Indian art

Indian art consists of a variety of art forms, including plastic arts (e.g., pottery sculpture), visual arts (e.g., paintings), and textile arts
(e.g., woven silk). Geographically, it spans the entire Indian subcontinent, including what is now India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and
eastern Afghanistan. A strong sense of design is characteristic of Indian art and can be observed in its modern and traditional forms.

The origin of Indian art can be traced to pre-historic Hominid settlements in the 3rd millennium BC. On its way to modern times,
Indian art has had cultural influences, as well as religious influences such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainismand Islam. In spite of this
complex mixture of religious traditions, generally, the prevailing artistic style at any time and place has been shared by the major
religious groups.

In historic art, sculpture in stone and metal, mainly religious, has survived the Indian climate better than other media and provides
most of the best remains. Many of the most important ancient finds that are not in carved stone come from the surrounding, drier
regions rather than India itself. Indian funeral and philosophic traditions exclude grave goods, which is the main source of ancient art
in other cultures.

Contents
1 Temporal history of Indian art
1.1 Early Indian art
1.1.1 Rock art
1.1.2 Indus Valley Civilization (c.5000 BCE c. 1500 BCE)
1.1.3 Mauryan art (c. 340 BCE c. 232 BCE)
1.1.4 Buddhist art (c. 1 CE c. 500 CE)
1.1.5 Gupta art (c. 320 CE c. 550 CE)
1.2 Middle Kingdoms and the Late Medieval period (c.600 CE c. 1300 CE)
1.2.1 Dynasties of South India (c.3rd century CE c. 1300 CE)
1.2.2 Temples of Khajuraho (c.800 CE c. 1000 CE)
1.3 Early Modern and Colonial Era (c.1400 CE c. 1800 CE)
1.3.1
Age of Rajput Kingdoms, Sultans, Vijaynagar Empire, Gajapatis, Ahoms, Mughals, Polygars, Mysore,
Marathas and Sikhs
1.3.2 British period (18411947)
1.4 Contemporary art (c.1900 CE-present)
1.5 Contextual Modernism
2 Material history of Indian art
2.1 Sculpture
2.2 Wall painting
2.3 Miniature painting
2.4 Jewellery
2.5 Other materials
3 Contextual history of Indian art
3.1 Temple art
3.2 Folk and tribal art
4 Art museums of India
4.1 Major cities
4.2 Archaeological museums
4.3 Modern art museums
4.4 Other museums
 5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links

Temporal history of Indian art

Early Indian art

Rock art
Rock art of India includes rock relief carvings, engravings and paintings. It is
estimated there are about 1300 rock art sites with over a quarter of a million figures
and figurines.[1] The earliest rock carvings in India were discovered by Archibald
Carlleyle, twelve years before the Cave of Altamira in Spain,[2] although his work
[3]
only came to light much later via J Cockburn (1899).

Dr. V. S. Wakankar discovered several painted rock shelters in Central India, situated
around the Vindhya mountain range. Of these, the Bhimbetka rock shelters have
Rock painting at one of the
been deemed a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[4] The paintings in these sites
Bhimbetka rock shelters
commonly depicted scenes of human life alongside animals, and hunts with stone
implements. Their style varied with region and age, but the most common
characteristic was a red wash made using a powdered mineral called geru, which is a form of Iron
Oxide (Hematite).[5]

For further details on the rock art of India, please seeSouth Asian Stone Age.

Indus Valley Civilization (c.5000 BCE c. 1500 BCE)

Despite its widespread and sophistication, the Indus Valley civilization seems to have taken no
interest in public large-scale art, unlike many other early civilizations. A number of gold,
terracotta and stone figurines of girls in dancing poses reveal the presence of some forms of
dance. Additionally, the terracotta figurines included cows, bears, monkeys, and dogs. The animal
depicted on a majority of seals at sites of the mature period has not been clearly identified. Part
bull, part zebra, with a majestic horn, it has been a source of speculation. As yet, there is
insufficient evidence to substantiate claims that the image had religious or cultic significance, but
the prevalence of the image raises the question of whether or not the animals in images of the IVC Replica of the "dancing
are religious symbols.[6] The most famous piece is the bronze Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-Daro, girl of Mohenjo Daro"
[7]
which shows remarkably advanced modeling of the human figure for this early date.

Seals have been found at Mohenjo-Daro depicting a figure standing on its head, and another sitting cross-legged in what some call a
yoga-like pose. This figure, sometimes known as a Pashupati, has been variously identified. Sir John Marshall identified a
resemblance to the Hindu god, Shiva.[8]

After the end of the Indus Valley Civilization, there is a surprising absence of art of any great degree of sophistication until the
ganic materials such as wood.[9]
Buddhist era. It is thought that this partly reflects the use of perishable or

Mauryan art (c.340 BCE c. 232 BCE)

 The north Indian Maurya Empire
flourished from 322 BCE to 185
BCE, and at its maximum extent
controlled all of the sub-continent
except the extreme south, and
introduced stone monumental
sculpture to India, though probably
drawing greatly on existing Indian
traditions in wood, as well as
The Pataliputra capital, an early influences from Ancient Persia,[10]
example of Mauryan stone sculpture, as shown by the Pataliputra capital.
displaying Persian and Hellenistic
influences. The emperor Ashoka, who died in
232 BCE, adopted Buddhism about
half-way through his 40-year reign,
and patronized several large stupas at key sites from the life of the Buddha, although
very little decoration from the Mauryan period survives, and there may not have
Single Lion capital at Vaishali.
been much in the first place. There is more from various early sites of Indian rock-
cut architecture. The most famous survivals are the large animals surmounting
several of the Pillars of Ashoka, which showed a confident and boldly mature style, though we have very few remains showing its
development.[11] The famous detached Lion Capital of Ashoka, with four animals, was adopted as the official Emblem of India after
Indian independence.[12] Many small popular terracotta figurines are recovered in archaeology, in a range of often vigorous if
somewhat crude styles.[13]

Buddhist art (c.1 CE c. 500 CE)

The major survivals of Buddhist art begin in the period after the Mauryans, from
which good quantities of sculpture survives from some key sites such as Sanchi,
Bharhut and Amaravati, some of which remain in situ, with others in museums in
India or around the world. Stupas were surrounded by ceremonial fences with four
profusely carved toranas or ornamental gateways facing the cardinal directions.
These are in stone, though clearly adopting forms developed in wood. They and the
walls of the stupa itself can be heavily decorated with reliefs, mostly illustrating the
lives of the Buddha. Gradually life-size figures were sculpted, initially in deep relief,
but then free-standing.[14] Mathura was the most important centre in this
development, which applied to Hindu and Jain art as well as Buddhist.[15] The
facades and interiors of rock-cut chaitya prayer halls and monastic viharas have
survived better than similar free-standing structures elsewhere, which were for long
mostly in wood. The caves at Ajanta, Karle, Bhaja and elsewhere contain early
sculpture, often outnumbered by later works such as iconic figures of the Buddha
and bodhisattvas, which are not found before 100 CE at the least.

Buddhism developed an increasing emphasis on statues of the Buddha, which

A monumental rock-cut cave, the
greatly influenced later Hindu and Jain religious figurative art, which were also
Great Chaitya at Karla caves, built
influenced by the Greco-Buddhist art of the centuries after the conquests of circa 120 CE.
Alexander the Great. This fusion developed in the far north-west of India, especially
Gandhara in modern Afghanistan and Pakistan.[16] The Buddhist Kushan Empire
spread from Central Asia to include northern India in the early centuries CE, and briefly commissioned large statues that were
portraits of the royal dynasty, a type of art that was otherwise wholly absent from India until theMughal miniature.[17]
Gupta art (c. 320 CE c. 550 CE)
The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak of north Indian art for all
the major religious groups. Although painting was evidently widespread, the
surviving works are almost all religious sculpture. The period saw the emergence of
the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art, as well as the Buddha-figure and Jain
tirthankara figures, these last often on a very large scale. The two great centers of
sculpture were Mathura and Gandhara, the latter the center ofGreco-Buddhist art.

Although the Gupta period marked the "golden age" of classical Hinduism,[18] the
early architectural style of Hindu temples is considered simple, consisting only of a
sanctum and a porch for the worshipper.[19] This is in stark contrast to the complex
plans with multiple shikaras (towers) and mandapas (halls) of various utility that
matured during the later part of this period.[20]

Meditating Buddha from theGupta

Middle Kingdoms and the Late Medieval period
era, 5th century CE.
(c. 600 CE c. 1300 CE)

Dynasties of South India (c.3rd century CE c. 1300 CE)

Inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka mention coexistence of the northern kingdoms with the triumvirate of Chola, Chera and Pandya
Tamil dynasties, situated south of the Vindhya mountains.[21] The medieval period witnessed the rise and fall of these kingdoms, in
conjunction with other kingdoms in the area. It is during the decline and resurgence of these kingdoms that Hinduism was renewed. It
fostered the construction of numerous temples and sculptures.

Dravidian art of South India

Cave 3 at the Badami cave Shore Temple of Youth in lotus pond, ceiling
temples (Early Chalukya Mamallapuram (Pallava fresco at Sittanvasal, 850
dynasty, c. 6th century CE) dynasty, 700728 CE) CE)
 Chola bronze sculpture of
Shiva as Nataraja, the Lord
of Dance

The Shore Temple at Mamallapuram constructed by the Pallavas symbolizes early Dravidian architecture, with its monolithic rock
relief and sculptures of Hindu deities. They were succeeded by Chola rulers who were prolific in their pursuit of the arts. The Great
Living Chola Temples of this period are known for their maturity, grandeur and attention to detail, and have been recognized as a
UNESCO Heritage Site.[22] The Chola period is also known for its bronze sculptures, the lost-wax casting technique and fresco
paintings. Thanks to the secular kings of the Chalukya dynasty, Jainism flourished alongside Hinduism, evidenced by the fourth of
the Badami cave temples being Jain instead of Vedic. The kingdoms of South India continued to rule their lands until the Muslim
invasions that established sultanates there.

Temples of Khajuraho (c.800 CE c. 1000 CE)

Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site,[23] the Khajuraho group of
monuments were constructed by the Chandela clan of the Rajput dynasties. Apart
from the usual Hindu temples, 10% of the sculptures depict twisted bodies of men
and women that shed light on the everyday socio-cultural and religious practices in
Medieval India. Ever since their discovery, the degree of sexuality depicted in these
sculptures has drawn both negative and positive criticism from scholars, ranging
from "the degeneration of the Hindu mind"[24][25] to "heavenly nymphs...elegantly
beautiful, full of sexual charm and vigor".[26]

Vishvanatha Temple, part of the

The Khajuraho temples were in active use under Hindu kingdoms, until the
Khajuraho group of monuments
establishment of the Delhi Sultanates of the 13th century. Under Muslim rule until
the 18th century, many of Khajuraho's monuments were destroyed, but a few ruins
still remain.

Early Modern and Colonial Era (c.1400 CE c. 1800 CE)

Age of Rajput Kingdoms, Sultans, Vijaynagar Empire, Gajapatis, Ahoms, Mughals, Polygars, Mysore, Marathas
and Sikhs
Although Islamic footholds in India were made as early as the first half of the 10th century, it wasn't until the Mughal Empire that
one observes emperors with a patronage for the fine arts. Emperor Humayun, during his reestablishment of the Delhi Sultanate in
1555, brought with himMir Sayyid Ali and Abd al-Samad, two of the finest painters fromPersian Shah Tahmasp's renowned atelier.

During the reign of Akbar (15561605), the number of painters grew from around 30 during the creation of the Hamzanama in the
mid-1560s, to around 130 by the mid 1590s.[27] According to court historian Abu'l-Fazal, Akbar was hands-on in his interest of the
arts, inspecting his painters regularly and rewarding the best.[28] It is during this time that Persian artists were attracted to bringing
their unique style to the empire. Indian elements were present in their works from the beginning, with the incorporation of local
Indian flora and fauna that were otherwise absent from the traditional Persian style. The paintings of this time reflected the vibrancy
and inclusion of Akbar's kingdom, with production of Persian miniatures, the Rajput paintings (including the Kangra school) and the
Pahari style of Northern India. They also influenced the Company style watercolor paintings created during the British rule many
years later.

Mughal art of Northern India (pre-1600) and its influences

 Krishna playing flute, ca.
Arghan Div Brings the Abu'l-Fazl presenting 17901800, Guler/Kangra
Chest of Armor to Hamza, Akbarnama to Akbar. region. Opaque watercolor
from Volume 7 of the Mughal miniature. and gold on paper.
Hamzanama, supervised by
Samad, ca. 15621577.
Opaque watercolor and
gold on cotton.

Jama Masjid, Delhi, Willam

Carpenter, 1852.
Watercolor.

With the death of Akbar, his son Jahangir (16051627) took the throne. He preferred each painter work on a single piece rather than
the collaboration fostered during Akbar's time. This period marks the emergence of distinct individual styles, notably Bishan Das,
Manohar Das, Abu al-Hasan, Govardhan, and Daulat.[29] The Razmnama (Persian translation of the Hindu epicMahabharata) and an
illustrated memoir of Jahangir, named Tuzuk-i Jahangiri, were created under his rule. Jahangir was succeeded by Shah Jahan (1628
1658), whose most notable architectural contribution is the Taj Mahal. Paintings under his rule were more formal, featuring court
scenes, in contrast to the personal styles from his predecessor's time. Aurangzeb (16581707), who held increasingly orthodox Sunni
beliefs, forcibly took the throne from his father Shah Jahan. With a ban of music and painting in 1680, his reign saw the decline of
Mughal patronage of the arts.

Mughal art of Northern India (post-1600)

 Jahangir in Darbar, from the Portrait of the emperor Southern view of the Taj
Jahangir-nama, c. 1620. Shah Jahan, enthroned. ca. Mahal, captured 2012.
Gouache on paper. 17th century.

A durbar scene with the

newly crowned Emperor
Aurangzeb.

Meanwhile, in South-Central India, during the late fifteenth century after the Middle kingdoms, the Bahmani sultanate disintegrated
into the Deccan sultanates centered at Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar. They developed unique techniques of metal
casting, stone carving, and painting, as well as a distinctive architectural style with the addition of citadels and tombs. For instance,
the Baridi dynasty (15041619) of Bidar saw the invention of bidri ware, which was first cast from an alloy of zinc mixed with
copper, tin, and lead and inlaid with silver or brass, then covered with a mud paste containing sal ammoniac, which turned the base
metal black, highlighting the color and sheen of the inlaid metal. Only after the Mughal conquest of Ahmadnagar in 1600 did the
Persian influence patronized by the Turco-Mongol Mughals begin to affect Deccan art.

Deccan art of South-Central India

The Char Minar mosque in The Gol Gumbaz Portrait of Abu'l Hasan, the
Hyderabad. Completed in mausoleum in Bijapur, Last Sultan of Golconda.
1591. Karnataka. Completed in ca. late 17thearly 18th
1656. century.
 Chand Bibi hawking, an
18th-century Deccan
painting, gouache
heightened with gold on
paper.

British period (18411947)

British colonial rule had a great impact on Indian art. Old patrons of art became less wealthy and influential, and Western art more
ubiquitous as the British Empire established schools of art in major cities, e.g. the Bombay Art Society in 1888. The Company style
of paintings became common, created by Indian artists working for European patrons of the East India Company. The style was
mainly Romanticized, with watercolor the primary medium used to convey soft textures and tones.[30] By 1858, the British
government took over the task of administration of India under the British Raj. The fusion of Indian traditions with European style at
this time is evident fromRaja Ravi Varma's oil paintings of sari-clad women in a graceful manner.

Pre-independence Indian art

Company painting by Dip Tipu's Tiger, an 18th- Shakuntala by Raja Ravi

Chand (c. 1760 c. 1764) century automata with its Varma (1870). Oil on
depicting an official of the keyboard visible. Victoria canvas.
East India Company and Albert Museum,
London.

Asoka's Queen by
Abanindranath Tagore
(c. 1910).
Chromoxylograph.

With the Swadeshi Movement gaining momentum by 1905, Indian artists attempted to resuscitate the cultural identities suppressed by
the British, rejecting the Romanticized style of the Company paintings and the mannered work of Raja Ravi Varma and his followers.
Thus was created what is known today as the Bengal School of Art, led by the reworked Asian styles (with an emphasis on Indian
nationalism) of Abanindranath Tagore (18711951), who has been referred to as the father of Modern Indian art.[31] Other artists of
the Tagore family, such as Rabindranath Tagore (18611941) and Gaganendranath Tagore (18671938) as well as new artists of the
early 20th century such asAmrita Sher-Gil (19131941) were responsible for introducing Avant-garde western styles into Indian Art.
Many other artists like Jamini Roy and later S.H. Raza took inspiration from folk traditions. In 1944, K.C.S. Paniker founded the
Progressive Painters' Association (PPA) thus giving rise to the "madras movement" in art.[32]

Contemporary art (c.1900 CE-present)

In 1947, India became independent of British rule. A group of six artists - K. H. Ara,
S. K. Bakre, H. A. Gade, M.F. Husain, S.H. Raza and Francis Newton Souza -
founded the Bombay Progressive Artists' Group in the year 1952, to establish new
ways of expressing India in the post-colonial era. Though the group was dissolved in
1956, it was profoundly influential in changing the idiom of Indian art. Almost all
India's major artists in the 1950s were associated with the group. Some of those who
are well-known today are Bal Chabda, Manishi Dey, V. S. Gaitonde, Krishen
Khanna, Ram Kumar, Tyeb Mehta, K. G. Subramanyan, A. Ramachandran,
Devender Singh, Akbar Padamsee, John Wilkins, Himmat Shah and Manjit
Bawa.[33] Present-day Indian art is varied as it had been never before. Among the
best-known artists of the newer generation include Bose Krishnamachari and Bikash
Bhattacharya. Another prominent Pakistani modernist was Ismail Gulgee, who after
about 1960 adopted an abstract idiom that combines aspects of Islamic calligraphy
with an abstract expressionist (or gestural abstractionist) sensibility.

Painting and sculpture remained important in the later half of the twentieth century, View of a village colored streetby
S.H. Raza (1948). Watercolor and
though in the work of leading artists such as Nalini Malani, Subodh Gupta,
gouache.
Narayanan Ramachandran, Vivan Sundaram, Jitish Kallat, they often found radical
new directions. Bharti Dayal has chosen to handle the traditional Mithila painting in
most contemporary way and created her own style through the exercises of her own imagination, they appear fresh and unusual.

The increase in discourse about Indian art, in English as well as vernacular Indian languages, changed the way art was perceived in
the art schools. Critical approach became rigorous; critics like Geeta Kapur, R. Siva Kumar,[34][35] Shivaji K. Panikkar, Ranjit
Hoskote, amongst others, contributed to re-thinking contemporary art practice in India.

Contextual Modernism
The year 1997 bore witness to two parallel gestures of canon formation. On the one hand, the influential Baroda Group, a coalition
whose original members included Vivan Sundaram, Ghulam Mohammed Sheikh, Bhupen Khakhar, and Nalini Malaniand which
had left its mark on history in the form of the 1981 exhibition Place for Peoplewas definitively historicized in 1997 with the
publication of Contemporary Art in Baroda, an anthology of essays edited by Sheikh. On the other hand, the art historian R. Siva
Kumars benchmark exhibition and related publication, A Contextual Modernism, restored the Santiniketan artistsRabindranath
Tagore, Nandalal Bose, Benode Behari Mukherjee, and Ramkinkar Baijto their proper place as the originators of an indigenously
achieved yet transcultural modernism in the 1930s, well before the Progressives composed their manifesto in the late 1940s. Of the
Santiniketan artists, Siva Kumar observed that they reviewed traditional antecedents in relation to the new avenues opened up by
cross-cultural contacts. They also saw it as a historical imperative. Cultural insularity, they realized, had to give way to eclecticism
and cultural impurity.[36]

The idea of Contextual Modernism emerged in 1997 from R. Siva Kumar's Santiniketan: The Making of a Contextual Modernism as
a postcolonial critical tool in the understanding of an alternative modernism in the visual arts of the erstwhile colonies like India,
specifically that of the Santiniketan artists.

Several terms includingPaul Gilroys counter culture of modernity and Tani Barlow's Colonial modernity have been used to describe
the kind of alternative modernity that emerged in non-European contexts. Professor Gall argues that Contextual Modernism is a
more suited term because the colonial in colonial modernity does not accommodate the refusal of many in colonized situations to
internalize inferiority. Santiniketans artist teachers refusal of subordination
incorporated a counter vision of modernity, which sought to correct the racial and
cultural essentialism that drove and characterized imperial Western modernity and
modernism. Those European modernities, projected through a triumphant British
colonial power, provoked nationalist responses, equally problematic when they
incorporated similar essentialisms.[37]

According to R. Siva Kumar "The Santiniketan artists were one of the first who
consciously challenged this idea of modernism by opting out of both internationalist
modernism and historicist indigenousness and tried to create a context sensitive
modernism."[38] He had been studying the work of the Santiniketan masters and
thinking about their approach to art since the early 80s. The practice of subsuming
art historian R. Siva Kumar
Nandalal Bose, Rabindranath Tagore, Ram Kinker Baij and Benode Behari
Mukherjee under the Bengal School of Art was, according to Siva Kumar,
misleading. This happened because early writers were guided by genealogies of apprenticeship rather than their styles, worldviews,
and perspectives on art practice.[38]

Architecture.[39]
Contextual Modernismin the recent past has found its usage in other related fields of studies, specially in

Material history of Indian art

Sculpture
The first known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent is from the Indus Valley
civilization (33001700 BC), found in sites at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa in
modern-day Pakistan. These include the famous small bronze male dancer. However
such figures in bronze and stone are rare and greatly outnumbered by pottery
figurines and stone seals, often of animals or deities very finely depicted. After the
collapse of the Indus Valley civilization there is little record of sculpture until the
Buddhist era, apart from a hoard of copper figures of (somewhat controversially) c.
1500 BCE from Daimabad.[40] Thus the great tradition of Indian monumental
sculpture in stone appears to begin relatively late, with the reign ofAshoka from 270
to 232 BCE, and the Pillars of Ashoka he erected around India, carrying his edicts
and topped by famous sculptures of animals, mostly lions, of which six survive.[41]
Large amounts of figurative sculpture, mostly in relief, survive from Early Buddhist
pilgrimage stupas, above all Sanchi; these probably developed out of a tradition
using wood that also embraced Hinduism.[42] Indeed, wood continued to be the
main sculptural and architectural medium in Kerala throughout all historic periods
Chola bronze statue of Nataraja at
until recent decades.[43] the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York City
During the 2nd to 1st century BCE in far northernIndia, in the Greco-Buddhist art of
Gandhara from what is now southern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, sculptures
became more explicit, representing episodes of the Buddhas life and teachings. Although India had a long sculptural tradition and a
mastery of rich iconography, the Buddha was never represented in human form before this time, but only through some of his
symbols. This may be because Gandharan Buddhist sculpture in modern Afghanistan displays Greek and Persian artistic influence.
Artistically, the Gandharan school of sculpture is said to have contributed wavy hair, drapery covering both shoulders, shoes and
sandals, acanthus leaf decorations, etc.
The pink sandstone Hindu, Jain and Buddhist sculptures of Mathura from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE reflected both native Indian
traditions and the Western influences received through the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, and effectively established the basis for
subsequent Indian religious sculpture.[42] The style was developed and diffused through most of India under the Gupta Empire (c.
320-550) which remains a "classical" period for Indian sculpture, covering the earlier Ellora Caves,[44] though the Elephanta Caves
are probably slightly later.[45] Later large scale sculpture remains almost exclusively religious, and generally rather conservative,
often reverting to simple frontal standing poses for deities, though the attendant spirits such as apsaras and yakshi often have
sensuously curving poses. Carving is often highly detailed, with an intricate backing behind the main figure in high relief. The
celebrated lost wax bronzes of the Chola dynasty (c. 8501250) fromsouth India, many designed to be carried in processions, include
the iconic form of Shiva as Nataraja,[46] with the massive granite carvings of Mahabalipuram dating from the previous Pallava
dynasty.[47] The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes.[48] Among the existing specimens in the various
museums of the world and in the temples of South India may be seen many fine figures of Siva in various forms, Vishnu and his wife
Lakshmi, Siva saints and many more.[49]

Wall painting
The tradition and methods of Indian cliff painting gradually evolved throughout
many thousands of years - there are multiple locations found with prehistoric art.
The early caves included overhanging rock decorated with rock-cut art and the use
of natural caves during the Mesolithic period (6000 BCE). Their use has continued
in some areas into historic times.[50] The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka are on the
edge of the Deccan Plateau where deep erosion has left huge sandstone outcrops.
The many caves and grottos found there contain primitive tools and decorative rock
paintings that reflect the ancient tradition of human interaction with their landscape,
an interaction that continues to this day.[51]

The oldest surviving frescoes of the historical period have been preserved in the
Ajanta Caves with Cave 10 having some from the 1st century CE, though the larger
and more famous groups are from the 5th century. Despite climatic conditions that
tend to work against the survival of older paintings, in total there are known more
than 20 locations in India with paintings and traces of former paintings of ancient
and early medieval times (up to the 8th to 10th centuries CE),[52] although these are
just a tiny fraction of what would have once existed. The most significant frescoes of
Fresco from the Ajanta Caves, c.
the ancient and early medieval period are found in the Ajanta, Bagh, Ellora, and
450-500
Sittanavasal caves, the last being Jain of the 7th-10th centuries. Although many
show evidence of being by artists mainly used to decorating palaces, no early secular
wall-paintings survive.[53]

The Chola fresco paintings were discovered in 1931 within the circumambulatory passage of the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur,
Tamil Nadu, and are the first Chola specimens discovered. Researchers have discovered the technique used in these frescoes. A
smooth batter of limestone mixture is applied over the stones, which took two to three days to set. Within that short span, such large
paintings were painted with natural organic pigments. During the Nayak period the Chola paintings were painted over. The Chola
frescoes lying underneath have an ardent spirit of saivism is expressed in them. They probably synchronised with the completion of
the temple by Rajaraja Cholan the Great.

Kerala mural painting has well-preserved fresco or mural or wall painting in temple walls in Pundarikapuram, Ettumanoor and
Aymanam and elsewhere.

Miniature painting
Although no Indian miniatures survive from before about 1000 CE, and few from
the next few centuries, there was probably a considerable tradition. Those that
survive are initially illustrations for Buddhist texts, later followed by Jain and Hindu
equivalents, and the decline of Buddhist as well as the vulnerable support material of
the palm-leaf manuscript probably explain the rarity of early examples.[54]

Mughal painting in miniatures on paper developed very quickly in the late 16th
century from the combined influence of the existing miniature tradition and artists
trained in the Persian miniature tradition imported by the Mughal Emperor's court.
New ingredients in the style were much greater realism, especially in portraits, and
[55]
an interest in animals, plants and other aspects of the physical world.

Miniatures either illustrated books or were single works for muraqqas or albums of
painting and Islamic calligraphy. The style gradually spread in the next two
centuries to influence painting on paper in both Muslim and Hindu princely courts,
developing into a number of regional styles often called "sub-Mughal", including
Kangra painting and Rajput painting, and finally Company painting, a hybrid
watercolour style influenced by European art and largely patronized by the people of
Akbar riding the elephant Hawa'I
the British raj. From the 19th century Western-style easel paintings became
pursuing another elephant
increasingly painted by Indian artists trained in Government art schools.

Jewellery
The Indian subcontinent has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery-making,
with a history of over 5,000 years.[56] Using jewellery as a store of capital remains
more common in India than in most modern societies, and gold appears always to
have been strongly preferred for the metal. India and the surrounding areas were
important sources of high-quality gemstones, and the jewellery of the ruling class is
typified by using them lavishly. One of the first to start jewellery-making were the
people of the Indus Valley Civilization. Early remains are few, as they were not
buried with their owners.

Pair of gold earrings, 1st century
BCE, Andhra Pradesh.
Other materials
Wood was undoubtedly extremely important, but rarely survives long in the Indian
climate. Organic animal materials such as ivory or bone were discouraged by the
Dharmic religions, although Buddhist examples exist, such as the Begram ivories,
many of Indian manufacture, but found in Afghanistan, and some relatively modern
carved tusks. In Muslim settings they are more common.

Contextual history of Indian art

Temple art
Obscurity shrouds the period between the decline of the Harappans and the definite historic period starting with the Mauryas, and in
the historical period, the earliest Indian religion to inspire major artistic monuments was Buddhism. Though there may have been
earlier structures in wood that have been transformed into stone structures, there are no physical evidences for these except textual
references. Soon after the Buddhists initiated rock-cut caves, Hindus and Jains started to imitate them at Badami, Aihole, Ellora,
Salsette, Elephanta, Aurangabad and Mamallapuram and Mughals. It appears to be a constant in Indian art that the different religions
shared a very similar artistic style at any particular period and place, though naturally adapting the iconography to match the religion
commissioning them.[57] Probably the same groups of artists worked for the dif
ferent religions regardless of their own affiliations.

Buddhist art first developed during the Gandhara period and Amaravati Periods
around the 1st century BCE. It flourished greatly during the Gupta Periods and Pala
Periods that comprise the Golden Age of India. Although the most glorious art of
these Indian empires was mostly Buddhist in nature, subsequently Hindu Empires
like the Pallava, Chola, Hoysala and Vijayanagara Empires developed their own
styles of Hindu art as well.

There is no time line that divides the creation of rock-cut temples and free-standing
temples built with cut stone as they developed in parallel. The building of free-
standing structures began in the 5th century, while rock-cut temples continued to be
excavated until the 12th century. An example of a free-standing structural temple is
the Shore Temple, a part of the Mahabalipuram World Heritage Site, with its slender
tower, built on the shore of the Bay of Bengal with finely carved granite rocks cut
like bricks and dating from the 8th century.[58][59]

Folk and tribal art

Folk and tribal art in India takes on different manifestations through varied media
such as pottery, painting, metalwork,[60] paper-art, weaving and designing of objects
such as jewellery and toys. These are not just aesthetic objects but in fact have an
important significance in people's lives and are tied to their beliefs and rituals. The
objects can range from sculpture, masks (used in rituals and ceremonies), paintings,
textiles, baskets, kitchen objects, arms and weapons, and the human body Indian art also found its way into Italy,
itself(Tattoos and piercings). There is a deep symbolic meaning that is attached to within the context of Indo-Roman
trade: in 1938 the Pompeii Lakshmi
not only the objects themselves but also the materials and techniques used to
was found in the ruins ofPompeii
produce them.
(destroyed in an eruption ofMount
Vesuvius in 79 CE).
Often puranic gods and legends are transformed into contemporary forms and
familiar images. Fairs, festivals, local heroes (mostly warriors) and local deities play
a vital role in these arts. Example : Nakashi art from Telangana or Cherial Scroll
Painting.

Folk art also includes the visual expressions of the wandering nomads. This is the art
of people who are exposed to changing landscapes as they travel over the valleys
and highlands of India. They carry with them the experiences and memories of
different spaces and their art consists of the transient and dynamic pattern of life.
The rural, tribal and arts of the nomads constitute the matrix of folk expression.
Examples of folk arts are Warli, Madhubani Art, Manjusha Art, Tikuli Art and Gond
etc..

While most tribes and traditional folk artist communities are assimilated into the
familiar kind of civilised life, they still continue to practice their art. Unfortunately
though, market and economic forces have ensured that the numbers of these artists
Vernacular painting traditions in India
are dwindling.[61][62] A lot of effort is being made by various NGOs and the
Government of India to preserve and protect these arts and to promote them. Several
scholars in India and across the world have studied these arts and some valuable scholarship is available on them.

The folk spirit has a tremendous role to play in the development of art and in the overall consciousness of indigenous cultures.
Art museums of India

Major cities
National Museum, New Delhi
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya (CSMVS), Mumbai
(formerly Prince of Wales Museum of Western India)
Indian Museum, Kolkata
Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad
Government Museum (Bangalore)
Government Museum, Chennai

National Museum, New Delhi

Archaeological museums
AP State Archaeology Museum, Hyderabad
Archaeological Museum, Thrissur
City Museum, Hyderabad
Government Museum, Mathura
Government Museum, Tiruchirappalli
Hill Palace, Tripunithura,Ernakulam
Odisha State Museum, Bhubaneswar
Patna Museum
Pazhassi Raja Archaeological Museum, Kozhikode Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai
Sanghol Museum
Sarnath Museum
State Archaeological Gallery, Kolkata
Victoria Jubilee Museum, Vijayawada

Modern art museums

National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi- established 1954.
National Gallery of Modern Art, Mumbai- established 1996.
National Gallery of Modern Art, Bangalore- inaugurated 2009.
Kolkata Museum of Modern Art- foundation laid in 2013.
Utsav Rock Garden, Karnataka Indian Museum, Kolkata

Other museums
Albert Hall Museum, Jaipur
Allahabad Museum
Asutosh Museum of Indian Art, Kolkata
Baroda Museum & Picture Gallery
Goa State Museum, Panaji
Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram
National Handicrafts and Handlooms Museum, New Delhi
Sanskriti Museums, Delhi Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad
Watson Museum, Rajkot

See also
Santiniketan School of Art
Indian painting
 Indian architecture

Indian vernacular architecture

Crafts of India
Rasa (art)
Bengal school of art

Notes
Government Museum, Chennai
1. Jagadish Gupta (1996).Pre-historic Indian Painting(https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=H8zpAAAAMAAJ). North Central Zone Cultural Centre.
2. Shiv Kumar Tiwari (1 January 2000).Riddles of Indian Rockshelter
Paintings (https://books.google.com/books?id=-jO0fvT4r9gC&pg=P A8).
Sarup & Sons. pp. 8.ISBN 978-81-7625-086-3.
3. Cockburn, John (1899)."Art. V.Cave Drawings in the Kaimr Range,
North-West Provinces." (http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S003586
9X00026113). Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain &
Ireland (New Series). Cambridge Univ Press.31 (01): 8997.
doi:10.1017/S0035869X00026113(https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS003586
9X00026113). Retrieved 6 November 2014.
4. "Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka"(http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/925).
UNESCO World Heritage Convention. UNESCO. 2003. Retrieved
12 November 2014.
5. Pathak, Dr. Meenakshi Dubey. "Indian Rock Art - Prehistoric Paintings of
the Pachmarhi Hills" (http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/india/pachma
rhi/index.php). Bradshaw Foundation. Retrieved 7 November 2014.
6. Keay, John, India, a History. New York: Grove Press, 2000.
7. Harle, 15-19
8. Marshall, Sir John. Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilisation, 3 vols,
London: Arthur Probsthain, 1931
9. Harle, 19-20
10. Harle, 22-28
11. Harle, 22-26
12. State Emblem (http://www.india.gov.in/knowindia/national_symbols.php?
id=9) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120511134823/http://ww
w.india.gov.in/knowindia/national_symbols.php?id=9)May 11, 2012, at
the Wayback Machine., Know India india.gov.in
13. Harle, 39-42
14. Harle, 105-117, 26-47
15. Harle, 59-70
16. Harle, 105-117, 71-84 on Gandhara
17. Harle, 68-70 (but see p. 253 for another exception)
18. Michaels, Axel (2004).Hinduism: Past and Present(https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=PD-flQMc1ocC&pg=PR4). Princeton University Press.
p. 40. ISBN 0-691-08953-1.
19. Alles, Gregory D. (November 1993). "A Fitting Approach to God: On
Entering the Western Temples at Khajurho".History of Religions. 33
(2): 161186. JSTOR 1062933 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062933).
doi:10.1086/463362 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F463362).
20. Saini, Shilpi (29 December 2012)."The Representation of Women in the
Erotic Sculptures of Khajuraho"(http://www.academia.edu/2408684/Shil
pi_Saini-_The_Representation_of_Women_in_the_Erotic_Sculptures_of
_Khajuraho). academia.edu. School of Arts and Aesthetics, Jawaharlal
Nehru University. Retrieved 8 November 2014.
21. Dhammika, Ven. S. (1994). "The Edicts of King Ashoka (an English
rendering)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140328144411/http://www .c
s.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html). DharmaNet International.
Archived from the original (http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashok
a.html) on March 28, 2014. Retrieved 22 November 2014. "... Beloved-
of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's domain, and among the people beyond the
borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, ..."
22. "Great Living Chola Temples" (http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/250).
UNESCO. 1987. Retrieved 22 November 2014.
23. "Khajuraho Group of Monuments"(http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/240).
UNESCO World Heritage List. UNESCO. 1986. Retrieved 8 November
2014.
24. Panikkar, K. M. (1955). "Presidential Address". Indian History Congress.
18th Session. Calcutta.
25. Dehejia, Vidya (1997). Representing the Body: Gender Issues in Indian
Art (https://books.google.com/books?id=g72fAAAAMAAJ) . Delhi: Kali for
Women (Women Unlimited). ISBN 978-81-85107-32-5.
26. Ritu (13 January 2014)."Feminine Beauty in Khajuraho Temples, India"
(http://www.isca.in/IJSS/Archive/v3/i1/8.ISCA-IRJSS-2013-206.pdf)
(PDF). International Research Journal of Social Sciences
. 3 (1): 3537.
ISSN 2319-3565 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2319-3565). Retrieved
8 November 2014.
27. Seyller, John (1987). "Scribal Notes on Mughal Manuscript Illustrations".
Artibus Asiae. 48 (3/4): 247277. JSTOR 3249873 (https://www.jstor.or
g/stable/3249873).
28. Fazl, Abul (1927). Ain-i Akbari. Translated by H Blochmann. Asiatic
Society of Bengal.
29. "Daulat" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/152389/Daulat).
Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
30. George Michell; Catherine Lampert; Tristram Holland (1982). In the
Image of Man: The Indian Perception of the Universe Through 2000
Years of Painting and Sculpture(https://books.google.com/books?id=evt
IAQAAIAAJ). Alpine Fine Arts Collection.ISBN 978-0-933516-52-6.
31. Hachette India (25 October 2013).Indiapedia: The All-India Factfinder(h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=TCEY AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT130).
Hachette India. pp. 130.ISBN 978-93-5009-766-3.
32. "For arts sake" (http://www.hindu.com/mp/2009/02/12/stories/20090212
51330400.htm). The Hindu. February 12, 2009. Retrieved Nov 23, 2014.
33. "Showcase Artists Collectives"(http://ngmaindia.gov.in/sh-pag.asp).
National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi. 2012-11-09 . Retrieved
2014-11-23.
34. http://ngmaindia.gov.in/benodebehari_late.asp
35. http://asiasociety.org/arts/asia-society-museum/past-
exhibitions/rabindranath-tagore-last-harvest
36. http://www.nyu.edu/greyart/publications/AbbyGreyAndIndianModernism_GreyNYU_20150116.pdf
37. http://www.huichawaii.org/assets/gall,-david---overcoming-polarized-
modernities.pdf
38. http://humanitiesunderground.org/all-the-shared-experiences-of-the-
lived-world-ii/
39. http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2:444711
40. Harle, 1720
41. Harle, 2224
42. Harle, 2638
43. Harle, 342-350
44. Harle, 87; his Part 2 covers the period
45. Harle, 124
46. Harle, 301-310, 325-327
47. Harle, 276284
48. Chopra. et al., p. 186.
49. Tri. [Title needed]. p. 479.
50. "Prehistoric Rock Art" (http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/bhi1.ht
ml). art-and-archaeology.com. Retrieved 2006-10-17.
51. "Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka"(http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_
site=925). Retrieved 2006-12-20.
52. "Ancient and medieval Indian cave paintings - Internet encyclopedia"(htt
p://www.wondermondo.com/Best/As/IndMedCavePaint.htm).
Wondermondo. 2010-06-10. Retrieved 2010-06-04.
53. Harle, 355
54. Harle, 361-366
55. Harle, 372-382
56. Untracht, Oppi. Traditional Jewelry of India. New York: Abrams, 1997
ISBN 0-8109-3886-3. p15.
57. Harle, 59
58. Thapar, Binda (2004). Introduction to Indian Architecture. Singapore:
Periplus Editions. pp. 3637, 51.ISBN 0-7946-0011-5.
59. "Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent"(http://www.indoarch.org/arch_t
hr_ages.php). Retrieved 2006-12-21.
60. dhokra art (http://www.indiansculptor.net/index.htm)
61. GVSS, Gramin Vikas Seva Sanshtha (12 June 2011). "Evaluation Study
of Tribal/Folk Arts and Culture in West Bengal, Orissa, Jharkhand,
Chhatisgarh and Bihar"(http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/serepo
rt/ser/ser_folk2211.pdf)(PDF). Planning Commission. Socio-Economic
Research (SER) Division, Planning Commission, Govt. of India New
Delhi. p. 53. Retrieved 2 March 2015. "... globalization has triggered the
emergence of a synthetic macro-culture...is gaining popularity day by
day and silently engineering the gradual attrition of tribal/folk art and
culture."
62. "Decline of tribal and folk arts lamented"(https://web.archive.org/web/20
150302045047/http://archive.deccanherald.com/Content/Jul32008/distri
ct2008070276661.asp). Deccan Herald. Gudibanda, Karnataka, India. 3
July 2008. Archived fromthe original (http://archive.deccanherald.com/C
ontent/Jul32008/district2008070276661.asp)on 2 March 2015.
Retrieved 2 March 2015. "In the wave of electronic media, our ... ancient
culture and tribal art have been declining, ..., said folklore researcher J
Srinivasaiah."

References
 Harle, J.C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican
History of Art, ISBN 0300062176
Harsha V. Dehejia, The Advaita of Art (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000,ISBN 81-208-1389-8), p. 97
Kapila Vatsyayan, Classical Indian Dance in Literature and the Arts(New Delhi: Sangeet Natak Akademi, 1977), p. 8
Mitter, Partha. Indian Art (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001,ISBN 0-19-284221-8)

Further reading
Gupta, S. P., & Asthana, S. P. (2007). Elements of Indian art: Including temple architecture, iconography &
iconometry. New Delhi: Indraprastha Museumof Art and Archaeology.
Gupta, S. P., & Shastri Indo-Canadian Institute. (2011). The roots of Indian art: A detailed study of the formative
period of Indian art and architecture, third and second centuries B.C., Mauryan and late Mauryan. Delhi: B.R.
Publishing Corporation.
Abanindranath Tagore (1914). Some Notes on Indian Artistic Anatomy. Indian Society of Oriental Art, Calcutta.
Kossak, Steven (1997).Indian court painting, 16th-19th century .. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
ISBN 0870997831. (see index: pages 148-152)
Lerner, Martin (1984). The flame and the lotus: Indian and Southeast Asian art from the Kronos collections . New
York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.ISBN 0870993747. fully online
Smith, Vincent A. (1930). A History Of Fine Art In India And Ceylon. The Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Welch, Stuart Cary (1985).India: art and culture, 1300-1900. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
ISBN 9780944142134. fully online

External links
India Paintings
India: The Living Arts - The Canadian Museum of Civilization
Central Indian pictures, Garhwal painting, Kangra painting, Mughal painting
Manjusha Art

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