and refrigeration system is the heat
exchanger. This point is readily demonstrated by considering the influence of heat exchanger
effectiveness on the liquid yield for a simple Joule-Thomson liquefaction process. For example, if the
working fl~id is nitrogen and the lower and upper pressure limits are 0.101 and 20.2 MPa, respectively,
the liquid yield under these conditions will be zero for an exchanger with an effectiveness less than 0.85.
Heat exchanger effectiveness in this context is defined as the ratio of the actual he at transferred to the
maximum he at that theoretically could have been transferred. Most cryogens behave as classical fluids
with the exception of helium II. Therefore, well-established principles of mechanics and
thermodynamics at room temperature also hold true for cryogens. Because of this, similar conventional
heat transfer correlations have been formulated for low-temperature designs of simple heat
exchangers, such as straight tubes, annuli, or single coils. These correlations are described in such well-
known dimensionless quantities as the Nusselt, Reynolds, Prandtl, and Grashof numbers. A few of these
correlations are presented in the text following the discussion of these simple he at exchangers.
However, because of the need to operate more efficiently at low temperatures, these simple he at
exchangers have generally been replaced by more sophisticated types. In fact, some of the more
important advances in cryogenic technology have been made in the development of very efficient, but
often complex types of heat exchangers. The following criteria provide some guidance in the
development of such units for low-temperature service:

1. Small temperature differences between inlet and exit streams to enhance efficiency.

2. Large surface area-to-volume ratio to minimize heat leak.

3. High heat transfer to reduce surface area.

4. Low mass to minimize start-up time.

5. Multi-channel capability to minimize the number of exchangers.

6. High-pressure capability to provide design flexibility.

7. Low or reasonable pressure drop to mlmmlze compression requirements, and

8. High reliability with minimal maintenance to reduce shutdowns.

Several problems occur in trying to minimize the temperature difference at the cold end of the heat
exchanger, particularly if the specific heat of the warm fluid decreases with decreasing temperature as is
the ca se with gaseous hydrogen. This heat exchange can produce a smaller temperature difference
between the warm and cold streams in the middle of the heat exchanger than at each end of the
exchanger, as shown in Fig. 5.1. The large difference that occurs at the cold end wastes refrigeration.
However, attempts to design the heat exchanger with a smaller temperature difference at the cold end
will probably end up violating the Second Law of thermodynamics and the heat exchanger would not
operate as specified. The exit temperature would eventually adjust themselves in order to maintain the
appropriate direction of heat flow within the heat exchanger. This problem can often be overcome by
adjusting the mass flow rates of the key stream into the heat exchanger. In other words, the capacity
rate is adjusted by controlling the mass flow rates, which offset the changes in specific heats. To
determine whether a temperature pinch will occur within an exchanger generally requires making
enthalpy balances in incremental steps proceeding from one end of the heat exchanger to the other.
The selection of an exchanger for low-temperature operation is usually determined by the process
design requirements, mechanical design limitations,

How does a cryogenic engine

work?
Jun 22, 2008, 02.23 AM IST
The cryogenic engine gets its name from the extremely cold temperature at
which liquid nitrogen is stored. Air moving around the vehicle is used to heat
liquid nitrogen to a boil. Once it boils, it turns to gas in the same way that
heated water forms steam in a steam engine. A rocket like the Ariane 5 uses
oxygen and hydrogen, both stored as a cryogenic liquid, to produce its power.
The liquid nitrogen, stored at -320 degrees Fahrenheit, is vaporized by the
heat exchanger. Nitrogen gas formed in the heat exchanger expands to about
700 times the volume of its liquid form. This highly pressurised gas is then fed
to the expander, where the force of the nitrogen gas is converted into
mechanical power.