An Introduction to GreekEpigraphy

of the Hellenisticand Roman Periodsfrom

Alexanderthe Great down to the Reign
of Constantine(323s.c.-A.D.337)

B. H. McLean

THE UNIVERSITYOF M1CHICAN PRESS

Ann Arbor

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Copyright @ by the University of Michigan 2002
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Mclean, B. Hudson
An introduction to Greek epigraphy of the Hellenistic and Roman
periods from Alexander
the Great down to the reign of Constantine(323 s.c._n.o.337)/B.H.McLean.
p' cm.
Includes bibliographical references(p.
) and indexes.
ISBN 0-472-l 1238-4(acid-freepaper)
l. Inscriptions, Greek. 2. Greece-Antiquities. 3. Greece_History_To 146 o.c.
4. Greece-History-146 s.c.-323 t.o. I. Title
cN350.M3s 2002
938'.08-dc2l
2002020289
 I Admowledgments

It is my pleasantduty to give sincere thanks to those who have helped to make

this work possible. I must first express my appreciation to Professor |oyce
Reynolds and ProfessorBarbara Levick, who provided much helpful criticism
and encouragement in the early stagesof the preparation of the manuscript. I
am also most grateful to my good friend Professor John Traill, who intro-
duced me to the discipline of Greek epigraphy, sharing his wide-ranging and
expert knowledge.His enthusiasmfor the subjectwas most contagious.
I would also like to expressappreciation to my colleaguesProfessorAlicia
Batten and Professor Richard Ascough and especially to Professor Alistair
Weir, who read the manuscript in draft form. Finally, I would also like to
expressmy gratitude to the staff of the University of Michigan Pressand to its
editor, Mr. Collin Ganio, for their careful preparation of the final manuscript.
I have dedicated this book to Professor foyce M. Reynolds, whose erudi-
tion has been a great inspiration to me over the years,and whose contribution
to the field of epigraphy has taught me much about the true vocation of the
scholar.
I Contents

List of Tables rvii

List of Figures xix

Introduction I
1
0.01. The Value of Inscriptions in the Study of Antiquity
0.02. The Interpretation of Inscriptions 2
0.03. The Scopeof This Introduaion )
0.04. The Making of InstiPtions 4
0.05. The Quarrying of the Stone 5
0.06. The Manufacture of the Monument 7
0.07. The Drafting of the Text 9
0.08. The TranscriPtionof the Text n
0.09. The Engraving of the Text 12
0.10. The Cost of Engraving t3
0.11.Errors in the Exemplaror Draft t4
0.12. Errors in the Act of Transribing 15
0.1i. Enors in the Act of Engraving t7
0.14.Ancient Correctionsand Additions t7
0.15. The Fate of Inscriptions l8
0.16. Forgeries 2I
0.17. Bibliographic Referencesand Searches 2L
0.18. Standard Epigraphical Series 22
0.19. Overview of This Introduction 23
* l Contenls Contents | *i

Part l. General Matters 4.02. The Giving of Names 75

I Editorial Sigla 4.03. The Classificationof Names 76
27
1.01. The Numbering of Lines and the Vertical Bar ( 4.04. TheophoricNames 77
|) 28
1.02.Lacunae:Dashesand Dots (t---1, t. . .1) 4.05. Simple TheophoricNames: Primitive and Derived 79
29
1.0j. SpacesLeft Blank by the Inscriber: Superscripty, 4.06. Compound TheophoricNames 80
Yac., or Yacat 4.07. TheophoricNames Terminatingln -olgoE 8l
30
1.04. Doubtful Readings:SubscriptDots (g, 4.08.NontheophoricNames 82
B, etc.) 30
1.05.Additions and Substitutionsby the Editor: The (Jse 4.09. Simple NontheophoricNames: Primitive
of Angular Brackets(< >) and Derived 82
32
1.06. Suppressions 4.10. Compound NontheophoricNames 85
by the Editor: Brace Bracke ({}) 34
1.07. Resolutionsof Abbreviationsand Ligatures: 4.11.NontheophoricNames Terminatinglzr -ogoE 86
Parentheses( ) 4.12. GeographicalSpecificityof Names 87
J4
1.08.Rasures:Double SquareBrackets(fi) 4.13.NamesAttestedin Colonies 89
J5
1.09. Reading Clear, Interpretation (Jnknown: 4.14.JewishNames 90
Capital Letters 4.15.EthnicsUsedas Names 92
35
1.10.PartsRead Earlier Now Msing Undeflining 4.16. Chronologyand Names 92
35
1.11.Restorations: 4.17. The Patronymic, Papponymic,and Matronymic 93
SquareBrackets([]) 35
1.12. Other Editorial Abbreviations 4.18.The Ethnic 96
39
4.19. The Demotic 97
Paleography,Punctuation, Abbreviations, and Numerals 40 4.20. Surnames 99
2.01. Historical Overview of Letter Forms 40 4.21. GreekNames of Women 100
2.02. Dating Instiptions accordingto paleography 42 4.22. Slavesof GreekMasters 102
2.0i. The StoichedonStyle 45 4.23. MethodologicalConsiderations 103
2.04. Punctuation 48 4.24. Prosopography 105
2.05. The Developmentof Abbreviations 49
2.06. Methods of Abbreviation 5l The Onomasticsand Prosopographyof Roman Names in
2.07. Numerals 58 Greek Inscriptions tt2
2.08. Acrophonic Numerals 58 5.01. Overviau tt2
2.09. Alphabetic Numerals 61 5.02. The Nomen Gentilicium tt4
Inscriptions as Archaeological Artifacts 5.03. The Praenomen tt7
65
5.04. The Cognomen 120
3.01. The Roleof Squeezes and photographs 67
3.02. Making EpigraphicalSqueezes 5.05. The Decline of the Praenomenand the Return to a
69
3.03.Equipment Binominal System r23
70
3.04. Technique 5.06. The Agnomen 124
7l
3.05. Reading Squeezes 5.07. Roman Names of Women t25
72
3.06. Scanningand Digitizing Squeezes 5.08. Slavesof Roman Masters t27
73
5.09. Roman Names of Freedmen t28
The Onomastics and Prosopography of Greek Names 74 5.10. Dtinguishing benveenFree Men, Freedmen,
4.01. Inventoriesof GreekNames 74 and Slaves t29
xii I Con,rrr, ^ l
contents I xlu

5.11. The Transliterationof Latin Namesinto Greek

l3l Decrees 215
5.12. The Abbreviationof praenomina
r32 8.01. The Passageof Decrees 2t6
5.13. Naming and Titular Conventionsof
8.02. The Structure of Decrees 2r8
Roman Emperors
t33 8.03. Invocation: @EOI 219
6 Calendars,Eras, and the Dating of Inscriptions 8.04. The Dating of the Decree 2t9
r49
6.01. EponymousDating 8.05. Formal Mover of the Motion 220
150
6.02. Lunar and Lunisolar Calendars 8.06. Preamble 220
r59
6.03. The Naming of the Months 8.07. EnactmentFormulae 222
159
6.04. The Counting of the Days 8.08. Citation of Formal Motion 223
161
6.05. Roman Calendars 8.09.Amendments 224
163
6.06. The Syro-Macedonian,Egltptian, and 8.10. Directions concerningEngraving 224
Ptolemaic Calendars 8.11. AbbreviatedDecrees 225
166
6.07. Calendarsof the Hellenistic Kingdoms and Eastern 8.12. Treaties 225
Roman provinces
169
6.08. Dating accordingto Eras Honorific Decrees,Proxeny Decrees,and
170
6.09. Dating Inscriptions That Are Not Self_Dated Honorific Inscriptions 228
176 9.01. The GeneralStructure of Honorific Decrees 229
Part 2. The Nature of Greek Inscriptions 9.02. ConsolationDecreesand Indirect
7 The Classification of Greek Inscriptions Honorary lnscriptions 232
181
7.01.Decrees, Laws, Treaties,and Official Letters
9.03. Proxeny Decrees 233
183
7.02. Honorific Denees,proxeny Decrees,and 9.04. Honorific lnscriptions 236
Honorific Inscriptions 9.05. Crowns 239
183
7.03. Dedicationsand Ex_votos 9.06. The Erection of Statues 242
184
7.04. Proseand Metrical Funerary Inscriptions
184 l 0 Dedicationsand Ex-votos 246
7.05. Manumission Insriptions
184 10.01.The Form 246
7.06. Other Legal Instruments of Common Law
185 10.02. The Dedicator 247
7.07. Boundary Stones
186 10.03.The Deity 248
7.08. Milestones
r87 10.04.The Object of Dedication 250
7.09. Herms
189 10.05.Ex-votos 254
7.10.Saued Laws
189
7.11. Other SacredInscriptions
192 1 1 -bunerarylnscrlptrons 260
7.12. Instiptions on public and private Works
11.01.Formulae Usedin FuneraryInscriptions 262
and Buildings
t96 11.02.The Preparation of Epitaphs, Sarcophagi,Tombs,
7.13. Accountsand Catalogues
198 and Funerary Altars 266
7.14. Inscriptions on portable Objects
200 11.03.Motive and Expressionsof Endearment 268
7.15. Quarry and Masons'Marles
204 11.04.Encouragement and Consolation 270
7.16. Insciptions in Metal
205 11.05.Curseson Tomb Violators 271
7.17. Graffiti
207 11.06.Finesfor Tomb Violators 275
7.18. Artisti Signatures
208 11.07.Annual CommemorativeRites 276
xiv I cortrru
Contents | *t
11.08.Iewh Epitaphs
278 15.03.Diphthongsin -u 348
I 1.09. Christian Epitaphs
279 15.04.The Convergenceof Diphthongs in -t with
12 Manumission Inscriptions
289 Simple Vowels 349
12.01.Manumission in the Hellenistic 15.05.The Convergenceof Simple Vowels
World 290 350
12.02.Manumission by Last Witt 15.06. Stops,Fricatives,and Aspirates
and Testament 292 350
12.0i. Manumission by Dedication 15.07.Assimilation of Medial and Final v
to a God 292 352
12.04.Manumission by Fictive Sale
to a Third party 293 15.08.Omissionand Addition of Nasals 352
12.05. SacrqlManumission 15.09.Use of Movable v
294 352
12.06. Conditional and (Jnconditional 15.10,Assimilationof the Prepositionix 353
Manumission 297
Part 3. Selected Topics 15.11.Liquids, Sibilants,and Singleand
Double Consonants 353
13 Magistrates,Other Functionaries,
and the Government of 15.12.Psilosis 354
the Hellenistic City
13.01.The Assembly
303 l 6 Epigrams 358
13.02.The Council
304 16.01.The Nature of GreekMeter 358
13.03. EponymousMagistrates
30s 16.02. The Rulesof Prosody 36r
13.04.Magktracies and Magisterial
309 16.0j. Dactylic Hexameter 362
Boards 310
13.05.Archons 16.04. The ElegiacDistich 363
13.06.Strategoi
3ll 16.05.Iambic Trimeter 364
13.07.Prytaneis
312 16.06.Irregularities of Meter 365
3t3
13.08. Other Magisterial Boards,
Offices,and Titles 3t4 t 7 Currency and lts Commodity Value 369
13.09.Liturgies
3t6 17.01.The Denominationsof GreekCurrency 369
13.10.Societies
317 17.02. The Denominations of Roman Currency 370
13.11. GreekMagtracies,Titles, and
Offices 318 17.03.RegionalCurrencies 371
l 4 Roman Administration and Functionaries 17.04. The Commodity Value of Roman Currency and
14.01.The SenatorialCursusHonorum
326
Military Pay 373
14.02.EquestrianCareers
326
14.03. Offces Open to personsbelow
328 Appendix Electronic Tools for Researchin
Senatorialand Greek Epigraphy 383
EquestrianRank
14.04.The Roman Army
330
Abbreviations of Epigraphical and Related
14.05.Roman Rule in the provinces
330
ClassicalPublications 387
331
14.06.Provincial Finances
334 Index of Greek Terms 473
14.07. The Colonies,Roman Cities,
and Free Cities JJ)
14.08.The Cuh of the Emperor
336 Index of Greek PersonalNames 489
14.09.Greek Terms
for Roman Oficiak and Offices 339
Index of Latin Terms 497
l 5 Orthography
-- 346
l5.0L Language:The Development Index of Roman PersonalNames 501
of Koine Greek 346
15.02.Diphthongs in _t
347 GeneralIndex 505
I Tables

Editorial Abbreviations 39
Select List of Greek Abbreviations 52
Cardinal and Ordinal Numerals 59
Acrophonic Numerals in Attica 60
Currency Symbols 61
Alphabetic Numerals 62
The Kleisthenaic Demes 98
FrequentlyAttestedNomina n8
Frequently Attested Praenomina r20
FrequentlyAttested Cognomina T2I
Greek Abbreviations of Latin Names r33
Greek Month Names t62
The Counting of Attic Days t64
14. Month Names of the Eastern Roman Provinces t70
15. Summary of the Principal Eras 176
I Figures

1. Stagesin the production of epigraphic monuments 5

2. Some tools used in stonework 6
3. Dolabrae and tokoi 8
4. Inscriptions corrected by an engraver l9
5. Baseof a statuehonoring Julia Mammaea, mother of
Emperor SeverusAlexander, with the names of
Mammaea and Alexander erasedafter their
assassination by troops in e.p. 235 (IBM ll, 176) 20
6. Stoichedoninscription dating to IV2 s.c. (IEphl,2) 46
7. Inscription with proportionally spacedletters dating
to 319-302 n.c. (IEPh IV, 1408) 47
8. Jewish dedication in synagogueat Sardis (Robert,
Hellenica, l, 48-49, no. 7; IludDonateurs 20) 57
9. Epigraphic squeezebrush 70
10. Inscription concerning the construction of the theater
in Aphrodisias dating to 28 s.c. (IAphrodArchive 28;
f. M. Reynolds, R. R. R. Smith' and K. T. Erim, in
Aphrodisias Papers2: The Theatre,a Sculptor's
Workshop,Philosophers,and Coin-Types [Ann Arbor,
MI: 19911,15-28; cf. SEG 40.945) 113
ll. Sculpturedpanel dedicatedby a female official of a
cult, probably of Demeter, dating to A.D. 170,with
dedication inscribed in a patera surrounded by items
of women's clothing and makeup (IBM lI, 142) 126
12. Plaque on an altar dedicated to Roma from the
house of the Poseidoniastaion Delos (IDelos
vt. 1779\ lss
x x l Listof Figures

13. Inscription of sacredlaws governing sacrificedating

to A.D.222-35 (IEPtI, t0) r91
14. Healing inscription of Apella from Epidauros dating
to A.D. 160 (IG IY2ll,126; SIG31170) t94
15. Honors for T. Publius Hedius Marcellus (Ephesos,
I lntroduction
imperial period) 237
16. Baseof a statue honoring a famous physician who
treated malaria in Ephesosdating to IV-V e.p. Two dangers lie in wait for the historian faced with interpreting
(IEph IY, 1320) 240 inscriptions: not to use them, or to use them badly.
24r -Louis Robertr
L7. Ily wreath engraved on stone
18. Excerpt from the dedication to Caracalla and
relatives on an architrave of the Marble Court in
Sardisdating to A.D. 2ll-12 (SEG36.1094,LL. 1, 9) 249
19. Offertory treasury from SarapeionA on Delos lipigraphy is traditionally defined as the study of writings inscribed on durable
(IG XLl4,1248;IDeIosEg 87-89, no. 6) 251 rnaterials. The vast majority of these are engraved on stone. Other materials
20. Alexander the Great's dedication of the temple of llso inscribed include bronze, potsherds(ostraca),walls (graffiti), and port-
Athena Poliasin Priene (ca.334 n.c.) (IBM III, atrleobjects,such as vases,amphorae,tiles, tesserae, gems,weights,and mea-
399-400) 253 sures.The field of epigraphy also includes texts painted on newly made pottery
21. Dedication of Marcus Salvius Douiscus to Apollo in a prior to firing, as well as pottery and bricks impressedwith stamps.This wide
shrineat Trallesdating to II n.o. (IBM IV, 1034) 256 range of materials distinguishes epigraphy from the fields of papyrology and
22. Funerary epigram of uncertain provenance dating to numismatics.
c a .I I e . p . ( I B M l V , 1 l 1 4 ; I G X I V , 2 1 3 1 ) 359
0.01 The Value of Inscriptions in the Study of Antiquity

"une
l,ouis Robert once described Roman civilization as civilisation d'6pi-
graphie." With such a great profusion of epigraphic writing, there is virtu-
irlly no aspectof ancient life on which epigraphydoes not bear. Inscriptions
give immediate contact with the daily life of the ancient world. Some inscrip-
tions proffer invaluable information about historical events.2However, the

l. LouisRobert,"Les6pigraphiesetl'6pigraphiegrecqueetromaine,"inOMS5.65-101,esp.
tf4 (reprinted from L'Histoire et sesMthodes:Encyclopaediede la Pleiade [Paris, 1961], 453-97).
2. SeeAngelos Chaniotis rn Das Fest und das Heilige: Religiosekontrapunkte zur Alltagswelt,
'l'.
ctl. Sundermeier, Studien zum Verstehen fremder Religionen I (Gtersloh: Gutersloher Ver-
l,rgshaus,l99l),123-45; L. Boffo in Studi di storia e storiografiaantichi, ed. Emilio Gabba (Pavia:
Ncw Press,1988), 9-48; I. H. M. Strubbe, R. A. Tybout, and H. S. Versnel, eds.' ENEPfEIA:
.\twlias on Ancient History and Epigraphy Presenteilto H. W. Pleket, DMAHA 16 (Amsterdam:
"Reflections
t iicbcn, 1996); A. Geoffrey Woodhead, on the Use of Literary and Epigraphical
lrvitlcnce for the History of the Athenian Empire," in CongrEpigr Vl, 345-54. For epigraphical
r..errrcls trf Greek historical works see Angelos Chaniotis, Historie und Historiker in den
grnthischenInschriften:EpigraphcheBeitrgezur griechischenHistoriographie,Heidelberger althis-
torisehcBeitrgeund epigraphischeStudien 4 (Stuttgartand Wiesbaden:Franz Steiner,1988);cf.
f . f : . f { i c c ,( l R 4 l I l 9 9 l l : 1 9 5 - 9 6 ;S E G3 8 . 1 9 7 0 , 3 9 . 1 7 9 0 .
2 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy Introduction I f

it "epigraphist"
significance of inscriptions extends far beyond this application. Indeed, "valu-
One cannot reasonablyconceive of an who only studies
would be reductionistic to attempt to distinguish between historically inscriptions and extracts history from them. . . . Epigraphy cannot be
"worthless" inscriptions. As Jean Sauvaget remarks, isolated from history, as it is constructed from other documents; from
able,' and historically
..thereare no banal inscriptions, only banal ways of interpreting them."3 Every linguistics and philology; from papyrology, paleography, and numismat-
in our ics. The historian is like a maestro who knows how to play each available
inscription has an intrinsic value and its own contribution to make
monuments can be especially valuable instrument and to create from them a symphony.6
understanding of antiquity.aEpigraphic
of
in reconstructing the social history. Indeed, this is the privileged domain
institutions; its It follows from this that one's ability to interpret a particular inscription will
inscriptions. They are primary witnessesto antiquity's laws and
values; increase in direct proportion to one's proficiency in reading inscriptions in
social structures,public cults, and private associations;its thoughts and
in the world for which theywere created, general and to one's knowledge of their wider social and historical setting.
and, of course,its language.However,
Second, inscriptions exhibit a notably regional character with respect to
inscriptions had a greaterrole than the mere recording of the eventsof society.
names their language, orthography, abbreviations, paleography, terminology, picto-
They were actually instrumental in shaping society:they publicized the
and pro- rial representations, and formulae. For this reason, an analysis of a single
of officials in positions of power and authority, thereby legitimizing
the honors and privileges lavished on inscription requires that one be alreadyfamiliar with the specificcharacteristics
moting the social order; they announced
and, in so doing, encour- of the inscriptions of the region and time period in question. Louis Robert once
those who excelledin benefaction and public service "an
sagelyremarked, isolated inscription disclosesonly part of its sense;it does
aged others to perform similar, if not greater' accomplishments's
not have true meaning exceptwithin a seriesof inscriptions; the more plentiful
0.02 The Interpretation of Inscriptions and extensive the series is, the more the inscription becomes interesting."z
Similarly, Eduard Gerhard's observation concerning archaeological monu-
easily "he
Though epigraphic evidence is of inestimable value, there is no single ments in general befits epigraphy in particular: who has seenone monu-
is twofold. First,
masteredi.lhrriq,-r. for its interpretation. The reason for this ment hasnot seenany; he who has seenone thousandofthem has seenone."8
are
for many inscriptions,historical context, purPose,and intended readers
tend to omit pertinent information that is
narrowly defined. Inscriptions 0.03 The Scope of This Introduction
inscriptions can be
already known by the intended audience. consequently,
that the
very succinct, even laconic, especiallywith regard to the information "information It need hardly be said that the Mediterranean world underwent dramatic
modern epigraphist would most like to know. overcoming this changesin the centuries that followed the close of the classicalage. Many of
gap" is one of the great challengesof epigraphy' To comprehend an inscrip- thesechangesare reflected in the Greek inscriptions of the time. For example,
tion fully, one must endeavorto become familiar with its historical, sociologi- the Attic alphabet gave way to the Ionic, the stoichedon style (see 52.03) of
cal, and political context. This is accomplishedby supplementing the evidence engraving rapidly declined in favor of the disjointed style, letter forms
not to
from a single inscription with the witness of related inscriptions, evolved, and, of course, the phonology and orthography of the Greek lan-
mention the witness from other ancient sources' such as literature, PaPYri, guage continued to develop. The realia of the ancient world also changed,
many
numismatics, and studies in archaeology and topography' Moreover' with new developments in calendars, currency, titulature, and systems of
inscriptions (e.g., gladiatorial inscriptions) can only be correctly interpreted government, as well as the growing influence of Roman culture in general.
by analyzingtheir pictorial representation' Louis Robert observed: The purpose of this book is to survey such topics as these to the extent
"Les that they bear on the interpretation of Greek inscriptions from the Hellenistic
3. As quoted in Robert, 6pigraphies," 83'
4. Louis Robert,
"communication inaugurale," in congrEpigr II, 1-20, esp. 8 (oMS and Roman periods. Of course, other introductions to Greek epigraphy have
3.1748-67). ) "Les
read see R. Thomas, 6. Robert, 6pigraphies," 87.
5. on the question offhe degree to which inscriptions were actually "Les
and Written Record in ClassicalAthens (Cambridge and New York Cambridge 7. Robert, 6pigraphies," 85.
Oral Tradition "Les
8. As quoted in Robert, 6pigraphies," 85.
University Press,1989),esp.35-67.
4 | An Inttoductionto GreekEpigraphy
been written before this one, but these have tended to concentrateon the
classicalperiod and on the earlier forms of epichoric Greek.eBy their very
nature, introductions to classicalepigraphy often deal with matters that are of
little relevanceto the epigraphy of later periods, as well as omitting discussion
of pertinent topics. Other introductions discuss epigraphy in such general
terms that they provide insufficient practical guidance to the beginner.r0
This introduction will concentrate on Greek epigraphy from 323 B.c. to
e..o.337. This time period spanstwo important eras of ancient history the
Hellenistic and Roman periods. The Hellenistic period is conventionally reck-
oned as beginning with the death of Alexander the Great (323 s.c.) and
ending with the victory of Augustus over Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle
of Actium on 2 September3l n.c., which establishedthe finality of Roman
rule in the Greek world. This introduction will also deal with Greek epigraphy
of the Roman period from 3 I B.c. to the death of Constantinethe Great (a.o.
337). This is a convenient end point since,in many ways,the reign of Constan-
tine marks the beginning of a new era. His promulgation of the Edict of Milan
(e.o. 313), which establisheda policy of toleration for Christianity through-
out the Roman Empire, and his conveningof the Councils of Arles (e.o. 314)
and Nicaea (t .o. 325) served as pivotal foundations of what would subse-
quently develop into the Christian empire.
0.04 The Making of Inscriptions
Many scholarsmake their first acquaintancewith ancient inscriptions through
the medium of a text printed in a corpus. Though such publications have
been an indispensableresourcein the discipline, one must be conscious of the
9. E.g., Ernest S. Roberts and Ernest A. Gardner, ed.,An Introduction to GreekEpigraphy, S
vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1887-1905; reprint, Chicago: Ares, 1996); A.
Geoffrey Woodhead, The Study of Greek Insciptions, 2d ed. (New York Cambridge University
Press, 1981); Gnther Klaffenbach, GriechischeEpigraphik (Gttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ru-
precht, 1957); Wilhelm Larfeld, Giechische Epigraphil<,3d ed., HbA 1.5. (Munich: C. H. Beck,
1914); Wilhelm Lafield, Handbuch der griechchenEpigraphih 2 vols. (Leipzig: O. R. Reisland,
1902-7). Margherita Guarducci's five-volume treatise Epigrafia greca (Rome: lstituto Poligrafico
Dello Stato, Libreria Dello Sato, 1967-78) is a mine of useful information but is not written as an
introduction. Salomon Reinach's Trait d'pigraphie grecque (Paris: E. Leroux, 1885) is also
worthwhile but is in need of updating.
"Epigraphy,"
10. E.g, Fergus Millar, in Sourcesfor Ancient History, ed. Michael Crawford
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 80-136; E. S. Roberts and E. A. Gardner,
"Epigraphn"
in A Companion to Greek Studies, ed. Leonard Whibley, (New York and London:
Hafner, 1963), 687-704: Brian F. Cook, GreekInstiptions (London: Bath, 1987); Albert Rehm,
"Die
Inschriften," in Handbueh der Archologie,vol. I, HbA 46 (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1939), 182-
"Die
238; Werner Peek, epigraphische Praxis," in Das Stadium der griechischenEpigraphik: Eine
Einfhrung ed. Gerhard Pfohl (Darmstadt: WissenschaftlicheBuchgesellschaft,l9TT),38-61.
lntroduction 5
|
| . quarryingof the stone
I
l. manutactureol the monument 3. drafting of the text
4. transcriptionof the text
5. engrdvingof the monument
Fig. l. Stagesin the production ofepigraphic monuments
danger of misrepresentation.corpora can easilyconvey the impressionthat
rrn inscription is a disembodiedtwo-dimensionaltext-not an intrinsic part
ol'an archaeologicalmonument. Giancarlo susini has stressedthat the ar-
chaeologicalmonument is "inseparablefrom the inscription, that is to say,
liom that complex of technical and traditional factors which leads to the act
of carving it."r1 As I shall show in chapter 3, the medium itself has a role to
play in the restorationand interpretation ofinscriptions.
I begin this inquiry then, not with a discussionof the nature of epigraphic
tcxts themselvesbut rather with a consideration of the production of the texts
irsintrinsic parts of monuments,the most common ofwhich are madeof stone.
'l'his
production processcan be broken down into five stages:(l) the quarrying
ol'the stone,(2) the manufactureof the monument, (3) the drafting of the text,
(4) the transcription of the text, and (5) the engravingof the monument.
0.05 The Quarrying of the Stone
'l'he
essentialmedium for most inscriptions were large squared-offblocksof
storres(lapidesquadrati). The two most commonly used stoneswere lime-
strrneand "marble" (pappcqoE/rnarmor),the latter term being used by the
.ulcients to include granites,porphyries, and all stones capableof taking a
high polish. Quarry men (l,orpotlexemptores)used long serratedsawsl2to
eut marble from quarriesinto blocks.
I L Giancarlo susini, rfte Roman stonecutter:An Introduction to Latin Epigraphy,trans. A. M.
| ).rlrrrrwski,ed. E. Badian (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1973),60-61.
12. Serratedsaws (agiorv ),r,0onqioqE; cf. Pollux 10.I48) and other tools (e.g., orfqrc,
i'tl)trt'QY, }'crleutlpto) were required (cf. Ginette Gauvin, Ies techniquesde tailles de la pierre
r htz lt's(jrecs et lesRomains, classical Archaeology and History companions 5 [Montreal: McGill
[ 'nive rsity, 1986];;Hugo Blmner, Terminologieder Gewerbeund Knste bei Griechenund Rmern,
'f vrfs. ILeipzig: B. G. Teubner, l884l, z:21o,3:92). The cutting technique is
describedby pliny
( t(r.5| ): "I'he cutting of the marble is effected apparently not by iron but actually by sand, for the
r.rw rrrcrely pressesthe sand on a very thinly traced line, and then the passageofthe instrument,
owirrg to the rapid movement to and fro, is in itself enough to cut the stone."
 lntroduction | 7
6 | An lntroduction to GreekEpigraphy

A petrologicalanalysiscan be useful in determining the provenanceof an

irrscription.It may also be useful in dating, if one knows when a given quarry
wasactivein producing the type of stoneusedin the inscription.laHowever,if
the inscription was set up far from the quarry, such an analysismight not
pr<lvidereliableinformation concerningthe actualprovenanceof the inscrip-
lion, unlessthe stone is very distinctive.

0.06 The Manufacture of the Monument

- 'l'hc
A stone blocks were dressedby stonemasons(l.l0ougyolllapidar) using a

4
ctrrved hammer (oxnaqvov/ascia),\5chisels,l6and two hatchet-shapedtools
krrown as the dolabrarTand the tokos(roxog) r8(seefig. 3). Suchdressedblocks

r
lrird a wide variety of uses:they could be incorporated into edificesby stone-
nrirsons(l0ol,yol/structores) or used for the fabrication of statues,lestatue
lxses, altars,tombs, sarcophagi,boundary markers, milestones,stelae,2o and

rtusgungder Antonine, 9th ed., 4 vols. (Leipzig: Hirzel, l9t9-2t), 2:36-65; f. B. Ward-perkins
("Nicomedia and the Marble Trade," BSR 48 [1980],23-69) discussesthe role of Nikomedia in
thc nrarble trade of the imperial period; particularly important are Potamogallenos marble
\- {rluirrried near Nikomedia) and Prokonnesos and Dokimeion marble,
14. SeeA. E. Gordon, "Epigraphica: On Marble as a Criterion for Dating Republican Latin
f rrscriptions,"ClArch 1, no. 5 (1936): 159-68; M. Waelkens,"Patternsof Extraction and produc-
Fig.2.Sometoolsusedinstonework,including(clockwise)mason'slevel,straight-
(chisel)' (From Blijrr'ner' Termi- tiorr in the white Marble Quarries of the Mediterranean: History, Present problems, and pros-
edge, square, compass' malleus, calipers, and scalprum
nologie,9l, fig.2C.) I'c(ts," in Ancient Marble-Quarrying and Trade: Papersfrom a Colloquium held at the Annual
l\ltttirtg of the ArchaeologicalInstitute of America, San Antonio, Texas,Dec. j986, ed. J. Clalton
lr.rrrt,IIAR International Series453 (Oxford: British ArchaeologicalReports, 1988). Cf. Marc
W,rclkcns, Norman Herz, and Luc Moens, eds,,Ancient Stones-Quarrying, Trade, and prove-
Thechoiceofstonedependedonavailability,itsintendeduse'cost,and nnnt: lnterdisciplinary Studieson Stonesand Stone Technologltin Europe and the Near Eastfrom
stone inscriptions
current fashions.Generally speaking,limestone and regular thr l'rt'historic to the Early chistian Period, Acta archaeologica Louvaniensia Monographiae 4
with less care than marble inscrip-
are more numerous and were executed ( | ouvlin: Leuven University Press,1992).Seeinfra $ 7.14.
much less expensive'
tions, because such stone was easier to engrave and
15. See Blmner, Terminologie,2:205-, frg.38;3:7,90-93. Other neededtools were the
x, rr l i'q and yxoneg (Blmner, .Termin ologie, 2:212, 3:93).
could be acquired
However, in places where marble was in vast supply and I 6. There were two basic tlpes of chisel, the straight-edge chisel and the nib-point chisel; cf.
quarries' marble
relatively cheaply, such as in towns located near marble llfrirrrrrcr,Terminologie,2:211-16,esp.215, fig. 4l (l"eior, 1l.cqieg,[odeE,y].ugeCcr, luorrlpeE,
x.rirrlrilp).
tendstoalsobeemployedformoremundaneuses.InAttica'thefine-grained
17. SeeBlmner,Terminologie,2:206-7,fig.39;3:7,90-93. The asciaanddolabraappearon
PentelicmarbleextractedfromthequarriesofMountPentelicusandthe ttr.ttty Roman funerary monuments, especiallyfrom III a.o. onward. They representthe inviolabil-
were widely used'
inferior blue gray Hymettian marble from Mount Hymettus rtv rrl' t he tomb. According to G. susini (Roman stonecutter,26), "the asciais the visual expressron
ol lhc tool abandoned on the tomb at the moment of completion-abandoned becausetogether
ThebestmarblesoftheGreekislandswerethegrayNaxianandwhiteParian
rvitlr the tomb itself, it has become sacred to the chthonic deities." Cf. S. Panciera, "Deasciare-
marble, from Naxos and Paros, respectively'l3 f r,rriscfare-Exasciare," Latomus 19 (1960): 7O1-7, esp.70l n. l; f. Roug, "L'ascia outil
, r g r i t . f e ? "L a t o n u s l 8 ( 1 9 5 9 ) :6 4 9 - 5 3 :F . d e V i s s c h e r", L ' a s c i a f u n 6 r a i r eB
,"
AB49 (1963):309-f8.
13.onthesupplyofstoneseeA.M.Abraldes,Pentelethen:TheExportofPentelic'Marbleand
(Berkeley: University of California Press' f tf. Se-eBlmner, Terminologie,2:208-9, fig. 40.
Its tJse in ArchiteJural and Epigaphical Monuments "Ancient Marble Studies: Recent
(Rome, l99Z);H' Dodge' | 9. lly iryc).pcrroy).Sog (carvers of statues).
1996); G. Borghini, ,a', UorriUlttl,t'i
2t). )rQtrar, i.e, slabs of stone approximately l-2 meters high and 10-14 centimeters thick,
Research," JRA4 (lggl):28-50; I' Calabi-Limentani"'Marmorarius "' n EncyAACO 4'870-75;
r v h i t h w c r e s l i g h t l yt a p e r e dt o t h e t o p .
r,,a*igr,i"aunder,DarstellungenausderSittengeschchteRomsinderZeitvonAugustbiszum
8 An Introduction to GreekEpigraphy Introduction | 9
|

Most inscriptionswere not cut freehand.To preventthe linesfrom becom-

) ing, uneven, the stone was often ruled with guidelinesprior to engraving.
(iuidelines might be incised with a sharp metal point or applied with char-
a -
coal,chalk, crayon,or paint. The carelessand hurried manner of executionof
sorneinscriptions indicatesthat no guidelineswere set out.
It hasbeena matter of debatewhether the guidelineswere addedaspart of
the overall preparation of the monument or laid down subsequentlyin con-
junction with the transcription of the text. There is evidencethat in somecases
(c.g., epitaphs, milestones), uninscribed monuments were mass-produced
completewith guidelines.In other words, the addition of guidelinesand the
cngraving were often accomplishedin two distinct phasesof work, with guide-
e lines being laid down with no particular text in mind.
This explains the survival of some monuments in which the original guide-
lineswere evidently ill-suited to the text. As a result, the letters are crowded into
ir spacenot intended for them, especiallyon the right-hand margin, protrude
Dobbrao
Iryond the border, or skip over sculptured symbols in an awkward fashion.
Such are the results when a stone is purchased with guidelines already laid
"ready-made"
down. These funeral stelae,complete with guidelines,decorative
IL 6 elements, and a polished inset for an inscription, were probably stocked for

11
customers'considerationin the stonemasons'workshops.

0.07 The Drafting of the Text

ln the caseof public inscriptions, a complete text often precededthe actual

cngraving. All deliberations of kings and emperors and of official civic bod-
ics, such as the council, the assembly,and the magisterial boards, were
Tokoi crrrefully recorded as minutes on papyrus or on wooden writing tablets22and
subsequentlydepositedin the public archives(r &g1eic). The ink writing
Fig.3.Dolabraeandtokoiusedforsquaringthestone'(FromBlmner'Terminologie'
207-8, figs. 39-40.) tirbletsfrom the Roman fort of Vindolanda, near Hadrian's Wall, represent
tlrc samemethqd as applied in the field of Latin paleography.
In Athens, the respectivesecretaries(ygcppareig) ofthe council and the
as
so forth. Any of these applications of stone could also include inscriptions .rssemblyrecorded the minutes and arranged for their deposition.23These
part of their overall design. The chisel marks on the roughly dressed stone
or
i.r. ...not.d by polishing ad unguem with finely ground quattz sand 22. The surface ofthe wood was whitewashed and then written on with black or red ink or
stelae rvith charcoal. on writing tablets see E. Lalou, ed..,Lestablettesd tire de I'Antiquit d I'poque
pumice (Pliny 36.5a). Decorative elements that were often added to tnoderne,Bibliologia 12 (Turnhout: Brepols, 1992),61-161, including G. Cavallo's "Le tavolette
include antae,lintels, pediments, finials, moldings, and relief carvings.2r trrrrre supporto della scrittura: Qualche testimonianza indiretta" (97-104) and Y. Solier's "Les
l,rl)lettes de plomb languedociennes inscrites en caractresgrecs et en Ibre" (107-25); cf. SEG
frame the text (and r r { .10 3 6 ,4 1 . 8 9 1 4
, 2.1860.
21. Antae: rectangular cofunns, usually arranged in pairs such that they
over head of stele; pediment: the triangular crorvning, 23. In the Attic demes, the demarchos,epimeletes,or treasurer (tamias) performed this task;
relief); lintel: horizontal piece running
placed on the'top ofthe irr Arnphipolis (Thrace), the prostates;in Kor\na (Corfu), the archon; in Delos and Lydia, the
.arueJ at the top ofthe stele, resembling a low gable; finials: ornaments
I rcilsurer.
pediment; moldings: ornamental contours given to stone'
 lntroduction I II
10 | An Int oductionto GreekEpigraphy
It is likely, then, that in some, perhaps many, private inscriptions, the
minutesweresuppliedtotheengravertoserveasanexemplarforhiswork.It
least in any detailed stonecutter'sshop was responsiblefor the formulae,phrases,and stereotyped
is probable that these minutes did not determine-at
the possible cxpressions,as well as the physicaland decorativefeaturesof the monument.
,.nr"-th. final graphic layout of the text on the stone' with
where the actual Slonecuttersmay have had accessto manuals of sampletexts and formulae.2T
exception of the great public monumental inscriptions'
At the very least, they could walk through the nearestnecropolis or sanctuary
layorrt may have been worked out in the draft text'24
that the customer and model their composition on those of existingmonuments.The phenome-
In the case of private inscriptions' we can suppose
or simply dictated the text rrtrn known as homonymy (near identical inscriptions being found on separate
would have produced a draft text in cursive scriPt st<lnesin remote locations from each other) atteststo the widespread use of
e 'o ' explicitly states
directly to the engraver.An epitaph of the fourth century such stereotypedformulae.
pvqprlE lcrqr'v 0eto
that the owner of the tomb otll'qv (: otrtrqv) YQuos
and wrote the epitaph himseli in
crirE ov &IoXg Nowl [carved the stone
27'LL' 13-15)' Stephen 0.08 The Transcription of the Text
*.-ory, with his wife Nonnal (IPhrygChr70' no'
MitchellthinksthatmanyepitaphsinAsiaMinor..weregenuinelycomposed ( )nce the minutes or draft was ready, we may supposethat the text might, at
a repetitive repertoire of
by the peasant families themselves,relying ' ' ' on
lcirstin some cases,be transcribed onto the surfaceof the stone.The transcrip-
poetic expressions."25
draft at all-written tion was written in capitals, perhaps using paint, charcoal, chalk, or a metal
In the caseof some epitaphs, there may have been no
given the relevant per- point. In the caseof most public inscriptions,the transcription would more
or dictated. A person wanting an epitaph may have
likely involve a complete graphic representation of the text on the stone. R.
sonaldatatothestonecutterorallyandleftituptothestonecuttertoincorpo- Wachter argues that most engravers were illiterate; he thinks that they fre-
and language'26A famous
rate this information into the customary formulae quently committed errors when going back and forth from the draft text and
provide direct evidence of
bilingual inscription from Palermo (Sicily) may lhe stone.28
texts (/G XIV' 297; CILX'
.r,griu.., offering their servicesin composing such Some unfinished inscriptions are particularly instructive in observing the
7296\.However,itisnotclearwhetherthetermordinanturinthisinscription
of laying it out' transcription stage of the work. An interesting example survives at Delphi,
specifiesthe activity of drafting a text or merely that where two stelaehave been found, one of which recordsa completedecree;2e
tlrc secondgivesparts of the samedecree,leavinggapsin the text (in lines 5, 7,
(Left Side) .rrrti 8) to be engraved later with the customary formulae.30An incomplete
vcroig ieqoCgI ov
itrllar | vOae| runotrwal xcri | 1aqooovrcrt I irrscriptionof this kind would only havebeenpossibleif the engraverhad first
vegyeiorg| qPooiatE' traced the text out in its full graphic form. Otherwise, he would have been
tunable to engrave at several different places concurrently without fear of
(Right Side) lcavinginsufficient room for the remaining words.
cum operum
ii ifi t heic I ordinantur et I sculpuntur I aidibus sacreisI Whether a comprehensivegraphic drawing underlies most inscriptions has
I publicorum' bcen a matter of debate.JeanMallon, who has studied this question in the field
trl'l.atin epigraphy,thinks that a transcription (or ordinatioin his terminology)
[Stelaedrafted/laidoutandengravedhereforthesacredshrineswith "Sur
27. See R. Cagnat, les manuels professionnels de graveurs d'inscriptions romains,"
work for Public hire'l t t l ' h i lt 3 ( 1 8 8 9 ) 5: l - 6 5 .
"Der
2u. R. Wachter, Informationsgehalt von Schreibfehlern in griechischen und latein-
24. SeeSusini'Roman Stonecutter,33' r s t h c nl n s c h r i f t e n , "W J A 1 8 ( 1 9 9 2 ) :I 7 - 3 I ( S E G4 2 . 1 8 5 8 ) .
Asia Minor' 2 vols' (Oxford: Oxford
25. S. Mitchell, Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in 29. G. Colin, FDIII|2,244,no.2l5.
University Press,1993),2:705' - "Epigraphie
-|0. Colin, FD II112,245, no.216; see Louis Robert, et palographie," CRAI
26.SeeLarfeld,Hanilb'uch,2:264n'2.Cf.Larfeld,GriechischeEpigraphik,106_7;Susini' I le55\: 195-222, esp.2ll.
Roman Stonecutter'47 -48'
 lntroduction | 13
12 | An lrt oductionto GreekEpigraphy

that a full transcription' rngrovcr was reading his own transcription, the probability of errors being
was alwaysmade.3lAntonio Ferrua disagrees,arguing
only performed for the introduced as a result of the engraver'smisinterpretationof the transcription
in the senseof marking out eachletter graphically' was
are based pri- w.rssomewhatreduced.
more important inscriptions.32However, Ferrua's conclusions
may have been Upon the completion of engraving,the incisedlettersof the more impor-
marily on Chrirtian catacomb inscriptions, where the Process
tant public inscriptionsmight be colored in with black, red, blue, or gold. For
different.
cxirrrrple,an inscription from Lebadeia(Boiotia, 175-172 r.c.) specifiesthat
GiancarloSusinisuggeststhatthis..transcription,'shouldbethoughtof "the
the stone was received for engraving and encaustic painting" [tflE
more broadly, "rr.o-pirring any form of jotting or graphic layout on the
iyxol.r.pearE xai 1xcoeolg]of the letters.3T There are surviving examples
at least 90 percent ofall
stone Prior to engraving. In this sense'he concludes, and of bicolored inscriptions of alternatingred
ol' rnonochromeinscriptions
LatininscriptionsinvolvedatranscriptionofSomesort.33Ultimately,the
If a text is .rnd blue lines,this coloring being preservedin the engravedtrenchesof some
question has to be determined for each inscription individually.
and with irregular tttonuments.38
executed in a slipshod manner with a carelesslayout
without the aid of a full
disposition of letters' it was probably engraved
0.10 The Cost of Engraving
graphic inscriPtion.
of an inscription
To this point, my description of the production stages 'l'he
for much more cost of a given monument was determinedby the natural quality of the
has illustrated that the stonecutter's shop was responsible
stone,the costof quarryingand transporting,the sizeof the text to be inscribed,
thanthemereengravingofatext.Inadditiontothechoiceofdecorative
determined the physical the quality of engraving, and the costs of erecting it in place.An inscription of
features and symbols, tlie stonecutter's shop often
the use of abbreviations; the accountsof the sacredoverseers(hieropoioi)of the Delian temple of Apollo
layout of the text, its paleographic features' and (279 n.c.) recordsall the expensesincurred in connectionwith the engraving
even have composed the
someti-es contributed standard formulae; and may
"epigraphic environment" of a work- and erection ofthe year'sfinancial accounts.
text itself. Hence, one can speak of the
shopasonewouldspeakinpaleographyof..scriptorialprovinces''withtheir
puchaseofthe stele 25 dr.
scriptoria.3aThisopensupthenewpossibilityoftracingthehistoryofepi.
transportation lVz dr.
graphic monuments on a shop-by-shop basis'3s
engraving 126/zdr.
price of lead employedin joining 5 dr.
0.09 The Engraving of the Text wooden tablets I dr.
erection of stele 2Vzdr.
in the same shop that
The engraver (l'l0otpoE llapicida) not only worked Total l6lVz dr.
probably the same artisan
produced the monument but in most caseswas
whopreviouslytranscribedthetext(iftherewasatranscription).36Sincethe The engraverwas paid at a rate of 1 drachma per three hundred letters (tflg
uoXprisyqppcrrcrrqrc,xola), or 3% drachmaeper thousand letters.With
"Pal6ographie des papyrus d'Eglpte et des inscriptions du monde romain"'
3l. JeanMallon, irpproximately thirty-eight thousand letters in this particular inscription, the
MH l 0 ( 1 9 5 3 ) :1 4 1 - 6 0.
32.AntonioFerrua,..Review:J.S'and'E'Gordon,ContributionstothePalaeographyof lrclween the transcriber and the engraver of the text. Similarly, in all decrees commanding
Latin Inscriptions," RBPhil 37 (1959): 775-77 ' rivrrypirrlror r !rfQlopc eiE otf),qv 1,l0ivqv, the verb vcyqrpcrr is translated
"transcribe"-the
33. Susini,Roman Stonecutter,33' "Epigraphie
rr,rrrscribing and engraving apparently seen as closely related tasks (see Robert, et
34. SeeSusini, Roman StonecutteL49'
"Ateliers lapidairesde Thessalie,"incongrEpigrYII,63-90' figs' l-19 I'alirrgraphie,"216 n. 1). But JeanMallon ("Pal6ographiedes papyrus," 439) thinks there was a
35. SeeBruno Helly, tlivision oflabor in the stonemasons'shop,with one person transcribingthe draft and a second
"Att'Ii"" lapidaires en Phrygie"' n CongrEpigrYII' 105-28 (pl'
(SEG 29.1757)it't"." Wu"tk.nf cngravingthe stone.
I-\.I). 17. IG VII, 3073,L. 11; cf. L. s3 (SIG3972).
36.Thismayexplainwhytheverbaccompanyingthesignaturesofengraversis."yqcrrpeand "Epigraphie
3tt. SeeRobert, et palographie,"2ll nn. l-2.
rlv otill'qv' without distinguishing
why the engraver's feeswere paid to the one *ho Yq&q'ou"t
 Introduction | 15
14 | A, Introductionto GreekEpigraphy

If an averagewage in this were carefully prepared by specialistsand had fewer errors than did private
engraving would have cost about 126/z drachmae'3e
this
day,ao sum representsa consider- inscriptions,with the possibleexceptionof cities of the empire that were less
p.iiod i, .rti.rrated at .8- I .0 drachmaeper
Hellenizedor Romanized.In the caseof private inscriptions,the frequencyof
ubl. ,rrrn of money. On this point, Marcus Todd remarks:
such errors is much greater.Thesedrafts were generallypreparedby persons
this publication who were less literate than public officials, especiallythose employed by the
it is surprising that the Delians should have maintained
the period' for the trouble and more peripheral stonemasons'workshops.
lof their a.corr.tts] on stone throughout
of the exhibition of a
.*p.nr. involved were considerableand the problem
must have become 0.12 Errors in the Act of Transcribing
large and steadily growing number of inscribed stelae
serious'ifnotacute.Theincentivetocontinuethecustom,ratherthanto
and deposited in the Minutes of meetings and drafts were probably written in cursive script on
rest content with a paper document duly audited
themselves' who papyrus or wooden tablets. |ean Mallon has argued that some epigraphical
public archives, may huut to*t from the hieropoioi
their activities and errors have resulted from the transcriber misreading this cursive script;44
ielcomed the publicity so secured for their names'
cursive letters bore a greater similarity to one another than did capital letters
their zeal.al
and could be confused, especiallyif the draft was written quickly or carelessly.
Under such conditions, a transcriber might mistake one cursive letter for
ThecostofengravingthelettersinaninscriptionfromLebadeia(|75_72
thousand.a2The slightly another. While a learned transcriber may have no difficulty in deciphering
n.c.) was reckoned at a rate of 4/z drachmaeper
is probably attributable to the even a carelesslywritten draft, a less educated one might introduce errors in
higher cost in comparison to that of Delos
engraving and perhaps the processof deciphering.as For example,fIOI was engravedfor MOI (IG II,
adied labor associatedwith painting the letters after
of costsover time accord- I183, L. 12) becauseof the similarity of II and M in cursivescript.a6Similarly,
secondarily to inflation and the generalfluctuation
the Greek world' Monu- the transcription of AOIIIEI) for ^OIIIOD is the result of confusion of a
ing to the economic conditions of different parts of
public buildings' required meticu- lunate epsilon() with an omicron(O) (IG ll2 1028,L. l3). Thus, whereasthe
mental letters, such asthose found on large
more to engrave stonecutteris habitually blamed for all errors, the transcriber (in the caseof
lous attention to detail and would probably cost significantly
transcriptionsperformed by someoneother than the stonecutter)may be at
and paint.
fault in some cases.47
It is obvious that the chance of such transcribing errors occurring is
0.11 Errors in the ExemPlar or Draft
greater when the transcription and engraving are accomplishedby two differ-
inscriptions.The causesof ent artisansor are preparedwithout the aid of a professional.In the caseof
It sometimeshappensthat errors can be found in
of the last three stagesin the public inscriptions, the draft or exemplar was prepared with great care by a
such errors are several and may arise in any
minutes or draft or from
fabrication of an inscription' that is, from a faulty 44. Jean Mallon,
"Pierres
fautives," Libyca: Archologie-Epigraphie 2 Q95a): 187-99,435-
that errors resulting
carelesstranscribing o. e,,g'ut'i"g'43 One would expect 59; this insight was,not.new with Mallon. Larfeld (Handbuch,2:506-12) and Reinach (Trait, ,
municipal business
from faulty minutes are less common: minutes of official
.t23) made the same observation earlier. Reinach supplies a table of principal confusions in Attic
inscriptions. However, Mallon-himself a paleographer-did more to explore the possible rami-
"Comptes des licationsof this theory.
ll7-19' Cf' Th' Homolle'
39. Seethe accounts of Hlpsokles: IG XIl2' l6l'LL'
(1s82): 1-167' esp' 82-83' 45. Such transcribing errors are ofthe same nature as copying errors on nondurable materi-
hi6ropesdu temple d'Apollon D6lien," BCH 6 als, such as papyrus and vellum (seeSusini,Roman Stonecutter,3l),
a denarius)'
40. See5t7n3 (reckoning a drachma on par with
"Letter-Labelsin Greek Inscriptions,"BS 49 (1954):1-8' esp' 6' 46. See Edward M. Thompson, An Introduction to Greek and Latin Palneography(Oxford:
41. Marcus N. Tod, ( llarendon, 1954), 144-47, esp. 145,fig. 2.
42.Thetextreadsotorqqcrtoitqtpotror,tv1ritov(lGvI]I,3073,LL.||-|2isIG972)' "Pal6ographie
not, as Reinach suggests(Trait, 306)' a 47. SeeMallon, des papyrus," 141-60. Louis Robert engagedin a controversy
*rrlJ t probably a .tat"r of sil*e. and four drachmae, ..fpi-
with Mallon, arguing that Reinachpreviously made this same point: seeRobert, "Epigraphie et
GriechcheEpigraphik, |L6, |2|; Robert
stater of gold and twenty dr4chmae. Cf. Larfeld, palographie," 136-37 (direct reply to Mallon). Cf. Mallon's rejoinder: "scriptoria 6pigra-
graphie et palographie," 217 n' 3' phitlues,"Scriptorium11 (1957): 177-94.
"Der
43. SeeWachter, Informationsgehalt"' l7-31'
 Introduction I 17
16 | An Int oductionto GreekEpigraphy
When faced with a problematic text, epigraphistsshould check all other
civicfunctionarywhospecializedinthistask.Thisfunctionaryisunlikelyto possibilitiesbefore resortingto the explanationofa transcriber'serror. Robert
illegible writing' In-the case of
have provided a draft ,h"t *"' written in "we
must guard againsta hurried violence againstthe text."s3None-
the engraver performed both remarks,
private inscriptions, the evidence suggeststhat
prepared the draft-as well' theless,there are certainly many clear instances of engravers' errors. Robert
the transcribing and engraving u"J'o-"ti-es notes that the hypothesis of a transcriber's error
"is
a very specialkey that may
a draft that was diffrcult to
Whether such an engraver would have prepared be able to open some locks" but that
"if
one forces it in all locks' the lock
workfromorwouldhavehaddiffrcultydecipheringhisownhandwritingisa becomesjammed or the key breaks."sa
always an easy task to decipher
matter for conjecture. Certainly, it is not
one,sownhandwriting.Inanycase,totheextentthatthisstagewasper-
misreadings of the draft would 0.13 Errors in the Act of Engraving
formed with care and attention, the risk of
be reduced.
small number of casesare Engraver's errors may result from simple distraction and inattentivenessor
In the opinion of Louis Robert' only a relatively
the misreading of the draft'a8There perhaps from misreading the transcription. Errors of this kind are the easiest
adequatelyixplained by the hypothesis of
explained the baffling to correct. Here are a few typical examPles.
ur. -u.ty care, in which scholars have erroneously
In many such cases'the
featuresof an inscription by blaming the transcriber'4e
who incorrectly transcribed EAEY>IQN for EAEYEION (IG IP
fault actually lies often *iit' tt" orlginal editor Confusion of a letter form:
than others in this regard'sr 1 0 1 1L, . 2 6 )
the inscription.50Some editors are more reliable
error of modern transcribers' KATATATAEAI fOTKATATAEAI (IG
The confusion of AI for N is one such typical Dittography:
inscriptions increases-thechance ll, 233,L. 16)
Indeed, the physical deterioration of many
that there has been a TH:THAH> for TH) >TH^H> (IG II'
of such misreadings. Therefore, before concluding Erroneouscrasis:
transcriber,serror'onemustattempttodeterminewhethertheinscription
643.L. l0)
has been published correctly' Robert remarks:
0.14 Ancient Corrections and Additions

Itisfalsethat[ancient]engraversmademorefaultsthanmodefncopyists.
mistakes than epigraphists' This In the caseof public inscriptions, the finished engraving was usually checked
It is false that the unlearned made more
down' The stones have most for errors by the civil functionary who had originally prepared the minutes or
constructs an epigraphic universe upside
often few o, .r.r/r.* errors-and these are most often easily explain- by a specially appointed commissioner (eptates,epimeletes)assignedwith
are often erroneous to one this responsibility.ssA decree from Eretria that displays many corrections
able.. . . The (modern) copies of amateurs "a
makes the readings doubtful' commissioner fepistafes]will be appointed to
extent or another. . .. it is ignorance that ends with the statement
not science.s2 overseethe transcription [vcygcrQt] of the decreeand the erection of the
"Philokles,
stele"; this statement is followed by the additional remark son of

48'Robert,..fpigraphieetpalographie,,'2l9andn'1;seeRobert'slistofexamplesofthis
Nikos, was elected commissioner."56Such commissioners were probably not
kind of error. paid for this work. They were usually appointed becausethey had a special
4g.SeeRobert,BE(1955):118,120'138,163,|97(c|.BE||9531:2,97);Robert,Hellenica'X'
173-74. "Communication
53. Robert, inaugurale," 5.
"f'pigraphie et pal6ographie"'208' "fpigraphie
50. SeeRobert, 54. Robert, et palographie," 219.
zo'-lz;ioiert' Hettenica' VII' 6l' no' 3; Robert' Hellenica'YIll' "Zu
51. SeeRobert, Hillr*i;;,1, 55. On commissioners seeAdolf Wilhelm, den Anordnungen ber die Aufstellung von
8 2 ; R o b e r t , E t u d e s a n a t o l i e n n e s : R e c h e r c h e s s u r l e s i n s c r i p t r o n s g r e c q u e s l e - - t 'BEHE
! s i ' e M272
ineur'EO5 Inschriften," in NeueBeitrgezur griechischenInschiftenkunde VI, SBWien 183.3 (Vienna: Alfred
(paris: E. de Boccard, tg* ;-ia7-it Robert, Etudes pigraphiqueset philologiques'
H l d e r ,1 9 2 1 ) , 6 3 - 7 8 .
(Paris:E. de Boccard, 1938),257-58' "Inscriptions
"The Utilization of old 56. /G XIV9, 234, LL. 47-49; cf. Rufus B. Richardson and T. W. Heermance,
"nplgtupii; ei p"leogtaphie "' 209; cf' W' M' Ramsay'
52. Robert, ttom the Gymnasium at Eretria,"A/A II (1896): 173-95, esp.173'
SeeS 1'05'
EpigraphicCopies,"/HS 38 (1918): t24-92'
18 | An Int oductionto GreekEpigraphy

the person who

interest in the matter; the commissioner may have been
honored in the
proposed the original legislation or a relative of a person
decree.
letters, occa-
Sometimes,engraverschiseled out and reinscribed incorrect
by one' Missing
sionally crowding tlvo letters into a spacepreviously occupied
(seefig' 4). How-
letters could be inscribed above a word, between the lines
reexecuted' Hence' every so often
ever, poor workmanship might simply be
twospecimensarefoundofthesameinscription'oneofwhichisfulloferrors
be inscribed on the
u.rd oft.r, left incomplete. The corrected version may even
reverseside of the samestone.sT
brush, with the
Errors on inscribed monuments could also be corrected by
samecolorofpaintaswasappliedtotheoriginalletters.Sometimesthecorrect
both are clearly
letter was simply written above the incorrect letter, so that
was only able to
visible. on Delos, the engraverof the accountsand inventories
to the paintbrush the task of adding
inscribe the frame of ceriain letters, leaving
the transverse bar of
such finishing touches asthe center point ofthe theta and
thedeltaandthealpha.58Suchcorrectionsandadditionsinpainthavelong
epigraphist might
sinceworn off in most cases,with the result that an unwary
conclude that the original inscription had gone uncorrected'
the lines or
Additions made to an inscription yearslater, whether betlveen
inthemarginsorborders,offerthepossibilityofrevealingsomeaspectofthe
A casein point
developmt of social attitudes and epigraphic conventions'se
public monuments as a result of
are the deliberate erasures of names on
commodus, and
damnatio memoriae.For example,the hatred for Domitian,
Elagabaluswassuchthatposthumousdamnatiomemoriaewaspassedon
of them were
them by the Senate; their memory was condemned' images
perpetuated in their families, and their
destroyed,their praenomina were not
(cf' fig' 5)'
nameswere erasedfrom all public monuments

0.15 The Fate of lnscriPtions

damaged-often
Most inscriptions that have come down to us are in
fragmentary-condition.Thedestructionofinscriptionsbeganinantiquity'

57.SeeIDelosYII,2532,lA;CII724;A'Deissmann'LglrtfromtheAncientE4sttrans'Lionel
413-24; Pieter W' van der Horst'
R. M. Strachan (London: Hodder and Stoughton' 1927)'
Epitaphs: An Introductory suryey of a Miltennium of JewishFunerary Epigraphy (j00
Ancient lewish
Pharos' 1991)' 148-49' The same inscription is
B.c.-A.D.700) (Kampen,The Netherlands:Kok
sides ofthe stone; it is also repeated on a second stone (IDelosvII' 2532' II)'
ensravedonboth
"f'pigraphie et pal6ographie"'2ll n' 3'
58. SeeRobert,
59. SeeSusini,Roman Stonecutler'44
 Introduction | 2l

through war, vandalism,and natural catastrophes,such as earthquakes.Fol-

l<lwingthe partial destructionof a city, older inscriptionswere often reusedas
building materialsin the reconstructionof buildings or the erectionof protec-
tive walls. Epitaphswere also vulnerableto vandals,who might defacethem
filr political reasons,or to robbers,who might damagethem in the courseof
gainingentry to a tomb. Bronzeinscriptionswere often destroyedso that their
valuablemetal could be reused.
In the Roman period, the texts of obsolete inscriptions were sometimes
expunged so that the stone might be reused for new inscriptions. Inscriptions
engravedon limestone were sometimes crushed into gravel for the production
rrf concrete. Political fanaticism (in the caseof the damnatio memoriae) and
the religious fanaticism of Christians also contributed to the destruction of
epigraphicmonuments. Fortunately,some individuals-no doubt for a vari-
ety of motives-incorporated inscriptions intact in the walls of houses,
churches, and cemeteries,thereby preserving them for posterity.

0.16 Forgeries

Despite the ravagesof time, over half a million Greek and Latin inscriptions
have survived. However, not all inscriptions are what they purport to be.
Forgeries began in antiquity itself.60A city might contrive an inauthentic
inscription to bolster its civic pride or international reputation. For example,
a Hellenistic mask of gold foil said to be the funeral mask of King Dropion is
probably a piece of nationalisticpropaganda.6rThe modern era has contrib-
uted its own forgeries. Gentlemen scholars sometimes resorted to this decep-
tion to aggtandizetheir reputations. A casein point is IG XIV, 2252, which is
likely a forgery made by the seventeenth-centuryantiquarian G. B. Passeri.62

0.17 Bibliographic Referencesand Searches

At the end of many of the chaptersin this book, the readerwill find supplemen-
tary bibliography that has not been cited in the footnotes. In addition to these

60. For a discussion and exarnplesof ancient forgeries seeChaniotis, Historie und Histoiker,
265-72.
61. It was made up independently of, or with, SIG3394 (cf. SEG 40.560); cf. I. Mikulcic and
V. Sokolovska,MAA rr (1987-89) [1990], 103-10.
"Pisaurum,"
62. SeeG. CresciMarrone and G. Mennella, Supph | (1981): 84. Similarly, see
"Paralipomeni
an epitaph of Flavius, CIG 9844 (seeA. Ferrua, al Vol. I delle ICUR," RACrist 66
ll990l: 101-20, esp. 106, no.24; cf. no.22). Ferrua ("Di un'iscrizione pseudocristianae
pseudoantica,"RmQSchr[1962], 104-8) demonstratesthatlGXIV,9l2 (Tusculum) isaforgery.
lror forged vase inscriptions see SEG 12.562,40.278 bis; cf. 40.1637.
 Introduction | 23
22 | An lrt oductionto GreekEpigraphy
lnscriptionsgrecqueset latines de Ia Syrie (IGLSyria)
bibliographic guides in epigra-
references,there are of course current annual Inschriften griechischerStdteaus Kleinasien(IK)
phy.ThereadershouldalsoconsulttheGuidedel'pigraphi.sfq63nowavailable MonumentaAsiaeMinoris Antiqua (MAMA, 10 vols.)
(2000) edition' for a more com-
in a third entirely reconceivedand expanded Tituli AsiaeMinoris (TAM,4 vols.)
and the-
publications' including regional corpora
ft"i. tlr,irrg ofepigraphical
maticcollectionsinadditiontothematictreatmentsofmanysubjectsofinter- 0.19 Overview of This Introduction
de l'pigraphistewas not yet in
est to epigraphists. (Unfortunately the Guide
w-asbeing prepared') Also of indis- 'l'his
print when the manuscript for this book book is utilitarian in scope.It is not intended to be a generaldiscussion
Epigraphique6a(published in
pensableimportance * ifti' regard areBulletin of the contribution of epigraphical data to the related fields of classicalstud-
Epigraphi"m G'o"um' Anne Epi-
Revue ilesEtudesGrecques),Supplementum ies. Rather, it is a practical handbook for the beginner who is faced with the
Gree.kRetigion(in Kernos)'For early
graphique,and the npig,apnlc'n"lletin for sometimes daunting task of actually reading and interpreting Greek inscrip-
bibliography,orr"rfrooldtonsultf'J'Hondius'sSaxaloquuntur:Inleidingtotde tions. In the following pages are collected much of the very factual and
grieksche EPigraPhiek.65 particular information neededto make senseof these texts'
This book is divided into three parts.Part 1 (chaps.1-6) dealswith general
0.18 Standard Epigraphical Series matters, knowledge of which is indispensablein the reading of inscriptions of
all kinds. Included therein are such topics as editorial slfa (marks, signs, or
WhiletherangeandvarietyofepigraphicalpublicationsiSvast,thereaderof charactersused to edit epigraphicaltexts), paleography,Greek and Roman
thisbookshouldbefamiliarattheoutsetwithseveralstandardandlong. onomasticsand prosopography,and the dating of inscriptions.Part 2 begins
A list of a selection of these follows'
establishedseriesof corpora cited herein' with a discussionof the classificationof inscriptions into their various catego-
witheach,.,i","..o-paniedbyitsabbreviation(seethelistofabbreviations ries (chap. 7). Since it is not possibleto discussin equal detail all classesof
later in this book' for com-
of epigraphical and related classicalpublications' inscriptions,a number of broad categorieshavebeenselectedfrom this classifi-
plete reference). cation scheme for a more extensive treatment: namely, decrees,honorary
inscriptions of various kinds, dedications and ex-votos, funerary inscriptions,
(CIG' 4 vols')66
CorpusInstiptionum Graecarum and manumission inscriptions (chaps.8-12). Finally, part 3 (chaPs.l3-17)
InscriPtionesGraecaeUG) includes specialtopics that bear on the interpretation of specificfeaturesof
(IGRR' 3 vols')
InscriptionesGraecaeail resRomanaspertinentes inscriptions, such as Greek and Roman administrative functions, orthography,
(IGUR' 4 vols')
InscriptionesGraecae[Jrbis Romae metrical inscriptions, and the commodity value of currency.
In the citation of epigraphic texts, this book has omitted line breaks in
63'FrangoisBrard,DenisFeissel'P'Petitmengin'DenisRousset'andMichelSEve'Guidede
l ' p i g r a p h t e : B i b l i o g r a p h i e c h o i s i e d e s p i g r a p h i e s a n t i q u e s e t m and
d i 6 v a l e s 'A'
3 d L' ' ( P a r"A
e d Lee' is:Pressde exempla that are not cited in extenso.The list of abbreviations of epigraphical
by G' H' R' Horsley John
l'Ecole normale ,rrpe.t."'", iooo;' "tpptrn""t"a Epigraphica 56 (1994): and related classicalpublications incorporates the list ofepigraphical abbrevia-
Volumes"'
preliminary checklist of Abbreviations of Gre"k Epigraphical
tions recently publishedby G. H. R. Horsley and John A. L' Lee,67as well as
tut-'r".
rndexduBufietinhpigraphiquedel.etL.Robert,
1938-65,vo!.r,Lesmotsgrecs,vor.2, additional relevant abbreviations fuom SupplementumEpigraphicumGraecum,
"Les Belles Lettres," lg72-75)t Index du
(Paris:
Les publications,arrd uot. l, iri^* irangais "Les Belles Lettres," 1979); lndex du the American lournal of Archaeology,L'Annephilologique,and elsewhere.
iSeA-ZS (Paris:
Bufletin Epigraphique de t.'r, i. noUit, "Les Belles Lettres"' 1983)' In addition
1974-1977 (Paris:
Bulletin Epigraphiqueae i. et L. Robert, "Noms"' "Anthroponymes"' and
to looking up specific tu-*' tttt"tt under the headings
"Onomastique."
reprint'
totde griekscheEpigraphiek(Leiden' 1938;
65. I. J. Hondius , Saxa loquuntur: Inleiding
Chicago:Ares, 1976)' all
inscriptions (iS2S-43)' attempted to collect
66. CIG, being the first corpus of Greek
world; though now quite out of date and very incom- "Preliminary Checklist"' 129-69'
known Greek inscriptlons from e Greek 67. Horsley and Lee,
plete, it has not been entirely replaced'
18 | An Int oductionto GreekEpigraphy

the person who

interest in the matter; the commissioner may have been
honored in the
proposed the original legislation or a relative of a person
decree.
letters, occa-
Sometimes,engraverschiseled out and reinscribed incorrect
by one' Missing
sionally crowding tlvo letters into a spacepreviously occupied
(seefig' 4). How-
letters could be inscribed above a word, between the lines
reexecuted' Hence' every so often
ever, poor workmanship might simply be
twospecimensarefoundofthesameinscription'oneofwhichisfulloferrors
be inscribed on the
u.rd oft.r, left incomplete. The corrected version may even
reverseside of the samestone.sT
brush, with the
Errors on inscribed monuments could also be corrected by
samecolorofpaintaswasappliedtotheoriginalletters.Sometimesthecorrect
both are clearly
letter was simply written above the incorrect letter, so that
was only able to
visible. on Delos, the engraverof the accountsand inventories
to the paintbrush the task of adding
inscribe the frame of ceriain letters, leaving
the transverse bar of
such finishing touches asthe center point ofthe theta and
thedeltaandthealpha.58Suchcorrectionsandadditionsinpainthavelong
epigraphist might
sinceworn off in most cases,with the result that an unwary
conclude that the original inscription had gone uncorrected'
the lines or
Additions made to an inscription yearslater, whether betlveen
inthemarginsorborders,offerthepossibilityofrevealingsomeaspectofthe
A casein point
developmt of social attitudes and epigraphic conventions'se
public monuments as a result of
are the deliberate erasures of names on
commodus, and
damnatio memoriae.For example,the hatred for Domitian,
Elagabaluswassuchthatposthumousdamnatiomemoriaewaspassedon
of them were
them by the Senate; their memory was condemned' images
perpetuated in their families, and their
destroyed,their praenomina were not
(cf' fig' 5)'
nameswere erasedfrom all public monuments

0.15 The Fate of lnscriPtions

damaged-often
Most inscriptions that have come down to us are in
fragmentary-condition.Thedestructionofinscriptionsbeganinantiquity'

57.SeeIDelosYII,2532,lA;CII724;A'Deissmann'LglrtfromtheAncientE4sttrans'Lionel
413-24; Pieter W' van der Horst'
R. M. Strachan (London: Hodder and Stoughton' 1927)'
Epitaphs: An Introductory suryey of a Miltennium of JewishFunerary Epigraphy (j00
Ancient lewish
Pharos' 1991)' 148-49' The same inscription is
B.c.-A.D.700) (Kampen,The Netherlands:Kok
sides ofthe stone; it is also repeated on a second stone (IDelosvII' 2532' II)'
ensravedonboth
"f'pigraphie et pal6ographie"'2ll n' 3'
58. SeeRobert,
59. SeeSusini,Roman Stonecutler'44
 Introduction | 2l

through war, vandalism,and natural catastrophes,such as earthquakes.Fol-

l<lwingthe partial destructionof a city, older inscriptionswere often reusedas
building materialsin the reconstructionof buildings or the erectionof protec-
tive walls. Epitaphswere also vulnerableto vandals,who might defacethem
filr political reasons,or to robbers,who might damagethem in the courseof
gainingentry to a tomb. Bronzeinscriptionswere often destroyedso that their
valuablemetal could be reused.
In the Roman period, the texts of obsolete inscriptions were sometimes
expunged so that the stone might be reused for new inscriptions. Inscriptions
engravedon limestone were sometimes crushed into gravel for the production
rrf concrete. Political fanaticism (in the caseof the damnatio memoriae) and
the religious fanaticism of Christians also contributed to the destruction of
epigraphicmonuments. Fortunately,some individuals-no doubt for a vari-
ety of motives-incorporated inscriptions intact in the walls of houses,
churches, and cemeteries,thereby preserving them for posterity.

0.16 Forgeries

Despite the ravagesof time, over half a million Greek and Latin inscriptions
have survived. However, not all inscriptions are what they purport to be.
Forgeries began in antiquity itself.60A city might contrive an inauthentic
inscription to bolster its civic pride or international reputation. For example,
a Hellenistic mask of gold foil said to be the funeral mask of King Dropion is
probably a piece of nationalisticpropaganda.6rThe modern era has contrib-
uted its own forgeries. Gentlemen scholars sometimes resorted to this decep-
tion to aggtandizetheir reputations. A casein point is IG XIV, 2252, which is
likely a forgery made by the seventeenth-centuryantiquarian G. B. Passeri.62

0.17 Bibliographic Referencesand Searches

At the end of many of the chaptersin this book, the readerwill find supplemen-
tary bibliography that has not been cited in the footnotes. In addition to these

60. For a discussion and exarnplesof ancient forgeries seeChaniotis, Historie und Histoiker,
265-72.
61. It was made up independently of, or with, SIG3394 (cf. SEG 40.560); cf. I. Mikulcic and
V. Sokolovska,MAA rr (1987-89) [1990], 103-10.
"Pisaurum,"
62. SeeG. CresciMarrone and G. Mennella, Supph | (1981): 84. Similarly, see
"Paralipomeni
an epitaph of Flavius, CIG 9844 (seeA. Ferrua, al Vol. I delle ICUR," RACrist 66
ll990l: 101-20, esp. 106, no.24; cf. no.22). Ferrua ("Di un'iscrizione pseudocristianae
pseudoantica,"RmQSchr[1962], 104-8) demonstratesthatlGXIV,9l2 (Tusculum) isaforgery.
lror forged vase inscriptions see SEG 12.562,40.278 bis; cf. 40.1637.
 1
EditorialSigla

Most inscriptions that have survived the ravagesof time are damaged,either
through accidental breakage,deliberate vandalism, physical wear (in the case
of inscriptionsreusedas paving blocks or doorsills),or exposureto the physi-
cal elements,or becausethey have been broken in the courseofbeing refash-
ioned for reuse as construction materials. Accordingln the first task of the
cditor is to estimate the extent of loss and damageand to provide an accurate
rcpresentationof what has been preservedin an inscription.
It is also the editor's responsibility to introduce word divisions, punctua-
tion, and accentuation.Though accentswere never engraved,theseshould be
lurnished in minusculetranscriptionsaccordingto the classicalform, to assist
the reader in understanding the forms; for example, according to classical
orthography, it is permissible to place a circumflex on an omicron taking the
place of an omega or, conversely,to treat an omega as if it were an omicron
( c.g.,r nttgcrXiltrrov).
According to Henri Gr6goire, accentuation constitutes a minimum of
"these
interpretation: accentsprovide exactly the same serviceas the maso-
rctic pointing did in the corrupt text of the Hebrew Bible. . . . They immedi-
irtely evoke the familiar character of words disfigured by itacism or by the
pcrmutation of consonants."rMoreover, in texts that do not employ an iota
irdscript (see 5 15.02), an iota subscript should be added according to the
classicalform. This may involve putting an iota subscript under a short vowel
tirking the place of a long vowel (e.9.,q for rp).
In 1931, under the auspicesof the Union Acad6mique Internationale,a
t onference was held in Leiden in an attempt to secureuniformity of usagein

l. H. G169oire,RIPBelg5l (1908): 197-99.

27
 EditorialSigla | 29
28 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy

known as 15, etc.), in which casea pair of vertical bars (ll) is used. Though it is
the editing of ancienttexts.on this occasion,the editing convention
,,dasleydener Klammer system" (the Leiden system)was devised.2It has since customary to number every fifth line of the printed epigraphicaltext' this
practiceis not universal;some collectionsnumber every third or fourth line
been widely (but not universally) adopted for the editing of both epigraphical
instead.
and papyrologicaltexts-
and The numbering of lines is especiallydifficult when an inscription is frag-
Though the current editorial practice among epigraphists is diverse
(or mentary or badly mutilated and consequently the exact number of missing
no universal set of conventions has yet been adopted, the Leiden system
In the lines is not known or when there is uncertainty about whether lines are indeed
some variation thereof) is the most commonly employed system'3
system is to provide a means
"to missing at all. According to the old system, only those lines that were legible
words of sterling Dow, the purpose of this
were numbered. In the Leiden system, line numbers can also be used as a
set forth in print, by use of regular, understood, agreed-upon conventions'
represen- convenienceto refer to an area of the stone in which letters may or may not
which shall be as simple and clear as possible. . . a clear and correct
have been inscribed. Although it is preferable that the total number of lines
tation of original text."a
should correspond to the total number of lines of the original inscription, this
This system introduced some significant changesto the existing editorial
(< >). is not imperative. The matter is not deemed serious,since the convenience
sigla.The most dramatic changeconcernsthe use of angularbrackets
prio, to 1931, angular brackets meant dele, that is, the excision of letters and accuracyof referenceis of greaterimportance.6
dele
deemed to be superfluous by the editor; according to the Leiden system'
({ (see 1'06)'s In works after 1932' angular 1.02Lacunas Dashesand Dots ([ - - - ]' I . . . ])
is signifiedby brace brackets, }) S
letters; see s
brackets usually mean adde (i.e., the insertion ot substitution of
or ( )' Some inscriptions are so fragmentary that it is difficult to estimatethe propor-
1.05).In the previous convention, adde was signified by parentheses'
should tions of the original.T In such cases,dashesmay be employed within square
whenever there is any doubt as to usage,the editor's commentary
brackets(t- - - ]) to indicate a lacuna of uncertain length. The precisenum-
correct any ambiguitY.
ber of dashesused is of no significance and does not suggestin any way the
number of missing letters. However, the editor may wish to estimate the
l.0l The Numbering of Lines and the Vertical Bar (l) ca'40
- - - l indicatesthat approxi-
lumber of missingletters;for example,[ - - -
mately forty letters are missing. If it is clear that a proper name once occupied
printings of inscriptions often preservethe individual arrangement of lines, an
the lacuna, eivcrs(so-and-so)can be put within squarebrackets.Points are
a published
essential in the case of an editio princeps. In later editions of usedwithin squarebrackets(t....]) to indicateindividual letters,whether
with one line
inscription, individual lines are frequently printed continuously, lost or illegible. In this case,the number of dots should always equal the
printed page'
following immediately on the previous line to savespaceon the number of lost letters. If a given inscription is written in stoichedon style (see
it is necessaryto indicate where one line ends
when printed in this fashion,
(l) to seParate individ- 52.03),the number of missingletterscan often be determinedwith consider-
and another begins with the use of a single vertical bar
able accuracyby counting the letters in the preceding or following line. If an
uallines,exceptwherethelinenumberisamultipleoffive(i.e.,lines5,10' inscription is not written stoichedon, as is usually the case,it is often only
Emploi dessignescritiques; possible to estimate roughly the number of missing letters, in which case
2. For a more extenslvetreatment seeA. Delatte and A. Severyns,
disposition de I'apparat dans lesditions sarantes de t1ltes grecset latins: conseil et recommanda- clashesshould be used.When restoringnonstoichedoninscriptions,it should
"Les
tions, union Acad6mique lnternationale, Palais des Acad6mies,
2d ed. (Paris: BellesLettres,"
be borne in mind that words at the end of eachline are often divided on the
l93s)(=UAI2);foranoverviewofthevarioussystemsofdiacriticalsignsusedinGreekand
(SEG 37 '1775)'
basis of syllables.This is called the principle of syllabification. A restoration
Latin epigraphy seeL. Vidman in CongrEpigr IX, 145-62
Richard Gordon, Ioyce Reynolds' Mary Beard' and Charlotte
3. On disagreements see 6. SeeDow, Conventions,3-4.
"Ro-an Inscriptions, 1991-95," /RS 87 (1997): 203-40' esp' 205-6'
Rouech, of
7. Since marble is limited in strength, the thickness of a fragment may give an indication
4.SterlingDow,ConventionsinEditingASuggestedReformulationoftheLeidenSystem' slabs necessarily being cut into smaller sections.
Duke university Press, 1969), 2. the original size,with thinner
Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Scholarly,q.idi z (ourham, NC: ll. In the appropriate case(e.g.,ro0 eCvog,tQ eivr.' tv ecvc, oi eiveE,tooE eivcrE)'
5. For a summary of the previous system employed see S'EG6' viii'
30 An lntroductionto GreekF.pigruphy
|
that violatesthis principle (e.g.,r[4t ollreigcr) is lesslikely to be correct than
one that respectsit (e.g.,t[ nllneqa).'
1.03 SpacesLeft Blank by the Inscriber: Superscript V, Vac.,
or Vacat
There are numerous examples of stonemasonsleaving areas of the stone's
surfaceblank. Often, there are good reasonsfor these gaps.Sometimes,physi-
cal imperfectionsin the stone (e.g.,intrusions of harder or softer stone caused
by veins) made it diffrcult to carye letters. Such areasmight be intentionally
left uninscribed. This phenomenon is termed vitium lapidis (see, e.g., IG II2
62lZ7]o A secondtype of intentional gap occurswhen the stonemasonleaves
spacesas an aid to the reader(i.e., as a form of punctuation) or to emphasize
particular words or phrases.ll
"it
A small superscript italic ? (which standsfor v^cat, is empty") indicates
one uninscribed space,equivalent to the module (width) of an averageletter.
Several blank spaces in a row are indicated by an equivalent number of
* indicates that four spaceshave been left blank, and -r%
superscript vs;thus,
uo''or'o'ot
indicates that one and a half spaceshave been left blank. The trseof
indicates that the remainder of the line has been left uninscribed and cannot,
uo'otr0indicates that the sizeof a sPacecan
or has not, been measured.Similarly,
ca'70denotesthat the size of the sPacecan
lacat
be accuratelymeasured,whereas
only be approximated.
The sigla ['] and fwc')llwmtlsignalthe editor's deduction that one spaceor
the remainder of a line was left blank, though the stone does not preservethis
information. Similarly, v indicates that insufficient surface is intact to permit
the editor to determine the presence of a single uninscribed space with
certainty.
1.04 Doubtfrrl Readings: Subscript Dots (ct' p' etc.)
partially preservedor indistinct letters may hold the key to the meaning of an
entire inscription. Since most inscriptions have suffered damage through the
ages,especiallyat the edges of the stone, such letters are very common' In
9. Rho was sometimes combined with another letter in a single letter space,and there was a
growing tendency in III B.c. to divide words syllabically.
"Three
Athenian Decrees:Method in the Restoration of Preambles,"
tO. See Sterling Dow,
HSCP 67 (1963): 56-75, esP.64-65.
,,Three Athenian Decrees," 64-65; S. Dow, "The Purported Decree of Themisto-
11. Dow,
cles: Stele and Inscription," AIA 66 (1962): 353-68 (pl. 95)' esp. 365-67 '
EditorialSigla I tt
vicw of their importance to the restorationprocess,it is critical that the editor
be in firm control ofthe conventionsfor depicting such letters.
In the older corpora, as well as in some modern majuscule texts, partially
preservedletters are often representedas incomplete, or as so-calledbroken
capitals. For instance, a broken epsilon and alpha might be indicated by the
single strokes f and /, respectively. If a letter is indistinct but its identity is
unquestionable, its shape has sometimes been written as a series of closely
spaceddots. When an inscription has become so worn and indistinct that the
presenceor shapeofinscribed letters is uncertain, this has been conveyedby
shading the entire area.Theseconventions were followed for the Attic inscrip-
tions of InscriptionesGraecae.
Gradually, these conventions were replaced by the use of dotted letters (cr,
p, etc.), a practice borrowed from papyrology, where it was well establishedas
early as 1898,in the first volume of the Oxyrhynchus papyri. Kendrick Pritchett
has documented the gradual and fluctuating adoption of dotted letters in the
field of epigraphy.t2 Throughout this transitional period, the use of dotted
letters in the field of epigraphy was a matter of personal preference,not stan-
dard, generally acceptededitorial policy. Dotted letters were used to represent
sometimes partially preservedletters and sometimes indistinct letters.13
At the 1932 Leiden conference, a deliberate step was taken to secure
uniformity in the use of dotted letters. They were only to be used to indicate a
"doubtful "a
letter," that is, letter so imperfect that, without context, it can be
read in more than orr way."14According to this convention, a subscript dot
should not be placed under any letter of which, though imperfectly preseryed,
sufficient traces remain to identifr the letter with certainty when read in
isolation.
In the Leiden system, a subscript dot indicates that the identity of the
letter is uncertain becauseeither part of it is missing (previously indicated by
broken type) or a letter is indistinct (previously indicated by writing letters as
a series of dots or by shaded areas). Letters with missing parts or indistinct
letters should not be dotted if the identity of a letter is undisputed, nor should
they be dotted simply because the editor finds the meaning of the letter
baffling when read in context. This latter issue ariseswhen an editor antici-
pates the task of restoration before completing the prior task of carefully
documenting what has been preservedon the stone.
"Dotted
i2. W. Kendrick Pritchett, Lettersin Greek Epigraphy,"AIA 59 (1955): 55-61 (pl.
3 3 - 3 4 ) , e s p .5 5 - 5 7 .
"Dotted
13. SeePritchett, Letters," 59; cf. supra n. 7.
14. UAI2, 15; cf. IAmyzon l0; Robert, BE (195I), I97-98,no.227.
32 An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy
|
The editor must ask whether a given letter can be read accurately in
isolation.In other words, context must not be used to decidewhether a letter
should be dotted.rsAccording to Giancarlo Susini, the interpretation of a text
"a proper evaluation of the actual letter in its graphic asPect'
must begin with
and of the way it came to be where it is, before considering what phonetic
value it was meant to have."r6It is not the first responsibility of the editor to
decide which readings are decisivebased on a contextual reading'
It hardly needs to be said that caution must be exercisedin interpreting
dotted lettersappearingin textspublishedprior to 1932.However' careis also
required in publications after 1932. For example, even J. J. Hondius, who
professedto adopt the Leiden system,17used context to determine whether a
letter should be dotted.18
No letter appearing in brackets should ever have a subscript dot unless ( I )
it is a doubtful letter occurring in an erasure (indicated by double square
brackets,e.g.,[qh seeS 1.08or (2) an editor is working from an old printed
edition of a lost inscription and changesone of the letters of the old edition to
a different letter.le
1.05 Additions and Substitutions by the Editor: The Use of
Angular Brackets (< >)
The use of angular brackets (< >) according to the Leiden convention is
somewhat ambiguous, since they are used in three different ways. However,
since the specific use of thesebrackets is generally expanded on in the lemma,
ambiguity is rarely a real problem. Angular brackets indicate additions or
substitutions by the editor or letters left incomplete by the editor'2o
on this
15. In making this statement, I acknowledge that some eminent epigraphists dissent
point and continue to edit on a different basis.
16. Giancarlo Susini, The Roman stonecutter:An Introduction to Latin Epigraphy,trans.
A. M.
Dabrowski, ed. E. Badian (Oxford: Basil Blackwell' 1967)'
17. SeeSEG 7: Praefatio.
"Non
1g. In vols. 7-10 ofsEG he has the following note: puncto supposito notantur litterae
- -
quae quamquam pars tantum in lapide exstat tamen certa ratione suppleri possunt. E^O
: oEetL tF<rrr." Pritchett ("Dotted Letters," 59-60) documents Hondius's incon-
lfnlOt
sistent use of dotted letters'
19. Some editors used angular brackets or parenthesesfor this purpose'
by
20. Prior to 1931,angular brackets meant the excision ofletters deemed to be superfluous
system uses angular brackets to mark the addition or substitution
the editor, whereasthe Leiden
the
of letters. The older corpora (e.g., clc, sIG, DGE, LSAM) would use parentheses where
brackets.
Leiden Systemwould use angular
EditorialSigla | 33
I .05.1Additions by the Editor
Sometimesan editor will insert into the text letters that he or she considersto
have been erroneously omitted by the inscriber. Such editorial additions are
designatedby enclosing them in angular brackets (e.g., Kclo<o>QoE :
KADPO>).2r If the editor is working without the aid of a squeezeor photo-
graph of the inscription, there may be a reasonable degree of doubt as to
whether the original engraver or modern transcriber of the text is at fault.22
This problem is irresolvable in casesin which the stone itself has been lost or
damaged in this intervening period.
1.05.2Substitutionsby the Editor
Angular brackets are also used to substitute the correct letters in place of
letters deemed by the editor to have been erroneously inscribed. Whenever
such substitutions are made, the lemma should always provide the actual
readingof the stone.23
Due caution should be exercisedin this use of angular brackets.The editor
should only correct that which the engraver would have considered to be an
error (seeS 0.11-13). In other words, angularbracketsshould not be usedfor
editorial corrections. The grammar, orthography, and morphology of the
inscriptions should always be respected.2a The interchange of vowels (e.9., E
for AI) and consonants (e.g.,
B for fI) that atteststo the pronunciation of the
time should not be corrected (see S 15.02-06), nor should such forms as
no,vlreou,v (for -lov) or Agi1},rE(for -toE).2sSimilarly, the following phe-
nomena should not be corrected:
itacism (seeS 15.04)
haplographyof double letters in a singleword (e.g.,xl"qoi.cr)
dittography of singlelettersin a singleword (e.g.,Agr.ootcg)
21. Strangely,Louis Robert divergeson this point, by using parenthesesfor letters omitted by
the engraver (IAmyzon l0).
22. SeeRobert, Hellenica,VII,60-63.
23. Some authors have begun to use double angular brackets (<< >>) to signifr editorial
substitutions (e.g., Horsley in Ne,wDocs, vols. 4-5; S. R. Llewelyn and R. A. Kearsley in NewDocs,
vol. 6), but this usageis not well established;Robert (IAmyn r l0) notes the use ofdouble angular
brackets for the suppression ofdittography.
24. See Henri Grgoire, Recueildes insciptions grecques-chrtiennes d'Asie Mineure (Paris: E.
L e r o u x ,1 9 2 2 ) ,l l n . l .
25. SeeIAmyzon 12.
34 An Intoductionto GreekEpigraphy
|
parasitic iota26
erroneouscrasis(e.g.,eiorfl'r1v)
The exposition of such forms with reference to classical form should be
confined to the lemma or commentary.27It must be admitted that there is
editorial inconsistencyin this regard, not only in older editions, but in recent
works as well.2sTherefore, the epigraphist should be prepared to reedit an
inscription to bring it into conformity with modern standards'
1.05.3LettersLeft Incompleteby the Engraver
Occasionally,when a mason changed from one chisel to another, he might
inadvertently leave part of a letter uncut (e.g., A engraved for an A or ^, II
for H or II). Such corrected letters should be enclosedin angular brackets if
if
the stonemason'sintent is clear and should be printed with a subscript dot
the intent is not clear.
1.06 Suppressionsby the Editor: Brace Brackets ({ })
Every so often, a stonemason will accidentally engrave twice in successiona
group of letters or even entire words. Such errors can be suppressedby the
editor with the use of brace brackets (e.g.,Tcrpq{Bq}vv). In older corpora
(e.g., CIG, SlG tSS, DGE, LSAM), this was indicated by angular brackets
(< >).
1.07 Resolutions of Abbreviations and Ligatures:
Parentheses( )
When an engraver intentionally abbreviatesa word by omission of letters or
with a ligature (sees 2.06.2), the editor may wish to expand the form to the
complete word. The letters used in such expansionsshould be enclosedin
parentheses,as in Aq(fll,Log), l,crpng(&crroE)' Parenthesesmay also be
positions and not in
26. Robert (lAmyzon 12) notes that the use ofthe iota, engraved in some
others, is a witness to the date and state ofthe language and therefore should not be suppressed'
"Zu
27. see Adolf wilhelm, Knig Antigonos' schreiben an die Teier," Klio 28 (1935): 280-
g3, esp. 292.The contributions and names of previous editors should also be cited in the lemma
or commentary.
2g. P. L. Zovatto ("Le epigrafi latine e greche nel sarcofagi paleocristiani della
necropoli di
concordia," Epigraphicaa 1rs+01, 74-90, esp. 84-90) corrected the orthography (including
Julia
itacism) in accordancewith the classicalforms'
Sigla I
F.ditoriat lS
employedto deciphercurrencysignsfor drachmaeand denarii:e.g.,(qclpoi)
i for < x'; (qvqrc) i for* x'.
1.08 Rasures: Double Square Brackets ( [ ] )
Double square brackets indicate letters that were deliberately erasedin antiq-
uity but whose existencecan still be positively read. Dashesare used within
such brackets if the individual letters cannot be read ([ - - -D' and subscript
dots are used when letterscan be partially read ([apn).
When the original text is completely obliterated and a secondtext engraved
over the original text is wholly or partially legible, the secondtext is printed in
superscript letters betweenthe double brackets ([ "Fro"l). Squarebracketsinside
double brackets([[ ]]) indicatean erasedareain which nothing canbe readbut
that has been restored by the editor. Alternatively, double brackets within
singlebrackets(t[ nl) indicate that the editor conjecturesan erasure.
1.09 Reading Clear, Interpretation Unknown: Capital Letters
Sometimes the editor is unable to make sensein context of whole letters (or
partially preserved letters that are positively identifiable) that occur in an
inscription. This is indicated by printing the letters as capitals.This convention
calls attention to the problem-whether it is in the reading, in the inscribing,
or simply in the use of a very unusual word-without attempting a solution.
1.10 Parts Read Earlier Now Missing: Underlining
Over the years, many inscriptions that appeared in older corpora have since
incurred further damage through improper storage,air pollution, vandalism,
or fragments becoming lost. This is often the result of parts of the stone
breaking away at the edges. In such cases,underlining is used to indicate
letters that were read with certainty by epigraphists in earlier agesbut can no
longer be so read (see,e.g.,IDelosYl, l52l).2e
l.1l Restorations:SquareBrackets ([ ])
Most inscriptions are damaged,incomplete,and fragmentaryto some extent.
If the maximum amount of information is to be derived from an inscription,
29. Some editors use angularbracketsinstead (see,e.g.,TAMY12,945).
36 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy
the editor must attempt the challengingtask of restoration.Squarebrackets
are employed to indicate areasonce inscribed but now lost through damage.
No decipherableletter should ever be printed inside squarebrackets.Many-
them
though not all-editors use squarebrackets in pairs, rather than leaving
open at the beginning or end of lines.
There is a variance of opinion as to what should apPear within square
brackets, whether only restorations that are assured (the Kirchner Principle)
(the Principle of
or also restorations that are unsupported and conjectural
must
Extreme Freedom). According to the Kirchner Principle any restoration
no element of uncertainty can be present'
conform to one rule, namely, that
In other words, such restorations claim to reproduce the original text
accu-
that
rately. The implication of the Kirchner Principle is that all restorations
fall short of certainty are printed in the lemma or commentary'
Many such restorations can be made with confidence through the assis-
of
tance of analogy. In any given period, cities employed a limited repertoire
preserves
formulae, expressions,and epithets. sometimes the surviving text
part of a weil-attested technical term or standard phrase. To take a simple
.*arrrpl., dedicatory inscriptions often end with the formula eivcr &v0qxe.
as
Thus, the letters A[ . ]Et . ]HKE in a dedication can confidently be restored
composi-
[v][e]qxe.Similarly,the preamblesof decreesareoften stereotyped
other
tions following on standard formulae that name the year's archon and
E[ . in a decreecan be restored as
officials(see$ 6.01,8.04);the letters ]EEN
the engraving of a
[o][ev. Also, regionally specificformulae for commanding
Propontis
de.ree can be readily restored; for example, inscriptions from the
and the Black Sea frequently bear the formula &vcryqnrpat eiE tel.apva
finds
l,euxo0 L[0ou (engraveon a white stone stele),whereasin Thessalyone
eiE xi,ovcr Lr,oivqv (on a stone stele).30Similarly, the formula xxl,loicrg
xugicE yevopvr1E(taking place during the regular meeting of the assembly)
is specificto many decreesof Lycia in the third centuryA.D.31 Ulrich wilcken's
words intended for papyrologists apply equally to epigraphists'
the centuries in terms
Just as lthe papyrologist] must distinguish between
of the development of script according to their characteristics,he must
also strive to gain a clear understanding of what is possiblein the language
..ftudes d'pigraphie grecque: XL. Inscriptions d'Herakleia," RPhil l0
30. see L. Robert,
(1936): ll3-70, esp. 130; Robert, Hellenica, VIl,33-34'
Inscriptions, monflares et
31. see Louis Robert, Documents de I'Asie Mineute meridionale:
3, Hautes f,tudes du Monde Gr6co-Romain 2 (Geneva: Librairie Droz; Paris:
geographie, cRHp
Librairie Minard, 1966)' 54'
EditorialSigla | 37
of the individual periods,lest he risk filling the gapswith expressionsthat
are impossiblefor the time of the document in question.32
A knowledge of the meter of an inscription can be a useful aid in restora-
tion, since the metrical requirements of a line may prohibit some proposed
restorations(seeS 16.06).Large-scalerestorationsare permitted only when
an inscription belongs to a large group in which there is a high degree of
repetition of terms and phrases.For example,financial accountsand cata-
logues tend to be very repetitive in their structure, allowing sometimes very
fragmentary inscriptions to be restored with considerableaccuracy.
The corollary ofthis is that, as Robert observes,"the difficulty ofrestora-
tion increaseswith the originality of the document."33Thus, whereasone can
often find exact parallels for administrative inscriptions, the narrative sections
of decreespose a much greater challenge owing to the distinctivenessof the
facts. Similarly, such creative works as epigrams and hymns are often un-
restorable. When faced with multiple possibilities, the Kirchner Principle
dictates that no restoration should be printed in the text, though competing
suggestionscan be discussedin the commentary.
Even if an identical term, formula, or expression can be found, it is
sometimesonly one of severalpossibilities.A comparison with related inscrip-
tions may demonstrate that a number of restorations are possible in the given
context. Therefore, the argument that a particular restoration corresponds to
the length of the lacuna is insufficient unless corroborated by other evi-
"not
dence.3a According to A.-J. Letronne,restorationis a questionof rewrit-
ing the document, which is alwayseasily accomplished,but pointless; rather it
is necessaryto restore it, which is a very different matter."3s Any proposed
restorationshould also conform to the orthography ofthe period and region
in question. When the beginning of a word is missing, reverselexicons can be
helpful in the restoration of nominals36and proper names.37
32. L. Mitteis and U. Wilcken, Grundzge und Chrestomathie des Papyruskunde, 2 vols.
(Leipzig:B. G. Teubner, 1912), l:xlix.
33. Louis Robert,
"Les
6pigraphies et l'6pigraphie grecque et romaine," in OMS 5.65-101,
esp.98.
"Les
34. SeeRobert, 6pigraphies," 93.
"Les
35. Quoted in Robert, 6pigraphies," 9l; cf. A.-J. Letronne, Recueil des inscriptions
grecqueset latines de I'Egypte,2 vols. in I (Paris: L'Imprimerie Royal, 1848).
36. See Carl D. Buck and Walter Petersen,A ReverseLexicon of GreekNouns and Adjectiues
Arranged by Terminations (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1948).
37. See F. Dornseiff and Bernard Hansen, Reverse-Lexicon of GreekProper-Narnes(Rcklu-
figes Wrterbuch der Griechischen Eigennamen) (Chicago: Ares, 1944); Zg,tstaKP, pp. 657-76.
38 An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy Editorial Sigla I 39
|

The opposite view to the Kirchner Principle is the Principle of Extreme TABLE l. Editorial Abbreviations

Freedom.It has been defendedby Benjamin Meritt38and expandedby Mal- sic

: ante Christum (e.g.,l^, ll^, 27^)
colm McGregor;hence,it is sometimescalledthe Meritt-Mccregor Principle.
circaor cum
Meritt argued in favor of the use of square brackets for restorations that dr. drawing
merely reproduce the senseof the original text, without any claim to verbal ed.pr. editio princeps,the first editor of the text
accuracy.Such restorations do not claim to reproduce the exact words' the xrtr. xoi t lor.n (: et cetera)
1.,11. line(s) : 1., 11.
synt.rx, or even the disposition of words on the stone but only to convey the L.,LL. line(s)
original meaning. The only limiting factors on such restorationsare the length nr. numerus
"so-and-so,"etc.
ofthe lacunaeand the generalcontext ofthe inscription' Restorationsofthis eiva, roi eivog,rQ eivr, tv
kind are always tentative in nature. They are intended to stimulate new
eivo, oi eiveg,to0g eivcg
P postChristum(e.g.,In,Ilp,27p)
attempts at restoration, in the hope that successiverestorations will gradually ph. photo
come into greaterconformity with the original text. unfortunately, the Leiden pl. plate
system has no way of distinguishing between tentative and established res- s. saeculum
saec.II II s.c.
torations. Thus, the unwary reader may easily confuse highly speculative saec.IIp. Chr. II a.o.
restorations with those that are indubitable, with the result that both are saec.III/II III-II s.c.
accorded the same degree of authority; highly speculative restorations may )to11. written in stoichedonstyle
sQ.,s9Q. f., ft.
even be taken as authoritative and be reproduced in subsequentpublications vacat(singleletter space)
of the sameinscriPtion. vac. vacat(empty space)
Thus, the Principle of Extreme Freedom places a significantly greater tit. titulusli (inscription/s)
first half of secondcenturyl.o.
burden on the reader by requiring him or her to decide what degree of
IIre.p.
II2 ,1.n. secondhalf of secondcenturye.o.
authority should be placed on each individual restoration. In actual practice,
judg-
many readers lack the specialized knowledge required to make such
ments. The problem becomesmore difficult when a particular editor's restora- speaking,it is preferable to use the lemma or commentary to give an example
tion policy is unknown to the reader. Alternatively, what may apPear to be a of what might have filled a lacuna rather than to insert a dubious restoration
a
certain restoration to a given editor may, years later, be treated by others as into the text itself.The presenceofunrestored lacunaeshould not be a source
"the
mere guess. of embarrassmentto an editor. In the words of Louis Robert, epigraphist
For this reason,it is crucial that the readerbe very cautious in accepting must be insensibleto the horror of the void."a0
all restorations,until the manner in which a given editor usessquarebrackets
is determined. when reediting a text, it may be necessaryto move restorations l.l2 Other Editorial Abbreviations
that appear in the text in square brackets to the lemma or commentary.
rhe.. is a growing consensusthat the Kirchner Principle should be ob- A great deal of variety exists in other editorial abbreviations used in both
are
servedin most cases.In the opinion of SterlingDow, tentativerestorations older and modern corpora. Table I provides a miscellaneouslist of such
only appropriatewhen editors are editing for specialistreaders.3e Generally abbreviations,some of which are used in this introduction.
"Les "It
40. Robert, 6pigraphies," 99. Robert (92) writes: is no use to rewrite the documenU it
is necessaryto discover what has been lost, not merely the sense,without the exact words. This is
3S.BenjaminDeanMeritt,EpigraphicaAttica,MaflinClassicalLecturesg(Cambridge:
not a captivating game, an exercise,a composition; it is a restoration ofwhat can be established
Harvard University Press,1940), 109-38.
with certitude. . . . It is therefore necessaryfirst of all to proceed to a rigorous and patient analysis
3g.Dow,Conventions,2o-26.Dow(29_31)suggeststhatanewprinciplebeadoptedto
restorations be indi- of the parts that have been preservedand oftheir arrangement, by paying attention to the various
distinguish between sure restorations and probable restorations: that sure
be indicated with a possiblebreaksofwords (the inscriptions are engravedin majusculesand without separationof
cated with square brackets (as is customary), and that probable restorations
point at the end of the restoration, inside the square brackets words, and many errors result from erroneousbreaks made by the editors), and then to deter-
small superscriptinterrogation
iuterrogation point for mere conjecturesIapye??]' rnirrcto which cirtc'gorya document belongsand from which place it comes."
[c0y8e?], with a double

Paleography,Puncnration,
Abbreviations,and Numerals
Greek paleography divides letters into two primary classes:large and small'
Small letters are also known as cufsives or minuscules. The class of large
letters is subdivided into capitals, which are used in Greek inscriptions, and
uncials, which are adaptations of capitals used in manuscripts.l Capital letters
are characterizedby a preference for straight strokes meeting at angles-2
2.01 Historical Overview of Letter Forms
This chapter will not deal with the Attic alphabet and the numerous epichoric
alphabets,for they had died out by the fourth century B.c. A decreepassedin
40312s.c. made the use of the Ionic alphabet compulsory in all Athenian
official documents. Over the next few decades,other statesfollowed the lead
of Athens and similarly adopted the Ionian alphabet. Thus, the Ionic script
becamethe standard Greek script through the Hellenistic and Roman periods'
There was significant variability in the Ionic script over the centuries.
Some letters became simplified, others elaborated. The most significant
change was the gradual replacement of the monumental letter forms with
cursive forms. Adolf wilhem has given numerous examplesof the adoption of
l. uncials are also used in Latin inscriptions but never in Greek inscriptions.
(or "guided")
2. There are two types of capital letters in Latin inscriptions, monumental
"freehand") capitals. Latin monumental capitals were produced with
capitals and actuarial (oi
thl assistanceof mechanical aids, to make straight lineal strokes and true curves.
without such aids (see foyce S. Gordon and Arthur E. Gordon,
capitals were produced
in Classical
tions to the f)laeography of Latin Inscripion5 University of California Publications
Archaeology3, no. 3 University ofCalifornia Press,1957], 65-229' esp' 74)'
[Berkeley:
40
Punctuation,
Paleography, Abbreviations,
and Numerals | 4l
cursive forms in inscriptions in imitation of contemporaneouspapyrological
script.3 New letter forms were first experimented with in private inscriptions
and were only later employed in public inscriptions.For example,the lunate
sigma (C) appearsfirst in private documentsof the fifth century s.c. but does
not appearin public inscriptions until the Roman period.a
The following remarks on the evolution of Greek paleography are in-
tended as a general overview of some of the major trends and cannot be used
for dating particular inscriptions (seeS 2.02).
In the third to first centurieso.c., the broken-bar alpha (,{) beginsto be
used alongside A, A, and A. The mu becomes increasingly rectangular (M),
with upright hastae (a hasta is a stroke forming part of a letter) not splaying
out toward the bottom as before (/t).
"four-bar"
The replacementof the Attic three-barsigma (t) with the Ionic
sigma (t, )) was somewhaterratic; this replacementwas near complete ca.
446 s.c. in public inscriptions and was finished ca. 415 in all inscriptions.
The first century s.c. and the first century a.o. witnessedthe evolution of
the letter pi from having a short right hasta ( [-) to fI. The letter xi, previ-
ously written as I, was gradually replacedby E 2,7, and 5.
In the first and second centuriesa.o., the alpha (A), delta (A), and
lambda (A) sometimesacquired elongatedforms. Apices (e.g.,A) also came
into fashion. Moreover, some rounded cursive forms sometimes replaced
their monumental forms: sigma and epsilon developed into the lunate forms
C (but also the square form f) and . The letters mu and omega evolved into
the cursive forms /\ (also the square form H) and to (also LU, 6^}, :.r-, *,
9, W). Omicron could be written as a superscript ("), and upsilon with a
crossbarY. Theta (@) had alternativeround forms (O) and squareforms (E)
as did delta ().
Great careshould be taken when transcribinglettersfrom a stone.Certain
setsofletters are easilyconfused,especiallywhen the surfaceofthe stone has
deteriorated or been damaged.Much may depend on the sensitivity of the eye
to faint impressions of letters and on the ability to distinguish between acci-
dental gougesand the engraver'schisel marks. When round forms are em-
ployed, , C, O, and perhaps@ are difficult to distinguishfrom one another
when faint and worn. When square forms are used, f and E can easily be
3. A. Wilhelm,
"Urkunden
aus Messene," O,lh 17 (1914): l-120, esp. 2-48; A. Wilhelm,
"Die
lrrkrischeMdchinschrift," lh 14 ( 191I ): 163-256, esp.249-56. Unlike Latin epigraphy,Greek
Actuarial
tlicl not entirely replace the monumental letters with cursive forms until the Byzantine period,
contribu- "Litterae
4. P. Gorissen studies the history of the litterae lunatae in Lunatae," AncSoc 9
I l e T l l l :1 4 9 - 6 2 ) .
 Paleography,
Punctuation,Abhreviations,
antl Numerals | +l
42 | A, Int oductionto GreekEpigraphy

(n)' Similarly' some ca..01 meter (e.g.,decrees); letterswith a heightgreaterthan.012meter (e.9.,

confused,but not O, unlessit is written in a squareform
such as f , II, TI, IT, and many dedications,statuebases,horoi, gravemonuments) were cut differently
letters and combinations of letters can be misread,
of I can (i.e., cut deeply with a furrowing technique) and therefore do not resemble
fI. The letter X is sometimesmisread as Y or K' Lambda in the form
the smaller-cutinscriptions.Tracy statesthat "the canon for the successionof
be misunderstood as a damagedX.
styles in large letters has not yet been established in more than the most
haphazard rule-of-thumb way." It is generally not possible to recognizea
2.02 Dattnglnscriptions according to Paleography
cutter's large-letterwriting on the basis of the characteristicsof his small-
key
The dating of Hellenistic and Roman inscriptions according to allegedly letter writing. Similarly, the letters of inscriptions cut in very small letters
and unreliable (.003-.004 meter), such as inventories and leases,are too small to allow for
derrelopmentsof particular letter forms is notoriously difncult
has been individual variations between cutters.
becauseolder letter forms persist alongside new forms. Little work
Tracy's In the absence of more studies like Trary's, it is not possible to date
done on this subject for the Hellenistic and Roman periods. stephen
Samian epigraphical hands are the inscriptionspreciselyon the basisof letter forms. Older masonsoften contin-
groundbreaking studies in Athenian and
notable exception to this statement. His researchwill provide the foundation ued or even revived the use of letter forms, formulae, layouts, and spellings
for similar paleographical studies in other locations's characteristicof earlier periods, sometimeseven mixing them indiscriminately
individ-
Tracy has demonstrated that the ability to recognizethe hands of with contemponry letter forms. This tendency may represent an attempt to
new way to date inscriptions, many of make inscriptions look older and more venerable than they really were. For
ual Attic letter cutters can provide a
other means ' Ttacy example, from Hadrian's reign onward, there was a general archaizing ten-
which are fragmentary and impossible to date by any
writes: dency in society, resulting in the use of archaic letter forms in inscriptions.T
Letter forms vary considerablyfrom place to place, so changesin paleogra-
the goal is to isolate in a given sample of lettering multiple individual phy attestedin one location are not necessarilyreliable for dating inscriptions
pecJiarities in the shapeand spacingof the letters such that when another in another location. For example, Louis Robert has analyzedthe paleography
inscription revealsthesesamepeculiarities one may feel safein concluding of two decrees,engravedin the same year (273 n.c.) from two nearby Carian
thatthesamemaninscribedbothpieces.Animportantpartofthis'it cities, Amyzon and Stratonikeia. Though they come from the same region in
given
must be stressed,is noting carefully the range of variation that a the sameyear and are both the same classof inscription (i.e., decrees),they
does vary; cutters were not' and could not display different letter forms.s Thus, dating by paleography is very unreliable
cutter allows himself. Lettering
be, absolutely consistent. At the same time' they did tend' our evidence and should be undertaken with great caution and a clear understanding ofthe
suggests,to cut rapidly and thus in their own style'6 principles involved.
Two methodological principles should be observed in any paleographical
Tracy has
By applying his method to the Attic letter cutters of 229-86 o 'c" analysis.First, analysisshould proceed on the basisofoverall style,not individ-
are incor-
demonstrated that the accepted dates for three Athenian archons ual letter forms. Whereasthe paleographyof fifth-century s.c. Athens was
assumptions:first, that the
rect. Tracy's method is basedon two well-tested concerned with the graphic forms of individual letters, the Hellenistic period
handwriting; second,
lettering on Attic inscriptions may be treated as a tpe of evincesa concern for the overall style. The onlyway one can generalizeabout
that cutters normally inscribed their own particular lettering' paleographic style, as Kendrick Pritchett observes,is "to collect all available
to
Tracy's method applies only to letter sizesranging from ca' '005 meter examples Iof an overall style] and then to establishterminal dates."e
(Berkeley:university ofcalifor-
5. see Stephenv .'l'racy, Attic Letter-cutters 0f229 to 86 a.c. "L'arcaismo
Attic Letter-cutters of 340 to 7. See M. L. Lazzarini, nelle epigrafi greche di et imperiale," AION(ing) 8
nia press, 1gg0) (cf. s-EG40.295); Athenian Democracyrn Transition:
"Identifring EpigraphicalHands," GRBSll (1970):321-33; "TwoAttic (1986\:147-53.
290n.c. (Berkeley,1995); "Hands in 8. SeelAmyzon, 120-22; SEG33.1589.
(1983): 303-22;
Letter-cutters oithe Third century, zaols-23514 s.c.," Hesperia57 "The
(1990): 59-96 (cf. sEG 40.726)' 9. W. Kendrick Pritchett, Three-Barred Sigma at Kos," BCH 87 (1963):20-23, esp.20
samian Inscriptionsof the Hellenistic Period," chiron20 n. 3.
6. Tracy, Attic Letter-Cutters,3.
44 An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy
|
Second,analysisshould have narrowly defined geographicalparameters
and should distinguish between public and private paleography. An analysis
of letter forms in a small geographical area is likely to be more reliable than
general surveysof large areas.Moreover, an analysis that fails to distinguish
between public and private inscriptions will be unreliable becausethe paleog-
raphy of public inscriptions tends to be far more conservative in spirit.ro
Whereas public inscriptions of the Roman period tend to display a limited
range of characteristic and consistent scripts, private inscriptions manifest a
far greater spectrum of letter forms.
By way of example of this methodology, the reader might consult C. B.
Welles's detailed classification and chronology of Greek epigraphical alpha-
bets in Gerasa(Palestine).rrWellesidentified five stylesof alphabetand found
"square"'
the chronological spread of each type. He names these alphabets
"monumental," "tall "oval," "revised
and narrow," and square."l2
However, even Welles's approach is not without difficulties. M. Sartre has
observedthat such a presentation suggestsa clearer pattern of development
than was actually the case(IGLSyria XIII, pp. 32*35). Charlotte Rouechehas
"in
remarked that looking at changesin epigraphic styles in the late Roman
period, we are not confronting the development of completely new scripts,
but rather a changein the rangeand type of letter forms consideredappropri-
ate for inscribedtexts."13Thus, from the third century a.o. onward, it is not
possibleto discern a consistent development of letter stylesasWelles's classifi-
cation suggests.In fact, accordingto Rouech6,one indication oflatenessis the
tendency to use different forms of the same letter in a single text.raThis is not
to rule out completely the possibility of dating on the basisof paleography.As
John S. KloppenborgVerbin has demonstratedin his dating of the Theodotos
s).nagogueinscription (CII ll 1404),in certain cases,paleographic analysiscan
make a significant contribution in this regard, especiallywhen coupled with
"New
10. For examplesof the application of these two principles see Sterling Dow, Kinds of
Evidence for Dating Polyeuktos," AIA 40 (1936): 57-70, esp.58-59; W. Kendrick Pritchett,
"Greek
Inscriptions,"Hesperia16 (1947): 184-92, esp. 188-89.
"The
11. C. B. Welles, Inscriptions," in Gerasa:City of the Decapolis,ed. Carl H' Kraeling
(New Haven, cT: American school oforiental Research,1938),555-69; other surveysofletter
forms can be found in some of the early epigraphic corPora, such as lOlympia, lPriene, and
IMagnMai; for Crete seeAngelos Chaniotis, Die VertrgezwischenkretischenPoleis in der helle-
nistischenZeit, Heidelberger althistorische Beitrge und epigraphische Studien 24 (Stuttgart:
Steiner,1996),452-59.
12. Welles ("The Inscriptions," 358-67) recognizesthat there is much overlapping between
these stylesand that none ofthem is entirely distinctive.
13.IAphrodChr,33l.
14. lAphrodChr,332.
Paleography,
Punctuation, and Numerals I
Abbreviations, nS
other forms of analysis.rsAll of the difficulties I have mentioned should
caution the epigraphist against using letter forms as the only basis for dating
inscriptionsin the absenceof more reliable supplementaryindicators.
2.03 The Stoichedon Stvle
In the stoichedon style, the letters are aligned in rows vertically as well as
horizontally (see fig. 6).te 1n'r grid is accomplishedby assigningthe same
height and module (width) to every letter, regardlessof its size, rather than
spacingletters proportionally. The fact that the total number of letters in each
line is the same allows one to determine the exact number of letters in
mutilated lines with considerable accuracy.lT
The stoichedon style was developed in the sixth century B.c. and became
the dominant style of official Attic documents in the fifth and fourth centuries
s.c. Its use declinedin the third century n.c., until it was virtually abandoned
in Attic by 225 s.c. This style was also widely used throughout the Greek
world, especially in the Aegean islands, but gradually declined there in the
third century n.c.18According to SterlingDow, the decline of the stoichedon
"always
style was accompanied by the growth of a principle that was inherent
in the minds of those who laid out inscriptions, [namely,J that lines should
end with the ends of completewords or of syllables."teThus, the stoichedon
style was replaced by the so-called disjointed style, in which consecutivelines
are not in register with one another, letters are proportionately spaced,and
eachline tends to begin with a completeword or syllable(seefig. 7).
Despite the general decline of the stoichedon sryle in the third century
s.c., its use persisted, often displaying irregularities, such as leaving blank
spacesor letter crowding to achievesyllabification.2oFor example, IGII2 1071,
dating from the late first century n.c., is written in the stoichedon style,
though it has contemporary letter forms.
"Dating
15. lohn S. Kloppenborg Verbin, Theodotos (CII ll l4O4)," //S 51, no. 5 (2000):
243-89.
16. See R. P Austin, The Stoicheilon Style in Gleek Inscriptions (Oxford: Oxford University
Press;London: Humphrey Milford, 1938).
17. However, sometimes the iota is combined with other letters into a single space.
1 8 . S e e , e . g .I,G l V , 9 2 6 ( E p i d a u r u s , 2 4 2 - 3 5 s . c . ) ; I G l I 2 8 9 4( A t t i c a ,1 8 9 / 8 s . c . ) ; I G I I ' 1 0 0 1
(mid-ll s.c.?); IGXll4,712 (Delos,earlyll r.c.); IG XII/9, 1133(Aidepsos,northern Euboia,late
lI s.c.).
19. Sterling Dow, Prytaneis: A Study of the Inscriptions Honoring the Athenian Councillors,
Hesperia Suppl I (Athens: American Excavations in the Athenian Agora,1937),30.
20. SeeThreatte, Grammar, 1.63.
48 An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy
|
Sporadic examples of the continuance of this style survive in the east in
such places as Magnesia on the Maeander (IMagnMai 3; early III n.c.),
Kolophon (ca.200 B.c.),2rSebasteia (ca.250 B.c.),22Cyprus (181-46 B.c.),23
Geronthraein Lykaonia,2aand Lykosura (IG Y12,514; II o.c.). Perhapsthe
latestexamplecomesfrom Oenoanda(Lycia), dating from the III e.p.2s
2.04 Punctuation
Word spacesare rare in Hellenistic inscriptions. Even in Roman inscriptions'
word spacing was introduced very gradually, being found in only a minority
of inscriptions.In some Attic decreesof the Hellenistic period, the name of
the proposer of the decreeis emphasizedby introducing as many as six spaces'
either immediatelybeforethe name or at the end of the previousline (e'g.,IG
rr, 498,455).
Instead of word spacing,engraverssometimesused interpuncts, that is,
various types of punctuation marks separatingwords or phrases.In the classi-
cal and Hellenisticperiods, the most common forms were the colon (:) and
the tricolon ( i).26 However, the use of these punctuation marks could be
exceedinglycapricious, with the result that they bore no correlation to the
grammatical structure of the text, sometimeseven dividing single words (e.g"
IGAnt 32r).
By the imperial period, the colon and tricolon are rare' having been
replacedby the singlemidline point ('). After e.o. 100 (and rarely in the first
century e.o.), a variety of new lexical signs developed, especiallyduring the
reign of Hadrian, when the use of punctuation becamewidespread' The most
common of thesesignsis the horizontal stroke placed above all or some of the
letters of an abbreviation (see S 2.06.3). The following list of punctuation
marks is representative.
"Note
21. See Maurice Holleaux, sur une inscription de Colophon Nova," BCH 30 (1906):
349-58, esp.352.
"Villes mconnues,"REG l8 (1905): 159-65' esp. 159.
22. SeeTh6odore Reinach,
"Excavations in
23. See E. A. Gardner, D. G. Hogarth, M. R. lames, and R' Elsey Smith,
Cyprus, 1887-83," /HS 9 (1838): 149-271, esp. 244, no. 74; OGI 149' For another fragment
found more recently see T. B. Mitford,
"Contributions
to the Epigraphy of Clprus: Some Pre-
Roman Inscriptions," /HS 57 (1937): 28-37, esp.2, no' 7.
2 4 . I G V I I , l 1 l 0 ( a f t e r 1 4 6n . c . ) .
25. See Rudolf Heberdey and Emst Kalinka, Bericht ber zwei Reisen im sdwestlichen
Keinasien, DenkschrWien 45 (Vienna: Carl Gerold's Sohn, 1896)' 41-43; the inscription is
reproduced in minuscule in IGRR III, 500.
26. E.g., two stacked points: IBMII, 172; three stacked points: IG IV' 566' 683; LSAM 30.
Punctuation,
Paleography, andNumerals |
Abbreviations, 49
sigma(') and antisigma(')
diple, or wedge (' , ')
asteriskos (")
small horizontal stroke placed aboveletters (AYP) or in midline position
(AYP-)
'
placed above letters (like the horizontal stroke) or ornamentally, to
separatetwo names
oblique stroke (')
r (r6l.oE?)
Most frequently, these signs were used to set off abbreviated names,
especiallythoseof Roman origin (e.g.,AYP', AYP'), and abbreviatednumer-
als (e.g., 0 ), sometimesappearing both before and after the abbreviations
(e.g.,' M '). Ornamental devices,such as an ivy leaf ( 0 ), other leaf designs
(e.g.,*), or a triangle (A; Hadrianic), were often used in headingsto mark
the end of hexameters in metrical inscriptions or to fill up a spacewhere a
letter could not be carved without breaking the rules of syllabification.2T
2.05 The Development of Abbreviations
Though the Greeks did not employ abbreviations nearly to the same extent as
the Romans, abbreviations were used as a means of reducing labor and saving
spaceon the stone's surface.An early systemofabbreviation was developedin
Egypt for recording the governmental activities of the Ptolemies on papyri,
and this system was sometimes carried over into Egyptian inscriptions. An-
other notable center for the development of abbreviations was Rhodes' An
important commercial center, it developed abbreviations for the repetitive
formulae used in the accounting of commercial transactions.
Any system of abbreviation requires either that the meanings of abbrevia-
tions can be determined from the context or that they are based on a widely
known convention. Roman inscriptions employed a consistent system of
acrophonic abbreviations (i.e.,by initial letter) and abbreviation by contraction
(e.g., cosfor consul).The universal system of Latin abbreviations was possible
becausenomenclature was standardizedand becausetitles were fixed through-
out the Roman world. In contrast, the political and social diversity of the Greek
world made a systematicand consistent useof abbreviationsimpractical. Since
27. SeeThreatte, Grammar, 1.85.
 Paleography, and Numerals I
Abbreviations,
Punctuation, St
50 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy

2.06 Methods of Abbreviation

Greek abbreviationswere never standardized,the Greeks preferred to use
abbreviations that were readily understandablefrom context'
The two principal methods of abbreviating words are by contraction and by
Though local custom was important in the development of Greek abbre-
suspension. The term contraction refers to the practice of omitting one or
viations, the matter was ultimately left to the discretion of the drafter or
more lettersin the middle of a word (e.g.,F0 for Beve$txrQtoE).36 Abbrevia-
engraver of the text, with many abbreviations being adapted from the Latin
tion by contraction is rare in Greek inscriptions prior to the fourth century
system. Hugh Mason (Greek Terms for Roman Institutions: A Lexicon and
a .o.37Most Greekabbreviationsare made by suspensionor truncation, that is,
Analysis,American Studiesin Papyrology 13 [Toronto: Hakkert, 1974]) has
the suspending or omitting of letters from the end of a word.
documented the Greeks' proclivity for borrowing Latin abbreviations for
In some casesof suspension,only the suffix is dropped. More usually,all
official titles and offices.
but the first one, two, or three letters are omitted. Hence, a list of offrcials
The use of Greek abbreviations prior to the first century a.o. is extremely
might read: APX(rov) elva, BAXu),eg) etvc, nO(epcrqxog)
limited. In fact, it is not until the secondcentury a.o. that abbreviations were
eivc. When onlythe first letter remains,this is known asacrophonicabbrevia-
widely used. Egypt and Rhodes led the way in the invention of abbreviations
Rhodes resistedthe use of the Roman system tion, as is the caseof the following dedicationfrom Syria:K(uqi,q)'Y(Qi,otro)
that were adopted elsewhere.2s
A(ti,) K(Ioulcvirov) A(euxclorv) n(IerDg) (n1xq) o(torrlgr,)T([roE?)
of abbreviationsuntil the Flavian period (,q.o.69-96), preferring insteadits
A(l.ou?) u( ig) T(eg6vtr,oE?).38
own systemof ligaturesand overwritten letters (e'g.,IG XII/l' 4).
Many of the frequently used abbreviations for Roman names and dynastic
In the secondand third centuriesA.D.,many Greekterms were frequently
names are listed in table 11 (see5 5.12). Deme namescould also be abbrevi-
abbreviated,and most Romannamesand titleshad correspondingGreekabbre-
New titles adoptedby the Antonines (a.n. 138-92) and the Severan ated, exceptin the caseofepitaphs.3e
viations.2e
Though abbreviations are sometimes unmarked and therefore diffrcult to
dynastiesappear almost from the start in their abbreviatedforms:30e.g.,
identifr, many abbreviations are indicated by raising or changing the position
Ar(oxqarogcr) K(ai,ocrgo)M(Ogxov) Aq (t)'Lov) Xeou(flqov) Avrorveiov
or shape of one or more letters, by the use of ligatures, or by the use of
Xep(aorv) Eo(eBtt)Etu1fl T(itog) Avt(vr,oE) Al'Qr'lvog gi1vtrrto5.31
abbreviation marks.
At about the same time, early Christian abbreviations appearin Syria,32Asia
Minor,33 and Egypt.3aMichael Avi-Yonah and others have provided lists of
2.06.1 Raisingor ChangingLexer Position or Shape
abbreviationsthat appearin dated inscriptions.3s

Abbreviationsare often indicated by raising the final letter(s) ofthe abbrevi-

28. KAOOIKO^: xcg(crrQeQivrcr)oixo(opi104) [: drjto-boUhOllllCairoMus 28-29, no.
'loXupaE
92s68); ['Elpvi1o0r1 norLtl"i"AaE I icrqE ie"1e,itti"sl'l B' raitauns) l LT' ated form (e.g.,AfA ' : &yc0S).Such raisedlettersmight also be inverted
Avrcovlvoo pe lleci>q'(IEgBaillet 2.396,no. 1575;cf. infraS 7.11).
so that they appear upside down (e.g.,fIPAr : ngaypcrteutfE), they might
29. E.g, the first extant abbreviated titles for a Roman emperor occur on a bilingual mile-
"Some
Pontic Milestones,",lHS20 (1900): 159-66' be insertedbetweenthe previous two letters (e.g.,A.P : glcrioE), or they
stone dating from ILt.r.; cf. I. A. R. Munro,
esp.163.
"Nicopolis ad Istrum: iitude historique et 6pigraphique," R'4 10 University Press, 1940), reprinted in Al. N. Oikonomides, comp., GreekAbbreviations:Abbrevia'
30. See Georges Seure,
tions in GreekInscriptions,Papyri, Manuscripts, and Early Printed Books(Chicago: Ares, 1974), l-
( 1 9 0 7 ) :4 1 3 - 2 8 , e s p .4 1 6 .
125; see esp. 43-44. Cf. Wilhelm Larfeld, Handbuch der griechischenEpigraphih 2 vols. (Leipzig:
31. TAM V I 2, 9 I 3B (Caracalla;t.o. 2ll -17, Thyatira).
O. R. Reisland, 1902-7), 2:524-32 (Attica); Henry Cohen, R. Cagnat, and I. C. Egbert, The Coin-
32. Mv(1o01) ElqcrnoE(graffiti, r.o.23213; lDuraRepYI, no.724).
"The
Epigraphyof the Anatolian Inscriptions and EpigraphicalAbbreviations of Imperial Rome (Chicago: Ares, 1978).
33. X(ptoto)0 (L. 1); 0(eo)u6oE(L. 5) (W. M. Calder,
36. SeeRobert, Hellenica, X, 172-77.
Heresies,"in Anatolian StudiesPfesentedto Sir William Mitchell Ramsay,ed. W. H. Buckler and W. M.
37. For a detailed treatment of the subject seeAvi-Yonah, Abbreviations, 25-29.
CalderlManchester: ManchesterUniversityPress,1923],59-91, esp.7l). "Monuments
38. SeeRen6 Mouterde, et inscriptions de Syrie et d:uLlban," MlBeyr 25, no. 3
34. XY (: lqroto6) in the liturgical senseofe-uloyla (Gustave Lefebvre, Recueildesinscrip-
(1942-43),23-86, esp. 28-37,65-73; cf. Robert, BE60 ll947l:205).
tions greeques-chrtiennes d'Egypte ICairo: Institute Frangaisd'Arch6ologie Orientale, 1907],7*8'
' I n o o 0 EX q r . o t g )( n o . 3 3 8 ) ; K Y ( : 1 1 u * 1 o r ,( n o . 3 3 G ) . 39. See the table of Attic deme names ($ 4.19, table 7); on variations in the spelling of
no.33A; cf.5, no.21); I) X) (: "Abbreviated
abbreviations of Attic demotics see D. Whitehead, thenian Demotics," ZPE 81
35. M. Avi-Yonah, Abbreviationsin GreekInscriptions(The Near East,200 a.t:.-t.n. ll0),
(London: C)xford ( 1 9 9 0 ) :1 0 5 - 6 l r S E G4 0 . 2 8 6 .
Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in PalestineSuppl. to vol. 9,
 TABLE Z-Continued
TABLE 2. SelectList of Greek Abbreviations
@KTO 0exrr,otog
A, AIA@ ycr0g
@ Y ,O Y I 0uytr1q
A .pog
OX 0eoigX0ovi,olE
ATIOT 11rarog
IANAPE> i -vQeg(Xviri)
ANE@H v0qxev
IEANAPE> r.e'-vgeE (XVviri)
AN@, ANOYII vOunrog (proconsul)
IMII ipneqoroq (imperator)
ANTI>TP vrlotprqyog (propraetor)
INA ivrxrlov (indictio)
AfIEA nel.e0epoE 'Ir1oo0E(nom.),'Iqoot (gen./dat.
&mwoE I>, IY, IA, IN, IY ),'Irlootv (acc.),
AfIION 'Iqoo0 (voc.)
APX q1ov; qlciog 'Iqootg Xqrorg
gpeqegpyrotog IX
APXMET 'Ir1oo0EXprorg @eot YiE )<rrtfp
Alouorog IX@OYC
AYI
K xeircrr
AYIT Ayouoror,
p -vqrxog (Ilvir) K,K xaL, xt. (: v111
BANAPIKO>
poorl.eE K, KAI> Kaiocrq
BA:
K, K>, KY, KO, KN Kqrog,-ou, -e, -ov
BENOIK BevrQtxrdqrog(beneficiarius)
poutreurilg KA@O>IOM xo0ootoptevog
BOY
KAPXH , -&pXq 6xviri)
B>, BOH@ Boq0E
KAA> xLoons klassis)
BO BeveQrxlcrgrog
y'-vqos (fiIriri) KOIN xorvrovoi
TANAPO>
yvorg KO^ xo),<ov[o(colonia)
fNe2
KOM xopqg
fP lqcrprpgrc
KOMM xoppewcp r,c (commentaria)
A AL[
KP xprrorog (egregius or clarissimus)
AANAPE> -vpeEQvvir [i] viarum curandarum)
qpaq1r.xillouolo K> Kugr,oE
AE
eont4E KA> xtovoo}.(consul)
AE>N
l.i,rp<r
AH npoE
AAM, AAMIIPO tropngraroE Qlarissimus)
AIA/AIA" rxovog
AEI Xxyrhrt (legio)
AM [E MvrBouE(disManibus)
t (populusRomanus) AOYA Xoiot (ludi, munera)
AP i1pog'Ptopcitrr
M, *1 plkov
E nfxooE
MAI pcr.yer,pog
EKAIIANAPO> e -xai,-rJ-vqog(XVviri saoisfaciuwlis)
METAAOfIP peyol.onqen6orcrtoE
EKA xrxog
MH pqrna
ENAOEOT volorrroE
MH, M, M> pqv, pqvg
ENO v0e
MHTKA>T pftrlg xcrotqtov
EfIITP n[rponoE
MHTPOII prltpnol.rE
ET rouE
euoepilg MN, t{1 PTVE
EY>
MN pvqoOp;pv4peiov
EYEAM zu[cpevoE
MX pvfpqE 1cpr,v
HTE ilyeptrrv
HfEMON
oBo poIv
fi^yepovi.cr
OIKON oixovtrr,og
HM tp6eo OYET oergcvog (teteranus)
HMN tp,nn OYHEIAAAT oq[r,]"].crrlov(vexillatio)
HOYOKAT ilouoxdroE @vocatus)
OYITOYA oui,youl,es(v,grles)
@/@>,oY, @s2,oN Oeog,-o6, -Q, -v
@B 0eQ poq0o0vrt;OeooePfE oo oQ(Q)rxrdh.s(fficialk)
II nil,oE; al,r.g;nqeopaunlE
OA @eoigclpoot
IIAA na),oEc (: nptog nl"og)
@EKA, @K OeoiExcrcl0oviorg
IIAA. NAAAI>TP lci"cr,orqctltottlg
 Punctuation,
Paleography, andNumerals |
Abbreviations, 55

rnight be positioned over the last letter of the abbreviatedform (e.g.,AE)rt

TABLE 2-Continued : eontqE). If a word is abbreviatedby a singleletter, this letter might be
IIEPIBA neqiplentog positioned over the precedingword (e.g.,T6N : rv oOl,ov).a0
fIo notrrg
fIo^ notrepq1og
IIN ncrtdlgncrtgi,og (paterpatriae); 2.06.2Ligatures
TII lqtponr.)rgloE,nqqonil,oE, ngrog rril"oE
(primus pilus)
To save space, two or more letters were sometimes combined into a single
TP nqcriQextog(Praefectus)
fIPAf nqoypcter-rtfE graphic form. Such forms are known as ligatures. They do not appear in Attic
fIPAI>IA nqor.oirov(praesidium) inscriptions until Roman times. Their use is conditioned by the shape of
IIPE, NPE>B nqeopureqoE
letters. Letters with upright strokes (e.9., II M T P H f E N) can easily be
[PE>B/IIPE:8" nqeopetrfiE Qegatus)
IIPIMOIIIA nqtponrl"gtoE(primusPilus) combined along their vertical strokes (l'P, Pl,NH,l'Al, N, t, TP) or attached to
TPO rpooQoq a sloping letter stroke (,, Y, A) or even to a rounded letter stroke (4\D."
IIPOTE nqtorecov Three letters could also be constructed into a ligature around a central H
P or (tachygram) xorovaqli,o (centuria)
(l.fM), N (lvlP),or T (TP;.azPerhapsthe most common of all ligatures is l(,
E rouE
otrrtfp which standsfor x (xai,).
>EB )epcorg Compendia are symbols produced by putting a letter within or on top of
>EBB, >EBBB XeBooto[o,leBootoi rqeiE
another letter (e.g., r?t : ngeoBreqog;similarly, 6 is equivalentto r<ll,
:EBMEI )eBcotE MytoroE
orqcu,qE whereas,! is renderedolv). Three letters can be constructedinto a compen-
:TP otgctlyg dium around a @ (e.g.,fu), P (e.g.,rE), or T (e.g.,*).a3 Two of the most
rQog,roppn (turma)
T common examplesare O (for or.) and U for ou (..g., T U/8 : to0; @ U :
TPIB rplBotvog Qribunus)
Y uiE;uioOeoicrrlncrreic;prorog @eo0).
OAAMIN glcpr,vllo g (flaminalis) With the exceptionof their use in some acrophonicnumbers,compendia
OP QgoupevrproE (fr umentarius) do not appear in Attic inscriptions until the Roman period. The term mono-
OY So6
Xqrorg,-o0, -Q, -ov gram refets to a sign composed of a group of letters that forms a recognizable
X, X>, XY, XO, XN
XAPT lcgrou itg r.oEQhartularius) whole, such as the christogru- * fot Xgr.otE.aaLigatures, compendia, and
XAXXK 1guoo0 gygou1ol.xo0 lcrqletog xcrrooxeufrg monograms can be very diffrcult to identify when the stone is worn. When
XMI Xqrotv Maglo lewQ
transcribing a stone, copyists ofprevious centuries tended to resolve abbrevi-
XP xarovo g1tlE Qenturio)
XP XP XaIopQ,lgrlpatr.o0elg ated forms, rather than reproducing them. If these abbreviated forms are not
XP XP lprottcvoi lqlotlcrvoig printed in their full graphic form in the text, they should be mentioned in the
qrB rfqSlopo BouItlE
lemma.as
}YBA rpfQtoptr potl.qE xcri.fpou
aKo^ Qzoopr{0r1 40. For fuller treatment seeAvi-Yonah, Abbreviations,30-31.
QPA gr.vgroE
@rdinarius) 41. SeeLarfeld, Handbuch,2:513-15.
42. SeeIBM II l75,LL. 8-9,11 (Tornis, ILr.r.); IBM I 44,L. 2 (IG II2 2191) (Athens,ca. r.o.
200).
43. SeeWilhelm LarfeId, GriechischeEpigraphik,3d ed., HbA I.5 (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1914)
, 5.0125.
2 1 4 ;T h r e a t t e ,G r a m m a r , 1 . 1 0 8 - 9 S
44. See Larfeld, Handbuch,2:5351'Larfeld, GriechischeEpigraphilc 281; Threatte, Grammar,
1 . 1 0 9 - 1 0s, s . 0 1 2 5 .
45. E.g., P. Herrmann, the editor of TAM V, joins letters underneath with a curved line to
indicate that they have been joined with a ligature in some way (e.g., TAMY 12,933 : CIG 3504).
56 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy

2.06.3 Abbreviation Marks

Engraversdevelopedthe practice of using abbreviation signs to indicate that a

word had been abbreviated(seeS 2.04).A raiseddot was used,placed either
besidethe abbreviation(e.g.,A' : eEl,oS) or aboveit (e.g.,A). If the abbrevia-
tion consistedof a singleletter, the letter could be "bracketed"on eachside with
raiseddots (..g., '@ ', 'M '). A colon or tricolon was sometimesusedinsteadof
a raiseddot (e.g.,H:).
The most common of all abbreviation signs was the horizontal stroke
placed above those letters affected by the abbreviation or, less frequently,
beneath the letter(s). These are often used in combination with interpuncts
(e.g.,AYP';.ao

ANON : v(Ogorr)orv
@H-:et(xn)
IQ :'Iol(qvvou)
KAD: Kcio(aq)
ftPlnPX : ru(ct)grcgX(1E)
TA : r(v)
X: 1(aiqe)

A horizontal stroke was also used when one letter was written for a double
letter (e.g.,II^HME^HMATA : ru),qppel.{1pora).
The use of rhe horizon-
tal stroke is especiallycommon with nomina sacra.

OIO>- : Oeg.OY : Oeo (e.g.,seefig. 8), OA : @erir.@N : @ev.

@E: @e
OelOf O> : OeorxoE
I) :'Inoo0S, IY:'Iqoo0
ruf: : KgroE.KY : KprcE/Kugiou,KO : Kugitp. KN : Kerov.
'_ :
ll.t l.tuott
X) : XetorE, XY: Xgr.oto0, XQ : XqrorQ, XN : Xer,orv, XE :
Xpror47

Another popular abbreviation sign is the oblique stroke (e.g., IT :

flrul,rog, Zf2[IY : Z<rlngou). Other abbreviation signs include a raised s

46. See$ 5.12 (table ll); for variationsin this practice seeAvi-Yonah, bbreviations,33-36.
47. On this and X!Mf, X@f, KMf, @Mf, lMX, XMIP, and XM see Tomasz Derda,
"Some
Remarkson the Christian Symbol XMf," JJurP 22 (1992):21-27 (SEG 33.1605,36.793,
39.r838,42.1828).
58 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy

(e.g.,fIPECB' : nQeopteqoE, AIA' : r'crxovoE),a wedge (e'g'' PA' : l'Alil.l-l3. (lardinaland Ordinal Numerals
'faBigrogaa),an ivy leaf (e.g',CEBI : Xepqotg), a triangle (A)' a raisedr or I
? ,
r[E, [r[,rv nqrog
('/c).ae ereqog
an asteriskos(e.g.,A*/A* : xrul.os), and a sigma and antisigma
2 lo
3 tqeiE/rqia rg[roE
In the first century A.D., ligatureswere the most common form of abbrevia- r6oocqeg, roocpcr rrcqrog, -q, -ov
(') were also popular'
tion, though the oblique stroke (') and the raised dot 5 nvre npntog
The raised dot and horizontal stroke came to predominate in the second 6 EE Emog
raised r' the 7 Enr. BopoE
century e.o., though other forms were also used, such as the 8 x'r<it yoog
signs,
asteriskos(*), and the wedge (<). Many other novel and idiosyncratic o w6a vcroE
too numerous to list here, were also then employed' l0 xtr xcroE,-q, -ov
11 vexcr 6v6xctog
t2 eza oxntog
2.07 Numerals 13 rqeiE/rqla xci. 6xo/tqeroxaiexc rqi.rogxoi 6x<rroE
I4 rrittcpeE/ttrcrqcr xai xa rrcqroExci xarog
15 nevrexciexd, n6pnrog xci, 6xctog
they can be
There are three ways of representing numerals in inscriptions: 16 6xxcr[exo xrog xcri,xtrrog
as acrophonic numerals (seeS 2'08)'
written out in full as words' represented t7 6ntoxc[exc popoExcrl xcroE
(see $ 2'09)' Numbers written out in 18 xrtDxa[exa yoogxoi 6xarog
or representedas alphabeticnumerals
(see t9 6weaxcisxcl vcroE xcri,xctog
full were regarded as more dignified and were less liable to misreading 20 eixoot(v) eixoorE,-r1,-v
ordinals and
table 3). The cardinal numbers from 5 to 199 are indeclinable. 2l eiE xcri eixoor(v)/eixoor (xcri) eiE ngrog xoi eixoorg
cardinalsfrom 200 onward are declined like ycr0E'so 30 rqrcxovto tgloxootg
40 reoocqcrxovr<r rerrcpcxoorg
50 nevrilxovrc nevrqxootE
2.08 Acrophonic Numerals 60 lqxovrcr 6lr;xootE
70 6Bopfxovro 6popqxoorE
"ini- 80 yoilzowa yoqxootg
as the
The so-called acrophonic system of numeral signs is also known 90 vevqxovta dvevqxooroE
acrophonic refers to the use of the initial
tial" or..decimal" system.The term 100 xcrrov xcrootg,-i1,v
in order to represent the 200 rcxorol, -crr, -c lcxooloorE
letter of the word by which the number is known
apt, since, as 300 tprcrxoror rprcxooroorE
number (e.g.,a : 6xa/10). The term acrophonicis not entirely 400 rerqcxoror retgcxooroorg
"there is no common principle running consistentlythrough all
Tod observes, 500 nevrcxolot, nevrcxooroorg
these systemsand determining every sign comprised in each"'s1 600 6lox6oror, 6loxooroorg
: xbvrell' 700 nrsxoror. 6nraxooroorE
The Attic acrophonic system employs six numerical signs: ylfl 800 xtaxorol xto,xooloorg
: M : pqror'/10'000' The
A : xa/10, H : xcrtv/100,X 1'r,)'nr'/1000, 900 vax6olor dvcxooroorE
(I). In addition to these
numeral I is representedby a single upright stroke 1,000 1i,Ilor., -trr.,-o -i1,v
1r,l,r,ootg,
ott the symbol fI (in its earlier form' |-) 2,000 roli,Iror ro1,rootg
symbols are four .o*perrdi" ba,.d 3,000 rqrolih,or rqlolrtrroo16E
for 50, 500, 5,000'and 50,000(seetable 4')s2 10,000 pglor., -crr.,-cr pr-rgloorg
20,000 lopr.rqror r,opuqloorE
48. Nomen (ISmYrnaII' 771'L. 26)' 100,000 excxlopqr,or, exoxtopuqr,oorE
49. SeeAvi-Yonah, Abbreviations' 38'
50. SeeThreatte' Grammar,2.4L2-45' S 65'010-31'
5l'MarcusN.Tod,..TheGreekNumeralNotation,''BsA18(1911_lz):98_|32,esp.|27.
"Greek 5'021;
52. SeeTod, Numeral Notation," 100-101; Threatte, Grammar, 1.110-13' s
Larfeld, Hanilbuch, 2:543-46; Lafield, GriechischeEpigraphil<"290-93'
60 An lrtroductionto oreek Epigraphy
Paleography,Punctuation, Abbreviations,and N umerals l u t
|
TABLE 5. Currency Symbols
TABLE4. AcrophonicNumeralsin Attica
100 T (: tl.crvtov) I talent (: 6,000 dr.)
I H
I ll0 M (: pvo) I mina (: 100 dr.)
2 HA
II 150 X (: otcrnq) statef
) Hlr
ilI 200 t/<lzl^P/x/x drachma (: 6 obols)
+ HH
ilII 500
I
1 obol
5 fr
fI 600 t, % obol (i1puop6)"rov)
o ftH
NI 1,000 CorT /+ obol (retoqrlgoQt ov)
7 X
IIII 1,100 X 1 chalcus (1a),xog) (% obol)
r0 XH
A 5,000 AHN/X /A/ denarii
12 F
AII 10,000 L % denarius
15 M
^n 50,000 F 5 talents
F
AfII 16
20
+ 10 talents
AA H 100 talents
AAII 25 Y 1,000 talents
AAA 30
|z IFIF 50
16l 60

When the acrophonic systemis used for sums of money, the unit is usually
drachmae (see,e.g., S/G3 10148; LSAM 25). When specif.ing currenry, the
is a sum of the
When more than one symbol is represented'the number '
symbol or l- (not I) denotesone drachma, even when the term polpoi is
arranged in descending
component symbols' the symbols themselvesbeing written before or after the number. The symbol I was reservedfor the obol. It
: 76'827' Likewise' when sums of
order: thus I'TMMFX|HHHHAAIIII can be repeated up to five times. The symbol C denotes one-half obol, while
always Precedethe lower'
money are concerned, the higher denominations both C and T (: retcrgtqpgr,ov)representone-fourth obol. The symbol X
off by spacesor punctuation
Since acrophonic numerals are always marked representsthe chalcus (one-eighth obol). The talent, representedby T (:
different in form from
marks on either side of the numeral and are sometimes 6,000 dr.), was the major denomination above the drachma (e.g.,TTTT :
them with letters'
Greek letters, there is little danger of confusing four talents). It also appearsin ligature form (seetable 5). The mina (: 100
Beyond Attica, the acrophonic symbols and their meanings varied from
dr.) is not usually represented.
elsewhere' the reader
city to city. When workini with acrophonic systems
the acrophonic systemsin
should consult Marcus To's exhaustive study of 2.09 Alphabetic Numerals
use throughout the Hellenistic world's3
Theacrophonicsystemwasusedforcardinalnumbersandcurrency,but The alphabeticsystembecamewidely used alongsidethe acrophonic system
notforordinalnumbers.Thisprecludeditsuseindatesandinthecounting in the Hellenistic period.ssIt is a quasi-decimal system that requires twenty-
of value' both weightsand
of prytanies(see5 13.02).It was alsousedfor units sevenletters,nine for the numerals l-9, nine for the tens (10-90), and nine
: oroxrlQ or ortov)'
-*.., (e.g.,T : thsvtov lca' 57lb']; >/t
for the hundreds (100-900). Since the Greek alphabet consisted of only
The acrophonic system was in use in Attica throughout the classicaland
twenty-four letters, one new symbol for each group had to be adopted. In
time it was replacedby
Hellenistic periods until about 95-90 s'c'' at which Attica, the symbol fi was used for the numeral 6, replacing the earlier form F'
thealphabeticsystem(seeS2.09).ElsewhereintheHellenisticworld,there (digamma), which was not used in Attica in the Roman period. Outside of
areexamplesofitssurvivalthroughtothefirstandsecondcenturiesA.D'54 Attica, the symbol ( (for odypa) was usually used.The symbol 9'was used
"Greek Numeral Notation," 98-l3z'
for 90, though 9' (qoppa)was usedin financial texts (e.g.,lGII' 2776,LL. 38,
53. Tod,
5 4 . S e e T o d , . . G r e e k N u m e r a l N o t a t i o n , ' ' 1 2 9 - 3 0 ; M a r c u s T o"The
d,..FurtherNotesontheGreek "The
Greek Acrophonic Nu- 55. SeeMarcus N. Tod, Alphabetic Numeral Systemin Attica," BSA45 (1950):126-39;
Marcus Tod'
Acrophonic Numerals," BSA28 (1926-27): l4I-57; Larfeld, GriechischeEpigraphik, 293-98.
(alphabetic list of places' p' 258)'
-".u1.," BSA37 (1936-37): 236-58
62 An htroduction to GreekEpigraphy Putrctuation,Abbreviations,and Numerals
Paleography, | 63
|

TABLE 6. Alphabetic Numerals nal numbers were sometimesdifferentiatedfrom fractionsby placing abar, a
23
dot, or another symbol over the number.s6
A I Kf,
B 2 KA' 24 The recognition of alphabetic numerals in inscriptions can be difficult
f' 3 KE 25 becausetheir forms are indistinguishable from normal letter forms and be-
^' 4 ^ 30
causethey are sometimes set in continuous text without spacing or punctua-
E 5 M 40
Tor(orF' 6 N 50 tion. The possibility of confusion is greatly reduced when blank spacesor
Z 7 60 punctuation is introduced before and/or after the numeric symbol. By far, the
}I 8 70 most common punctuation is the horizontal stroke, placed above the numeral
@ 9 IT 80
90
(".g., F : rq', HNP : nve'), though many other diacritical marks are also
I l0 9' or 9'
IA 1l P 100 found.sT
IB' t2 200 Alphabetic numerals had a wider range of application than acrophonic
If' t3 T 300
400
numerals. They were used for both cardinal numbers (e.g., for currency,
IA' 74 Y
IE l5 o' s00 weights, measures) and ordinal numbers, especially to specifr the days of
rn' 16 x 600 months (e.g.,Boqqopr"drvogqrJ) and years.s8In epitaphs they were some-
IZ t7 \y' 700
times employed to state length of time in years,months, and even days, as in
I}{ 18 a' 800
t9 900 (qoev rr1( prlv(crg)0' ip(qcrE) xr1 [he/shelived sevenyears,nine months,
I@' J'or
K fn
,A 1,000 and twenty-eight daysl (IGll2 10683).
KA' 2l ,B 2,000 An alphabetic numeral preceded by the article t was used to indicate a
KB' 22 ,f 3,000
repeatedtenure of offrce or military service,as in the formula otqcrtqyg r
(generalfor the fourth time).seSuch phrasesas fi pou),1 r6v $ , i1 pou)"1trnv
X', or il Boulil rv rl-rVin Attic inscriptions state the size of the Athenian
'was employedfor 900, replacing? council (500, 600, and.750, respectively).
56, 109 [e.n. l17-38]). The symbol f
(sampi),which had been used earlier (see,e.g.,IG Il2 2776, LL. 11' 87,ll3, When alphabetic numerals were employed for currency, they were fre-
136).The alphabeticnumeralsare in table 6. quently precededby AP (: gcrlpoi), sometimesin ligature form.60The
Alphabetic numerals were usually arranged in descendingorder (e'g., symbol X (usually printed in publications as 't) is used for both drachmae
PIA : 111), though there are many exceptionsto this rule, both in Attica (see,e.g., IG II' t368, LL. 38, 40, 55, 90, 161) and denarii (IG ll' 2776).
and elsewhere(e.g.,ff , Of ). Currency given in the form of alphabetic numerals was sometimesmarked off
By convention, editors identif' alphabeticnumerals by marking them with from the text with symbols, some of which are identical to those used for
an oblique stroke to the right of the number, above the line, for numbers up abbreviationsin general(".g.,'4.,4', uu, XA, XAu).
to 999 (e.g.,PNE : 155).For numbers greaterthan 999, a diagonalstroke is
addedbeforethe number,below the line (e.g.,,AQf : 1810).
56. SeeThreatte, Grammar, 2.446-48, S 65.04.
Inscriptionsdo not usethe symbols,I, , K, , A, , M, and so on for multiples
57. 8.g., a raised point (A' or A' ), a colon or tricolon (: i ), a wedge (A' or 'A'), an
of 10,000but fall back on acrophonic abbreviations.The acrophonic symbol antisigma (A2), diagonal strokes (,A , ), an underlined upsilon (uA), an elongated S shape above
"Alphabetic
M (for puplcg or pqror,)is expandedto MY, or rQ,for 10,000'to differenti- the numerical sign (); seeTod, Numeral System," 136.
58. Tod ("Alphabetic Numeral System," 132) discusseswhether expressionsof the tfpe yil
ate it from the alphanumericM (: 40). The symbolsfor 20,000,30,000,and
might not mean y' i(orctp6vor-r).
1,000,000are &, &, and &, respectively.Fractionswere expressedusing the 59. See Tod,
"Alphabetic
Numeral System,". 133; cf. cognate expressions, such as t
same integers as cardinal numbers, with the addition of a diacritical mark erepov,r rpltov, etc.
"Alphabetic
(often an oblique stroke) to indicatethe fractional nature of the value. Cardi- 60. SeeTod, Numeral System,"131.
64 | An Introductiott to Oreek Epigraphy

SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLI()GRAP}IY

Paleography
3
Antonetti, Claudia. Sigleepigrafchegrechedi Tauromenio.Memorie Istituto veneto 39, lnscriptions &s
no.3. Venice: Istituto veneto di scienze,lettere ed arti, 1984. (cf. sEG 34.987.)
f,tienne, Roland. TnosII: Tnoset lesCycladesdu milieu du IV' sicleav. J.-C. au milieu
Archaeological Artifacts
du III, sicleap. I.-C. BEFAR 263 bis. Athens: Ecole frangaise d'Athnes; Paris: E.
de Boccard,1990.P. 98. (cf. SEG 40.512.)
Guarducci, M., ed.Epigrafia greca.Yol. l, caralteri e storia della disciplina: La scrittura
grecadalle origini all'et imperiale' Rome' 1967. (Imperial letter forms')
Heisserer,A. J. Alexander the Great and the Greeks:The Epigraphic Evidence.Norman:
university of oklahoma Press,1980.Pp. 111-17. (cf. sEG 30.1070;chios, IV n.c')
'tude
Perrat, Ch. paleographique." ln TablettesAlbertini: Actes privs de l'poque
vandale,ed. christian courtois et ^., ltl5-62. Paris:Arts et metiers graphiques,
1952.
"Two
Walbank. Michael B. Attic Masonsof the Late Fourth Century." BSA 84 (1989):
395-40s. (cf. SEG 39.329.) In early collections of inscriptions, such as Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum
(1828-77), inscriptions are treated as if they were two-dimensional texts, anal-
Numerals
ogousto manuscripts.Suchprinted textsareoften not accompaniedby a photo-
"Les
Chamoux, FranQois, comptes des dfmiurges C1'rne."In Compteset inventaires graph or drawing of the inscription or of the monument on which it was en-
dans la cit grecque:Actesdu colloqueinternational d'pigraphietenu Neuchteldu graved.rIn many cases,no information is provided regarding the height, width,
23 au 26 septembre1986en l'honneur de lacquesTrbheux,ed. Denis Knoepfler, 143- and thicknessofthe stone,its paleographicfeatures,or the layout ofthe text.
54, esp. 146-47. Geneva:Librairie Droz' 1988.
Such publications have an illusory quality about them. They conceal
Cohen, Henry, Rene Cagnat, and fames C. Egbert. The Coin-Inscriptions and Epi-
significant information, with the result that the texts tend to eclipse the
graphicalAbbreviationsof Imperial Rome- Chi9ago:Ares' 1978'
Laronde, Andr6..Cyrne et la Libye hellnistique.Etudes d'Antiquit6s africaines. Paris: archaeological monuments or artifacts upon which they are engraved. The
(cf.
ditions du centre national de la recherche scientifique, 1987. Pp. 241-45. reader is left with the impression that inscriptions are texts like any other
SEG37.1667; Kyreniannumericalsystem.) texts, rather than intrinsic parts of the archaeologicalartifacts.
Menninger, Karl. Number Words and Number Symbols:A Cultural History of Numbers. In correction of this regrettable practice, Giancarlo Susini remarks that
Cambridge:MIT Press,1965. "be
"Numbers." In The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. New York: Oxford the entire monument should seenas inseparablefrom the inscription, that
Pingree,David.
University Press,1991. is to say, from that complex of technical and traditional factors which leadsto
Richardson, W . R. Numbering and Measuring in the ClassicalWorld. Auckland' 1985. the act of carving it."2 Similarly, |. M. Reynolds emphasizesthe importance of
"the
study of the stonesthemselvesrather than disembodied texts of the great
published collections."3Until recently, this has been one of the most ne-
glected aspectsof epigraphy.a

l. The MAMA series was exemplary for its emphasis on the importance of the physical
appearanceof the monuments and the form of the lettering.
2. Giancarlo Susini, The Roman Stonecutter:An Introduction to Latin Epigraphy, trans. A. M.
Dabrowski, ed. E. Badian (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1973),60-61.
"Review:
3. JoyceM. Reynolds, Susini, Tfte StoneCutter," JRS65 (1975):210.
4. There is disagreement as to whether a complementary relationship exists between an in-
scription and its monument. Gnther Klaffenbach ("Archologie und Epigraphlk," AA [1948-49]:

65
66 An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy
|
Benjamin Meritt has arguedstronglythat an inscription cannot be treated
as if it were a manuscript: its three-dimensionalcharacter and its proper
relation to its medium must be taken into account.s The study of an epi-
graphical text as an integral part of its medium is known as architectural
epigraphy. Here, the medium is recognized to be a helpful and indispensable
guide to restorationand interpretation.
The reconstruction of a given monument and the restoration of its text
should go hand in hand, becausethe physicalfeaturesof a monument condi-
tion any proposed restoration. However persuasivea proposed restoration
may be, there is no hope that it might be correct if it cannot be reconciled
with the physical requirements of the stone on which it is inscribed. If a
restoration contradicts or ignores this physical requirement-which is the
most objective of all possible tests-there can be no hope for accutacy.6
Meritt has demonstratedthis thesisby citing examplesof erroneousresto-
rations that have resulted when the physical characteristicsof the monument
were not taken into consideration. His examples include the importance of
considering the adjoining facesof an inscription,T the exact disposition of the
"the value
letters,sand any fault or fracture lines. For instance, he notes that
of a continuous line of fracture is that fragments which belong together can
sometimes be assignedto their relative position even though they no longer
make direct contact with one another."e
when dealing with fragmentary inscriptions, knowledge of the size of the
individual pieces can be helpful in restoration: smaller fragments tend to
belong to the center of the inscription, near where the destructive force made
"tacked
253-55) deniessuch a relationship. He thinks of inscriptions as being onto" a monument,
often simply as a way of explaining and dating the monument; he thinks that inscriptions of the
imperial p"iioa -uy also have some ornamental value. Giancarlo Susini, G. A. Mansuelli, and
"Nuove prospettive storiche: A proposito di alcune
elbert Rehm disagree:see Giancarlo Susini,
in Emilia," in Atti del terzo Congressointernazionale di epigrafia greca e latina
scoperte Romane
"L'Erma"
(Rima, 4-8 Senembre,1957)(Rome: di Bretscheider,1959),32I-46,esp.328-37; G. .
"Monumento funerario," in Enciclopediadell'Arte Antica classica e orientale, vol. 5
Mansuelli,
"Die
(Rome: Istituto Poligrafico, 1963), 170-202; Albert Rehm, Inschriften," in Handbuch der
Archologie,vol.1, ed. Walter Otto, Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft 46 (Munich: C. H' Beck'
1939), 182-238, esp. 2 13-15).
5. Benjamin D. Meritt, EpigraphicaAttica, Martin classical Lectures 9 (cambridge: Haruard
univer-
university Press,lg4o),43. cf. w. s. Ferguson, Treasuresof Athena (cambridge: Harvard
"Review: Treasures of Athena," IHS 53 (1933):
sity Press, 1932); H. T. Wade-Gery, Ferguson,
134-37, esp. 134.
6. SeeMeritt, EpigraphicaAttica' 138'
7. Meritt, EpigraphicaAttica' 9-14'
8. Meritt, EPigraPhicaAttica, 53'
9. Meritt, EPigraPhicaAttica' 61.
lnscriptions Artifacts I
asArchaeological eZ
contact, with no significant fragment surviving at the point of contact,
whereas larger fragments belong to the periphery of the stone. Similarly, the
lines of the fracture may radiate from the center of impact.
Meritt also demonstrateshow knowledge of such physical characteristics
as margins, moldings, and fractures can have a decisiveimpact on the reading
of inscriptions. Moreover, the physical characteristicof a stone, such as the
dimension and shapeof letter forms, the adornments,the use or nonuse of
guidelines, the surface treatment, evidences of cutting, and characteristic
faults or flaws, can potentially be exploited for their chronological value.lo
Similarly, Sterling Dow employs such indices as marble color, style of the
moldings, and overall stele measurements in his dating of four stelae from
Salamis.ll
3.01 The Role of Squeezesand Photographs
When studying an inscription, it is frequently not possible to consult the
actual stone.12To some extent, this omission can be compensatedfor by the
use of epigraphic squeezesand photographs. Epigraphic squeezesare pro-
duced by pounding wet fibrous paper into the inscription and allowing it to
dry (seeS 3.02).Once dry, it reproducesan almost exactimpression(allowing
for some shrinkage during d#"g) of the form, size,and relative disposition of
the letters.13In fact, a good epigraphic squeezer4will sometimesgive a more
accurate reading of a damaged, worn, or weathered inscription than will
direct examination or a photo.
Liquid latex can also be used for making squeezes. In this technique,the
surfacemust first be cleaned.The latex is then applied by brush in a thin layer.
The first application of latex must be allowed to dry for about twenty-four
hours. Second and third layers can be applied on successivedays. Latex
squeezesare much more time-consuming to make than paper squeezesand
are more expensive.For thesereasons,their use is often lesspractical.
"New
10. See Meritt, Epigraphica Attica, 58-61; cf. Sterling Dow, Kinds of Evidence for
Dating Polyeuktos,"AJA 40 (1936): 57-7O, esp.57-58.
"New
11. Dow, Kinds of Evidence," 65-69; cf. 63-65.
12. John S. Traill ("The Athenian Archon Pleistainos,"ZPX 103 [ l99a]: 109-14, esp. I 10 and
pl. XIII) describes a technique of reading stones that has been employed by generations of
epigraphers: the stone is gently wetted with water so that water comes into contact with the dust
that has naturally accumulated on the surface of the stone. This water-dust suspension can
enhance the original lettering, making it easier to read.
13. J. I. Hondius attributes the first scientific use ofsqueezes to Philippe Le Bas (Hondius
I 6).
14. French estaffipages,German Abkhtsche, Modern Greekektupa.
 lnscriptions
asArchaeological
Artifacts | 69
68 | A, lnttoductionto GreekEpigraphy

in a way that is sometimes difficult to distinguish between a letter stroke and a deep abra-
Squeezeshave the obvious advantage of being portable
and photographed repeatedly and sion in the stone when reading a squeezealone.
stonesare not, allowing them to be studied
one should never rely
at leisure, at some later date. However, if at all possible,
like photo-
on a squeezewithout checking the actual stone, since squeezes, 3.02 Making Epigraphical Squeezes
several good
gruphr, can be misleading. Sterling Dow recommends that
doubtful inscription' since one squeeze
,q.r..r., should be made of a very To make a squeezeof a particular inscription, it is first necessaryto obtain a
mightcaptureacriticalletterorareabetterthananother.Somemuseumsand permit from either the director of the museum in which the inscription is
to squeezes'
universitieslshave squeezecollections that provide ready access located or the governmental agency in charge of antiquities. In Greece and
which may reduce the travel time required for research' Turkey, international institutes representingvarious countries are usually pre-
give some
Photographs also have an imPortant role to play' Photos can pared to assist in making these arrangements.lTApplication for a permit
of an inscribed monument
indication of the overall three-dimensional aspect requires a complete list of inscriptions to be squeezed,their present locations,
the light
in a way that squeezescannot' When photographing an inscription' and, if possible, their inventory numbers. If an inscription is unpublished,
photos, because
source should be moved to different positions for a seriesof permission must first be obtained from the individual responsible for the
clearly when photographed in one light
certain letter strokeswill appear more stone, such as an offrcial in the department of antiquities, the museum cura-
than in another. tor, or the scholar who discoveredthe inscription. (Some inscriptions should
Merittarguesthatbothsqueezesandphotographsareessentialforeffec. not be squeezedfor reasonsofpreservation, particularly ifthe surfacewould
.,armchair" epigraphy, and he recommends that every editor should (if
tive fragment, chip, or slough off easily.) It is also necessaryto indicate the specific
a photo and a
possible) have both at his or her disposal' He writes that only days when one intends to work. Permits for the summer season can be
"a teady control over the text as read by the
,q,r..r. can give the student difficult to obtain if one does not apply several months in advance.During
improvement." He
eitor" and.,frequently make possibleearly correction and this period, there is a strain on the supervisory personnel, who are needed as
continues: site and museum guards and are therefore lessavailable to searchand super-
vise in museum storerooms.
the photo-
Much depends on the condition of the stone' and on the way The following instructions presume that the scholar has accessto all the
satisfactory
graph is made' as to whether a squeezeor photograph is more equipment and supplies necessaryand has adequate time and spaceto per-
foruseindeterminingatext.Indoubtfulcasesbothshouldbeused'for form the steps in a careful, methodical fashion. However, it should be borne
must have
they complement each other, and in the last analysis one in mind that the traveling scholar will often be required to adapt to trying
recoursein caseof doubt to the stone itself'16 circumstances in the field. A scholar may have to work without the ideal
equipment, necessitatingthe use of makeshift materials and supplies.A scrub-
scholar who
Meritt describesthe dangersthat are to be anticipated by the bing brush can be used instead of a proper squeezebrush; though it lacks a
example' a photo or squeeze
relies solely on photographs and squeezes'For handle, it can still perform satisfactorily. Similarly, in extraordinary settings,
in actual fact such
may suggestthat certain iragments should be joined' when one can substitute writing paper, layers of paper handkerchiefs,or even toilet
Moreover' the
a joining would result in physical conflict between pieces' paper for squeezepaper.An inadequatesupply of water may demand the use
can favor
manipulation of a photographic light source when photographing of some other liquid. Some situations require one to work at great speedor in
manipulated or not, a
one reading of an inscription over another. whether physically demanding situations, such that additional compromises and modi-
Similarly' it
photogrupli .un *ake scratcheslook like letters or parts of letters. ficationsof the method are necessitated.

15'E.g.,thelnstituteforAdvancedStudy,PrincetonUniversitytheMuseumofClassical
Ancient Documents, oxford university 17.8.g., in Greece,the American School ofClassical Studiesat Athens, the Ecole frangaise
Archaeololy, cambridge; the centre for the Study of
Institute of Archaeology at Ankara' d'Athnes, the British School ofArchaeology; in Turkey, the British Institute ofArchaeology at
(<http:rr.info'ox'ac.uk/-csadinfo>); the British
142-43 n' 19' Ankara.
ti. Meritt, EpigraphicaAxica, 2l (cf' 22, 42); for examples see
 lnscriptions
asArchaeological
Artifacts | 7l

Also useful are a sponge,scissors,string, and a rectagonalplasticbasin to

hold water. Ideally, the basin should be large enough to accommodatethe
squeezepaper without folding it.

3.04 Technique

It is desirable to begin by washing the inscription gently with a sponge and

water. This will prevent the picking up of excessivedirt by the squeezepaper.
In the caseofparticularly dirty stones,one can take an initial squeeze(which is
discarded)simply to cleanthe stone.Very porous stonesmay absorbwater so
quickly that they are difficult to squeeze,especiallyifthey are located or stored
in a hot dry location. Prewashingalso servesto help prevent such stonesfrom
d#.g out too quickly.
Begin by measuring the inscription and cutting the squeezepaper to size,
allowing for a ten-centimeter overhang on the edges.In the case of large
inscriptions,it will be necessary to use more than one pieceof paper,overlap-
ping successivesheetsby approximately three to four centimeters.The action
of hitting this overlap with the squeezebrush will repulp the paper, bonding
the two sheetstogether. Alternatively, one may squeezethe inscription repeat-
edly in separatesections.
Fill the basin with water. Grasp the dry squeezepaper by the corners and
lower it into the basin until all but the upper two cornersis wet. Keepingthe
upper cornersdry will preventthe sheetfrom tearing in your hands.Once wet,
squeezepaper tends to tear very easily and so should be handled with the
utmost care; avoid folding it. If the inscription face is vertically oriented, the
squeezepaper should be laid against the vertical surface as one would hang
wallpaper on a wall, from the top down. Gently hold the paper up against the
stoneuntil it beginsto cling to the stone'ssurface.If the faceis horizontal,one
simply lays the paper on it from bottom to top.
Flatten the paper down with a squeezebrush, beginning at the center and
working outward to the periphery until the paper is firmly clinging to the
entire surfaceof the stone'sface.There are two stagesto this process.First,
apply even steady blows over the surface of the stone to work out all air
bubbles. Second,inspect the surface for accuracyline by line, patting the
surfaceto ensurethat the paper has been worked into everyindentation. It is
important to adjust the angle of the brush to avoid tearing the paper. This
processwill take longer for inscriptionswith small,shallowlyinscribedletters.
Ideally, an inscription measuringsixteenby twenty-four incheswill take ap-
proximately five to ten minutes to flatten out.
 Inscriptions
asArchaeological
Artifacts | 73
72 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy

inscrip- Sound judgment and, if possible,some familiarity with other stonesedited by

In certain cases,such as when the incisedletters are deep,or the
places. Such tears the sameeditor are neededto distinguishbetweenthesepossibilities.
tion has deep fissuresor sharp edges,the Paper may tear in
squeezepaper and
can be patched by locally applying additional piecesofwet
to affix it to the underlying squeezePaper' 3.06 Scanning and Digitizing Squeezes
repulping it with the squeezebrush
can be applied to the entire
In extremecases,a secondpieceofsqueezepaper
as a last resort in Many institutions (e.g., the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, New
surfaceof the stone's face.This option should onlybe taken
)ersey) have begun to digitize epigraphical texts and make them availablevia
thecaseoffine,shallowlyinscribedinscriptions'becauseitisoftenvery
Inscriptions with the Internet. The Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents (CSAD) in
difficult to read both sides of a double-thickness squeez.
squeezed with a double thick- Oxford ( <http:i/www.csad.ox.ac.uk/CSADilmages.html> ) has undertaken
large, deeply engravedletters can profitably be
to create a virtual library of digitized images of its squeezecollection (as well
nessof squeeze paPeror with squeezepaper of greater thickness'
When as photographs of inscriptions). It has accomplishedthis with the use of a
Vertiially oriented squeezeswill dry from the top to the bottom'
upper and lower UMAX Powerlook scanner,digital camera, Power Macintosh computers, and
squeezingsuch inscriptions, one should loosely secure the
string or twine' Otherwise the Adobe Photoshop 3.0. Through such efforts as these, the accessibilityof
parts of the wet squeezepaper to the stone with
process and' if left squeezesand the inscriptions themselves is greatly increasing year by year.
,q.r..r. pape, *lil fall onto the floor during the drying
squeezescan be Such projects may soon permit individual scholarsto createtheir own virtual
unattended,will dry in a folded or creasedposition' Once dry'
transportation' libraries (seethe appendix in this book).
stacked,gently rolled, and inserted into a cardboard tube for
should not be folded. The rolling processshould
Ifit can be avoided,squeezes
a roll with a large
be performed gradually. First, gently roll the squeezesinto
times, gradually
diameter, then unroll them again. Repeatthe processseveral
each time. A cardboard or plastic tube with a
reducing the diameter of the roll
hold approximately ten large
diameter of five inches (12.5 centimeters) will
squeezes.

3.05 Reading Squeezes

negative side of a
Each squeezehas a positive side and a negative side' The
preferred side for
,q.r..r. provides the clearest impression and so is the
near a
reading. Squeezesare best read either in sunny conditions-perhaps
window-orunderaStrongincandescentlampinadarkenedroom.The
Squeezecanbecontinuallypositionedandrepositionedinthelightsourceto
lighting
make each letter form stand out in light and shadow. Fluorescent
provides poor conditions for reading squeezesand should be avoided'
one
When reading squeezesof stonesthat were read in earlier generations,
than the editio
may find that the squeezerecords less information today
the part of the
pri.rceps indicates. This may be the result of inexperience on
deterioration or
modern reader. More often it is the result of the subsequent
damagingofthestone,inwhichcasesuchearlierreadingsshouldbeunder-
may have
lined iseeS l.l0). The possibilityalsoremainsthat a previouseditor
identifiable.
restored an imperfectiy prere.,red letter that was not positively
 'l'he ()nonasti<'s
and Prosopographyof Greek Names | 75

attested in Egyptian papyri.3 Friechrich Bechtel'sDie historischenPersonen-

namen desGriechischen bis zur Kaiserzeit(Halle, 1917)is very usefulbut only
covers names prior to the imperial period.a Moreover, it does not include
names of foreigners attestedin Greek documents.sRcklufigesWrterbuch
The Onomastics der griechischen Eigennamenby F. Dornseiff and B. Hansen should be used
with care, for it combines the listings of Bechtel and Preisigkewithout verifr-
and ProsopograPhy ing individual entries.6Under the direction of Peter Fraser and Elaine
of GreekNames Matthews, a new and excellent Lexicon of Greek Personal Names is under
preparation, with the first three volumes alreadyin print.T Many other more
geographicallyspecificstudiescan also be consulted,8not to mention the in-
dicesof SEGand BE.e

4.02 The Giving of Names

Most Greeks living in the eastern half of the empire had only one name
(vopu), their so-calledpersonalname. The naming of children was the free

3. Friedrich Preisigke, Namenbuch: Enthaltend alle giechischen, lateinischen, gyptischen,

fixed patterns hebrischen,arabischen,und sonstigensemitischenund nichtsemitischenMenschennamen,soweit sie
Onomastics (or onomatology) is the study of names' including in griechischen Urkunden (Papyri, Ostraka, Inschriften, Mumienschildern, usw.) Agyptens sich
The study of histori-
and changes,developments'and irregularities in Practice' vorfnden (Heidelberg: Selbstverlag des Herausgebers, 1922) (: PreisigkeNB); Daniele Fora-
as prosopography
cal ngootna, or persons'as identifiableby name is known boschi, Onomasticonalterum papyrologicum:Supplementoal Namenbuch di F. Prekigke,TDSA 16;
Serie Papirologica 2 (Milan: Istituto Editoriale Cisalpino, I97l) (: Foraboschi).
(see$4.24).Itsfindingscanbeparticularlyvaluableforancienthistorians.
4. BechteIPN (reprint, Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1964); cf. Olivier Masson, ed.,Kleine onoma-
stischeStudienFiechich Bechtel,Beitrgezur klassischenPhilologie 125 (Knigstein:A. Hain, 1981).
"Patterns
4.01 Inventories of Greek Names 5. For this see Gabriel Herman, of Name Diffusion within the Greek World and
Beyond," CQ 40 (1990): 349-63 (SEG40.1681).
6. F. Dornseiff and B. Hansen, Rcklufges Wrterbuch der griechischenEigennamen(Berlin,
G' Benseler'It
The first inventory of Greek names was that of W' Pape and 1957; reprint, with appendix by L. Zgtsta, Abhleip 102.4, Chicago: Ares, 1978 (: Dornseiff-
in 1862' later
was first published by Pape in 1842,republishedby Benseler Hansen).
This work remains a 7. IGPN (Oxford: Clarendon, 1987-: vol. l, The Aegeanlands, Cyprug Kyrenaika, by p. M.
reedited in 1911,and subsequentlyreprinted in 1959't
limited by the fact Fraser and E. Matthews; vol.2, Attica, by M. J. Osborne and S. G. Byrne; vol. 3, Peloponnesosand
useful catalogueof literary names' but its utility is severely the Greek mainland, including Thessaliaand Epeiros, the Ionian and Adriatic Islands, Sicily and
no names attested in
that it includes only inscriptions listed in CIG and Magna Graecia,Western Europe, North Africa (excluding K1'renaika);vol.4, Makedonia, Thrake,
assumefrom the
papyri. This fact could easily escapethe scholar who might Scythia Minor, South Russia; vol. 5, the Asia Minor coast; vol. 6, unassignable individuals,
survey' indices, analytical tables, bibliographies. See O. Masson's comments on IGPN I in Gnomon 62
ui. of th. 1959 reprint that it representsa fairly complete [1990]: 97 -103 (cf. SEG37.1796, 40. I 680); cf. Michael l. Osborne and SeanG. Byrne, The Foreign
reference aids have been published
Fortunately, many other onomastic Residentsof Athens: An Annex to the Lexicon of GreekPersonalNames-Attica, Studia Hellenistica
overthepastcentury.RudolfMnsterberg,sBeamtennamenrccordsthe 33 (Louvain: Peeters,1996).
8. See the studies in onomastics listed in this chapter's supplementary bibliography; l. M.
,r"-.ronthelegendsofGreekcoins'2FriedrichPreisigke'sNamenbuchand Fossey,The Study ofAncient GreekProsopography(Chicago: Ares, l99l),63-66; Hondius, 133-36.
and Semitic names
Foraboschi'slater supplement list Greek, Latin' Egyptian' 9. Index du Bulletin Epigraphiquede J. et L. Robert, 1938-65, vol. l, Ies mots grecs,vol.2, Les
publications, and vol. 3, Les motsfrangais (Paris: "Les Belles Lettres," 1972-75); Index du Bulletin
l.W.PapeandG.E.Benseler,l4lrterbuchdergriechischenEigennamen'3ded''rev'G'E'Bense- Epigraphiquede J. et L. Robert, 1966-73 (1979); Index du Bulletin Epigraphique ite I. et L. Robert,
reprint, 1911) (: PaPeBenseler)' 1974-1977 (Paris: "Les BellesLettres," 1983). In addition to looking up specific names, also check
ler, 2 vols. (1863-70; Braunschweig:Friedr. Biewegand Sohn,
den griechischen Munzen, 3 vols. Subsidia "Norms," "Anthroponymes," "Onomastique";
2. Rudolf Mnsterberg, Die ieamtennamen iuf under the headings and cf. infra $ 4.24.
epigraphica3 (New York: Hildesheim' l9ll-27)'

74
 'l'he
76 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy Ononrustics of GreekNames I
and Prosopography ZZ

choice of the parents. A firstborn son (sometimes indicated by the term I. Theophoric
ruqyovog)was often given the name of the child's paternal (or sometimes l. Simple
maternal) grandfather. A second son might be given the father's name, a i) Primitive
name derivedfrom the father'sname (e.g.,@xog - (Dtrlxiorv),a name that ii) Derived
is compoundedsimilarly to the father's (e.g.,@eQpcotoE- @eureog), or 2. Compound
even a name in the same semantic field as the father's.lo Some names may i) Name of a god compounded with the name of a secondgod
relate to the birth itself. For example, the name fvqoia (legitimate) was ii) Name of a god compounded with some other second term
probably intended to discriminate the bearer of this name from other illegiti- iii) Names terminating in -<oqoE
"dear"
mate children, unless the meaning is implied (seeIKibyra-Olbasa, no. II. Nontheophoric
"twin" (see 1. Simple
27); Euor,oEmeans lKibyra-Olbasa, no. 28).
W. S. Ferguson notes that the tradition of naming a son after the grandfa- i) Primitive
ther or father began to break down in the Hellenistic period, allowing for ii) Derived
some names to reflect cultic preferenceor admiration for a famed hero.ll 2. Compound
Other personal names reflect a family's involvement or interest in a particular i) Adjective * substantive
geographicalplace (see$ 4.12-13:.cf. 4.06,4.07.3). ii) Substantive * verb
Male namesterminating in -lov (Eqlni,lov, )rrrxqoti,r.ov)can often be iii) Particle/adverb/preposition * another term
pejorative in nature, sometimes indicating servile status, or are hlpocoristic. iv) Names terminating in -orgoE
SomeGreekswho lived in the provinces and were noncitizens would transliter-
ate Latin praenomina,nomina, and cognomina and adopt them as personal 4.04 Theophoric Names
names,with no regard for the rules of Latin onomastic system.Consequently,
cognomina and nomina in particular often became interchangeable with Theophoric names are personal names that incorporate the name of a deity in
Greek personalnames. some form. Obviously, such names representthe religious attachmentsnot of
the child but of the child's parents.The sexof a child did not limit the choiceof
a theophoric name; a boy could be named after a goddess(e.g.,Aqpfirgrog,
4.03 The Classification of Names Agreploqog), a girl after a god (e.g.,Ar.ovuolc). Ernst Sittig'sDe Graecorum
Nominibus Theophoris remains a useful compilation of theophoric names,
providing valuable information concerning the provenanceof namesbasedon
According to the ancient classification,nameswere grouped into two broad the names of gods, goddesses,and lesserdeities (e.g., Al6oxouqor,, flc,v,
'Hl.loE
classes,theophoric names (0eo$qo vptota) and nontheophoric names Np$cr,, Mo0oar, Kaperqol, @edrv).r2For example, the names
(ovtrrcro 0ecr). From this ancient primary division, the following modern NupSoqoE and Nup$otoE attestto the cult of nymphs.r3
secondarysubdivisionscan be made. The use of theophoric names increasedthroughout the Hellenistic period.
They were adopted by citizens and noncitizens alike.la Theophoric names

I 2. E. Sittig, De GraecorumN ominibus Theophoris(Dissertationesphilologicae Halenses.Halis

"Nomi
10. E.g., Xrcgul,og'Opgonitovog (Grapes/UnripeGrapes);Xatuqi,ov'Ypptotoiou (Satyr- Saxonum, 1911; reprint, Chicago: Ares, l98l); cf. F. Mora, teofori e politeiamo greco:
like/Lustful);'Itrcgog E0pou (Cheerful/Happy); XIoI A4pqrqlou (Young Grain/Dedicated to Prospettive di ricerca," in ^ycr0i1'El.ri.g: Studi stoico-religiosi in onore di Ugo Bianchi, ed. Giulia
"L'Erma"
Demeter);MuorlxE'El.elorviou (Belongingto the Mysteries/Belongingto Eleusis);MouooloE Sfameni Gasparro,Storia delle religioni ll (Rome: di Bretschneider,1994),177-86.
Epo),nou (Musical/Sweetly Singing). SeeRobert, Helbnica, LX,66. 13. See Robert, BE (1974): 422; (1970): 286; (1966): 202, p. 378; (1967): 269; cf. names
ll. Wm. S. Ferguson, Hellenistic Athens: An Historical EssaT(London: Macmillan, l9ll), derived from Nupg1, such as NpQoE, Nupgciog, Nup$ig, Nr-rpQ6goE(Sittig, De Graecorum
423-24; for a stemma showing the intrusion of foreign names seefohannes Sundwall, Nachtrge Nominibus Theophoris,l4l-43).
"Eeorum
zur ProsopographiaAttica (excerpted from fuersigt af Finska vetenskaps-Societetensforhand- 14. See F. Papazoglou, nomina hominibus imposita," Recueil de Travaux de la
lingar 52, 1 [Helsinki: Oftersigt, 1909-10], pp. 1-177). Facuhde PhilosophieBeograd14 (1979): 7 -16 (SEG30.1833;Robert, BE I l98l ]: 179).
78 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy
were especiallypopular in Attica, the more fashionable being those based on
the Olympian deities. Names based on Zeus (e.g., AioE, r.oxl,nS/-nS'
Ar,op,fqE,Ar,dlqqg,Alvr,xog)1swere the most popular in the Hellenistic
period, subsequentlyovertakenby namesbasedon Dionysos(ALovoLoE/-cg.
AldvvuooE, Atov0E, Ar,crlvr,ououoolqog) in the imperial period. Theophoric
names based on lessergods and local heroes are often more significant than
those basedon Olympian gods: such names may attest that a particular deity
was worshiped locally, perhaps as part of a public cult or by a voluntary
association,or perhaps simply as an act of personal devotion'
In his study of Eglptian cults in Athens, Sterling Dow observesthat there
was a tendency to selecttheophoric names that were fashionable at the time.
Theophoric names based on Sarapis(e.g., )c,ganirr:v, )agcrnlcrg) and Isis
'Ior.cg' 'Ioryvqg,'Ioi,trlgog)
did
(e.g.,Eiotyvqg, Eioltrlgog,Eiolqc,
not becomepopular until the latter part of the secondcentury n.c.r6Namesof
deities that were not suffrciently establishedin the minds of the generalpublic
were avoided. as were names of deities who were unattractive in appearance
or disagreeable in function.
Theophoric names lost their religious sensefor many people and, in such
cases,provide no information about the religious beliefs of the family. For
example, the theophoric names of two of the bishops in attendance at the
Council of Nicaea, namely, Mi0qqE (from Hypaia) and qt<ogoE(from
Kibyra), suggestnot only that someone in their families had converted to
Christianity from a paganism in which the cults of Mithras and Leto were
prominent but also that thesetheophoric nameshad totally lost their meaning
for thesefamilies.
Sterling Dow enunciates three principles in the interpretation of theo-
phoric names.rTFirst, the absenceof the name of a given deity in the pool of
theophoric namesin a given region doesnot necessarilyimply that the cult was
absent or unpopular. In certain cases,the explanation may lie in the fact that
the deity in question had associationsthat made the theophoric name inappro-
priate. Second, a single or small number of attestations of a Particular
theophoric name, prior to the name becoming popular, suggeststhat those
particular families had a strong interest in the cult before it becameestablished
15. Derived from the genitive form (L'tod ofZts-
"The
16. SeeSterling Dow, Eglptian cults in Athens," HThR 30, no. 4 (1937): 183-232, esp.
"'AvaoxcrQil 'Ioeior v'Eqerpi.g," ArchDelt I (1915): l15-90, esp.
2t6-24;Nikolaos Papadakis,
'IoryvqE,'Io<t>yovoE, and Neitrr.gin Thasos see Henri Selnig, "Quatre cultes de
166. For
Thasos," BCH 5I (1927): 178-233' esp' 229.
"Egyptian Cults," 217-18.
17. Dow,
The()nonnsticsand Prosopography
of GreekNames | 79
in the public domain. For example,in Athens, the frequencyof theophoric
namesbasedon Asklepios,Sarapis,Isis, Men, and Meter increasedrapidly in
the Hellenistic period. The early attestationsof thesenamespoint to the reli-
gious enthusiasm of a small number of foreigners setting up residencein the
city.rsThird, though a sudden increasein the use of a particular theophoric
name in a region suggeststhat the cult of the deity was becoming increasingly
popular, the continued use of the same name in succeedinggenerationsbe-
comes decreasinglysignificant. There are two exceptions to this generalprin-
ciple:first, the steadyincreasein the useof theophoricnamesbasedon Isis (e.g.,
'IoryvqE)
in the imperial period demonstratesthe continued expansionof the
cult; second,the use of theophoric names by Jewsindicates their fondnessfor
selectingnameswith religiousimplications (see5 4.14).
4.05 Simple Theophoric Names: Primitive and Derived
Simple theophoric names can be subdivided according to whether they are
primitive or derived. Primitive names preservethe original form of the god's
name (e.g.,'Agteplg,re'An).),olv.'EgpnEl. So-calledderivednamesmodify
the god's name into an adjectivalform (e.g.,Agtparv,'Egplag), often by
appending the -r,oE suffix (e.g., nol.l.vrog, Agreplorog, rovoroE,
Ilooevrcg,ioE,'Eqpciog).2oMavqg and M6vqE (fem. Mcvicr) are de-
rived names basedon the name of the god Men and are frequently attested
among the slavesof Athens; similarly, Mflvr,g and Mfivrog are both attestedin
Asia Minor.2r
One must be careful to distinguish names that witness to a cult from
names that are derived from a calendar or a festival.22For example, KqvloE,
Kqvr"ov, and KgovinE are Ionian names attested in Ephesos, Priene,
Klazomene, and Paphlagonia and on the coast of the Pontus Euxinus. Here,
these names are derived from the month Kronion. not from the name of the
18. On terminology denoting foreigners in Amorgos (e.g., oiro0vteg, ngouto/noqo-
rxo0vreE, fvor,) see Philippe Gauthier,
"Etudes
sur des inscriptions d'Amorgos," BCH 104
(1980): 197-220, esp.218-20 (SEG30.1083).
'Aqrepr,g 'Apreprer,g "Pape-
19. For examples of the female names and see O. Masson,
BenselerianaIX-Madame Artemis," ZPE 66 (1986): 126-28 (SEG 36.1544).
20. On theophoric names derived from Bvrg, the name under which Thracian Artemis was
"Les
worshiped in Piraeus, see O. Masson, noms th6ophores de Bendis en Grce et en Thrace,"
MH 45 (1988):6-12 (S-EG37.1804).
2L SeelKibyra-Olbasa, nos. 63,72; the god Mn has a major sanctuary at Pisidian Antioch;
these names cannot be derived from the adjectivespcrvic or piivr,g,since these adjectiveswere not
used in proper names.
"Discours
22. SeeLouis Robert, d'ouverture," in CongrEpigrYl[, 3l*42, esp. 39-40.
 TheOnomastics of GreekNames |
and Prosopography 8l
80 | An lntoduction to GreekEpigraphy

Kephissos(Boiotia/Attica), and the Achelous (Acarnania),were the focus of

god Kronos. However,in Egypt,the name KqdvloE is a true theophoric name'
well-known cults. River nameswere particularly popular among slaves,indi-
for in that land, Kgvrcg was the Greek equivalent for the name of the
cating their place of origin.
Eglptian god Geb.23Similarly, in Syria and Tlos (Lycia), Kqvtog is the Greek
Similarly, in Asia Minor, cults were associatedwith the rivers Skamander
equivalent for the name of their indigenous god'
(Troas), Rhyndakos(Mysia), Kaikos (Aiolis), Kaysterand Maeander (Ionia),
Names derived from heroes, so-called herophoric names, are also a valu- 'Pvoxog,
and Hermos and Lykos (Phrygia). For example, the name of the
ablewitnessto local cults (sees 4.07.3).The name'Hgcrrl.log atteststo the
father of a free man in Athens from Kyzikos, attests to a place of origin near
cult of Herakles in Boiotia.2aThe name M6qov is derived from the name of
the Rhyndakosriver (Alolul"oE'Puvaxou Kulr,xrlv6g).2eThe verb tr,pcrolis
the hero Meropis, the founding hero of Kos. Similarly, a proxenos of Rhodes
sometimes compounded with the names of such rivers as the Skamander,the
name{ his son after'Poox},flg,the founder of the island'25
Kephissos, and the Lykos (Xxcrpa,vqrlpoE,KqQr,otr,trroE, uxtr,pog/
Tr,pl,uxoE).
4.06 Compound TheoPhoric Names

4.07 Theophoric Names Terminating in -ropos

Compound theophoricnamesare of two tyPes:someare formed by combining
the namesof two divinities (e.g','EqpcQqltos, )crgnapptrrv,'Egpani'o)v'
The number of theophoric names terminating in -olgog is large enough to
Kpovtrppolv, Ootpcg.plrov).Others combine the name of a god with a verbal
-lzog, -olgogforoE merit separate treatment. These names can be subdivided into three sub-
form, suchas -o,l.oE,-ovtoE, -poul.oE,-Yvqg,-YoQog,
classesaccording to the nature of the names'first parts: (l) namesbasedon
(e.g.,roy6vqg, nol"l"orqoE, AloyQqE). The suffrx -xl'frE is one of the
Rather proper names of divinities; (2) names based on epithets or titles of divinities;
most frequentlyoccurringterminations (e.g.,Ar.oxl.frg'A0r1voxl'QE)'26 (3) namesbasedon river deitiesand heroes.
than the actual name of the god, the god's epithet might be used, such as
'Exatog for Apollo ('Exotoxloug) (seeS 4.07'2)'27
4.07.1Names Basedon Proper Names of Divinities
Proper names were also based on lesserdeities associatedwith rivers,
springs,and fountains.2sTheserivers themselvesbecamethe object of cults;
In the caseof theophoric namesterminating in -tlgoEforog (in the sense
they were honored with temples and altars and gaverise to a host of proper
of gov), the god's name has the senseof a genitive.3o In other words, the
names.The three most important rivers in Greece,the Asopos (Boiotia), the
parents consider their new child to have been given through the intervention
(BE ll97ll:717)' of the said god, and in consequence,they have placed the child under the
23. As in Kqoviou r.pouMouppioo Ktroriou (Wadi Hammamat, Egypt)
(instead of Eipcrx)'iag) from IV-II g.c. is an archaism,not a god's protection. Such names as ZqvogoE/Ar.ootoE, Mqvogog,
2+. The speiling'Hqar?,i.E
"Note additionnelle: II. sur I'orthographe 'Ioitogog "gift" "Zeus-
borrowing from the Koine (see Denis Knoepfler, AicwolgoE, and identify a beareras a of Zeus (or
botienne des anthroponyrnes tir6s du nom d'Heracls ," BCH 98 lt97 4l: 2a3-aa) '
'Poox)"eicris evidence of a mixed population in Dionysopolis. See I given") or of Men, Ajax, and Isis, respectively.The most frequently attested
25. The attestation of a
lGBulgI, no. 27; Robert,
"Les
inscriptions grecquesde Bulgarie," RPhil 33 (1959): 165-236' esp' (and most mundane) names of this class are derivatives of the Olympian
199 n.9 (OMS 5.195-266) (cf. the review by G. Mihailov in lGBulgI)' gods, such as A0qv6olqoE,'Anol.loogoE, ALogoE,and Aprepiolgog.
end of
26. Nom. Aloxl.flE, gen. -ni"oug or -xf,edE (-xl.6otr variant from the late IV to
by -xlc
Hellenistic period), dat. -tilsi, acc. -ztra (-xtrffv normal in Hellenistic period' replaced
later). On names ending in -xl.6cg, -x)'r1g,-xl'iog seeThreatte, Grommar' 2'l8l-2ll' S 54'031- 4.07.2Names Basedon Epithetsor Titles of Divinities
"Di
035; c. Gallavotti, BFC 1l (1990): 154-55; R. Arena, alcune particolarit dei dialetti Greci
names
d e l l a s i c i l i a , "Q u a d e r n i c l iA c m e T ( 1 9 8 6 \ : 7 5 - 9 6 ,e s p . 9 l - 9 6 ; S E G4 0 ' 1 6 8 9 o. n w o m e n ' s The second type of theophoric name terminating in -olgog is based on the
science'
with -xl6og see c. Gallavotti, Amsterilam studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic
'1979),25l-63 i.sEG 29.1742). epithet or title of the deity. For example, the epithets of Zeus and Apollo,
vol. 4, Current Issuesin Linguistic Theory 11 (Amsterdam
..M6moire sur I'utilit6 qu'on peut retirer de l'tude des noms propres
27. A.-1. Letronne, "Three
vol' I 29. Many slavestaken from Mysian towns bore this namei see Eugene Vanderpool,
grecs pour i'hirtoir. et l'arch6ologie," in Oeuvres choisies:(Ser. 3) Archologieet philologie'
esp. 9, 51. These composite namesare never inverted, with Inscriptionsfrom Eleusis,"rchDelt 23 (1968): l-9, esp. 6-7.
1-pu.ir, E..r.rt Leroux, 1883), l-103, "Mmoire," 'HpcoqoE,'HporoE, 'HqStl'oE, 'Eotrtogog;
30. See Letronne, 35. Cf.
the god's name in secondplace (e.g','Aloqa0fvctog)'
-39 ' McrvqopoE named after the deity MovpoE or Mcrvpc.
28. SeeS 4.07,3, 4.12, 13; Sittig, De GraecorumNominibus Theophotis'127
82 An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy T-heOnomastics of GreekNames |
and Prosopography 83
|
'Ol,plntoE from substantives, without modification. Many are basedon adjectives,result-
and flOtog,respectively,gaverise to the names'Ol"upntoorgog 'HuE,
and'Ol,upntoo0vr1E3rand llu0olgo5.32Personal names based on such ing in suchnamesas@qouE/OoqouE.'1o1uE, fltrug,and Bga1uE.3s
epithetsoften have a local character.Thus, fltoloolgog is basedon Apollo's In Athens, the names'AyvoE and Ollrr.poE representthe two qualities ex-
epithet fItoCoE or flt6oE, derived from Mount fltoiog, the site of the god's pected of magistratesof the period, integrity and generosity in benefaction.36
temple in Thebes. Primitive names might also be derived from the names of perfumes,37
insects,38 animals,3eplants,aoor precious stones.4lChildren might also be
4.07.3NamesBasedon River Deities and Heroes named after professions42 or after the namesof religious initiatesa3or magistra-
cies.If a father held a prominent magistracy,the child might receivethe name
Names derived from the names of local river deities also use the -ogog of that magistracy,such as flqutveugaaor Xtgcrlyr,oE.a5
termination. Perhapssuch names were given to children in recognition of the Similarly, the name flgle(r)vog was given to a child by a father who
fertile powers of a river, especiallywhen an apparently sterile woman became had receiveda proxenia (see7.02,9.03;.m This principle applies equally to
pregnant after drinking or bathing in water from it. The resulting children
'Yye[cr,
were thought to be gifts of the particular deity associatedwith the river.33For 35. Further examples include Et1qg, EiqqvcioS, rtri1t4, Nix1, Tul,xoE,
example,the name KqQr,oogoE/-otogderivesfrom the KephissosRiver, Ayo06g.
36. Cf. &yvrcrroE (Robert, BE 11976):469). Names in Ayv- have various origins and
which runs through Attica and Boiotia. meanings; see Eduard Williger, Hagios: IJntersuchungenzur Terminologie des Heiligen hellenisch-
Children were also named after heroes.Though there are many men with hellenistischenReligionen, RW 19 (Giessen: Alfied Tpelmann, 1922), 66-72' no. 192' For
"Mmoire," "Der
the names A1r.l.l"egand A1ll,)'r1g, the correct herophoric name, AXtr- theophoric'Ap6oqog see Letronne, 54; Ludwig Ziehen,
'Apog
Mysterienkult von
Andania," ArchRW 24 (1926): 29-6O, esp. 47-48. @oripou appears in a list of ephebes
l.<ogog,is attested only in Olbia Euxini and Istros, where his cult was
(IGIJ2 2063,L. t6).
particularly active.3aTl"qncrg is a regular hypocoristic name based on the 37. 8.g., ApcgcniEfApcpctlv4, q<opcrtivrl/Aqtoprr,ov, Z1tupvo5, Kiwcpog, KootoE,
Rhodian hero Tlepolemos (see lKibyra-Olbaso,nos. 65, 105). The name Molopc0qivq, Muq/Mqov, MuqtopE, Nqrov,t'{cpi.v4,)9.9v1, Xrcxtil, Xtpc[ (Rob-
ert, BE ll977l: 34O,p. 376; cf. RobertNoms177-80, 185).
Aiaw<oqog derives from the name of the feastdedicated to Ajax, known as 'Axoqvog, "Ono-
38. E.g., BpetxoE, qCl,oE,Kegtnq, McorctxoE,'PptlE (O' Masson,
ra Aiawer.cr, celebratedon Salamis.Similarly, the name Mel'apntrlgog mastique et lexique: Noms d'hommes et termes grecspour'ver,'
'sauterelle,' 'cigale,'
etc."' MH 43
recallsa local hero of Aigosthenesin Megaris. 11986l: 250-57 ; SEG 36.I 557).
39. See S 4.10.1; on anthroponyms consisting ofnames based on animals, such as the bear,
'HAIXTON AOfO^EIIINON. Logopdies:MIanges de
4.08 Nontheophoric Names lion, and wolf, see O. Masson, in
Philologie et de Linguistique grecqueofferts lean Taillardat (Paris and Louvain: Peeters, 1988),
1 7 t - 7 7 ( S E G3 8 . 1 9 9 5 ) .
Nontheophoric names (Oecrovdpcrra) are etymologically derived from such 40. SeeR. Arena,
"Per
I'interpretazionedi Alcuni nomi Greci," RII I l6 ( 1982):3-10' esp.9-
things as titles, moral or physicalproperties,place-names'and omens. They 10 (sEG35.1783).
'IcniE, "Ovulicov,
41. E.g., Ap0uotog, Bilqu).l,oE, MopyprE, Ovtdrv, Xoglov, Xctg-
can be divided into two classes,simple and compound. "Ein
ovu[, Xpcpcyg (R. Merkelbach, kleiner Topas," ZPE 48 ll982l:218; SEG 32.1659).
42.E.g., the name'Oqvr.Oi,tov (IG I' 1067) is taken from the profession of oqvt0dE
4.09 Simple Nontheophoric Names: Primitive and Derived (poulterer) attested both in Sicily and especiallyin Eglpt (Robert, B-E[1976]: 136); cf. O. Masson,
"Quelques
noms de metier grecs en -E et les noms propres correspondants," ZPE ll (1973): l-
Simple nontheophoric names can be further subdivided into primitive (e.g., 19 (C)nomastica GraecaSelectaI, 163-81).
'AyyeloE) "Les
and derived (e.g.,Alyel,icrrv). Primitive namesare deriveddirectly 43. On Motqg and related names (Mlotltov, Muorr.xE) seePaul Bernard, rhytons de
Nisa. l. po6tesses grecques,"/Sav (f985): 25-96, esp.61, no. 103 (SEG 36.1550).
31.'OLupnr,oo0vr1E (nom.), -vouE (gen.),-ver (dat.), -vq (acc.),-veE(voc.); other namesrn 44. SeeRobert, BE (1971):463, 581.
this declension include A1poo06vqE, Ar.oyivr'1g"Innoxqcr1E. 45. SeeRobert, BE (1962):315 (CaesareaMaritima). However, the name XteQcrvqQogtxg
"Les Xre$ovqQoprzo does not necessarily imply the father was stephanephoros.On the practice of
32. SeeL. Robert, inscriptions de Thessalonique(Review:IG X, pars 2,fasc'I)," Whil
aB (1974): 180-246, esp.205-16. names in -rxog in the imperial period seethe text following; regarding names of magistrates and
"Cours
33. SeeSittig, De GraecorumNominibus Theophor,127-39,esp' 135. dignitariesseeL. Robert, 196l-1962 Hautes Etudes,"in OMS 4'203-8, esp.206-7'
"6tudes 46. SeeRobert,BE (197l): I I 4 (cf. no. 206);BE (1977): 3ao,p.376; Bechtel?N,5 14' Seeinfra
34. SeeL. Robert, 6pigraphiques,"BCH 52 (1928):407-25' esp.414, and Cormack's
"Discours s 9.03.
article mentioned therein; Robert, d'ouverture''' 40.
84 An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy The Onomastics
and Prosopography
of GreekNames I AS
|
'IegeE.a7 The old Aiui'l,oE are derived from ycOog, v0og, vroE, gr.oroE,dpog, and ioE,
religious offices, with children bearing such names as
magistraciesof Booul,eE and BcroeiqEwere the basisof children receiving respectively.s6
such names as Boo,eE,as Bcolleog,aeand Bcoll"ei15,soespeciallyin the
easternMediterranean. 4.10 Compound Nontheophoric Names
In Syria, some children were named Mcl'1o551 and Mcrl,1i,ttlv,s2these
"kitg." "having
being translations of the Syriac term for The names Tr"po01og, Compositenamesending in -c1qcrg(meaning such-and-suchchar-
Trpouliorv, and Teqo0loE are derived not from ttp{ but from the gathering acter") have an auspicious meaning for those who bear them. Examples are
'Ayvoyqag (Chaste),
of magistratesknown as the rqo01ot.s3 However, it improbable that these
is AqreparTgog(Sound/Healthy),Kuqcy6qog (Noble).
same nameswere used with the same connotation in subsequentgenerations. Many compound namesexpressa good omen or a propitious idea,asin the case
Obviously, a failure to recognize the use of the names of magistrates as of namesbeginning with E-, Ko,l.l.l-,and Kcl,o- (e.g.,Ecygag).
personalnamesin an inscription can lead to significant errors of interpretation. Alternatively, it is hardly surprising that one does not find names begin-
Moreover, namesterminating in -w6gl-txi1(e.g.,)tQatovrzg. fl gutcvlx6E. ning with x.o:xoor uo- (unlucky/bad). There are persons called Eai.porv,
'Iepctr,xg,Auxr,agl"xg) are mere affectationsand do not indicate that the EopoE, and'A1c0oeoE, but not Koxoci,prov, Auoaipov, Aool-
implied office was ever actually held by the father.sa QoE,or KcrxopoE. Similarly, pcvlo (madness),pQvr,g(wrath), and l.nr1
By the secondcentury ,t.o., the -toE (fem. -r.cr)suffix was used to form (grief) are not usedunlessthe meaning is correctedwith a verb, such as naco
names other than theophoric names, such as Aqoxdvtr,oE from qaxtov or l.or, indicating the cessationof sadnessand so on (e.g., flouoavlog,
(dragon). Especiallypopular was the use of abstract qualities to form names Auoovlog, flauoil"unog).s7
similar to nicknames, such as fel.olog (Laughing One). By the fourth Compound nontheophoric namescan be subdividedinto three types:(l)
century e.o., the popularity of this category of names had risen to such adjectivescompounded with substantives;(2) verbscompoundedwith substan-
an extent that they became the most popular form of Greek name- For tives; (3) combinations of a particle/adverb/preposition with another term.
example, 43 percent (i.e., 61 out of 140) of the individuals with Greek
names recordedon inscriptions of Aphrodisias (a.o' 250-650) have -tog/-r,cr 4.10.1 AdjectivesCompounded with Substantives
suf6xes.55
Simple derived names were also created from diminutive forrns of adjec- In the caseof names composed of an adjectiveand a substantive,the two
tives by using the suffixes -ll.og, -ul.og, and -ul,troE, forming such names terms are often interchangeable.Examplesare AiveoiqlroE or AqpciveroE,
'Io1)"og, 'Hl"og, fll,utrtrog, and Bqc1ul.l"oE. q16Bou),oE or Bol,ag1og,'InnoxqarlE or Kprr,nruog/KQortornrroE,ss
@pcou),l.og/@aqoul.l.og,
'Avgcrycr0oE.
Similarly,Aycr0ul'l.oE,'Av0ul.l.oE,'Awu)"1'o5,Agiotul.l.og, Aapu).l,oE,and Aya0crvgog or Many compound names begin with the
"loving
adjective Qltro- in an active meaning, that is, such-and-such"(e.g.,
@rl.qpoE,Q.oixr1g,Or,l.oxl.flg,<Dll"Bgorog,.[evog). Some names
47. SeeBechtelPN 539; SeeRobert, BE (1972): 420.
beginning with "o- terminate with namesof animals,especiallydogs (e.g.,
48. SeeRobert, BE (1977):419 (Ephesos).
49. SeeRobert,BE (1971):703 (Sinai). Ol)'ozov) and horses (e.g., Oil.mnog or its q/nonym'EqomnoE), these
50. SeeRobert,BE (1970):207 (Phoenicia);BechtelPN533. being the two animals for which Greeks had particular affection.
51. SeeRobert, BE (1961):846 (Syria); cf. BE (1942): 164.
Names ending in -},tovare derived from either l,6ov (lion) or l.eg/l"crE
52. Friedrich Zucker ("semitische Namen auf den neu gefundenen Inschriftstelen von
Minturnae," Hermes 78 11943):200-204) studies Semitic, especiallyAramaic, names of slavesand
(people). In the former case,we have such names as foqyo),6orv, Aq'll.6olv,
freedmen, including Mclliov.
"Review: 56. Not from Aycr0ox).iE, vrox},flg, Aplorox),r1E, Aotrloz),r15,and AlorI!E (seeLetronne,
53. See L. Robert, Gunter Gottlieb, Timuchen: Ein Beitrage zum griechischen
"M6moire,"
Staatsrecht(Heidelberg:Winter, 1967)," Gnomon (1971): 38-41; Robert, Hellenica,VII, 171 l8).
"M6moire,"
( T r p o 1 o v ) ;S E G3 8 . 2 0 3 5 . 57. SeeLetronne, 27.
'Inn(o)-
54. SeeLouis Robert,
"Cours
1961-1962 Hautes Etudes," 205. 58. On Greek names with -rnrroE or see A. Nagarkar in CongrEpigr VIl, 422-23
(sEG 29.t753\.
55. As listed by C. M. Rouech6 in lAphrodChr 339-42.
 'fhe ()nonrastics of GreekNames I 87
and Prosopography
86 | An lntrodrctionto GreekEpigraphy
'A1potr6tov, -opog originally had an activesenseof "being the causeof, author of, or giver
Avrll.6arv, and Auxol"orv. The term ledrS is discernable in "Bestower "Pro-
'Agr,otol,6olv, Egul.<ov,and Tryol6orv.se Some names can be formed with ofl' something,as in Aiol"ogoE, of Gifts"; Botguogo5,
"Bestower
ducer of Grapes";lll.ouor,otrlgoE, of Wealth"; and fl.uxtrrqog,
both -l.ov or -leolEfl,croE (e.g., @qaoul6og60/@qaolaoE,'Enrl'olv/ "Bestower Kindness."Similarly, such names as Nr,x,orgoE,
of @upoqoE,
S1'nonymsof the namesending in -LeE
'Eri,l,crog,'Egpol,6orv/'Egpl,cog).6r
- Kl.eorpog, and fft.otdogog identifr their bearers as bestowersof victory,
can be produced by inversion (e.g', AuygoE) and by substitution with
courage, glory, and trust, respectively.
qpoE (e.g.,Agr,otr1poE,E gqpog).

4.12 Geographical Specificity of Names

4.10.2 VerbsCompoundedwith Substantives

Some names are derived from the combination of a substantive with a Though many names are attested over a wide geographicalsphere, some
-cIoE (e'g',Atgcr-
verballyderivedform, such as -cryqcrg(e.g.,@rl,cry6gcrg), names are indicative of particular regions. The names AfqlroE6a and
-r'xog(e'g" 'YBl"foloE6s
yal,og), -avi.og(e.g.,'EQpovi.ag),-Bo0l'og (e.g',Xoq6Boul'oE), are attested only in Samos.KcrqvlE and flol'r,av0r1Ehave an
@rlrroE),-tlpog (see5 4.11), -otog, or -n'l'r1E
(see $ 4'07)' Manynames exclusivelyKyrenian provenance.66
-o1oE (e.g., 'Auptog,
are composed with the verb 1ol in the form of the termination Distinctively Macedonian names, such as Bl.ag, Kggcyog,
'Afio1og, At1io1oE, Oovolog)'62 When the final flegeiraE, and El"crog,persistin Macedoniathrough the imperial period.67
Aefi,oloE, Mqt[o1oE,
term is verbally derived and does not exist otherwise in the Ianguage as an Bithynia evinces its own particular names, such as BrcBqtE/BloqQtE.68
independent form, it generally cannot be used by itself to form a proper Aypeo$v is a characteristicname from Lycia and easternCaria.6e )fiqapBog
name.63 is attested mostly in Dorian regions, such as Crete, Thera, Aigina, and
Tarentum.To
4.10.3 Combinations of a Particle/ Adv erb/ Pr eposition with Names ending in -yei,ttovand -yerrog (e.g., Kcrtrtrtyeltov,'Hgyelro5,
Another Term @yer,toE)
Eyei,rrrlv/EyrroE, are frequent in Megaris and Boiotia.TrMost

64. SeeRobert, BE (1976): 531; cf. BE (1938): 299, 307.

Finally, some namesare formed by combining a particle, adverb,or preposi-
(e'g'' 6 5 . S e eR o b e r t ,B E ( 1 9 7 6 ) : 5 3 1 , p . 5 1 2 ;( 1 9 6 0 ) :3 1 8 ,n o . 2 1 .
tion with another term, such as a substantive' adjective' or verb 66. See Robert,
"Sur
le nom d'un proxne d'Iipidaure en Cyr6naique," REG (1967):31-39;
Ec1gog.EcrOl.og.'Aeipvqorog). IG I\2 96, L. 23; GDI lII.2, 4833, L. I l. cf. Sittig, De Graecorum Nominibus Theophoris,42. For
examplesof Koqvr.Eand fIotrLcv0lg (Kyrene) seeBechtelPN, 234,375. Olivier Masson ("Vocabu-
'escarbot'
laire grec et anthroponymie: Hesychius oqqcrppoE et le nom d'homme XfqcrppoE,"
4.11 Nontheophoric Names Terminating in -Eopos
RPhil 49 [1975]: 13-18) collects eighteen geographically classednames; on Cretan forms see O.
"Notes
Masson, d'anthroponymie grecque et asianique," Beitge zur Namenforschung16 (1965):
Names of this classcan begin with an adjective,adverb' preposition, or noun. r58-76.
"Les
inscriptions de Thessalonique," 244, 246 n. 436 (OMS 5.331,333 n.
Examples are flol'ogog, Aya0olgog, MeyrotorgoE' Ktrutolgog' 67. See Robert,
Kcl"l'lorgog' The final 436).
Eolog,'AvtiorqoE, ApQioqoE, Or"l.6orgoE, 68. See Robert, EAnat, 199-200, 222-25, 233 (and Mysia); L. Robert,
"Inscriptions
de
-tretlg and -trcog see Threatte' Grammar' l' $ Bithynie copi6espar GeorgesRadet," REA 42 (1940):302-22, esp. 310-ll' For Nicomedia see
59. On personal names compounded with "lnscriptions
de Bithynie," BCH 2a (1900):
Robert, EtAnat, 229ff., 235tr.,239; Gustave Mendel,
50.0531-0532.
-l,erp (dat'), -)'etov (acc'); the -eoE ending is a 361-426, esp.381; SEG 31.656,35.1302.
60. @pcrorlleoE (nom.), -),eo: (gen.), "A
69. It has a connection with the Agrioi gods: seeP. Iacobsthal and A. H. M. Jones, Silver
pseudodiphthong; in Homeric tirnes it was
-qoE. By a processof assimilation, the 1 shortened and
Find from South-WestAsia Minor," /RS (1940): 16-31, esp. 27t Robert, EtAnat, 486'
ih" o be.ame long. Consequently, they are counted as one syllable' "Vocabulaire,"
"M6moire," 62-63. 70. See O. Masson, RPhil 49 (1975): 17; on Cretan forms see O. Masson,
61. SeeLetronne, "Notes
"M6moire," 17. d'anthroponymie," I 58-76.
62. SeeLetronne, "Les
71. SeeRobert, inscriptions grecquesde Bulgarie," 231 n. I (OMS 5.261 n. 1); on the
63.ThenameAgog,referringtotheheadoftheDoriannation,isderivednotfromthe
onomastics of Boiotian names see SEG 43.200.
verbal form but from the name of a hero, Dora'
 An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy |'he Onontastics
and Prosopography
of GreekNames | 89
88 |

derived from the Melas River (Cappadocia),while KqQi,oavgoE,KqQr-

names ending in -eqpoE originate in Ionian settlements:examPles are
oqpoE,KrlSr.ooQv, KqQr,ooxl.Qg,KqQro6xgrroE, KqQroicrE,and KqSr,-
flooer,gpoE,Oxeqpog, Mel'{oegpoE, Nr,xqoeqpoE(Chios); AtovoeqpoE
(Samos);floegpoE(Phokaia,Teos,Ephesos).72 The goddessPerasia,goddess oiov are basedon the KephisosRiver in Attica. EQqarqg and ESqo,reic are
'Afrcg
obviously basedon the EuphratesRiver.78In Macedonia, is basedon
of Hierapolis, gave rise to the name fleqaor,oapoE in that place. The name
the great river of Macedonia, the Axios, whereasthis name is elsewherederived
Mol,ooroE is derived from Apollo Maloeis of Lesbos and is rarely attested "worthy."zr
from the simple adjective
except in Lesbos,in Aiolis, and near Teos in the Aiolian Troad.73
When such locally defined names are attested outside of their particular
4.13 Names Attested in Colonies
region, the individual's place of origin can be plausibly deduced.For example,
Mcrxa,natg is a well-known Thracian name that is also attested in other
Louis Robert establishedthe principle that there is an onomastic connection
regionsamong soldiersfrom Thrace.74However, some nameswere given to
between the homelands and their respective colonies.s0The Phokian names
commemorate guest-friendships,so distinctive foreign names are sometimes
KgrvdE (gen. Kqlvd) and Kqrvi,o,Sare attested in two of the colonies of
attestedin areasto which they do not belong.
Phokis,Massilia,and Emporion.8tSimilarly,the name Bqpo[, indigenousto
The names of children derived from local rivers obviously have a clear
Thera, is also attested in the Therian colony of Kyrene.82Similarly, in his
geographical focus.TsThe Maeander River gives rise to the names Mo-
the Skamander to the names lxapcrvbgog. studies of the west coast of the Pontus Euxinus. Robert observed how there
L<ivurqoEor Mar.crvqr,oE,
were two distinct onomastic groupings, one for the Ionian towns and another
Xxapavgvupog, XxcrpavqQ'o5, XxopovptoE, and Xxapcrvqrr-
for the Megarian towns.83Hence, the onomastics of the Ionian town of Olbia
poE.76The Kayster River of Lydia is attestedby the name Kcorgr.oE and
Euxini-a colony of Miletos-are typically Ionian (e.g., flOegpog).84The
Kauotgdr.xoEin Ephesosand Colophon.TTMel.qoovgog (SEG 35.168) is
Ionian origin of Odessosis marked by such namesas Aicrvriqg.8sThe names
"Villes
Robert, de Carie et d'Ionie dans la liste des Thorodoques de Delphes," BCH 70 U9461:
72.There are also examples of this name in Lindos (ILindos 184); in Massilia, the name has "Sur
"Noms
de Personnes et civilisations grecques. I. Noms de 506-23, esp. 511); KcotqroE (L. Robert, des inscriptions d'Ephse: Ftes, athltes,
an Ionian character (see L. Robert,
empereurs, pigrammes," RPhil 41 11967):7-84, esp. 15; BE [1967]: 497).
personnesdans Marseilles grecque," JSav [1968): 797-215, esp. 206-ll [OMS 7'f41-58' esp' "Notes
78. See lKibyra-Olbasa, no. 77; G. E. Bean, and Inscriptions from Pisidia," part 1,
150-5ll;; Robert,tthpPhit, Z06-7i BE [1955]: 282). It is unclear whether thesenames are con-
"M6moire," 65-69) or the god Hermes (sittig, De Anatst9 (1959):67-118, esp.70, no.2. On names deriving from the river KephissosseeD. W.
nected with the river Hermos (Letronne, "The
Roller, Kaphisias Family of Tanagra," in Boeotia Antiqua, ed. J. M. Fossey and J. Morin
Graecorum N ominib us Theophoris,I I 3- I 4; BechteIPN 164- 66).
(Amsterdam, 1993), 3:57-67.
73. SeeBechtelPN 527; SIG3113,col. I, L. 15. "Les
79. SeeRobert, inscriptions de Thessalonique," 206.
74. SeeW. Tomaschek, Die alten Thraker: Eine ethnologischeuntefsuchung, II, SBWien l3l "Remarques
"I 80. Robert, EtEpPhil, gg-2}l; cf. RobertNoz5 521-36; Masson, sur deux in-
(Vienna: F. Tempsky, I8g4),25-26i G. G. Mateescu, traci nelle epigrafi di Roma," EphDac I
"Nomi scriptionsde C1'rdneet de Th6ra," RPhil 4I (1967):225-31, esp.230-31.
(1923):57-252, esp.253-90 (app. l,list of names);G. G. Mateescu, traci territorio scito- "Noms
(1924):223-38. names peculiar to Thrace include AqqnoqoE (IG X/ 81. SeeL. Robert, de personneset civilisationsgrecques,"part l, lSav (1968): 197-
sarmatico," EphDac 2 Other
215, esp.198 (OMS 7.141-215,esp. 142);seealso BE (1969):623.This is not to be confusedwith
I I , l , n o . 8 9 6 ) , B e r , 0 d E( n o . 2 1 9 ) , B q u ( o E ( n o . 2 4 3 ) ' f o u q a g ( n o ' 9 4 ) , A e v t o u g p q g( n o ' 1 0 2 0 ) ,
other instances of the same root that are found more widely, e.g., Kqwaypcg, Kglvdv0rlg,
Aoplwoog (no.242),ZemoqoE (no. 805), ZetttE(no.564), MevtE (no.446)' flugoui"oE (nos'
"Les "Les Kgr.vcqerq, Kqivmrog (BechtelPN 263).
509, 1020),Tpnog (no.446): seeRobert, inscriptionsgrecquesde Bulgarie," 199-200; "Remarques
(OMS BE (1973): J42. 82. SeeIG XIll3, 543; O. Masson, sur deux inscriptions de Cpne et de Th6ra,
inscriptions de Thessalonique," 245 5.332);
1," RPhil 4l (1967):225-31, esp.229-31; RobertNons 192 n.3.
75. See S 4.07,4.07.3,4.14. Examples are AiolnoE (Kyzikos); Atr$e6E (Lakedaimonia); "Les
'EBpoE (Delphi); 'Hpr.crvE (Chios); 'Tlqoxl'err1E, 'I)'toog, 'Ih'ov6toE' 83. Robert, inscriptions grecquesde Bulgarie," 165-236. Cf. Robert's analysisof names
AoconE (Hyettos); "Pierres
'Ivo1oE (Pergamon); 'IvE (Miletos), lorpog (Delphi); KrtoS (Mytilene); K0vorlr (Thebes); of Blzantium in lByzEpit 132-98; Robert, errantes, museographie et onomastique,"
Berytus:ArcheologicalStutlies 16 (1966):5*39, esp. 7-8. For 'IotqtoqoE and 'Iorgorl,flE in the
KapoE (Thasos);NiotoE (Delos); NotE (Pherai; lG lxlz, 4148, L. 10); Itgpouv (Larissa);
'YncvrE (Olbia); @dotg (Laodikeia on the Lykos): see BechtelPN 555-56' territory of Istros and Tomis seeRobertNorr 345 and n. 4; BechtelPN 555.
"Les
84. SeeRobert, inscriptions grecquesde Bulgarie," 165-236.
76. See Robert, BE (1968): 432; Robert, BE (1974):123; Sittig, De GraecorumNominibus
85. Also attested in Athens, Priene, Lampsakos, Maroneia, and Chios. See Michel Feyel,
Theophoris,131;Louis Robert, Monnaies antiquesen Troade (Geneva: Dtoz,1966) 66' "Nouvelles
"Etudes inscriptions d'Abdre et de Maron6e," BCH 66 (1942-43): 176-99, esp.198, no. l;
ZZ. no)OeeoSKolorqolxou (Colophon) (Robert, d'dpigraphiegrecque.XL. In- "Les
Robert, inscriptions grecquesde Bulgarie,"234 (OMS 5.264).
scriptions d'Herakleia," RPhil l0 [1936]: 113-70, esp. 161-62); Kaotqtro1og (Ephesos)(L'
 'fhc
Onomustics
and Prosopography
of GreekNanes | 9l
90 | An lrtroductionto GreekEpigraphy

of its Samuell).eaThe Greek name edvrroE was popular among |ews as a Greek
Tpr.ovand Ttopi.olvin Odessosare derived from the eponymoushero
alternative for the name Judah (Lion's Cub).esIndices of attested Jewish
sistercity, Tomis (Thrace),both cities being founded by Miletos.s6Likewise'
as namesare helpful referenceaids.e6
the onomastics of Chersonesosare Megarian,sTattesting to such names
colonies When the Greeks heard Jewish names, they perceivedthe foreign pho-
Bonolv and Boonpl1og' which are typical of Megara, Megarian
nemes as those of their own language,a phenomenon known as phonetic
(e.g.,Byzantium)'andcitiesthathadacommercialrelationshipwiththe
polarization. The result is great diversity in the Greek orthography of |ewish
Megarian colonies.88
names,dependingon how they were pronouncedand heard.For example,the
Louis Robert has also documented the interesting phenomenon of chil-
noted o in name Ya'akob (|acob) is rendered variously as ou, trl, or o (e.g.,
dren in coloniesbeing named after rivers of the family's homeland. As I 'IcxouBoE,'IxarpoE,'IcrxoBog,'IaxolB/'Iox6B)
For and as u in the derivative
earlier in this chapter, river names are notably attested among slaves. 'Io,xBr,oE.
'Pvq,fi evokes the Rhyndakos River of western form
example, the slave name
in After Caracalla'sEdict of Citizenship in e.o. 212 (see S 5.02), Jewish
Mysia, which flows into the Propontis east of Kyzikos.8eThe Kaikos River
forms' not only in personal names were often absorbed into the Roman citizen's formula-
Asia Minor gave rise to the name Kcixog and derivative
placesas becoming cognomina-and usedfor formal purposes.In other words, ]ewish
smyrna, Priene, Kyme, and Magnesia on the Maeander,eobut also in
namescontinued in the form of cognominabeyond e..o. 212.For example,in
far awayas Massilia and Naxos.el similarly, some names are formed by com-
Rome, we know of an Aurelius foses (IJudRomL 209), an Appidia Lea
bining the names of the Kaikos and Hermos Rivers, creating such composite
(IIudRomL 212), and a Kor.oE'koorlE QJudRomL 538). However, it is
namesas'Eepoxixog and'Egpoxoixdlav0oE in the coloniesEmporion and
difficult to generalize,since we know of only a limited number of people with
Massilia.e2
such names. Indeed, the situation is complicated for the middle to late third
century e.o. by the opposite tendencyof personsof modest (and sometimes
4.14 Jewish Names

persons of non-Greek origin often employed personal names from the 94. IAphrodJud 5-7, face b, L. 30:'Heikki Solin provides useful insights on surnames among
"Juden
com- Iews in und Syler im rmischen Reich," in Die Sprachenim rmischen Reichder Kaiserzeit
theonomastic tradition of their local ethnos. For example, in Diaspora (Kollotluium vom 8. bis 10. April 1974.),ed. G. Neumann and J. Untermann, Beihefte der Bonner
sometimes with a
munities, many Iews had Greek or Latin Personalnames,e3 Jahrbcher 40 (Cologne: Rheinland-Verlag; Bonn: RudolfHabelt, 1980), 301-30; cf. Margaret H.
"Palestinian
as
biblical name aswell (e.g.,Ail,r.avg xoi )crptourll [Aelianus, also known
Williams, fewish Personal Names in Acts," in The Book of Acl.sin lts First Century
Setting, vol. 4, The Book of Ac in Its Palestinian Setting ed. Richard Bauckham (Grand Rapids,
"Les M I : W m . B . E e r d m a n s1
, 995),81-114.
86. SeeRobert, inscriptions grecquesde Bulgarie," 234 (OMS 5'264)'
95. The use of Maccabean names among Jewsdeclines rapidly among Palestinian fews after
87. SeeRobert in OMS 7.209.
"Discours d'ouverture," 38' the Bar Kochba revolt. Jewish names in the Diaspora were often different from those preferred in
88. SeeRobert,
..Les
inscriptions grecques de Bulgarie,'' 165_236 Palestine;among the four to five most common personal nameswas ludas (seeWilliarns, "Pales-
89. See Robert, IByzEpit, l45; L. Robert,
-70); ..Remarquessur deux inscriptions''' 23l n. 3; BechtelPN 52|_22' 538. tinian JewishPersonalNames in Acts," 79-ll4).
(oMS 6.57 Masson,
g 0 . S e e R o b e r t , " N o m s d e p e r s o n n e s , " 2 l l - 1 2( O M S 7 . 1 5 5 - 5 6 ) ; c f . R o b e r t , - r A n al lt4, n . l . 96. See CPJU| 1.280-86, 2.263-69; Enno Littmann in PreisigkeNB 519-26; IJudKyren 217-
3l; the indices of lludEg lludEur, IJudRomL, IJudRomN; Franceso Vattioni, "I Semiti nell'epi-
91. SeeRobert, Efi,pfnit' 200 n.4; Robert, BE (1955):282'
grafia cirenaica," SCO 37 (1987):527-43 (cf. SEG 37.1662). On |ewish female names in Palestine
g2. SeeRobert,,,une nouvelle statue archaiqueau Louwe. II. L'inscription," M2 (1966): "Notes
"Noms de personnes," 212-23 (OMS 7 '156-57)' see Tal Ilan, on the Distribution of Jewish Women's Names in Palestine in the Second
216-22, esp.221-22; L. Robert,
g3.seeA.T.Kraabel,"ThelmpactoftheDiscoveryoftheSardisSynagogue,"insardfrom Temple and Mishnaic Periods,"//S a0 (1989): 186-200 (SEG 39.1618);R. S. Kraemer, "Non-
1958-1975' ed' G' M' Literary Evidence for Jewish Women in Rome and Eg1pt," Helios 13 (1986): 85-l0l; Heinz
Prehistoricto Roman Times: Resultsof the ArchaeologicalExploration of sardis,
Wuthnow, Die semitischenMenschennamenin griechischenInschriften und Papyri des vorderen
A. Hanfmann (cambridge: Harvard university Press,r983), 178-90, esp.184;IAphtodlud93'105.
condition juridique, ico- Orientr Studien zur Epigraphik und Pappuskunde L4 (Leipzig: Dieterich, 1930); IBethShe'arim
cf. general comments in J. Juster, Les juifs dans I'Empire romain: Leur
Cf. alsoW' M. Ramsay, 227-28; IGerasa,593-99; H. Withnow, Die semitischenMenschennamenin griechischenInschriften
noque et sociale,2 vols. (paris: Librairie Paul Geuthner, l9l4), l:221-34.
..Jews the Graeco-Asiaticcities," -Expos,6th ser., 5 (1902): 19-33,92-109, esp. 103-4; G. Kittel' und Papyri des vorderen Orients, Sttdien zur Epigraphik und Papyruskunde I.4. (Leipzig: E. I.
in
.,Das zur Epigraphik Brill, 1930). For Semitic names see SEG 42.687. More generally, consult the indices to BE
kleinasiatische|udentum in der hellenistische-rmischen Zeit: Ein Bericht
See infra n' 4'14 n' 94' 95' 96' S 14'20 n' l3l' prepared by Institut Fernand Courby and Marcillet-faubert/V6rilhac.
Kleinasiens,"ThLZ 69 (1944): 9-20, esp' 14' S
 'Ihe of GreekNames |
and Prosopography 93
Onomastics
92 | A, lnt oductionto GreekEpigraphy

in inscrip- -fjr.),such as Tu1qE, Tulrx{E andZarwilg.roo Names of this kind and such
higher) status(including lews) to drop the full citizen nomenclature
name' namesas'ApcroxovtoE were probably intended to protect children from the
tions in preferencefor a single personal
evil eye (Bcroxcrvla),though ABaoxovtoE was also a popular slavename'r0l
Though a runner or a good servant might be named'A1cr0nou5' this
4.15 Ethnics Used as Names "good" in the sense
name was more often applied to someonewhose feet were
of bringing good luck.102Good luck is also brought by persons named
the three daugh- "sum-
Some personal names are formed from ethnics; for example, Kohnoug and Kal,noto.ro3Kalxcrlqog, which had the meaningof
'It<rl.ia, XuBcgig'e7and Aoia (Plutarch
ters of Themistocleswere named mertime" in common parlanCe,l0awas a good name fOr an augur, expressive
are formed from
Themis. 32).ltthe Roman period particularly, many names of the wish that the augur might profit at the right moment and take advan-
-r.x6g(e.g.,Mcrxeovrxg,'Al,txg,
ethnicsby the addition of the termination tage of favorable circumstances.losThe imperial period also witnessed the
Avqr,xg, At0txg, Atrtx5, ql'tx6g, EBoixg, Aurz6g' Mqh'xE'
growth of such names as flqoxonf (Prosperity)and'Erofqo6 (Increase).
'Ol"upnrxg/-r,1E, 'OppqrxE, flovrt?tg, flu0uxg)'e8Such names do not
may signifr that
necessarilyindicate an individual's place of origin but, rather,
region or city, such 4.17 The Patronymic, Papponymic, and Matronymic
the individual's family has a connection with a Particular
at the baseof the
as a commercial interest. For example,the region of Kolchis
hemp, wax' and pitch' The use of the Various additional nameswere appendedto personalnames-a patronymic,
Pontus Euxinus had exports in flax,
partners of Kolchis, such as sometimesfollowed by an ethnic (seeS 4.18) or demotic (seeS 4.19). Greeks
personal name Kl.1og in cities that were trading
so named had were not given a second name to denote the family, echoing the Latin nomen
blbiu, Byru.,tium, and Kos, suggeststhat the family of the child
gentilicium.However, in the imperial period' the patronymic (ncrtqvupov)
somecommercialorrelatedinterestintheregionofKolchis.99 "name
was frequently used. Technically speaking, a patronymic is not the of
"name the name of the 11
fa1[e1."106 vTasformed
the father" but a deriving from
4.16 ChronologY and Names
from the genitive (or an adjectival form) of the father's name, with or without
the article (e.g.,Al.x(3rqg 6 Kl'er,vi,ou[Alkibiades'son of Kleinias]).The use
For example' I
The popularity of particular names varied from time to time' of a filiation formula is a sign of freeborn status,though in actual practice, it is
names in the Hel-
have already discussedthe rising popularity of theophoric
tended to become more homoge-
lenistic period (see5 4.04). Though names 100. SeeL. Robert,
"Voyages
6Pigraphiquesen Asie Mineure," RPhil 17 (19a3): I 70-20 l, esp'
a number of
,r.orrs in the imperial period, with fewer regional distinctions' I94n. ;Robert in OM|3.1592;Xobett,EtitpPhil, 159; Robert, Hellenica,Xl-XII'392-94; Robert,
important in this BE (lg5g): 4l l; Robert, Hellenica,xIII, 256 with n. 5; RobertNozs 215. Many other names fit into
names characteristicof this period also emerged.Especially
this samemorphological pattern: e.g.,'ArIfE, oxllnropcrE, 1p1rpttrE, Arovlolog, ol<rE.
regardwastheconceptoftyche(luck/goodfortune)inpopularculture,giving Kooprg. KuptcttilE. Kuprl.l'trE.MaprcE. M<rpxrcrvilE.MqvoQt)'E.M4tpobc'rpcE.IuvtulrlE'
and Kcrl'tu1og'
rise to a host of names,such as Alo0qt1r1, 414,0tu1oE, ltoroprcE. TctttcrE. TcrrravfE. OLtroopcrE.
"Hellenica,
-fg (gen' -flog' dat' 101. Boxcwog, AQovrlrog (Robert, EtAnat, 143 n. l). SeeL. Robert, XX:
Included within this group are female names ending in "Discours
d'ouverture," 4l; O'
Dcrets de Prine," RPhil lS (1944): 5-56, esp. 4l-42; Robert,
"Remarques
"Review of Elena Miranda, Iscrizioni greche d'Italia, Napoli, I' Casa Masson, sur des 6pitaphes d'Amathonte," in Report of the Department of Antiquities'
97. See O. Masson, Cyprus (1975) (Nicosia: Zavillis, 1975), 142-46, esp. 144; Robert, BE (1976):746; Robert' B-E
editrice Quasar (1990)," Epigraphica 54 (1992):305-6 (SEG 42'1787)'
( r97l), 467; IGU R, ll I l, 266,lIl 2, 895, 1049; TAM Il' r, 73, 208' 245; SEG 8'635.
Ludovico Mitxelena sEtuagenario
98. See, e.g., IG ll' 44n; F. Pordomingo in Symbolae: 102. SeeRobert, BE (1976): 7 49; ( 1968):71, 434, 535.On the chronology of the use of this
L. Melena, Veleia Anejo i lvittotiuco Vasconum: Instituto de Ciencias de la
oblatae,2vols., ed.J. name seeH. Solin in L'Africa romana: Atti del VII convegnodi studio Sassai, 15-17 dicembre 1989,
(SEG 35'1795)' On the construction of
A"ilgr.a"a, Universidad del PaisVasco, 1985), l:101-9 ed. A. Mastino (Sassari:Gallizzi,1990),177-86, esp. l8l-83 (cf. SEG 39.1813).
..stammes- und ortsgemeinden im alten Griechenland," ws
.th.rt ,-rurrr",see Fritz Gschnitzer,
Wege der Forschung 96 103. See Robert, Hellenica,lX, 52-53 n' 3.
68 (1955): 120-44, repnnted in Zur griechischen Staatskunde' 104. SeeP\obert,Helleflica, IX, 65-66.
Buchgesellschaft, 1969), 27t-g7i L. Robert, Helleniea, rl,65-93.
(o"r-rtut, wissenschaftliche 105. See Robert, Hellenica, lX, 54; Robert, B-E (1951): 222. An analogous name is
BE (1939): l3; BechtelPN 539. Kos had strong
99. SeeR. Flacelire,J. Robert, a-ndL. Robert, KcrtrilpepoE(Hellenica, LX, 43-44, 64-66).
with Byzantium and the northern shore of the Pontus Euxinus (see Robert' "Patronymon 'Name "
commercial ties 106. R. Merkelbach, heit nicht: des Vaters" ZPE 87 (1991):37-38'
"Discours d'ouverture," 36-38). Cf. SEG42'1785'
 'l'hc()nonusticsand Prosopogruphy
of OreekNames | 95
94 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy

ln the caseof a father and son carrying the samename,various signswere

often difficult to distinguishthis formula from the formula expressingservile
devisedto communicatethis. The father'sname might be indicatedby adding
status(see5 4.22).
the siglum ' used extensively after 100 n.c.: )tQcrvog. : )t6Qavog
In the case of women, stating the patronymic was usually deemed of
)teQvou (Stephen,son of Stephen).rr3This abbreviation is not normally
greater importance than stating the uxorial relationship. when both the fa-
employed on sepulchral monuments (where the full patronyrnic was usually
ther and husband are recorded with a woman's name, the patronymic usually
written out in full). The same abbreviation is also observed with feminine
appearsfi151.107
names:'Al.efavpc, : A)'e[vqc A].elvgou (IG II2 6945)'
Sometimes a papponymic (i.e.' a name derived from the name of the
Alternatively,the siglap' (or iE), y' (or rqlg), and (or retgcrxrE)were
grandfather) or a name derived from other ancestorswas also appended.The
used to designatesuccessive generations:for example,Mevexptqg B' signi-
matronymic (i.e., a name derived from the name of the mother) was widely
fies Mevexqtqg Mevexgcrtoug(Menekrates,son of Menekrates).The siglum
used in the Hellenistic and imperial periods for both men and women. Ex-
y' (or rq'r.g)indicates a third generation: for example' Mevexgcrrqg y' would
amples are A01vo1vqg ftl.ouoiag (/G Xlz'I, 133, L' 11)' Avtvr'og
mean MevxgctqE MevegtouE ro0 Mevexqotoug (Menekrates,son of
Kl"eonrgaE (242, col.Il, L' 6), and'Aor.atrxEtDi')'crg
(68,L' 23;69, L' l8)'108
Menekrates,grandsonof Menekrates).tlaLikewise,' (or rergaxr,S)specifies
The matronymic was often used for illegitimate children of a free woman
the great-grandfather.
and a slavewho owed their legal statusto their mother.loeHowever, the use of
The term voE (junior/the younger) is also used in this respect' as in A'
the matronymic was by no means reservedfor the lower classesof slavesand
All.rog Olxttogeivog v6og noi,tloerilv l.ogva'xcrxcri tilv orfl'r1v A. Ail,iq
freedmen. It was also frequently employed by the ruling classes'For example'
Or.xttlgei.vtgtQ nctgi, [Lucius Aelius Victorinus, the younger' constructed
in the following example, flero, the mother of AcroovqEis specified either
this larnax (: ostotheke) and stele for his father, Lucius Aelius Victorinus]
becauseher husband, XtrroapevE,also had children by another wife or be-
(CIG a003); the term vog can also be employed to indicate the younger of
causepeisobelongedto a respectedfamily: . . . ov Acro06vqr,tcp )tooapevQ
two homonymous brothers.l15
rCpx fletorirg [ . . . with Lasthenes,son of Sosamenos'son of Peiso]'troIn this
In the caseof males,the ellipse of ui6E (or ncr0g)is customaryin prose
latter example,the name of the mother supplements' rather than replaces,the
except in the case of Roman names. Exceptions to this can usually be ex-
patronl,rnic, with the preposition x being used to expressfiliation. we find
plained as coming under the influenceof Latin practice,with its regularuseof
lh. ,u-. usagein the following inscription:rrl ng;v Agqvai'ou AqpqtgLoE
the filiation formula with the termfilius, as in L(ucius) Oppius L(ucii) f(ilius).
voe xir(rr., x tDgovi,paEyelcrg par6qoE [Here lies Demetrios, once
However, in some cases, In the case of females, a term of relation, such as 0uyt19. tlllrqA.
son of Athenaios,son of his mother, Phronima],112
&eIQi1yuvq, or opBlog,is customary,as in Arig(q}'ic) Tcrtr,E'Ovloltrrou
the use of a mother's name in the filiation formula may simply indicate that
1utrx6og 1: 1crl"xroS) ovl3loE(: opBrog) fAurelia Tatis, wife of Onesi-
the father was deceased.
"A
mos, the blacksmithl.l16If somesuch term is missing,it is unclearwhether the
107. SeeTorgen Vestergaard,L. Bjertrup, M. H' Hansen, T' H' Nielsen' and L' Rubinstein' genitive casespecifiesthe woman's father (as in most cases)or her husband.
10 (1985) 178-90.
Typology ofthe women Recordedon Gravestonesfrom Attica," A/AH [1993]:
' In the case of adoption, the adoptive father can be acknowledged using
tO. SeeergyroB.Tataki,AncientBeroea:Prosopographyandsociety,Melet1mataS(Athens:
ResearchCentre for Greek and Roman Antiquity' 1988)'433-35' the formula elvcr to0 eivoE xcr0' uio0eolov tot e0vog(so-and-so,
"Ai pr,rltg<rlvupiclncrq ro[E qloiotE 'E]']'r1or'v"' in
109. See A. P. Christophilopoulos, son of so-and-so,but by adoption, son of so-and-so).Cognate expressions,
'Ioroqlc (Athens, 1973)' 60-67.
Alxarov nai
ofthree
110. I. Robert and L. Robert, BE (1934): 333; cf. IGRR lV,2Z9, in which the third
"Menodoros, son of Euphemia" (Robert in OMS 4' 229)' Il3. IBML44tIGII22l9l.Cf.IGII' l754,LL'2'6-7,11 (ca.50n.c');1043,LL'89'99'l0l'
strategoiis referred to as
1 1 5 ,1 1 8 - 1 9( 3 8 1 7s . c . ) .
lll. SeeA.Chaniotis,"DielnschriftenvonAmnisos,"inAmnisosnachdenarchologischen,
2 vols. ll4. See Gnther Klaffenbach, GriechischeEpigraphik (Gtittingen: Vandenhoeck and Ru-
historischenund epigraphischenZeugnissen desAltettums und der Neuzeit, ed. J. Schfer,
precht, 1957),56.
(Berlin:Mann, 1992),315-17;cf.A.chaniotis,Dievertrgezwischenkretischenstdteninder
(Stuttgart: 115. SeeRobert, BE (1972): 506; IKibya-Olbasa, no' 106'
Zeit,Heidelberger althistorische Beitrge und epigraphischer Studien 24
hellenistischen "Local
l16. See Thomas Drew-Bear, Cults in Graeco-Roman Phrygia," GRBS 17 (1976):
Franz Steiner, 1996),423 n. 2040-
247-68, esp.248- 49, no. 2.
112. SEG 28.759 (CreIe).
96 | to GreekEpigraphy
A, Introduction
such as xcrrcrnoi,qorv/nolotolv tof eivog (but by adoption, son of so-
and-so)and, in the caseof a woman, xcrr Quycrtgofioiov to$ eivoE,are
also used.rrTSimilarly, the terms 0qVog (s.v. tgg<o) and 0grtoE/-ov ap-
pear frequentlyin Anatolian inscriptionsto specifr a foster parent or child.rr8
The order of the biological and adoptive fathers can be reversed using the
formula eiva too eivog Qoer,/yvrp too eivoE (so-and-so,adopted
son of so-and-so,but by birth son of so-and-so).ttrThere is also the possibil-
ity of a name change, as in llop$"oE llaqpevioxou Q(oer) lloorv
Anol,l.ogou [Pamphilos,[adopted] son of Parmeniskos,but by birth Py-
thon, son of Apollodorosl (lKosPH ll5, no. 6l; cf. no. 60) and Torerv
AroyvougQoerZrrrod [Tateis,daughterof Diogenes,but by birth named
Zosasl (IKibyra-Olbasa, no. 54)'
Such expressionsas uig nl'etog,ulg fipou, uiE pou]'flg, and uiirg
yegouoiaE,attestedin Asia Minor, are honorary titles given to notable per-
sons, not patronymic formulae.l2o
4.18 The Ethnic
An ethnic is a technicalterm indicating the place,region, or nation of origin.
Ethnics occur in two forms, adjectival(e.g.,Boltlog,'El'l.fvr,oE, qyr'og)
t2t
and substantival( e.g., Bor,ort6g,'E l,).qv, <DgE)'
The ethnic for a single place may take a great variety of forms: for example,
'Hgoxl.eg, 'Hgcrxtre(r,)tlE'
the ethnic of Herakleia is variously written as
and'Hgxler.og.One must be carefirlto avoid confusingethnicswith personal
namesderivedfrom placesof origin (seeS 4.15).Foreignersand residentaliens
(prolxol) in particular are often cited with an ethnic, or the place-namemay
be introduced with the phrase oixriv v. Examples follow.
ZqvoroE Kvou flegrlaioE
lZenodotos,son of Kydnos, native of Perge]r22
117. On the adoption of women in Rhodian inscriptions seeSEG 43'522'
118. See_N4MIX, pp. lxiv-lvi; cf. IKibyra-olbasa,72,75; sEG 43.911; seeIGalatN ll' 313'
325.
119. SeeKlaffenbach, GriechischeEpigraphih 56.
120. SeeL.Robert,BI(1951):236;(1966):168;(1967):3S4.Cf.R.VanBremen,TheLimits
of Participation, DMAHA 15 (msterdam: J' C' Gieben' 1996)'
121. SeeFritzGschnitzer,inO-o-pe-ro-si:FesrcchriftfurErnstRischzuffiT5.Geburtstag,ed.
A. Etter (Berlin and New York W. de Grulter, 1986), 415-ZI. On ethnics on Crete see SEG
42.797.On ethnics in ephebic cataloguesseeJ. Robert and L' Robert, BE (1980): 94'
religieuseschezlesgrecs:Thiases,ranes,orgons(Paris:
IZZ. Paul F. Foucart, Des associations
Klincksieck, 1873), no. 49.
of GreekNames
T'heOnomasicsand Prosopography l g t
'Ev0e
xeiror | )pQogoE | )Lxe(Ig) llcvogpittlg
r23
IHere lies Symphoros,Sicilian from Palermo]
Xplxutri<lrvEal.xiou x Kegap6ov
ISmikylion, son of Eualkides,native of Kerameis] (IG II' 6338)
However, there are also instances in which the person's ethnic is used to
convey citizenship. Examples follow.
Boutrcryqag'P6loEtza
[Boulagoras,citizen of Rhodes] (IG XIVI, 155)
Avrr,oliE Arotou T),oliE
[Antiochis, daughter of Diodotos, citizen of Tlos] (TAM ll, 595)
4.19 The Demotic
Kleisthenesis well known for having enrolled the citizens of Athens in ten new
tribes (Qu)"ai),eachtribe being composedof three rQrrrsE,and eachtqr.rrE
being composedof a number of demes (tpoL). Tribes and demeshad their
own officers and were self-administered. The deme was a territorial unit
comparableto a township; it had an administrativecenterand regionalbound-
aries.Many other cities, such as Rhodesand Miletos, also divided their citi-
zenry into demes.l2s
The demotic is an adjectival form of the name of the deme in which each
citizen was registered,as in vti,otog Anol,l,orqou )utal.rltttoE [Anti-
dotos, son of Apollodoros, from the deme of Sypalettos](IG IP 337). Though
the demotic was not a new feature in the naming formula beginning in 403
n.c., the full name of an Athenian citizen consistentlyincluded a personal
name, a patronymic, and a demotic.
Demotics are given in one of two ways: as an adjectival form of the deme
123. ICUR I,2585; cf. 2151,Xr6vtoE (from Sidon).
"The
124. On the ethnic'ProgfPoic seeVincent Gabrielsen, Status of Rhodioi in Helle-
nistic Rhodes," ClMed 43 (1992):43-69 (SEG 42.744).
125. OnRhodesseeloannesC.Papachristodoulou,Oiplcriot'Poroxoiflpot.'Iotoplxrl
'Enronn1or1: 'H'Icrl.uoic (Athens, 1989), which also deals with demes of Ialysos, Kamiros, and
"Athnes
Lindos (SIG 39.719);on Miletos seeMarcel Pirart, et Mllet," MH 40 ( 1983):l-18 (SG
33.970).

TABLE 7. The Kleisthenaic Demes
Acharnai (Oineis)
Acherdous(Hippothontis)
Agryle, Lower (Erechtheis)
Agryle, Upper (Erechtheis)
Aigilia (Antiochis)
Aithalidai (Leontis)
Aixone (Kekopis)
Alopeke (Antiochis)
Amphitrope (Antiochis)
Anagyrous(Erechtheis)
Anakaia(Hippothontis)
Anaphlystos(Antiochis)
Angele(Pandionis)
Ankyle, Lower (Aigeis)
Ankyle, Upper (Aigeis)
Aphidna (Aiantis)
Araphen (Aigeis)
Atene (Antiochis)
Athmonon (KekroPis)
Auridai (Hippothontis)
Azenia (Hippothontis)
Bate(Aigeis)
Besa(Antiochis)
Boutadai(Oineis)
Cholargos(Akamantis)
Cholleidai(Leontis)
Daidalidai(Kekropis)
Deiradiotai(Leontis)
Dekeleia(Hippothontis)
Diomeia(Aigeis)
Eiresidai(Akamantis)
Eitea (Akamantis)
Eitea (Antiochis)
Elaious(Hippothontis)
Eleusis(Hippothontis)
Epiefdai (Kekropis)
Epikephisia(Oineis)
Erchia (Aigeis)
Erikeia (Aigeis)
Eroiadai(Antiochis)
Eroiadai(Hippothontis)
Euonymon (Erechtheis)
Euppidai (Leontis)
Gargettos(Aigeis)
Hagnous(Akamantis)
Halai (Aixonides[KekroPis])
Halai (AraphenidesIAigeis])
Halimous (Leontis)
Hamaxanteia(HiPPothontis)
Hekale (Leontis)
Hermos (Akamantis)
Hestiaia(Aigeis)
Hippotomadai (Oineis)
Hybadai (Leontis)
Ikarion (Aigeis)
Ionidai (Aigeis)
Iphistiadai (Akamantis)
Kedoi (Erechtheis)
Keiriadai (Hippothontis)
Kephale(Akamantis)
Kephisia(Erechtheis)
Kerameis(Akamantis)
Kettos(Leontis)
Kikynna (Akamantis)
Koile (Hippothontis)
Kollytos (Aigeis)
Kolonai (Antiochis)
Kolonai (Leontis)
Kolonos (Aigeis)
Konthyle (Pandionis)
Kopros (Hippothontis)
Korydallos (Hippothontis)
Kothokidai (Oineis)
Krioa (Antiochis)
Kropidai (Leontis)
Kydantidai (Aigeis)
Kydathenaion(Pandionis)
Kytheros (Pandionis)
Lakiadai(Oineis)
Lamptrai, Lower/coastal(Erechtheis)
Lamptrai, Upper (Erechtheis)
Leukonoion (Leontis)
Lousia(Oineis)
Marathon (Aiantis)
Melite (Kekropis)
Myrrhinous (Pandionis)
M1'rrhinoutta (Aigeis)
Oa (Pandionis)
Oe (Oineis)
Oinoe (Aiantis)
Oinoe (Hippothontis)
Oion Dekeleikon(HiPPothontis)
Oion Kerameikon(Leontis)
Otryne (Aigeis)
Paiania,Lower (Pandionis)
Paiania,Upper (Pandionis)
Paionidai(Leontis)
Pallene(Antiochis)
The Onornasticsand Prosopographyof GreekNames | 99
T ABLE7-Continued
Pambotadai(Erechtheis) Prospalta(Akamantis)
Peiraieus(Hippothontis) Ptelea(Oineis)
Pelekes(Leontis) Rhamnous(Aiantis)
Pergase,Lower (Erechtheis) Semachidai(Antiochis)
Skambonidai(Leontis)
Pergase,Upper (Erechtheis)
Sounion (Leontis)
Perithoidai (Oineis)
Sphettos(Akamantis)
Phaleron(Aiantis)
Steiria(Pandionis)
Phegaia(Aigeis)
Sybridai(Erechtheis)
Phegous(Erechtheis)
Slryalettos(Kekropis)
Philaidai (Aigeis)
Teithras (Aigeis)
Phrearrhioi (Leontis)
Themakos(Erechtheis)
Phyla (Kekropis)
Thorai (Antiochis)
Phyle (Oineis)
Thorikos (Akamantis)
Pithos (Kekropis)
Thria (Oineis)
Plotheia (Aigeis)
Thymaitadai (Hippothontis)
Poros (Akamantis)
Trikorynthos (Aiantis)
Potamos,Lower (Leontis)
Trinemeia (Kekropis)
Potamos,Upper (Leontis)
Tyrmeidai (Oineis)
PotamosDeiradiotes(Leontis)
Xypete (Kekropis)
Prasiai(Pandionis)
Probalinthos(Pandionis)
Note: Tribe name in parentheses.
name'ending in -euEor -roE (e.g.,flepcneg, Kol.l.ute9, Xuncrl,qttr,oE)or
in conjunction with a preposition (e.g.,v flerqore0, v Kol,l'trg oixrilv, l
0prov6olv). Deme nameson gravestonesare invariably not abbreviatedbut
written out in full.126Table 7 lists the Kleisthenaic demes in alphabetic order,
along with their tribal affiliations.r2T
4.20 Surnames
Perhaps under Roman influence, Greeks began to adopt surnames in official
documents,especiallyin Egpt, Syria,and Anatolia (seeS 5.06).The surname
126. On variations in the spelling of abbreviations of Attic demotics see D. Whitehead,
"Abbreviated
Athenian Demotics," ZPE 81 (1990):105-61 (SEG 40.286).
\27. SeeDavid Whitehead,,TheDemesof Attica 508/7-ca.250 n.c.: A Political and Social
Strdl (Princeton: Princeton University Press,1986) (SEG 36.304).For a complete list ofdemes
(in Greek) see Peter von Schoeffer,Afptor, RE 5 (1905): 1-132, esp. 35-122; cf. PA 2.493-630.
W. K. Pritchett (The Five Axic Tibes after KleisthenesfBaltimore, 1942], 13-23) supplies addi-
tional information on the rearrangement of demes and the creation of new tribes. For the
geographical location of demes seeC. W. J. Eliot, CoastalDemesof Axica: A Study of the Policy of
Kleisthenes(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1962); cf. Robin Osborne h., Demos: The
Discoveryof ClassicalAttika, Cambridge ClassicalStudies (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge
University Press,1985).
100 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigaphy The Onomasticsand Prosopographyof GreekNames | 101

was connectedto the personal name with the xoi construction or, less 4.21.1SimpleNames
commonly, with nlnql.opevoE,6l,eypevog,or 6 nizlqorE.r28Examples
follow. Simple female namesinclude

Aqpqrqlog'Aqteprtrrqou xqi @qcro6crEl2e Moynqs n Marvgou
[Demetrios [son] of Artemidoros, also known as Thraseas,from
Magnesia on the Maeanderl (IKyme 4l).
Ta0gog ro0 Appiag xol'Pflyl,oE
[Tauros [son] of [his mother] Ammia, also known as Reglos] (IBM ll,
1,7r).
Surnameswere sometimes used to indicate one's ancestry or to eliminate
confusions when two persons held the same personal name. Surnames were
also employed to include an indigenous name.130In Asia Minor, indigenous
people tried to assimilate their foreign names to Greek onomastics through
the use of such surnames. For example, the Lycian Krrlolxl,flg xci
KrcrocrcrE had two names,l3la well-known Greek name, Krqolxl.flg, and an
indigenousname,Krcroccrg.He probably chosethe Greek name on account
of its similarity to his original name, though there is no philological connec-
tion betweenthem.
4.21 Greek Names of Women
Olivier Masson has surveyedthe range of female names and classifiedthem as
either simple or metonymic, on the basisof formation and content.l32
"Names,
128. SeeGregory Horsley, Double," in The Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. David N.
Freedmanet al. (New York: Doubleday, 1992),4:1011-17; on name changeswith npteqov and
nplv seeL. Robert,HellenicaXIII,232-33.
129, Some first-declension proper names ending in -cE form the genitive ending in -c
(long), the Doric genitive (e.g.,Awi.pcg * Awipo lHannibal],'ItovdE -'Itovd, Bcrqvapcg *
'Ioag -'Ioc),
BcgvBo, except when precededby a vowel (e.g.,Avp6ag .* vQ6ot). R. Merkelbach,
The accent of the genitive corresponds with that of the nominative. All masculine proper names
ending in -lglcrE have the vocative ending in -rfc (long). On genitives in Egypt ending in -rfi
instead of-ou/o0 seeSEG 43.1243.
130. See RobertNorns 16-19; BE (1974):142. On double names in Egypt see W. Clarysse,
"Greeks
and Egyptians in the Ptolemaic Army and dministration," Aeglptus 65 (1985): 57-66
( s E G3 5 . 1 5 9 9 ) .
"Notes
131. SeeH. A. Ormerod and E. S. G. Robinson, and Inscriptions from Pamphylia,"
BSA 17 (1925):215-49, esp.238, no. 19.
"Remarques
132. O. Masson, sur les noms de femmes en grec," MH (1990): 129-38 (SEG
40.1678).On genitiveforms of femalenamesending in -o and namescomposedwith -xl,6ogsee
l namesof women derived from male names (e.g.,Al"elcvec);t33
2. elementarysoubriquetsderived from either adjectives(e.g.,Aonaoio,
'HeCo, 'Il.gcr,
Kcr0qcr, Mix(x)o, )i,pq, )rppi1q, Oi),c/@il.q/
Orl.i,orq/@"r6gcr)or participles (e.g.,'Av0ouocr [Bloomingl, @].-
l.ou oo,, Q r,l.oupl6v4) ; r3a
3. names derived from the calendar, festivals, or divine names (e.g.,
A0qvctg, Aruol.l,ovia, Aoxl,qnrcrg, AQqoro[c, NoupviE);
4. names derived from geographical names (e.g., Aiyuntla, ola,,
Ael.Qig,AtrrgiE,'E),),cS, @etrl.q,'Irolio, Aq, )pBaptg);
5. names referring to a social situation.
4.21.2MetonymicNames
Metonymic names are based on a comparison and either terminate with the
-tov sufnx or are based on abstracts.Metonrrmic names include
1. neuter names ending in the suffix -rov that are affective, not pejorative
(e.g.,Aiolqtov, Aeiorr,ov, Ze\rcv,'Hyforcv,'Hl,rov, Mixrov,
Mo1r,ov,Xor,q[r,ov),contrary to the useof -rov in male namesl3s(this
group includes namesderived from neuter adjectivesending in -ov, such
as ll.cQugov,'Tl"agov, Ai,yugov,fli0avov, Xipov, lBcgov, )ve-
tov, Xl.i,crvov);
C. Gallavotti in Stutliesin Dinchronic, Synchronic,and TypologicalLinguistics:Festschriftfor Oswald
Szemernyi,Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science IV, Current
Issues in Linguistic Theory ll (Amsterdam: f. Benjamin, 1979),251-63 (SEG 29.1742). On
"Agnes,"
feminine names ending in -r1EseeR. Merkelbach, ZPE 45 (1982):39-40 (SEG 32.1664);
"Die
patronymische gebildeten Frauennamen," ZPE 59 (1985): 4l-44; G.
"Ztt
Laminger-Pascher, den Frauennamenauf -i1E,"EpigAnat 6 (1985): 83-85 (35.1794).On
names of fewish women in Palestineseesupra S 4.14. On Illytian names of women in Thessalysee
"Varits
O. Masson, Thessaloniennes,"RPhil 54 (1980): 229-32 (SEG 30.1834).
133. Some Greek names with the masculine endings -cE and -eEare used of women in Lycia:
s e eR o b e r t ,B E ( 1 9 5 9 ) : 4 1 1 .
"Noms
134. See O. Masson, grecs de femmes form6s sur des participes," Tyche 2 (1987):
- 1 2 .
t07
"Deux
135. See Louis Robert, inscriptions de i'6poque imp6riale en Attique," AJP 100
( 1 9 7 9 ) :i 5 3 - 6 5 , e s p . 1 6 1 , n o . 9 ( S E G 2 9 . 1 7 6 l ) .O n n e u t e r f e m a l e n a m e s i n A t t i c a s e e O . M a s s o n ,
I l o r o s7 ( 1 9 8 9 1 4 : 5 - 5 2 ( S E G3 9 . 3 1 8 ) .

102 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy
2. neuter names derived from abstracts(e.g., A[c, AolE, Erlcvpicr,
Engclr.g, Etu1i,cr,Mel"tq, XoQicr), with a specialcategorybeing
forms ending in -pa that havea correspondingabstractnoun (a daugh-
ter would more likely be named Ayanrqpa, e.g.,than'Aynq);136
3. namesderivedfrom objectsending in -pa and -pcrtov (e.9.,'A0ugpcr,
'Aycrl,pa/Ayatrptrov,'Aqpcrtlov, )xlpc/)xu),ptrov, Toqeupcr/
Topeupouov);r3i
4. names derived from mammals (e.g., Boioxa), birds (e.g.,'Al,xud),
reptiles (e.g.,Xelolvl), insects(e.g.,Kcrvoqa), fish (e.g.,)r1ni.cr),and
plants and herbs (e.g.,Apcrqoxig).138
4.22 Slavesof Greek Masters
Slaveswere named either by their masters or by the slave dealers who sold
them. Though there was no law to prevent slaves from bearing the same
names as free men, in actual Practicethey tended to be given stock names that
were tlpical of those of servilestatus(e.g.,Mntlpn, fvpq).13e
Especiallycommon were names derived from an slhni6t+0or region,r4r
namesexpressingthe race of a slave(e.g.,McvqE),142namesdescribingper-
sonal appearance(e.g.,Eav0i,ag,ra3 flugqicrgraa),heroic and historical names
136. Other examplesare Aflorp<r, 6qr1pcr,'Enlteuypc,'EniteuflE, Eq1pcr, Kttlpc'
Acl.qpc, Mtrr1pc, Nixqpcr, N1pc, Ilcgdqopcr, )vO1pcr, TpSqpcr' @il.qpcr, X(S)t!,"'
'aQ6)"r1po:
seeL. Robert in IBTzEpir 150; sEG 26.1892;L. Robert inlLaodikeia 270 n. l. see Adolf
Wilhelm's study of female names ending in -po (e.g., Beitrge zur griechischenInschriftenkunde,
"Les
SBWien 7 [Vienna: A. Holder, 1909],22O). Cf. L. Robert, inscriptions de Thessalonique,"
205; Iules Albert Foucault, Recherchessur la langue et le style de Polybe, Collection d'tudes
"Les
anciennes (Paris: Belles Lettres," L972), 19-21.
"Quelques
137. On names ending in -po.Ttov see O. Masson, noms grecs recents en
-pcrrroE,"Araos 2I (1987):73-77 (SEG37.1810;cf.34.1707).
1 3 8 . S e en n . 3 8 - 4 0 .
139. For names characteristic of servile status consult Heikki Solin, Die stadtrmischen
Sklayennamen:Ein Namenbuch, 3 vols., Forschungen zur antiken Sklaverei 2 (Stuttgart: Franz
Steiner, 1996); Die griechischenPersonennamenin Rom: Ein Namenbuch. CIL, Auctarium. 3 vols.
(Berlin: W. de Grulter 1982). For Attic slave names see C. Fragiadakis, Die axischen Sklaven-
namen, l)on der sptarchaischenEpocheb in die rmischeKaiserzeit (Athens' 1988) (SEG 38'280;
O. Masson, BE [ 1990]: 355). Linda Reilly has also compiled an index of attestedslave names from
the Greek mainland and the Aegean islands dating from V s.c.-III r.o. (Slavesin Ancient Greece:
Slavesfrom GreekManumission Insciptions [Chicago: Ares, 1978]).
140. 8.g., Xqog/<r,AiyrlnroE/cr,@qdf/@qctooc,'Ptog/o, @errl'1, crxorv'
141. E.g.,TlBer.oE(from Paphiagonia).
142. The name MovqE was especiallycommon among slavesof Phrygian background'
143. A tlpical slave name used in Greek comedy, for a character named for his yellow wig
or hair.
144. A popular name for red-haired slavesfrom Thrace.
'l'he
Onomastics
and Prosopography
of GreekNames | 103
(ncq5, KqolooE), and namesdescribinga desirablequality in a slave,such
as Agpov (Quick-Footed),OLl.oeontqg(Servile),'Ov{1or1.roE (Profitable),
and ABoxcvroE (Secureagainst Spells),or simply designatinglow social
status,such as Xwa,tcl.og (Wanton) or'AtlpqtoE (Despised).fltrlv (based
on fiso,to)denoted a slavewho was alwaysshackled.The name Ayanqrog
(Lovable), and its equivalents'EgcotoE and @il,qroE were often borne by
slavesin Rome.l45Flower names, such as'Av0r,vog (Flowery) and'AvOoE
(Blossom), are typically, but not exclusively,servile.
The name of the slave'smaster, in the genitive case,usually follows that of
'ESoS
the slave,as in'Eq<oEKcioaqoE (: Kai,ocrgogo)"og[Eros,slaveof
'E].rxv
Caesarl and Mel.[Q0ovyogMcrogou... Mc,roqou [Meliph-
thongos,slaveof Maturos, . . . Helicon, slaveof Maturos] (IG XIV, 617). Care
must be taken not to interpret a master'sname as a patronyrnic (seeS 5.10).
In actual practice, it is often impossible to distinguish between thesetwo types
of names. Indices of names that are characteristic of servile status are helpful
in this regard (seen. 139) but not determinative.Similarly, personal names
derived from geographicalethnics that do not correspond to a particular city
or federationare sometimesindicators of servileorigin (e.g.,personalnames
derived from Thrace, Syria, Lydia, or Phrygia or from names of rivers).
The omission of the patronymic in contextswhere one is expectedmay
indicate servile status. However, even this is not conclusive, since eminent
persons are also known to have omitted their patronyrnic. Neither is the use
of nicknamesand neuter namesending in -r.ovproof of servilestatus,particu-
larly in the case of female names. There are, in fact, no absolutely reliable
onomastic indicators to determine servile status in the absenceof such a term
"foster"
as o0l.oE or 0q6nrog (this latter term also being used to specifya
relationship,seeg 4.17).t46
4.23 Methodological Considerations
In etymological studies,one normally studies both the form and the meaning
of a given word and then looks for a formal correspondencebetween them.
Onomastics can be a very challenging field in this regard, becauseusually only
145. See Solin, Die griechischenPersonennamen,2:880.
"foster
146. Oq6nroE can mean child/slave." For the various meanings of 0qnrog see
MAMA IX, lxiv-lxvi (B. M. Levick and S. Mitchell); Robert, BE (1939): 35; SEG 43.911; A.
(lameron, "OPEIITO> and Related Terms in the Inscriptions of Asia Minor," in Anatolian
SturliesPresentedto William Hepburn Buckler (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1939),
27-62. Cf. the cognateparticipial term 096!rcrgi0qe{roc.

104 | An Int oductionto GreekEpigraphy
the form of a personal name-not its meaning-is known. In the face of this
problem, Ladislav Zgusta has set down three principles for the etymological
analysisof unusual names.l47
First, one must confirm the correctnessof the form of a given name by
checking the stone or a squeezeor photo to ensure that the text has been
read correctly. One should also confirm that the word divisions are correct'
So-calledghost namescan easilybe createdby erroneoustranscriptionsand
falseword divisions.ra8
Second, it is important to determine whether a name is a primary or
secondaryname. A secondaryname is one that is based on another name'
such as the name of a deity, hero, or river. For example' Anpq"tlS is a primary
name of a goddess,but the name AqptrQrog is a secondaryname basedon
the name of the goddess.Only the etymology of the primary name is relevant
to etymological and geograPhic considerations' For example' the Cilician
name M6ptl.,oEis a secondary name derived from the name of the mythical
hero Mrpog. Only the etymology of the primary name, MrpoE,is significant'
Similarly, the geographic difftrsion of a secondaryname is of no consequence
with respect to historical linguistic analysis. For example, Zgrsta observes:
"Josephis certainly a Hebrew name, but it would be mad to make any conclu-
sions based on the distribution of its occurrence in early Christian Europe.
Here it is a secondary name which can be used only as a testimony to the
spread of the Christian cult of Saint Joseph;its etymology in this caseis quite
irrelevant."la9
Third, with regard to foreign names, one must determine whether the
meaning has been naturalized into Greek. When a foreign word has been
naturalized, its original etymology is no longer relevant to its meaning in Greek
culture. The phonemes of foreign words are perceived and reexpressedin the
phonemesof one's own native language,with the original etyrnological mean-
ing being lost. This phenomenon is known asphoneticpolarization.tso
of
147. L. Zgvsta,.,SomePrinciples of work in the Field of the Indigenous Anthroponomy
Asia Minor," AION(ing) 6 (196s): 89-99.
"Review:
148. on ghost names seeThomas Drew-Bear, Gertrud Laminger-Paschet,Beitrge
(sEG 37.1237).
zu den giechisihen lnschriften Lykaoniens," Gnomon 59 (1987): 604-14
"Some Principles of Work," 92-93'
149. Zgusta,
,'Some piinciples of Work," 95-97. On account of this transposition of
150. See Zgusta,
very difficult to determine whether a rare personal name is indigenous' One
phonemes, it is often
in the speech of
must also take into consideration so-called lallnames, i.e., names that arise
similar or identical names in other languages:
infants, or ofadults to infants, that are unrelated to
Einleitung in die
e.g., fl<rncE, flcntog, Novo, Tctc, Tcrter.E(RobertNoms 348; P' Kretschmer'
345)'
Gleschichte der giechischen Sprache freprint, Gttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht' 18961'
The Onomasticsand Prosopographyof GreekNames 105
I
4.24 Prosopography
The study of historical individuals, their family connections, and their careers
is known as prosopography.A prosopographicalprofile can include such
information as precisedatesassociatedwith the individual (e.g.,birth, death,
floruit, associationwith particular events); extant sourcesfor all information;
place of origin, residence,and death; functions, profession,and status;and
family relations (preferably summarized in stemmata).
Tal Ilan has discussedthe validity of such criteria as chronology, geogra-
phy, and titles for the identification of persons.lsrSometimes,epigraphists
and papyrologists who have consulted only epigraphical or papyrological
inventories, but not both, wrongly declare they have discovered a new name.
It is necessaryto consult beyond one's own discipline (including the evidence
of coins) to avoid making such false claims.
To date, the accumulated literature on the method of Greek proso-
pographyis extremelylimited. ]ohn Fossey's1991introduction to the subject,
The Study of Ancient GreekProsopography,is a welcome addition indeed.rs2
This work discussesthe importance,history, and methods of prosopography,
complete with an extensivebibliography.
To help scholars to determine what other information is known about a
particular individual named in an inscription or to determine the geographi-
cal and chronological limits of a given name, a number of regional proso-
pographiaehave been compiled. For example,over thirty thousandAthenian
citizens are known by name; J. Kirchner's Prosopographiallsisarss has now
been supersededby fohn Traill's Personsof AncientAthens.lsa
Unfortunately, no generalprosopographia existsfor Asia Minor, but there
are specializedtreatmentsfor Asia Minor such asthoseby LadislavZgustaand
"Julia
I 5 l. Tal Ilan, Crispina, Daughter of Berenicianus,a Herodian Princessin the Babatha
Archive: A Case Study in Historical Identification," JQR 82 (1991192):361-81 (SEG 42.1783).
152. John Fossey,The Study of Ancient GreekProsopography(Chicago: Ares, 1991); see esp.
s5-59.
153. l. Kirchner, Prosopographia Attica,2 vols. (Berlin: G. Reimeri, l90l; reprint, Berlin:
W. de Grulter, 1966) (: P); cf. Johannes Sundwall, Nachtrge zur ProsopographiaAttica
(cxcerpted from fuersigt af Finska vetenskaps-societetens forhandlingar 52, I [Helsinki:
()lversigt, 1909-101],pp. l-177; reprinted as Supplementto J. Kirchner'sProsopographia Attica
l ( ) h i c a g oA : r e s ,l 9 8 l l ) .
154. fohn Traill, PersonsofAncient Athens, 20 vols. (Toronto: Athenians, 1994-) (: PAA)
(cl..Sfi(i 39.314), also availableat <http://www.chass.utoronto.ca:8080/attica).Cf. M. J. Os-
lrrrrrrc,ForergrrResidentsof Athens:An Annex to the Lexiconof GreekPersonalNames:Attica, Studia
I l c l l e n i s t i c aJ 3 ( l - o u v a i n :P e e t e r s1, 9 9 6 ) .
106 An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy
|
Zgusta'sKleinasiatische
Louis Robert,lssand for many other specificregions.ls6
Personennamen(ZgustaKP) is an indispensable tool, replacing i. Sundwall's
NamenderLykier ( l9l3; supplementedby
defectivecollectionDi e einheimische
hisNachtrgein 1950).Fortunately, most regional corpora, such asIK, MAMA,
and RECAM series,have indices of proper names.Two new prosopographical
seriesshould also be mentioned: the first is entitled McGill University Mono-
graphs in ClassicalArchaeology and History (MUMCAH)'157 the second,
Prosopographiae GraecaeMinores, edited by |ohn Fossey,is forthcoming. This
latter series will comprise separate treatments of individual cities or small
adjacentcities,beginningwith centralBoiotia (vol. 1)ts8and the Kopaic are of
Boiotia (exceptAkraiphiai) (vol. 2). The readershould consult |ohn Fossey's
study of Ancient Greek Prosopogfaphy(17-49) for a bibliography of other
regionalprosopographies.
Not all prosopograPhiae are organized on the basis of region. For ex-
ample, I. E. Stefanishas cataloguedpersons who performed in Greek theatri-
cal and musicalcontestsand the so-calledentr'acteperformers (&xgocpctcr)
from 500 B.c. to a.o. 500 in the Greek and Roman world; the indices of this
work include listings of surnames, patron)rynics,metronymics, ethnics' and
functionariesof the ovoor and xowo.lse Another exampleof this thematic
type of prosopographiais F. Mora's collection of names of worshipers of
Isis.r60
155. LadislavZgusta,KleinasiatischePersonennamen(Prague:TschechoslowaksichenAkade-
mie der Wissenschaften,1964) (= ZgustaKP); Ladislav Zg,tsta, Neue Beitrgezur kleinasiatischen
Anthroponymie,Dissertationes orientales 24 (Prague: Academia, 1970) (: ZgustaNB); L. Robert,
Noms indignesdans I'Asie Mineure grtco-romaine,BAH 13 (Paris 1963), 551-70 (: Rob-
ertNorrs). A full review of Keinasiatische Personennamenwas published by Claude Brixhe, along
with a series of additions and corrections, including toponyms' ethnics, and theophoric names
that were omitted ("Sur un corpus des noms indignes d'Asie Mineure," REG 78 11965l:610- 19).
156. Seethe supplementary bibliographies in this chapter and chapter 6.
157. one book in the series is Duane w. Roller's Tanagran studies, 2 vols., MUMCAH 9
(Amsterdam:J. C. Gieben, 1989).
158. Except Thebes,becauseofKoumanoudis's work.
159. I. E. Stefanis'sAtovuotoxoi Telvircrr: Xuppo),g orfv ngooornoypa$i'c' to oetgou
xc| tflE porolr{E rtirv qlcitov'Ei"},i1vtov (Heraklion, 1988) includes actors already catalogued
by Stefanisin Hellenika 35 ( 1984): 29-37, as well as additions and corrections to the cataloguesof
actors in the following works: Paulette Ghiron-Bistagne, Recherches sur les acteursdans Ia Grce
"Les
antique (Paris: Belles Lettres," 1976); I. B. O'Conner, Chaptersin the History of Actors and
Acting (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1908); I. Parenti, Dionisio 35 (1961): 5-29.
160. F. Mora, ProsopografiaIsiaca, 2 vols., EPRO 113 (Leiden: E' J. Brill' 1990) (SEG
40.1718).
The Onomasticsand Prosopographyof GreekNames | 107
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Berve, Helmut. Das Alexanderreichauf prosopographischer
Grundlage. 2 vols. Munich: Itorrsscl,I)enis. Doriens de la M6tropole: Nouveaux documents6pigraphiqueset
C. H. Beck,1926.Reprint,New York: Arno, 1973. prosopographie." BCH 114 (1990):445-72. Esp.pp. 464-72.
1 10 | An Introiluction to GreekEpigraphy |'he Onomasticsand Prosopographyof Greek Names I fff

"Documents
Sarikakis,T. S. Xtcrxt flpootonoyqoQicr. Athens' 1939. (Cf. SEG39.879;Chios pro- Itobcrt, l,ouis. d'Asie Mineure: XXXIII. A Caunos avec Quintus de
sopography.) Smyrne."BCH 108 (1984):499-532.(Cf. SEG34.1068.)
"Achaemenid Colonization in Lydia." REA87 (1985) ll<rbert, Louis. Hellenica: Recueld'pigraphie,de numismatique et d'antiquits grecques.
Sekunda,N. V. [19861:7-29'
Esp.pp. 14-15. (Cf. SEG33.1584,36.1558,36'1560;Iranian/Persiannamesin Asia V o l . 3 . P a r i s ,1 9 4 6 P
. p.109-ll.
"La
Minor.) lkrbert, Jeanne,and Louis Robert. persistancede la toponymie antique dans I'Ana-
Sherwin-White, SusanM. Ancient Cos:An Historical Stu from the Dorian Settlement tolie." In La toponymie antique: Actesdu colloquede 12-14 juin 1975 Strasbourg,
to the Imperial Period. Hypomnemata 51. Gttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, pp. I l-63. Leiden: E.I. Brill, 1977.
r978. 7.gusta,Ladislav. KleinasiatischeOrtsnamen.Beitrge zur Namenforschung 21. Heidel-
Tataki, Argyro B. Ancient Beroea: Prosopographyanil Society.MEAETHMATA 8' berg: C. Winter, 1984.(Cf. SEG35.1828,37.1022;indigenousplace-namesin Asia
Athens: ResearchCentre for Greek and Roman Antiquity, National Hellenic Re- Minor.)
searchFoundation, E. de Boccard, 198S.(Cf. E. E. Rice, CR 41 [1991]: 142-44;
sEG38.s83.)
Tr6heux, facques. Inscriptions de Dlos: Index. Yol. l, Les trangers,d l'exclusion des
Athniensde la clerouchieet desRomains.Paris, 1992' (SEG 42.729.)

Topography

Bakhuizen, S. G. Studiesin the Topographyof Chalc on Euboea:A Discussionof Sources'

ChalcidianStudiesl. Leiden:E. |. Brill, 1985.(Cf. SEG 35'966.)
Belke, K. Galatien und Lykaonien Tabula Imperii Byzantini 4. DenkschrWien 172.
Vienna: Alfred Holder, 1984. (Cf. SEG34.1282, 1283J
"Vorthrakisch?" Balkstud 31 (1990): 47-50. (Cf. SEG 41.583;
Beevliev,Veselin.
Thracian mountains, rivers, places.)
calderini, Aristide. Dizionario dei nomi geografci e topografci dell'Egittogreco-romano.
5 vols. and suppl. Cairo: Societrealedi geografiad'Egitto' 1935-88.
"Review: Gertrud Laminger-Pascher,Beitrgezu den griechischen
Drew-Bear, Thomas.
InschriftenLykaoniens."Gnomon 59 (1987): 604-14' (Cf. SEG 37 -1236.)
"Nachtrge zu den thrakischen Sprachresten." LingBalk 22, no. 3 (1979):
Duridanov, I.
4l-4s. (cf. sEG 29.1274.)
"Beitrge
Engelmann, H. zur ephesischenTopographie-" ZPE 89 (1991): 275-95'
(Corrigendum to ZPE9l [1992):60; cf. SEG 41.956.)
Fossey,Iohn M. The Ancient Topographyof EasternPhokis. Amsterdam: |. C. Gieben,
1986.(Cf. SEG37.525;BE [1988], 669.)
Frezouls,E. In'O'El.l.qvr'opg otilv'Avcrtolf . flqxrr.xcr A' r.eovoog&q1or.ol.oyr-
xoO ouvepiou, el'Qol 6-9 Noeppqiou 1986,287-301, 3ll-23. Athens: Eu-
ropaiko politistiko Kentro Delphon, 1991.(Cf. SEG 37.1279,41.1527.)
"ThrakischeEq'mologien." LingBalk 21, no' I (1978): 5-20' (cf' sEG
Georgiev,V. I.
28.556.)
Hatzopoulos, Militiades V., and L. D. Loukpoulou. Two studies in Ancient Macedonian
Topography.Meletmata 3. Athens: Kentron Hellenikes kai Romaikes Archaio-
tetos,Ethnikon Hidryma Ereunon, 1987.(Cf. SEG37.535,39'561')
La toponymie antique: Actes du Colloque de Strasbourg(12-14 juin 1975). TCRPO 4.
Leiden:E.l. BriIl, 1977.
Mihailov, G. CongrEpigrYlI,263-71' (Greek coastalcities of Thrace.)
"Pamphylische
Noll, I. Studien 6-10." Chiron 17 (1987):235-76. (Cf. SEG 37.1208;
easternPamphylia.)
 The Onomastics and
Prosopographyof Roman
Namesin Creek lnscriptions

5.01 Overview

Unlike the Greek single-namesystem,the Roman naming systemwas binomi-

nal or trinominal in nature. Up until the late secondcentury n.c., the naming
formula was a binominal system,consistingof the praenomen(see5 5.03) and
the nomen gentilicium (seeS 5.02), sometimesfollowed by the filiation for-
mula. By the late secondcentury 8.c., the cognomen (see$ 5.04) had become
increasingly popular, with all three names together forming the tria nomina
(seefig. 10): praenomen,nomen gentilicium, cognomen.l Thesetria nomina
should be thought of not as the "complete" Roman name but, as BenetSalway
"as
obseryes, a transitory stagein an evolutionary process"from one binominal
system to another.2
By the late second century A.D., the praenomen had largely fallen into
disuse,exceptin the caseofthe aristocracy(and even in this caseit ceasedto
function as an individuating name), resulting in the restoration of an essen-
tially binominal system,this time of nomen and cognomen(seeg 5.05).It was
not uncommon for Greeks and indigenous peasantsof the Roman Empire to
adopt a Roman praenomen, nomen gentilicium, or cognomen, singly, as if it

l' On Roman names generally see Benet Salway, "What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman
Onomastic Practicefrom c. 700 s.c. to r.o. 700," /RS 84 (199a): 124-45;for works on Roman
prosopography seethe supplementary bibliography in this chapter.
"What's
2. Salwav, in a Name?" 124.

tt2
114 An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy in Greeklnscriptions I
RomanNames I 15
|

were a Greekpersonalname.Needlessto say,this is an indicator not of Italian between a nomen gentilicium and a cognomen. In Greek-speakingareas,
ancestry,much less of Roman citizenship, but rather of the spread of Roman gentiliciaending in -r,o,vog/-ianus
are also attested.s
cultural dominancein a given region. When a peregrinus was granted Roman citizenship by the emperor, he
To the praenomen, nomen gentilicium, and cognomen, a filiation was would normally adopt the praenomen and nomen of the current emperor
often added. In Latin, the filiation was formed from the genitive form of the (..g., P. Aelius, M. Aurelius). This nomen is referred to as a dynastic or
father's praenomen (or cognomen) and was interposed between the nomen imperial nomen,6 examplesof which follow.
gentilicium and cognomen followed by the term f(ilius). In Greek inscrip-
tions, the term uig was sometimes used, parallel to the Latin term f(ilius), Imperial Nomina
though it was more frequently omitted. For example, the Greek form of the
name Sex(tus)Numonius Sex(ti) f(ilius) Iulianus would be: Iulius/ia (under Iulius Caesar,Augustus)
Antonius/ia (under Marcus Antonius during the SecondTriumvirate)
'Iou].r.o,vg Octavius/ia (underAugustus)
>l(toE) + Noupovr,oE + )[(tou) [u(ig)] *
Claudius/ia (underTiberius, Claudius)
praenomen nomen gentilicium filiation cognomen
Flavius/ia (underVespasian,Titus,Domitian)
Cocceius/ia (underNerva)
[SextusNumonius Iulianus, son of Sextus] Ulpius/ia (under Trajan)
Aelius/ia (under Hadrian)
The Greek East did not uniformly adopt the Latin system of inserting the Septimius/ia (SeptimiusSeverus)
filiation formula between the nomen and cognomen. Sometimesthe filiation
'Ioul.rcvdg
followed the full name, as in )61(roE) Noupvr,oE )6[(rou) Recipientsofthese grantsofcitizenship can be classifiedinto three categories:
[u(iE)]. In the imperial period, the father's cognomen is often preferred to (1) veteran soldiers who acquired citizenship by serving as legionaries or
his praenomen in the filiation formula.3 The use of a filiation formula was a auxiliaries, this fact often being explicitly stated; (2) freedmen of emperors,
customary indication of free birth. However, the absenceof filiation does not governors, or private patroni, and (3) citizens of the empire who received
necessarilyindicate servile status. Care must be taken not to confuse the grants of citizenship under Caracalla.Once citizenship was granted, the dynas-
filiation formula in Greek inscriptions with the formulae indicating freed and tic nomen would be passedon to all members of the family; for example, M.
seryilestatus(seeS 5.08-10). tJlpius Pomponius Superstes(/IS 9414) belonged to a peregrine family that
acquired citizenship under Trajan. Clearly, in the case of such dynastic
5.02 The Nomen Gentilicium nomina, the choice of nomen was not determined by the popularity of the
emperor but was a direct consequenceof the conferring of honor or the
The nomen gentilicium (name of family group/clan) was the heritable family extension of citizenship. Moreover, those who had attained consPicuous
name. This name was passed on, unaltered, to all descendantsof a family, honor in the imperial hierarchy would often adopt the nomen of the reigning
including women and adopted sons, and was retained by women even after dynasty. The most frequently occurring Greek abbreviations of these dynastic
their marriage. Male nomina gentilicia customarily terminate in -ius (e.g., nomina are recorded in table l1 later in this chapter (seeS 5.12).7The most
Pomponius: Pomponia [fem.]).4This termination is helpful in distinguishing 5. SeeO. Salomies,
"Beitrge
zur rmischenNamenkunde,",A/dtosl8 (1984):93-104; for an
inventory of Roman gentilicia see H. Solin and O. Salomies,Repertorium Nominum Gentilium et
"La ( )ognominumLatinorum, 2d ed. (Hildesheim, 1994).
3. See Georges Daux, formule onomastique dans le domaine grec sous L'Empire
Romain," /P 100 (1979): 13-30, esp.19-23. 6. SeeBernard H oltheide, RmischeBrgerrechtspolitikund rmischeNeubrger in der Provinz
4. Cf. also the archaic forms -eut -aeus,-eius, -aius,'exceptions to this rule are comprised of sirr(Freiburg im Breisgau:HochschulVerlag,1983).
names of foreign origin, such as those ending in -erna/-ina (Etruscan), -as/-anas(Umbrian), 7. Stephen Mitchell, Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor,2 vols. (Oxford: Oxford
-enus (Picenian), and -acus (Gallic). t i n i v e r s i t yP r e s s 1
, 9 9 3 ) ,l : 1 5 0 .
I 16 An lntroductionto GreekEpigruphy
|
notabledevelopmentwith respectto grantsof citizenshipwas the adoption of
the praenomenand nomen M. Aqt)'rog/Aqql,ic after e.o. 212. Caracalla's
ConstitutioAntoniniana extendedthe right of citizenship to all free subjectsin
the empire,8including even rustic peasant farmers with little or no previous
contact with Roman culture.e In effect, all cities were made municipia, and
Roman law became the law of the entire empire. New citizens adopted the
nomen of their imperial benefactor, M(arcus) Aurelius, to signifu that they
too had become Roman citizens under the Constitutio, prefixing his nomen to
their ancestralsinglename, which was convertedinto a cognomen (i.e., (M.)
Aurelius * cognomen).For example,'7orgtog Aeorvlou would be renamed
(M.) Aq(tl,roE) Zopog. This construction was used not only by the first
generation who achieved citizenship but also by subsequent generations of
offspring. In some inscriptions, the dynastic nomen Aq(tl,rog) appearsbe-
fore every name.lo It is not surprising that Aurelius became the most popular
nomen in the easternempire in late antiquity. It was the name of the massof
the population whose family had receivedcitizenship under Caracalla'sgrant.
It was entered on offrcial records but was not used in everydayparlance. Thus,
the nomen Aurelius became a mark of citizenship status for all New Romans
but ceasedto signifr one's family relationship or to serve any individuating
function.
In the west, Aurelius ran a close second place in popularity with the well-
established lulius, whose usage persisted throughout the centuries. In the
period e.o. 330*400 or later, the popularity of Iulius was overtakenby FIa-
vius, the nomen of the dynasty of Constantine, especiallyin the higher eche-
lons of society.rrIn Egypt, Christian clericalstatus (especiallythat of abbots)
was often indicated by substituting Abba (BBA or &FpAS) for the secular
nomen Flavius or Aurelius.t2 The name Valerius belonged to the dynasty of
Diocletian.
The use of a dynastic nomen can have consequencesfor the dating of
8. See K. Buraselis, @EIA, AQPEA: Me).teg nvo otilv no)'trrxl tflg lvcroreicrg r6lv
Xepfqov xoi rilv Constitutio Antoniniana (Athens, 1989), 127-48 (SEG 39.1858; Peter van
"De
Minnen, Novis Libris Iudicia," Mnemosyne45 119921:285-88).
"Unedited
9. See, e.g., IGBulg IlIl\ 1517; A. K. Orlandos, Inscriptions Found from the
Time of the nastylose of the Katapoliani of Paros," ArehEph (1975) 11976l:.ArchChron l-36,
esp.6-8, no. 3.
10. Cf. the study of Greek citizens who received civitas Romana and acceded to the eques-
trian and senatorial orders rn La Mobilit| socialedans Ie monde romain: Actesdu colloqueorganist
Strasbourg(nowmbre 1988), ed. Edmond Fr6zouls (Strasbourg: AECR, 1992), 231-52.
"What's
11. SeeSalwav. in a Name?" 137-38.
"The
12, See I. G. Keenan, Names Flavius and Aurelius as Status Designations in Later
Roman Egypt," ZPE 13 (1974):283-304.
Roman Namesin GreekInscriptions I ll7
inscriptions. For example,an inscription in which everyonebearsthe name
Aureliusclearly datesfrom a time after the Constitutioof e.o. 212. Consider
the more interesting case in which the individuals named in an inscription
lrcar the name Aureliu.t but most of their fathers do not.r3 This suggeststhat
tlrc generationthat is listed lived during the period d.o.2L2-17, whereastheir
fatherswere by and large deceasedby this time.
Sometimes the fu1l Roman name, including the imperial/dynastic nomen,
is followed by a mention of the personal name that the individual carried
prior to the adoption of Marcus Aurelius, using the formula nqlv or
nqrregov. For example, prior to the Constitutio, M. Aurelius Polychronios
(lharmides carried the name Mdp(xog) Aq(tl.rog) IlolulqvroE Xcrqplqg
nptegov flol.ulqvroE Tcrtnvo0, rQlE ro0 Xcqploug [Polychronios,son
of Tatianos,grandsonof Charmides].la
By contrast, the Old Romans, whether cives(r,o),"irur")or peregrini (lbvotl
1ri;ror,xor,),continued to employ an alternative system: they retained the he-
reditary gentilicia that they had held before the Constitutio, and they dis-
playedAureliusasa praenomen-not asa nomen-that is,Aurelirr * nomen
* cognomen (e.g' AureliusIulius Marinus).tsSimilarly, in Asia Minor, noble
(ireeks resisted becoming mundane Aurelii, opting instead io trace their
ancestry back as many as five or six generations through the use of multiple
patronyrnic formulae according to the traditional Greek style.
In late antiquity, some members of the old aristocracy began to use more
than one nomen, having both a traditional nomen signifring the family con-
rrcction and a dynastic nomen. This pretentious practice, known as gentilicial
polyonymy, allowed the aristocracy to set themselvesapart from the masses,
who bore only dynastic nomina (especiallyu relius and Flavius). The innova-
t ion of gentilicial polyonomy brought about a second onomastic system that
coexistedwith the more widespread system of dynastic names.
5.03 The Praenomen
'l'he
praenomen served as the individuating name, making it possible to
tlistinguish one family member from another (since all family members
sharedthe same nomen gentilicium). Most of these praenomina end in the
"The
13. See,e.g.,W. M. Ramsay, Graeco-RomanCivilisation in Pisidia,"/HS 4 (1883): 23-
, 1 5 c, s p .3 0 .
14. See Robert, Hellenica, xlII, 232 (cf. 27, 253): MAMA vlII' 576; Robert, BE (1949): 23'
( l96l):828.
"What's
15. SeeSalwav. in a Name?" 134.
 Roman Namesin GreekInscriptions | 119

rrdjcctival suffix -ias (fem. -ia). The eldest son was normally given the
TABLE 8. Frequently Attested Nomina
praenomen of his father. Casesin which the eldest son does not bear his
Aelius Critonius Mevius Samiarius lirther's name may have resultedfrom a (previous) short-lived firstborn son
Aemilius Decumius Mindius Satricanius
bcing given this name.
Allidius Didius Mundicius Saufeius
Al(l)ius Diobellius Naevius Seius He who was luce natus (born by day) might be called Lucius; he who was
Ampius Domitius Nerius Septimius ntunenatus (born in the morning) might be calledManius; he who was born
Anicius Egnatius Nimmius Serpoleius with a naevus(birthmark) might be given the name Gnaeus;he who caused
Annaeus Erucius Nonnius Servilius
Novius Sestius his parents gaudere(to rejoice) at his birth might be given the name Gaius. In
Annius Fabius
Antonius Fabricius Numitorius Sextilius actual fact, of course,it is seldom possibleto determine if such correspon-
Arellius Felsonius Nummius Spedius dencesactually existed. Children were sometimes given ordinal numerals as
Arius Flaminius Numonius Staius though these names did not
Stenius
frames (e.g., Primus, Secundus,Tertius, Sextus),16
Atanius Flavius Obellius
Attiolenus Fulvius Octavius Stertinius nccessarilycorrespond to their birth order but, instead, have originally indi-
Audius Furius Ofellius Stlaccius catedthe month in which a child was born.rT
Olius Sulfius
Aufidius Gerillanus Indeed, it is likely that in the case of patricians, there were not such
Aurelius Gerraeus Opellius Sulpicius
Gessius Oppius Titinius correspondences betweenpraenominaand their meanings,sincethe choiceof
Avilius
Babullius Granius Orbius Trebellius praenomina employed by the patrician class was quite limited, being re-
Tuccius
Bombius Heius Orceius stricted by family tradition. Generally, a given gens would restrict itself to a
Braundutius Helvius Otacilius Tullius
Paconius Turpilius lixed number of praenomina.For example,the Aemilii and cornelii usedonly
Caecilius Horarius
Caelius Hordionius Pactumeius Tuscenius scven; the Claudii had only six. Though there were as many as thirty
Caesonius Hostilius Pediasius Tutorius praenomina prior to sulla, this number decreasedover time until only about
Iulius Pedius Ulpius
Calpurnius
Valerius cighteenpraenominawere employedby the patricians,though the choicewas
Caltius Laberius Petronius
Calvius Labienus Pettius Varius rnuch wider for nonpatricians.rsTable 9 lists the most frequently occurring
Castricius Laelius Plaitorius Venoleius
l)raenomina'
Plautius Veratius
Cerrinius Laronius In the first centuryB.c. through the first centuryA.D.,when the cognomen
Cincius Licinius Plotius Verrinius
Livius Pompeius Verus lrrd generallyreplacedthe praenomenas the individuating name (seeS 5.04-
Cispius
Claudius Loisius Pompilius Veturius 05 ), there was an attempt on the part of aristocratic families to reestablishthe
Veveius
Clodius Lollius Pomponius lirrmer usageof the praenomen.This sometimesinvolved reviving supPosedly
Cluvius Lucceius Popilius Vibius
Popillius Vicirius illcient praenominaor, more often, using cognominaas praenomina'placing
Cocceius Lucretius
Cottius Luxius Porcius Vinicius thcrn in the first position, in place of a true praenomen'
Cornelius Maecius Pumidius Viseius
Cornius Magulnius Quinctius Vitellius
"The
Raecius Umbricius 16. on numeral praenomina seeHans Petersen, Numeral Praenomina of the Romans,"
Cossinius Mamilius
Marcius Rasennius Volusius I AI'A93 ( 1 9 6 2 ) : 3 4 7 - 5 4 .
Cossutius
Cottius Memmius Rutilius 17. In total, about fifty-six praenomina were in wide use by Romans of the regnal and
Crassicius Mescinius Sabinius r cl,ublican period. Georgechase ("The origin of Roman Praenomina,"HSCP 8 [1897]: 103-84'
Crepereius Messius Salvius e.j,. l.t5) has listed sixty-four known praenomina, but sorne of these were cognomina taken over
.r, pracnomina. olli salomies (Die rmischen vornamen: studien zur rmischenNamengebung,
( lll. lt2 lHelsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica, 19871) lists over two hundred attested
IttJctl()lllina.
Itf. See liro Kajanto, The Latin cognomina, cIlL 36.2 (Helsinki: Societas scientiarum
"The
f cnrrica, 1965); I. Kajanto, Significanceof Non-Latin Cognomina," Latomus 27 (1968):
' , I7 . 1 4 .
t20 I An htrorluctionto GreekEpigraphy Roman Names in GreekInscriptions I t2r

TABLE9. FrequentlyAttestedPraenomina TABLE 10. Frequently Attested Cognomina

Appius Marcus Salvius Crescens Proculus

Aulus Minatius Septimus Faustus Rufus
Decimus Novius Servius Felix Sabinus
Gaius Numerius Sextus Fortunatus Saturninus
Gnaeus Olus Spurius Hilarus Secundus/-a
Herius Ovius Statius Ianuarius Severus
Kaeso Pescennius Tiberius Maximus Tertius/-a
Lucius Publius Titus Primus/-a Victor
Mamercus Quintus Vibius Priscus Vitalis
Manius

5.04 The Cognomen
The cognomen was chronologically the last element to develop in the full
Roman tria nomina. Originally, and for a long time, very few persons had
cognomina, since they were normally reserved for the elite, especially the
patrician families. However, the fact that some gentessharedthe samenomen
but emerged from different origins created the need for a way to distinguish
between them. The adoption of cognomina provided the means to differenti-
ate between individuals belonging to different gentes that shared the same
nomen.
Since the number of availablepraenomina was very limited, the need also
arose for genuine distinguishing names.reBy the late first century 8.c., the
cognomen came into general use, gradually overtaking the praenomen as the
individuating name, so that, in public, men came to be addressedby their
nomen and cognomen-not their praenomen.
Cognomina begin to appear in official Latin documents in the late second
century n.c.,20but they do not becomecommon until about the Sullanperiod
(after ca. 85 n.c.).2rCognomina of the plebsingenue(freeborn commoners)
were not in generaluse until about 25 B.c. In fact, even in the first century
A.D.,one can find freemenwithout a cognomen,as was alsothe casefor most
women at this time.22
"Names,
19. SeeKajanto, Latin Cognomina,29;T. J. Cadoux, Personal",OCDa 720-2L, esp.
7Zt.
20. However, their use is attested much earlier. SeeKajanto, Latin Cognomina, 19.
21. SeeKajanto, Latin Cognomina,30.
"On
22. See l. Kajanto, the First Appearance of Women's Cognomina," in Akten des VI.
Internationalen Kongressesfi)r Giechische und LateinischeEpigraphik (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1973),
402-4; on freedman with cognomen (ILLRP 701), born 1121111 B.c., see Kajanto, Latin
Cognomina,29.
With men being addressedin public by their nomen and cognomen by the
late secondcentury A.D., the Roman onomasticsystemwas once again essen-
tially binominal (nomen * cognomen) in nature. In caseswhere the prae-
nomen persisted,it ceasedto fulfill any individuating function (see$ 5.05).In
the third and fourth centuriese.o., the cognomeneven tended to eclipsethe
ltomen in importance.
Among the known aristocratic gentes, there was an average of twenty-
three cognomina in use within each gens. The frequency of particular
cognominavaried greatly,with some being far more popular than others.Iiro
"the
Kajanto explains: Romans had little imagination in name-giving. They
wcre more willing to give their children a cognomen which was well-known
to everybody than to venture unfamiliar or new names."23The cognomina
listed in table 10 occur with particularly high frequency.2a
Cognomina occur with many different suffixes, such as -enus, -inus, -io,
osus,-acus,-icus, -itas, -olus, -ullus, and -it(t)a. The -anus suffix (which could
bc added to the father's nomen) accountsfor about 80 percent of all occur-
rcnces (e.9.,Aelianus,Caecilianus,Iulianus,Albanus,Bovillanus).It originally
"belonging
lrird the meaning to." Thus, Aemilianus originally indicated that
rrrrc belonged to the gens Aemilia, while Aurelianus indicated that one be-
Iongedto the gensAurelia. The sourcesof cognominaare more diversethan is
sonretimessupposed.For example, cognomina might be adopted from a
rnirn'smother or grandmother or even from his father'sbest friend.
On Delos, in the Hellenistic period, there was a tendency to omit the
e()grlomenin Greek inscriptions,even when it appearedin a Latin version of
thc same text. Thus, in a bilingual Delian inscription, P(ublius) Sextilius
L(rtcii)f(ilius) Pllo is renderedsimply as flonl.r,og)efril.r,og Aeuxiou (lDelos
23. Kajanto, Latin Cognomina, 29 -30.
24. For inventoriesofcognomina seeKajanto, Latin Cognomina,2-417,esp.379-417; Solin
.rrrtlSalonries,RepertoriumNominum Gentilium et CognominumLatinorum.
 An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy
122 |
vl, 1753).This suggeststhat the innovation of the cognomentook additional
time to establish itself in Greek onomastic practice, even after it was in
common use in Latin onomastics.
The period from the late first century B.c. to the late secondcentury A.D.
witnessed the gradual use of the cognomen instead of the praenomen as the
individuating name. By about 100 n.c., Romans began to invent new cog-
nomina, thereby giving their children a Sreaterdegree of individuality. New
cognomina could be formed from praenomina, nomina gentilicia, geographi-
cal terms (e.g.,sabinus,Romanus),the namesof divinities (e.g.,Martialis after
Marc, Saturninus after Saturnus),festivals,and calendars(e.g.' Ianuarius).25
There were also so-called wish names (Faustus,FeliS Fortunatus, Maximus,
victor, vitalis). cognomina might relate to other factors, such as physical
characteristics,26temperament'2Tplaceoforigin,orplacewithwhichthe
father had a connection (e'g., Gallus,Ligus, Siculus,Tuscus)'
At first, thesenew cognomina tended to avoid the -lzs termination because
it was indicative of the nomen, except in caseswhere there was little chanceof
confusion.However,in late Roman onomastics,many new cognominadid end
-loE
in -ius.This practice had already arisen in Greek onomastics, where the
suffix was employed to form not only theophoric and hierophoric names but
also namesbasedon abstractqualities (seeS 4.10' 4.21.2).By the late third
century A.D., the -rog suffix was adopted for the formation of new Latin
cognomina in -ius,by the invention of new Latin coinages.Prior to this, the
inventive use of the -ius suffrx had been restrictedto agnomina (seeS 5.06)'
Naturally, the use of this suffix spreadmore rapidly among New Romans than
among Old Romans.In the post-ConstantinianPeriod,resPectable Christian-
ity also increasingly adopted as cognomina Hebrew and Aramaic names from
Scripture (e.g.,I ohannesl'I<Dcrv )' Also in
(v) q g, M ar i aI Mro;plct,ThomasI @t'lprdS
vogue were compound formations expressing Christian concerns' such as
Aiastasiusl'Avcororog, BonifatiuslBovroo,rtE, Theodorusl@ecugoE, and
Theodosius/@eoor,og.2s Jewish names were similarly converted into cog-
n o m i n a( s e eS 4 . 1 4 ,1 1 . 0 8 ) .
25. The name Ianuaius accounts for almost 50 percent ofcalendaric cognomina.
(Tall)'
26.E.g., Albus(White), Barbatus (Bearded), Cincinnatus (Curly), Longus
27.8.g., Benignus (Kind), Blandus (Pleasant),
Caro (Smart) , Serenus (Serene)'
"Religious conversion and onomastic change in Early Byzantine Egypt,"
zg. see R. Bagnall,
"La
BASq lg (1982): 105-24, criticized by E. wipszycka in valeur de I'onomastique pour
(1986): 173-81;
I'histoire de la christianisation: A propos d'une 6tude de R' S' Bagnall," ZPE 62
"Conversion and Onomastics: A Reply," ZPE 69 (1987):243-50. See also Salway,
cf. Bagnall,
"What's
in a Name?" 139-41;G. H. R. Horsley"'Name Change as an Indication of Religious
Conversion in Antiquity," Numen 34 (1987): l-17.
RomanNames
in Greeklnscriptions I tZZ
F'rom the time that cognomina had becomethe individuating name, the
aristocracybegan to adopt multiple cognomina to memorialize their noble
ancestors.For example, Fl(avius) Areobindus Dagalaiphus(consul in 506)
bearsthe cognomina of both his father, FI. Dagalaiphus(consul in 461), and
his grandfather,Fl. Areobindus (consul in 434). By the addition of multiple
cognomina, an individual's name could also commemorate bilateral or even
multilateral ancestry(as in the caseof adoption).2e
In a manner similar to the development of gentilicial polyonymy among
the aristocracyin late antiquity (seeS 5.02), the third century a.o. witnessed
cognominal polyonymy among the rising new nobility who were taking high
"extraordinary
office. In the words of Benet Salway, the plurality of names
certainly.wasa phenomenonof the new aristocracyof the imperial period.":o
5.05 The Decline of the Praenomen and the Return to a
Binominal System
By the late fourth century A.D.,the praenomen fell into disusein common
parlance. Thereafter, Roman onomastics returned to a binominal system,
using the nomen and cognomen.Thus, a funerary inscription of a commoner
recording the full tria nomina suggestsa date prior to the mid-third century
,t.o. but after the third century s .c. The notableexceptionto this practiceare
inscriptions that name aristocraticfamilies and emperors:here, a fossilized
praenomen long continued in use in conjunction with the dynasticnomen,
cognomen,and titulature. In this case,the praenomenhad becomefossilized
and obsolete,to such an extent that all sonswere given the samepraenomen,
namely,that of their father.
Severaldevelopmentsled to the praenomen passingaway as an individuat-
ing name and to the reversion to a binominal system. First, the list of
praenominain use was very restricted,so many personsbore the samename.
Second,when a civilian Greek or any other foreigner becamea Roman citizen,
it was customary for him to take the praenomen and nomen of the current
cmperor, while retaining his former personalname as a cognomen (though
some adopted a new Latin cognomeninstead);for example,in the caseof the
family of M. Ulpius Carminius of Aphrodisias (CIG 2782), one of its ancestors
had adopted the praenomen and nomen of the emperor Trajan (M. Ulpius
'l'raianus).
Similarly, when a noncitizen was accepted into a legion and
"What's
29. SeeSalway, in a Name?" 14l-42.
"What's
30. Salway, in a Name?" 13'l:'cf. 132-33.
 RomanNamesin GreekInscriptions | 125
I24 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy
'AQqoelorog'Aox),qrur,cr15 'Eniver,xog
civitas for merit Ztrlti,ou [Gaius Julius Rufus, also
thereby acquired civitas orwhen an auxiliary soldier acquired Epineikos, son of Zotaiosl (IPergamon485'
recording offrcer was likely kncrwn as Aphrodisios Asklepiades
or on receiving an honorable demobilization' the name, Gaius Iulius Rufus,
and nomen of the cur- LL.. 20-21), the individual had an offrcial Roman
to record the new citizen's name with the praenomen
name the new citizen had borne and his original name,AphrodisiosAsktepiadesEpineikos,son of zotalos, which
rent emperor and to convert the personal
imperial slave he had borne prior to his becoming a Roman citizen-
throughout his service into a cognomen'31A manumitted
current emperor' As a Agnomina arose from a variety of causesand origins. some were em-
*oolJ aho take the praenomen and nomen of the
given generation would ployed as honorary titles (cognominaex virtute), especially after the notable
result of such practices as these, many persons in a
an tlemonstration of an exploit or personal quality: for example, P(ublius) Cor-
sharethe samepraenomen and nomen' and the Praenomenlargely became
(as in Marcus Aurelius)' with no rrelius scipio was given the agnomen Africanus after his defeat of Hannibal.
invariable unit, along with the nomen
and nomina were often not Similarly, the agnomen Augustuswas given to Iulius CaesarOctavianus by the
onomastic utility. For this reason,praenomina
Senatein27 s.c.When foreigners(especiallyGreekfreedmen)were admitted
even recordedon epigraphicalrecords'
the trinominal and into a Roman gens, they sometimes retained their original personal name as
By the third century a.o', there are signs that both
Symptomatic of this trend an agnomen (though more often as a cognomen).
binominal systemswere beginning to break down'
(JrsiusAruntius Caianus Agnomina were also employed in naming adopted aristocratic children.
are such names as Julius Septimius Symmachusand
the first as a When a child or youth passedfrom one family to another by adoption, he
(IKibyra-Otbasa, rro' 134)' where two gentilicia are employed'
being used (as in would assume the three names of his adoptive father and convert his own
praenomen. There are even instances of three gentilicia -anus,
nomen gentilicium into an agnomen by adding the adjectival suffrx
Septimius (JrsiusCaius).32
thereby preserving Part of his artistocratic pedigree' Thus, after Gaius
"adoption" by Gaius
C)ctavius'spostmortem |ulius Caesar,he became Gaius
5.06 The Agnomen lulius CaesarOctavianus.Prior to his conversion, the apostlePaul was known
as )aoul./XqouqL, but shortly thereafter he is known by the Roman name
name being termed an
Some persons had extra cognomina' each additional ftcr0loE, his full name being Xa6f,og xcl fla0l.oE (Acts 13:9);apparently,
inscriptions' Roman
agnomen(additional name)33by grammarians'In Greek he adopted the cognomenof his first major convert' SergiusPaulus,procon-
(ot duo nomina) and were some-
ulno-inu were placedafter the tria nomina sul of Clprus (seeActs 13;4-12).36
(also known as)34(e.g.' [Kl']
times introduced with the formula xcri,
Tiberius Polycharmos'also
TtB6gloEIlol'lcrgpoE xoi, A1gr'oE[Claudius
be introduced with a 5.07 Roman Names of Women
koo*n as Achyrios])'35 The agnomen could also
xalopevog' ntxcrl'opevoE'
participialexpression'such as 6l,e1pevog, 'Iol"r'oE'Po0Qog xol In the Hellenistic and Roman periods, most women lacked a praenomen.
grrrrl,rtgris, o, 6 n),1Oeig.In the case of f' 'fheir
individuating name consisted of the nomen or cognomen of their
31. I am grateful to |oyce Reynolds for this observation' tther,in a feminine form for example,claudius (nomen) * claudia (seefig.
phenomenon can also be obserued in
32. See Kajanto , Latin Cognomina, 1'43' 172' This "The Inscriptions ll), Tullius (nomen) n Tullia, Pompeius (nomen) - Pompeia' Tertullus
baths at Kremna: see G. H. R. Horsley,
(cognomen)' Tertulla,Marius - Maria (Rom' 16:6),Julius' Julia (Rom'
i.r...iftior$ of early III n.o. fro- the
(1987):49-80'
f.orrrihe So-CalledLibrary at Cremna"' Anatst3T
33. Also known as a supernomen (surname)' double
name' or biname (see S 4'20); for a | 6:7).37Where there was more than one woman in thefamilia, such designa-
supernomina: A study in Latin Epigtaphy' ri<rnsas Maior (Elder) and Minor (Younger) might be adopted, or adjectives
detailed discussion of double names see Iiro Kajanto,
Scientiarum Fennica' 1966)' 95-103 (index); G' H' R' Horsley'
CHL 40.1 (Helsinki: Societas
"Names, Double," in The Anchot Bible Diaionary' 2d ed'' ed' David N' Freedman et al' (New "Der
36. See H. Dessau, Name des Apostels Paulus," Hermes44 (1910):347-68; cf. T. B'
York: DoubledaY'1992)'4:1011-17' "Cappadocia and Armenia Minor: Historical Setting of the Limes," ANRW II,7 .2 \1979)
M ittirrtl,
34.InLatln,agnomrnaareintroducedbyformulae(quiet'sive'vel'quivocitatur)andare l.r8 I n. 519; Mitchell, Anatolia, 2:7-9.
and..cognomen'
usually positioned between the nomen gentilicium 17. See Mika Kalaya, Roman Female Praenomina: studies in the Nomenclature of
Roman
35.SeeN.Vulic,..Inscription,g,"-cquesdeStobi'''BCH6|(|932):291_98;IludDonateurs lvrrlror, Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae(Rome: Institutum Romanum Finlandiae,1994).
Tiberius' are in reverseorder'
l8-19. Here, the praenomenand nomen' Claudius
 in Greeklnscriptions I
RomanNames tZl

lrasedon numerals might be added (e.g., Prima, Secunda,Tertia, Quarta,

Quinta).
Women began to appear with cognomina at the beginning of the first
centuryB.c.3sFrom that time onward, cognominabecomeincreasinglypopular
for women. With the increaseduse of cognominaamong women, the bound-
aries between the praenomen and cognomen began to fluctuate. For example,
sometimes a woman's praenomen was positioned after her nomen and was
thereby treated as a cognomen.3eWith the return to an essentiallybinominal
onomastic systemby the mid-third century A.D., all women bore cognomina as
well as nomina (e.g.,'Ioutri,crEru1ic, Oal"eqicr'Agr.oteivcr).40
Women's names in inscriptions are usually accompanied by a term of
relation, such as Ouytr1g,prltnp, e).Qf yuvt, or opBrog(e.g., Ocl.e-
giav Mcqxou Ouyotgc,[Valeria,daughterof Marcus [Valerius]]).ai When a
woman married, she normally retained her nomen (and cognomen):42thus,
the wife of Marcus Antonius Hermeias bore the name Claudia Erotion (i.e.,
"daughter
of Claudius Erotios/ias"), not Antonia Hermeia.a3Similarly, the
"daughter
wife of Stabulio bore the name Cornelia Fortunata (i.e., of Cornel-
ius Fortunatus").aa

5.08 Slavesof Roman Masters

The personal names of slaveswere often given to them by the slavedealersor

by their masters on acquisition. However, it is probable that some slaveswith
pronounceable foreign names might have retained them. A slavedid not have
a nomen, sincehe or shewas consideredto be a res(thing), that is, an object
that belonged to a free family. Accordingly, it was normal to write or speakof
"On
38. See L Kajanto, the First Appearance of Women's Cognomina," in Akten des Vl.
Internationalen Kongresses fr Griechischeund LateinischeEpigraphik (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1973),
402-4.
"Women's
39. SeeI. Kajanto, Praenomina Reconsidered,"Arctos 7 (1972):28-30.
40. IGUR I, 160 col. I, C 20; col. III, C l0 (Roman Campagna,e.o. 150).
"An
41. Cairo, late I-early ILr.r.; see Pieter I. Sijpesteijn, Unpublished Greek Funeral
Irrscription,"Mnemosyne3I (1978): 4f 8-20.
42. From I r.c. through the imperial period, husbands and wives sometimes have the same
nomen gentilicium; this may result from both being freed slavesof the same master, from the wife
being a freed slave ofthe husband, or ifthey happened to be cousins.
'Eqpeicr &gyuqotnou veonorot tci Ktrcoiog 'lgtotiou yuvctxg
43. M. Avrorvi.ou
r r u r o 0 ( a f t e rx . o . 4 l ; I E p h Y l , 2 2 I Z ) .
44. . . . r,ry Xrcputritovog otvprov Koqvqf,tov @opTouvd.rcrv(Tomis, II a.o. Ernst Pfuhl and
llans Mbius, Die OstgriechchenGrabreliefs,2 vols., DeutschesArchologischesInstitut [Mainz:
l'hilipp von Zabern, 19771,2:1606).
128 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy
"thing"
a slaveas a possessionof his masteror mistress,for example,a Julian
(res).This is the only sensein which a slavecould be associatedwith a nomen
gentilicium.
From the end of the Republic onward, the Latin convention of naming
slavesof Roman householdswas to cite the slave'spersonal name (and some-
times ethnic) followed by the owner's praenomen and nomen (or nomen and
cognomen) in the possessivegenitive. In Latin, the owner's name is accomPa-
nied by the word s(ervus), providing a model for some Greek inscriptions
(e.g., Eru1oE 'Ioul"log TcBil.l,lg o0l"og xtQc,yl,roxsuriE[Eutychos, slave
and businessagent of Julia Tabillel ITAMvll,442]). However, it was more
customary for the Greek formula to simply employ the possessivegenitive,
with no correspondingGreek term for servus(e.g., Ecv0oE AxLoglaiou
'OgBiou
[Xanthos,the Lycian, slaveof Gaius Orbius]).45Slavesoccasionally
had double names,someof which are aliasesor nicknames(e.g.,Al.lnvgog
BcrBl"l,logeuxlou [Alexander, nicknamed Babullios, slaveof Lucius]).46
5.09 Roman Names of Freedmen
Strictly speaking, only a slave who was liberated by a formal legal process
becamea Roman citizen and was therefore entitled to a full Roman name.47In
such cases,a new freedman (libertusldnetre0eqoE) would adopt his master's
praenomen and nomen gentilicium and (since he had no right to his master's
cognomen) would convert his original personal name into a cognomen.
The complete Roman name of a freedman in its Latin form would specifr
his legal status using the term l(ibertus), precededby the master's praenomen
(or nomen) in the genitive case.Thus, Cicero's slaveTiro adopted Cicero's
praenomen and nomen, Marcus Tullius, when freed, but not his cognomen
(Cicero),and he retained his personal name as a cognomen,thus becoming
M. Tullius M(arci) l(ibertus) Tiro. His praenomen,Marcus,would have been
uselessas an individuating name, since he shared it with all of Cicero's
freedmen.
Similarly, if Dionysodoros, slave of Cn. Domitius Gelasus,was manumit-
ted, he would be known as Cn. Domitius Cn. 1. Dionysodoros.4sThe male
45. Sounion, II/IILc,.o (IGII' 1366).
"Fouilles
46. Delos, ca. 99198n.c. (Pierre|ouguet, du port de D6los,"BCH 23 [ 1899]:56-85,
esp.64n , o.12,L.5).
47. SeeTheodore E. Mommsen, Ephemerisepigraphia:Corpus insciptionum latinarum supple-
"Les
tnefltutn, 9 vols. (Rome and Berolini: G. Reimerum, 1872-1913), 4:42; J. Hatzfeld, Italiens
r6sidant D6los mentionns dans les inscriptions de I'ile," BCH 36 (1912): 5-218, esp. I 38.
48. On Greeks adopting Roman names seeHorsley in NewDocs2.106-8.
RomanNamesin Greeklnscriptions | 129
slaveof a femalemasterwould often take the praenomenof his owner'sfather
and the nomen (in masculineform) of his femaleowner. Hence,Menophilus,
slaveof Livia Augusta (daughter of Marcus Livius Drusus) becameM(arcus)
Livius Aug(ustae)l(ibertus) Menophilos.ae
Greek inscriptions naming freedmen usually lack a term equivalent to
libertus and instead simply employ the genitive form of the master's prae-
nomen. This genitive can easilybe misunderstood as a filiation formula (seeS
5.lO;.soFreedmen sometimesadopted a different praenomen from that of
their master, at least prior to the end of the Republic. In the following two
examplesfrom Delos, two freedmen assumedthe nomina of their mastersbut
adopted new praenomina, Aulus and Numerius, respectively.
eEl,oE fllu,og Mcragxousr
[Aulus Plotius, freedman of Marcus [Plotius]l
Nep6pr,oEToutdgr,og fvalou52
[Numerius Tutorius, freedman of Gnaeus [Tortorius]]
Similarly, some Greek inscriptions omit the genitive formula that explicitly
cites the freedman's former master. For example, when the slave Et1r1g
lciou @oul.Biouwas manumitted by his masterf(c'rog) Ooul,BiogfI[oE, he
became simply f(o[oE) <Do],$rogEt1qg, not f(otog) @o].Brogfatou
Er1q9.53
5.f0 Distinguishing between Free Men, Freedmen, and Slaves
In inscriptions, it is often impossible to distinguish between free men
(ingenui),freedmen (liberti), and slaves.If the term uiE is used,the matter is
straightforward-the name refers to a free man. For example, efil"oE
Krrr,ogNepeqiou ui6E : Aulus Cottius Numerii f(ilius) (IDeIosIRD,p. 30).
However, absenceof the term ui6E is not grounds for concluding that an
individual was a freedman or slave:for example,Aexr,oEAipl,r,og llontri,ou
49. SeeJohn E. Sandys,Latin Epigraphy,2d ed., rev. S. G. Campbell (Carnbridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1927), 219-20.
50. See Gunther Zuntz, Aion, Gott des Rmerreichs,(Heidelberg: C. Winter Universitats-
verlag,1989),39-40 (SEG 39.r8r2).
51. : A(ulus) Plotius Marci l(ibertus); 150-125 a.c. (IDelosYl, 1732).
52. : N(umerius) Tutorius Gn(aei) l(ibertus); a.r. 113 (IDeIosYI, 1753).
53. Rome, II-III e.o. (A. Stein,BCAR 56 ll9Z8l: 302-3, no.27).
130 | to GreekEpigraphy
An lntroduction
could eitherbe freedor free,that is, either Lucius Aemilius Publii l(ibertus) or
Lucius Aemilius Publii f(ilius).saIn view of his Roman praenomen and no-
men, it is less likely that he was a slave' though many slavesdid bear Latin
names, especially in the western Mediterranean from the first century B.c.
"OgBr,og
onward; for example,the freedmanAextog Aeuxiou Ar,xivog (: L.
Orbius L. 1.) originally bore the Roman name Licinus as a slave.ss
Freed imperial slaveswho had formerly belonged to private citizens might
make reference to this in their filiation by citing two cognomina, with one
being the nomen of their previous master converted into a cognomen with the
sufflx -anus in addition to their praenomen converted into a cognomen.s6
However, this same onomastic pattern could also result outside of the impe-
rial family, so this suspicion can only take one so far.
Many slavesof the imperial age bore personal names of Greek or foreign
derivation. Upon manumission, these nameswere converted into cognomina.
Hence, individuals appearing in a Roman context (e.g., Italy) and bearing
Greek cognomina (e.g., e8l,og Kaotgi,xtoE A6xpou A1cr,g)s7 might be
freedmen. However, freeborn Greeks came to Italy in considerable numbers'
and many of these men either had Roman citizenship or acquired it while in
Italy; such personswould also bear Greek cognomina on their epitaphs and
on other inscribed monuments. Therefore, in reaching a judgment on
54. IDelosIRD, pp. 10, 137; similarly, neither does the term
"Popoiog necessarily indicate
that a person is freeborn, since it is also applied to fieedmen and slaves.
"Fouilles
55. See Marcel Bulard, de Ddlos," BCH 3I (1907): 421-529, esp. 440' no. 30'
According to Tenney Frank, a Greek cognomen indicates ihat a freedman came from the
hellenized half of the empire, though a Latin cognomen did not prove western origin, since these
too were given to easterners.M. L. Gordon ("The Nationality of Slavesunder the Early Roman
Empire," /RS la [1924]: 93-1ll) called Frank's approach into question by proving that Greek
names were sometimes borne by westerners. Thus, despite the fact that Greek names predomi-
nate among freedmen in imperial inscriptions, one cannot presume that the freedmen all came
from the Greek-speakingpart ofthe empire (cf. SusanTreggiari, Roman Freedmenduring the Late
RepublicfOxford: Clarendon, 19691,6-8).
56. SeeIiro Kajanto, Onomastic Studiesin Early Christian lnscriptions of Rome and Carthage,
Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae II.1 (Helsinki: Helsingfors, 1963),27i Henry Lemonnier, Etude
historiquesur la condition prive des affranchis a*x trois pretniers siclesde l'empire romain fParis:
H a c h e t t e ,1 8 8 7 1 , 1 7 6 ) .
57. IDelosIRD,p. 25. GeorgesFabre (Libertus:Recherches
sur lesrapportspatron-affranchi la
fin de la Rtpublique romaine [Rome: Ecole frangaise de Rome; Paris: E. de Boccard, 1981]' 93-
121, esp. 99 n. 5l) discussesthe use of the cognomen by Delian freedmen. Marie-Th6rse
Couilloud-Le Dinahet ("N6cropo1e delienne et epigraphes: Problmes d'interpr6tation," BCH
10S [1934]: 347-50) defends her view (contra Fabre) that persons in Delian epitaphs whose
names consist of a Latin praenomen, nomen, and Greek cognomen, without mention of the
former master in the genitive, were freedmen.
RomanNamesin Greeklnscriptions | 131
whether a particular individual was free, freed, or a slave,one must consider
the whole socialcontext and acceptthe real possibility of error.ss
5.1I The Transliteration of l-atin Names into Greek
The transliteration of Latin proper names into Greek varied over time as a
result of the evolving phonology and orthography of Koine Greek (seechap.
l5).5e Especiallyimportant was the rendering of the Latin v. Prior to the
secondcentury e.o., initial v was usuallytransliteratedas ou (e.g.,Vespasianus
* Oeonq,orav6g, Valerius - Ocrl,6qlog, Verus - 069o9, Varius -
Oagtog). Medial v was normally transliteratedas crou/eou(e.g.,Flnvius-
Ol,a,orog,Seyerus - )eoufrgoE,Avillius * Aoull,l.r,oE)or sometimesas ou.
This practice gradually died out in the third century and the fourth century
a.o.60Beginningin the secondcentury e.o., initial v and medial I beganto be
transliteratedas P (e.9., Victor - Bi,xtog, Vibius - Bei,Br,og,Venustus-
Bevo0orog, Valerius - Bal"glog, Flavius - 1"Br"og,Severus +
)eB{goE).6t This changein the transcription of y is attributable to the corre-
sponding phonetic shift of p from a stop (as in English bat) to a fricative (as in
Englishwood) (seeS 15.06).62
The latin ,r,rwas transcribed in Greek usually as ou (e.g., Lucius -
Aozlog, Augustus- Ayouorog) but also as su (e.g.,exrog) and o (e.g.,
Sulpicius* Xol,nixlos, Secunda* Xexva). The Latin o was normally
transcribed as trt (e.9., Antoninus *Avtovlvog), with the expectedinter-
changebetweenGreek ot and o (e.g.,Avrovivog).
The Latin short e was normally transcribed by e (e.9., Vestinus -
Oeoti,vog),but q is not uncommon; conversely,the long e is transcribedby
11,with the variant e. The Latin I fluctuatedbetweens and r (e.g.,operr.cvg/
58. On status indicators of freedmen and slaves see P. R. C. Weaver, Familia Caesaris:A
Social Study of the Emperor's Freedmen and Slaves (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1972),chap. 3; Lemonnier, Etude historiquesur la conditionprive des afranchk,176. Cf. Th.
Mommsen, RmischesStaatsrecht,3vols. (Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1887), l:323.
59. See Heil<ki Solin and Olli Salomies, Repertorium Nominum Gentilium et Cognominum
Lstinorum (Hildesheim and New York, 1988) (SEG 38.1993);cf. G. Purnelle,in SertaLeodiensia
St'cunda:Mlangespublispar lesClassiquesde Liged l'occasiondu 179 anniversairede I'Universit
( Lige: Universite de Lige, 1992),389-404 (SEG 43.1244).
60. In the transcription of the name Octavius, the v is sometimes omitted (e.g., 'Oxrr,oE,
'(
) x r r i e r o Ea, n d s o m e t i m e s ' O x r c u r o E ) .
61. Medial v after a was sometimes transliterated as o,ou.
62. SeeFrancis Thomas Gignac, Grammar of the GreekPapyri of the Roman and Byzantine
l'triods, vol. l, Phonology,Testi e Documenti per lo Studio dell'Antichit LV (Milan: Istituto
l i t fi t r r r i aef C i s a l p i n o ,1 9 7 6 ) , 2 3 3 .
132 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy Roman Namesin Greek lnscriltions I 133

Aopr,tr,cvE).The Latin ui was transcribed u, as one would expect (e.9., fAllLE I l. Greek Abbreviationsof Latin Names

Quietus* Kur.iltou, Quietianus- Kuurplcvg),63though the phonic inter- Praenomina

change between ou and c also gives rise to such orthographic variations as A, AY, AYA A)'oE [Aulus]
f, fA, TAI fniog [Gaius]
Claudius - Kl"oroE/KIr,oE, Faustus- (Da,otog/0otog, and Augustus
IN, fNA fvaioE [Gnaeus]
- Ayootorv/A1ootulv. A, AEK A6xr,pogIDecimus]
K, KO Koivtog, Koiwo lQuintus/-a] (abbreviated"Q" in Latin)
5.12 The Abbreviation of Praenomina ^, ^oY, ^oYK oxmg [Lucius],alsoAouxi]rrog/-i,c
M, MAP Mdqxog, Macgxog, Mcrgxla fMarcus/-ia]
T, IIO, TIOII, fInl"roE IPublius], alsoflon]ri]rr.oE,flon]"lxro g
In Latin inscriptions, Roman praenomina (when used) were always abbrevi- noY flopi"roE IPublius]
ated by suspension to the first one or two letters, according to a regular >, >E,>EE X6EroE[Sextus]
system of abbreviation. This practice is indicative of the fact that the >EP XqourogIServius]
T, TIT, sometimesTI Ti,rog [Titus]
praenomenwas subjugatedin importanceto the nomen. Roman praenomina' TI, TIB, sometimesT Tf 6qroE,TrBeqio ITiberius/-ia]
though abbreviated in inscriptions, were probably pronounced in full when
said aloud. DynasticNames
A, AY, AYP, AYPH Aqrlh,og, Agql.i,a [Aurelius/-ia]
Unlike Latin, Greek had no such standardized system of name abbrevia- AIA Ai).roE,Ail"ra IAelius/-ia]
tions (seeS 2.05-06). The useof the first one,two, three,or evenfour lettersin AN, ANT, ANTO AvrdvroE, Avrorvlo [Antonius/-ia]
abbreviating a given name was somewhat capricious. This fact, combined with AYI, AY|OY> Ayouotog [Augustus]
I, IO, IOY, IOYA 'IoIrog,'Ioul"[cr
the reality that the Greeksabbreviatedboth Greek and Latin names,resulted in []ulius/-ial
KA KIar,oE,Kl.aulcr IClaudius/-ia]
some degreeof ambiguity. For example,M could be usedto abbreviatenot only MAYP, MAP M(aqxoE)Aqql.rog,M. <u>qfi)"roE
the Latin names M&pxoE, Mcgxi.c, and Maglo but also the Greek names >, >8, >E, >EB XeBcotg,lepcoril fAugustus/-a]
McrxcploE, Maxcpic, and MgruE. However, when abbreviationsare taken TPA r Q0lovog I l ralanusl
OYA O)"nroE,O)"ni,cr(Ulpius/-ia)
in context, it is rare for there to be any difficulty; before interpreting the mean- o, o^, oAA Ol,ttBloE,tDlioBi,c[Flaviusi-ia]
ing of an abbreviation, it is necessaryto determine not onlywhether the individ-
ual is male or femalebut alsowhether the name is Roman or Greek.The abbrevi-
ated forms of fioE and fvoioE were C and CN becauseC originally had the names,such as T(itog) and Ol.(our,og).Though abbreviationsare attested
value of G in Latin. Table I I records some of the most frequently occurring earlier,66it was not until the second century A.D. that most of the set of
Greek abbreviations of Roman praenomina' as well as dynastic nomina.64 Roman praenomina and dynastic nomina (as well as many Greek personal
The use of abbreviations for names is sometimes indicated by an oblique names) had a more or lessstandard set of corresponding Greek abbreviations
stroke (asin AYP'), a horizontal S (asin AYP czr),or a suPerscriptbar (asin (seetable l1).
Ayp) (t.. S 2.05-06). The earliestextant abbreviatednamesof emperorsare
in the Nilometer inscriptions, dating from the reign of Augustus.6sSuch 5.13 Naming and Titular Conventions of Roman Emperors
abbreviations increased in frequency thereafter. The rise of the Flavian dy-
nasty (A.D. 69-96) coincided with the spread of abbreviations for other The formulae employed in the naming of the aristrocracy, including consuls,
prefects,and emperors,evolved over time and could be quite complex (see
63. However, Quintus is spelt Ko[vroE in earlier inscriptions and KuivroE in later ones.
Aquila normally appearsas Axla. the works on titulature in this chapter's supplementary bibliography). With
64. For abbreviations of Greek proPer names see M. Avi-Yonah, Abbreviations in Gteek
Inscriptions (The Near East,200 B.c.-A.D. Il0), Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in 66.8.g., Koi.o(cgoE) (Theban graffrti [IEgBaillet 2.399, no. 1587; 271, no. 12061);
'Hpod(ei\E),
Palestine Suppl. to vol. 9 (London: Oxford University Press, 1940); reprinted in Al. N.' (comp'' XoQgv(ou), flooer(ou), ncpQil(ou), Mg(<rrvog), Xrqcrve(xoE),
'Apcrp(i,oxou'l),
Greek Abbreviations: Abbreviations in Greek Inscriptions, Papyri, Manuscripts, and Early Printed uor(orgctou?), Avrro0(6vqS), AtreEcv(gou), Aqtot(iorv?), :cpB(iorv)
Books (Chicago: Ares, 1974), l-125. l l l \ t n t E u x I I , 2 5 - 3 1 , n o . 2 9 B ) . C f . C I G 4 8 6 3 ( t i m e o f S e p t i m i u sS e v e r u s ) ; I G R RI , 1 3 1 7 ,L . 6 ;
"Some ( : l ( ) 4 9 2 2 ,1 . .8 .
65. SeeJ. A. R. Munro, Pontic Milestones,"/HS 20 (1900): 159-66' esp. 163.
134 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy
respectto imperial titulature, the basic order of information is, first, the
emperor's full name (praenomen, nomen' filiation, cognomen' agnomen)'
followed by his official titles. In addition to this offrcial titulature, optional
titles could alsobe added:among theseareEoeBf 5 (Pius),Etu1i15(Success-
ful), EeqyrqE(Benefactor),Xtot{q (Savior),'Agrorog (Noblest), and oth-
"one
ers (e.g.,Tgonalo1oE, to whom trophies are dedicated"). Following
Elagabal, all emperors assumed the title Pius Felix AugustuslBaelqg
Eru1qg )eBootg (or InvictusAug.) upon their succession.
5.13.1Praenomen
In 38 s.c., Augustusabandonedthe praenomenGaius,substitutingin its place
"one who deserves reverence."67This
crroxgrrrrqlimp(erator), meaning
changeemphasizedhis new role in contrast to his previous role astriumvir and
military despot. Following the example of Augustus, many other emperors
adopted the praenomen Atoxgottrlg, but this usagewas not uniform; in some
instances,Ariroxgtolg precedes,rather than replaces,the original praenomen
(e.g.,Aritoxgtogc Tfqrcv; seeS 5.13.11[no. 12]). Someinscriptionsomit
it altogetherpreferringother titles(e.g.,veg'T{}'roE;seeS 5.13.11[no. 15]).
5.1i.2Nomen
The cognomen of the gens Iulia was CaesarlKoioclQ.Augustus substituted
this cognomen in place of his adoptive nomen (Iulius), thus becoming
Aroxparop Kaioog. By the Flavian period, the conjunction of Imperator
with Caesar(Aroxgrop Kciooq) had come to be so closely associated
with imperial power as to become increasingly the unchanging starter to each
emperor's title, followed by whatever each felt to be the most distinctive
feature(s)of his name.
5.13.3Filiation
Following the praenomen and nomen gentilicium comes the filiation. The
imperial father of the emperor is named according to his cognomen (or
occasionallyhis nomen). Some emperors expanded this formula to include a
third or fourth generation, as follows:
67. For a discussion of the origin and evolution of the title atoxprorq (: impetator) see
chryses P6l6kidis,Me),teEqloicE iotoqi,crE(Jannina,Greece1979),9-31 (Robert, BE [1981]:
143a).
RomanNamesin Greeklnscriptions | 135
nomen/cognomenof the grandfather(gen.) + uirovdE/xyovogln(epos)
nomen/cognomen of the great-grandfather (gen.) * noyovoElpron( epos)
In many instances,the emperor is describedas deified or divine (0eog/
divus).The Iulii claimeddescentfrom the godsand the kings of Rome through
Iulius Caesar.Hence, Augustusand Tiberius employedthe phrase0eo0 u[E
(see,e.g.,S 5.13.I I [nos. 6, 7, 9, 10, I 1] ) to indicatethat they were sonsof the
deifiedfulius Caesar(0eo0'Iou)"i,ou ui6E;seeS 5.13.11[no. 5]) and Augustus
(0eo0 )eBcroro0 uiv; seeS 5.13.11[no. 12]), respectively. In other words,
"God"
they were acclaimed not as sons of but as sons of their deified forebears
(see5 14.08).68 The title 0eo0 ui6g servedto make the emperor higher in status
than mortals but not fully equal to the Olympian gods. In e.o. 54, Nero
permitted his predecessor,Claudius, to be named divus, thereby becoming
himself divi flius (e.g., 0eo0 Kl.ouiou uig), that is, "the son of deified
Claudius." Since Vespasiancould not claim descent from the divi who pre-
ceded him, he did not adopt the terminology of the cult of the emperor. Only
after his death was he raised to the rank of divus.
5.13.4Cognomenand Agnomen
The cognomen )e Bcotg/A ug(ustus)was employed as a title of honor by Iulius
CaesarOctavianus and subsequentlyadopted by all his successorsas a cogno-
men. Many emperors from Domitian onward adopted the title )eBcrorg
legpavlx6glAugustus Germanicus.In some cases,the original tria nomina of
the emperor is sandwichedbetweenArltolrQoroe Kaioog and XeBaorE.By a
kind of fictitious adoption, Hadrian assumed his predecessor'scognomen,
Tqa'tav\ElTraianus, along with his own.
Additional names (agnomina) (see S 5.06) might also be added, such
as flcg0rx6g (Myrorog)/Pcrthicus (Maximus),6e AgoBlxgiA rabicus,T 0
68. According to S. R. F. Price ("Gods and Emperors: The Greek Language of the Roman
Imperial Cult," /HS 104 [1984]: 79-95),the usageofOeE in imperial titulature is different from
the use ofLatin divus, and the phrase 0eo0 ui6E is not a translation equivalent of divi fiIius, since
OtE was also used of living emperors. Price argues that in ritual practice, emperors were not
cquated with gods but were located somewhere between the human and the divine; against this
position, Philip Harland ("Honours and Worship: Emperors, Imperial Cults, and Associations at
liphesusIFirst to Third Centuriese.o.]," Studiesin Religion25, no. 3 [ 1996]:319-3a) has argued
that the emperors and gods were both equated in a sacrificial context and that they did function
.rs gods within the cultic activity ofthe cities.
69. By Trajan, M. Aurelius, L. Verus, Sept. Severus,Caracalla, Gallienus, Claudius II, and
. e e$ 5 . 1 3 . 1 1( n o s .3 9 , 4 2 , 4 4 - 4 5 , 5 2 - 5 3 ; I I c q . M 6 y . a t n o s . 5 2 - 5 4 ) .
A r r r e l i a nS
70. By Sept.Severusand Caracalla,see5 5.13.11(no. 54).
136 | to GreekEpigraphy
An Introduction
Ar,cBqvr.xglAdiabenicugT I and B geravvw5/Britannicus.T2 Emperorsaftct
Augustusaddedother titles of honor, usuallyclaiming somecleargrounds fot ,
doing so, especiallyvictory in battle. The most important of these titles an
listed in sections5.13.5-10.
5.I 3.5 A g1leg eE (Mylor og)| Pont (ifex) M ax (imus)
In 12 r.c., Augustuswas made g1rcqegp6ylotog (pontifexmaximus),thtl
is, the president of the priestly college of pontiffs. Thereafter, the pontificatc
was bestowedon all his imperial successors'73
5.13.6 * ncrr,oslCo(n) s( ul)
The particular consulship in the rule of the emperor is usually enumerated.t'
The customary formula is natog r * ordinal number * &,noeer,ypvoy' I
(having been proclaimed consul x times).
%o0orqpr6voE
5.13.7 Alroxqarop I Imp ( erator)
A repetition of the term atoxqtaplimperafor indicates the number of
times the emperor had been saluted with this title, counting from the first
salutation of his accessionto emperor (e.g', ctoxgcrtogc, t vxatorr
[saluted as emperor eleven times]). When atoxgaro4 aPpearswith no
numeral, it indicates the period following his first salutation. This title some-
times appearslast in the naming sequence.
5..l3.8 Aq pcrg Xrxt'EEou o'ta.I Trib (unicia) Potestas
The most highly publicized power conferred on the emperor was his
tribunicia potestas.This power was conferred shortly after his elevation as
emperor and was renewedeachyear thereafter,thus numbering the yearsof
T l . B y S e p t . S e v e r u s a n d b y C a r a c a l l a ( s e e $ 5 . 1 [3n. o1 '15 a ] ) ' a n d b y C o n s t a n t i n e .
7 2 . S e e5 5 . 1 3 . 1 1( n o . 5 3 ) .
73. SeeHugh J. Mason, Greek Termsfor Roman lnstitutions: A Lexicon and Analysis, Ame'
can Studiesin Papyrology13 (Toronto: Hakkert, 1974),196-
74. On the twenty-eight governors of praetorian imperial provinces styled ltrtlx5/
*YnntrxoL
consularisfrom II-III r.r. seeBernard R6my, et consulares
rialespretoriennes au II' at III" sicles,"I'atomus 45 ( 1986):I I I -38 (ct. .SFl(;36 1525).
his reign and marking the beginning of the regnal (but not calendar)yearTs
230-56; De Imperatoribus Romanis, an on-line encyclopedia of Roman emperors, <httpll
dans les provincesimp-
RomanNamesin Greeklnscriptions I tZl
(e.g.,qpaqlrxilg [ouoi,aEr xrov [in the sixth tenure of his tribunician
power]). The first conferment is cited without a numeral.
5.13.9 T(e ) ryryqgl Censor,AvOnc,roE/ Proconsul
The office of r(e )r.pqrqglcensorwas held by Claudius,Vespasian,and Titus.
Domitian expanded this title to crivr,oEr,L1tlxhslcensor
perpetuus.Since this
latter title gave offense, it was dropped thereafter. The title &vOncrog/
proconsul was adopted by Trajan and was adopted by later emperors when
they were outside of Italy (i.e., in one of their provinces) and were thus
exercising their proconsular power in the manner for which it had originally
been devised.
5.13.10 florlq flarplog/P(c ter) P (atriae)
The title ficrrile narpl"\oElpater patriae, "father of the country," was con-
ferred on Augustus in 2 s.c. and on all succeedingemperorsexceptTiberius
(who refusedit), Galba,Otho, and Vitellius (nos. 16, 2I,29, a5). By the time
of Domitian, it was usually placed last in the list of titles.
5.1i.11 ChronologicalList of Roman Emperorswith Exempla
The following list provides the full names and dates of the rule of all Roman
emperorsthrough to Constantine,beginningwith fulius Caesar(though not an
emperor himself). The namesand datesare followed by examplesof references
taken from the Greek epigraphicalrecord. This list should be supplemented
with additional information, such as the specific dates in which an emperor
receivedthe tribunicia potestasfor the first time, held a consulship,washonored
with an imperial acclamation, or received a surname associatedwith a victory
(e.g.,Parthicus,Germanicus,etc.).These elementsof imperial nomenclature
provide invaluablechronologicalcriteria for dating inscriptions.They can be
obtained from Dietmar Kienast's Rmische Kaisertabelle: Grundzge einer
rmischen Kaiserchronologie.76
7 5 . S e e5 6 . 0 1 .
76. (Darmstadt: WissenschaftlicheBuchgesellschaft,1990.) Seealso Sandys,Latin Epigraphy,
www.salve.edu/- dimaiom/deimprom.html); Rulersof the Roman and ByzantineEmpires:753
t -( .- A.D. 1479 <http: l l w.nwitt.dircon.co.uk/roman/).
138 An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy Roman Names in GreekInscriptions | 139
|

The Julio-Clauilian Dynasty (49 n.c.-e.o. 68) 1r"xflElouoiog t Extov, nsrov &noeeryp6vovr r6ro,prov, cro-
xqc,roqa r v6xcrrov,rrq,r6Qq,
noreaoE(SIG380lC)
lulius Caesa{7(GaiusIulius Caesar,dictator) 49-44 s.c.
I fciov'Iol.r,ov Kclocrga &p1leq6crxqi r,xrqrtogc (SIG3759) l7 TLBeqlouKl.auiou Kai,oo,qoE(S1G3806)
2 fcr'r,ov'Iol,rov laiou uibv Koiooga, tv g1tego xoi roxqcrtoqc Nero80(L. Domitius Ahenobarbus,b. 15 Dec.a.o. 37; adoptedby Ti. Claudius
xoi t eteqovncrtov (SIG3760) Caesar;his name was combined with the name of his adopted father and
3 foirp'Ioul.irg fotou ueiQ Kcriooqr,(S1G3763, L. 5) with the name of his maternal great-grandfather [Nero Drusus Ger-
4 fioE Kaiocg crtoxqrrrrq(SIG3764' L. l0) manicus], and he became known as Ti. Claudius Drusus Germanicus
AugustusTs (C. [:Gaius] Octavius, b. 23 Sept. 63 s.c.; after postmortem Caesar;from e.o. 54 to 68, known as Nero Claudius CaesarAugustus
adoption by C. Julius Caesar,C. Iulius CaesarOctavianus;first imperator; Germanicus)13 Oct. e.o. 54-9 Iune e.o. 68
title Augustusconferred 16 Jan.27 t .c.) 27 n .c.-19 Aug. a 'o . 14 l8 N6gorvoKlar,ov OeoKl.ouiou uiv, Tfeqiou Kcioa,qog XeBo,oro0
'Ioutriou uiE nat6E re r rQirov xoOt- zal feqpavr.xo0 Kcrlocgog xyovov, 0eo0 XeBaoro0 &nyovov, Kai-
5 Atoxpctoe Ko0ocre 0eo0
otc,p6voE(S/G3768;before 27 s.c') ocqa )e Baorv feqpcvr.xv, q1r,eg6o,rlpcrglrx{1glouoicrg,aroxeo-
6 Atonqoroeo Ko[oQs 0eo0 uiv (SIG3769;befote27 s.c.) roqc (S1G3808)
7 Atoxparoe Kq,CooQ0eo0 uiirE )eBoor5, &g1r,eqeE,notoE r l9 N6gow Kl.otoE, 0eot K),auiou ui6g, Tfegiou Kclocrqog )eBcrorot
oxcrrov &noeerypvoE xi qpcrqltxflg 6louo[aE tb xrtor.xar6- xai fegprc,vlxo0Kaioo,qoEyyovog,Oeo)eBooro0 nyovog, Kc0ocrq
xrov (sIG3 780) XeBcorElegpc,vr,xg,g1r,egeE, qpcqpxflE 6fouolog, ctoxpcrt'rp
(src3 810,L. 5)
8 Arorpctoeog Kai,oqQoE>Boorot (S1G3781)
20 N6q<ovogKl,ouiou Kcri,ocqog)eBcroto0 (SIG3814, col. III25)
9 AtoxpctoQoE 0eo0 )eBcroto0 r yoov ntou (SIG3785' L. 19)
10 Atoxparoecr Koi,oqQaOev0eo0 uirv )eBcrotv zuegy6qv (SIG3778)
The Year of the Four Emperors (e.o. 68-69)
(Ti. Claudius Nero, b. 16 Nov. 42 s.c'; after adoption, Ti. Iulius
TiberiusTe ()alba(Sewi:usSulpiciusGalba,b.24Dec.3 n.c.) 8 june a.o. 68-15 Jan.e.o. 69
Caesar)19 Aug. a.o. 14-16 Mar. e'.o.37
Orfro(MarcusSalviusOtho, b. 28 Apr. t .o.32) 15 Ian.-16 Apr.69
11 Tfpr.ov Kaiocrgcr0eo0 uiv XeBcotv otllrnQcreuegy6rav(S1G379lA)
Vitellius(AulusVitellius,b.T [or24?]Sept.t.o.t2 [or l5?]) 2Jan.-20Dec.69
l2 Atox,paroeo TrP6QrovKcrioagcr0eo0 )eBaoro0 uiv )tBcorv (S1G3
79rB) 'fhe
Flavian Dyasty (t'.o. 69-96)
l3 Aroxporoeog TtpeQiou Koioagog XeBaotoui6v (S/G3792) Vcspasiansl (TitusFlavius82Vespasianus,b. l7Nov.a.o.9) I luly69-23lune79
Caliguln (C. [:Gaius] CaesarGermanicus,b. 3l Aug. t.o. 12; son of Ger- 2 I Aroxgcroqr. KcrCocqrOeonq,orqvQ)eBootQ g1wqeI peyiotrgr1pc-
manicus; grandson of Drusus I, who was the younger brother of Tiberius; exr,{qE louoiag r ntoxqaroer r narqi narqioE narrp r &no-
"Gaius "Caligula"
commonly called Caesar"; nicknamed by his father's eerypvrg r reryqtfr (SEG28.1218)
soldiers)18 Mar. d.o. 37-24 Ian. .t.o. 41 J2 Atoxqoropr OeonoorcrvQKclocQr >spoorQ (SEG31.851)
14 laiov Kcrloagcr(SIG3798, L. 1) l.l Atoxeuroeog Tlrou O].aoulou Kaioagog )eBaoto0 (SEG35.14S3)
foioE Kciocg XeBcrotElegpavtxE (SIG3798' L. 3)
l5 veg'T{}.r,oE '/'ilus83
(Titus FlaviusVespasianus, b. 30 Dec. a.o. 39?) 24lune 79-13 Sept.8l
Claudius(Ti. ClaudiusDrusus [?], b. 1Aug. 10 B.c.;younger son of Drusus I; 14 Ti,rou Koioaqog )epcroro0 (SIG3817.5)
brother of Germanicus)24 lan.,l.o.41-13 Oct. a.o. 54 J5 Aroxgarogog Tirou Kai,ocqoE (SIG3SIS)
16 TrBgrov KtrcrtovKciocrqcr )eBootv fegpc,vlxv, &q1rcqfl, qpag-
ttt).E.g., SEG 26.1270, 1754, l8t6;28.885; 31.919, 920, 1363; 32.251, 1605;34.182, 1122,
I tl(,, 1594.
rll. E.g.,SEG 26.1665, I801, 1841;29.579;31.107t; 34.t312.
77. E.g., SEG26.124r,27.484, 30.1617,34.177.
tt2. SeeT. V. Buttrey, DocuffientaryEvidencefor the Chronologltof the Flavian Titulature, BKP
7S. E.g., SEG 26.1243,1269, 1392, 1824;27.385;29.125'167-68, 1646: 30.1246-47, 1255'
I l l ( M e i s e n h e i ma m G l a n :A . H a i n , 1 9 8 0 )( c f . S E G3 0 . 1 8 1 3 ) .
1627; 31.108; 32.833, 874, lO97, 1128, 1135; 33.464; 35.612l,35.744' L. 35; 35' I I 30' I I 69'
tr.].ll.g., .SE()30.I 63 I ; 3 1.943, 107| ; 32.1635;35.1483.
7 9 . E . g ' ; E G 2 6 . 1 2 6 9 , 1 3 9 2 ; 2 8 . 1 0 8 0 , 1 2 0 5 ; 3 0 . 1 6 4 5 ; 3 1t 5. 1l 61;03s2' . 1 1 6 3 ; 3 3 . 1 0 8 9 ; 3 5 ' 5 0 8 '
140 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy
26 Tkop Kaiooqu OeoncrorcrvQoroxgtoQt rb q1'egei qpoqltxflE
fouoi,crEt ncrtq t roeer,lpev<ptb terprltfl (SEG28'1218)
27 Ais"toxparog Tirov olar,ov oeoncrousvv Kai.ocrgc )epcotv (sEG
3r.943)
28 Aroxgtrroeq Ko,ioctQtr,0so0 Xepaoro0 uiv, Ti'rov OeonaoLovv
)eBaotv &g1wqa p6yrotov (SEG30.1635)
- 42 Aroxqartrlg Ko,0ocrg,OeoTqcriavo0 flag0rxo0 ui6E, 0eo0 Negocr
Domitiansa(Titus FlaviusDomitianus,b. 24 Oct. A.D.5 1) 14 Sept.8 I I 8 Sept'
96
29 Aroxgtorq Kcrioa,q, 0eo0 Oeoncrorcrvoouig foperr'avE] Xepa-
orrEleppovr,x6E, q1,egeg p6yrotoE, qproQxtxflgfouoiag t 0,
atoxgrorq t xcr, notoE t le', teryqtilg i Biou, lcrtilg xtclrQios
(src3 82lC)
30 Ariroxgcrroe Koiooecr Aoprrrqvv )eBaotv legpcrvr,xbv (SEG
32.109e)
31 AtoxqcrroQoE ^optrn,vo0 Ko,[oqQoS >spooro0 feQpovtxo0 (SIG
821D-E)
32 Kupiou AroxgrogoE aoprrrcrvo0 KoiocrgoE )epaoto0 I-egpnvrxoo
(sEG 7s8)
Nervass(M. CocceiusNerva, b. 8 Nov. e.o. 30) 18 Sept.96-27? Jan' 98
33 @eo0N6goucr(SEG30.1308)
34 AtoxqcrroQ N6QouovKci,ocrgcr)e Bcotv (SEG27 '918)
Trajans| (M. Ulpius Traianus,b. 18 Sept.e'o. 53?;adoptedby Nerva in 98, a
few months before Nerva's death) 28 Jan.98-7 Aug. 1I7
35 AroxqcrroQ0N6Ql3qvTqcricrvbvKcrioaga,Xepcotv feqpcrvrxv acrx-
rxv'Agr,otov (SlGr 8258)
36 AtoxgroQ KGiooQ TgaicrvE (SEG32.1202)
37 Aroxqroet NsQogTgar,crvQKaioqr, XeBcot(r feqpavtrQ Acxt'xrQ
(sEG 28.86e)
38 Atoxgtogog Neqoa Tgonvo0 Kcrioagog XeBa'oto0 fegpovr'xo0
Aaxtxot (SEG30.1308)
HadriansT(P. Aelius P. f. SergiaHadrianus,b.24 lan. t.o.76; adoptedby
Traian when Trajan was on his deathbed) 1l Aug. i17-10 July 138
84. E.g.,S.EG27.1009- 10;29.I I 00- l0 1; 30.1749;3 l. 107I ; 34'1577; 35'1483 On titulature of
(Frankfurt:
Domitian see Alain Martin, La titulature 4pigraphique de Domitien' BKP 181
Athenaum, 1987) (cf. SEG37.1773)-
85. E.g.,S-EG35.706,7s3-54.
1246,1271'1826-27;28.738'
36.E.g.,SEG26.242,959, 3l 404,953,
884;29'rr02;30'1308;
35.254,753-54'
33.1129;
1124,1300,l4IO;32.1550;
87.E.g., SEG26.125, 1273, 1486;27'809;28.562;29.1283;30'89; 3l'173; 32'185' 253' 255'
1244;34.156.On the awardingof the title ugust4to SabinaseeSEG 32' 1639'
Roman Namesin Greeklnscriptions I l4l
39 Aroxqaroeo Ko,i,ooeo, 0eo0 Tgcio,vo0 Aaxr,zo0 flcg0lxo0 uiv,
0eo0 Ngpa uiorvg, Tqoicrvv'Aqravbv XeBcorv (SIG3 829C; cf.
8298)
40 AtoxgcrtoqoE Ko,iocreogTeo[vo0'Aqrcrvo0 Xepaoro0 (SIG3830, L.
f ,
4l Tqaiavo0'Aglcrvo0 Kaiocrpog (SIG3842)
'Agrovg
uicrrvg, TqaiavE )eBoorE, q1r,eqeE pyrcrog,
qpog1r,xflglouolog, r ', nq,rogr y (S/G3833;cf. 831-33, 537-38)
43 Aroxgcroqr,'Aqr,c,vQ oaxfrqr (SIG3835)
44 AroxgoroQo, Koioogo 0eo0 Tqa'r,o,vo0flag0lxo8 ui6v, 0eo0 N6qB
'Aqr.crv6v
uiovdv, Tqaiovv )eBaorv, &g1wq6c p6yr.orov, r1pc,-
QXrxqE fouoicrEr vcrrov,narov t tqlrov (S1G3336)
The Antonines (A.D. 138-92)
AntoninusPias88(T. Aurelius Fulvus Boionius [Arrius] Antoninus, b. l9 Sept.
,r.o. 86; after adoption by Hadrian, T. Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius)
l 0 l u l y 1 3 8 - 7M a r . 1 6 1
45 AriroxgcrtrlQ Ko,iocr,Q,0eo0'Aqr,avo0 uig, 0eo0 Tgaicvo0 flaq0r-
xoO uiovdE, 0eo0 Negocrxyovog, Ti,roEAll,r,og'Aqrovg'Avtqrve-
ivoE Xe$oor5, &q1mgeElryroroE, rlpcqpxflg louoicrE r [- -],
croxgatolq r B, ncrroErb y, xrortQ rrorQiog (S1G3849; cf. 850 and
8 5 1 ,L . 1 5 )
46 AroxqcroQog Koi,ooQoET. Ail,rcu'Aqrovo0 vrorvei,vou )eBaoro0
EoeBo0E(SIG3ss2)
MarcusAureliusse([M. Annius?] Catilius Verus, b. 26 Apr. e.o. 121;adopted
by his uncle Antoninus Pius as M. Aelius Aurelius Verus) 7 Mar. 16l-17
Mar. 180
47 M(aqzou) Aqn),iou Oriqgou KnloagoE (SEG2S.59S)
48 AroxgaroQo KoiooQo M. Aqtl,rov vrovlvov XeBcrorvp1rpo
p6yr.orov,qpcqlrxfE louolcrg r r,g',ncrrov r y' (SEG 33.520)
L. Verus (L. Ceionius, b. 130; adopted by Antoninus Pius as L. Aurelius
Commodus;took name Verus on becomingjoint emperor) 7 Mar.16I-69
Commodus(L. Aurelius Commodus, b. 3l Aug. a.o. 16l; ruled jointly in a.o.
176-80) 17 Mar. 180-31 Dec. 192 (soleemperor)eo
a9 A. Aqtl.tos Koppoog (SEG28.598)
88. E.9., 58G 26.147,168, 171, 1220;28.195,198; 29.152;30.1310; 32.256,1447;33.893.
89. SeeSEG 26.690,784, 1652;28.1458;29.692;33.52O;34.1090, I 309- 10; 35.13I 8.
9 0 . E . g . ,S E ' G2 6 .1 2 8 ,1 4 4 0 ;2 8 . 5 9 8 2
; 9 .I 1 0 8 - 9 ; J 2 . r 2 7r ; 3 3 .I 1 3 3 ;3 5 . 1 3 5 9 .
142 | An lntroduction to GreekFpigtaphy RomanNames
in GreekInscriptions I tal

50 Ariroxqcroe Kcrioae [M. Aq. Kppoog n EoeFtS (SlGi 873) Muximinus Thrax (C. Iulius Verus, b. a.r. 172 or 173) Feb./Mar. 235-Apr.?
Pertinax (P. Helvius Pertinax,b. I Aug. r'.o.126) 3l Dec. 192-28 Mar. 193 238
DidiusIulianas(M. Didius SeverusIulianus,b.30 Jan.e.o. 133) 28 Mar.-l 5tt AtoxgroeoE Koi,ooqoEl.'Ioul". O[4qou Malr,pi,[vou )eBaoro0 ncri,
iune 193 uio0 aro0 Kci,oc,gogf .'Ioul,. Mflcllpivfiou )epcoto0'Enr,velxrc, (SEG
26.t26r).
The Severans(e.,p, 193-337) (iordian I (M. Antonius Gordianus,b. e.o. 158 or 159?)Ian.?238
SeptimiusSeveruset (L. SeptimiusSeverus,b. ll Apr. a.o. 145) 9 Apr. L93-4 ()ordian11(b. e.n. 192)Ian.?238
Feb.211 59 Aroxquropr, Kci,ocqr,M. Avr<rrviq loglcvQ EoeBeCEru1e[ )eB.
5l Aroxqattrrg . )entlpr,oE Xeuflgogfleqtival Xepoot6g (SIG3875) (s1G3888)
52 ... tv xuplorv aroxgcrqtov Aouxlou )entpiou Xeu{1gouEoeBo0g I'upienus(M. Clodius PupienusMaximus, b. ca.a.o. 164) Jan./Feb.-May?238
fleqrivaxoE )eBuoto0 AqcrBr.xonBqvlxo0 llcrg0r,xo0 Meyiotou Ilulbinuses(D. CaeliusCalvinus Balbinus)lan./Feb.?-May?238
zol Aouxiou Xenruplou ltc KcriocrqoEx,oi'IoutricE )eBootfrE pqraE ()ordian IIIe6(M. Antonius Gordianus,b. 20 Jan.225 or 226?)Ian.lFeb.?238-
xrl.. (IGRR IV,468; CIG 6829) 244
Caracallae2 (SeptimiusBassianus,b. 4 Apr. a.o. 186 [or 188?];elder son of o0 Ariroxqatogr KaiocQr M. Avroviol foqlcvdl Eoepei Eru1e0
SeptimiusSeverus;named M. Aurelius Antoninus in e.o. 186;joint em- )epcrorQ, &gpegei peyiotq qpoqpz'i1E louoiag r B, nrq,
peror from 3 May 198)4 Feb.211-8 Lpr. 217. n(crgi,) n(otqioE) (SEG34.614).
53 Aroxqcrroe KoCooQMdqxog Agr1l.r,oE Avtorveivog EoeBqE)epc- 6l Tv pyrotov xqi, 0etorcrrovKai,oagu M(gzov) Avrvlov foqr,avv
org flag0rxE p6yrctoE, Bgetawr,zg p6yroroEfeqpcrvrxE p6ytotog (sEG 28.s86).
(src3883) I'hilippusArabs (M.Iulius Philippus, A.D. 204?)244-Sept./Oct.249. his son,
'Aga- who had the samename and was joint ruler in 247-49, was given the titles
54 ... (oritoxgarogog) Mogxou Agq)'lou Avtorveivou )eBooto0
Brxo AraBqvrxo0 flcrg0rxo0 Mey'uotou (IGRR IV, a68; CIG 6829) Caesarin 244, Augltstusin 246, and Germanicusand Carpicusin 248.
Macrinus (M. Opellius Macrinus, b. e,.o.164 or 166) 11 Apr. 217-8 June ZLB (r2 O(e)r.orrou qroxQroQog M(cqxou)'Ioul"lou (Drl.innou )eB(cro-
Elagabale3 (Varius Avitus, b. e.o. 203 or 204?;addressedby soldiers as M. to0) (SEG28.s9r).
Aurelius Antoninus) 16 May 218-l I Mar. 222 Irccius(C. MessiusDecius,b. e.o. 190 or 200?)Sept./Oct.249-lune25l.
'AlelavQou Eoelpo0g tr.l Aroxgordqorv lqitrrv Meoolorv Kuivrorv Tgaiavdrv exi,rrrv:e0F13.
55 To0 xueiou ilpunv fArox. M. Aq. )eB.
Eru1o0g )eBcroto (SEG33.1136) xni'Eqevv.'Erqouoxi.Il"c XeB. (SIG3890)
'I'rcbonianus
SeverusAlexanderea ([M. Iulius Gessius?]BassianusAlexianus,b. I Oct. a.o. Gallus (C. Vibius TrebonianusGallus) June?251-Atrg.?253
208?;after adoption on l0 July 221,M. Aurelius SeverusAlexander) 13 ,'\cmiliusAemilianus(M. Aemilius Aemilianus,b. 207 or 214) lulylhtg.-Sept./
Mar.222-Feb.lMar.235 Oct. 253
56 At(oxgtoQo) Koi(oogo) M. Aqf1l.r,ovXeouflgov Al,6lav gov, Eo- YtlerianeT(P. Licinius Valerianus, b. 200) fune/Aug. 253-lune? 260
eprl, Eirulrl, Xepcotdv (SIG3886) tr.l AtoxgroQcr Koiocrqa fl6nl.r.ov lxlvvlov Ocrl.eglcrvdvXepcrot6v
57 Tbv 0eo$r.l.eotctov crtoxgotoQo xci tfrg oixoup6vqg &noqE eonotqv (src3891)
Mcq(xov) Aq(qhov) )eouffqov ['A].[avpovl Xepcotv (SEG31.677). (b. ca.213)Sept./Oct.
t)ttllienuses 253-Sept. 268
tr5' AroxecrrogcrKcriocrqaflonl.r,ovAr,zi,vvrovfotrlrqvv, euoeBfl,eur-
91. E.g., S-EG 26.1365, 1383; 27.9r9; 28.871, 1209; 29.802; 30.131; 31.1294-95; 33'166; uX{, XeBoorv(S1G3 892)
34.187:.35.753, 1414.
92.E.g.,|EG26.1365;27.921-22,940;28.871;29.1345;30.1331;3r.1295;32.1473;33.775, e5. Fl.g.,SEG32.1312.
L097; 34.187; 35.1375, 1414. e6. F..9.,SEG30.782,32.1312,34.1519.
93.8.g., SEG29.1281. e7. F..9.,SEG28.592.
94. 8.g., SEG26.192,835;28.577;3r.970, rr33; 33.1136-37t34.597. eu. Fl.g.,SEG26.129,27.925,28.592.
 RomanNamesin GreekInscriptions I 145
144 | An lntroduction to GreekEpigraphy

Licinius(ValeriusLicinianus)3ll-23
claudius II Gothicus(M. Aurelius claudius, b. l0 May 214?)Sept./Oct.268-
MaximinusDaia (b.20 Nov. 270 or 285?)I May 305-313
Sept.270
SeverusII I May 305-Mar.lApril307
66 AtoxparoQ KcriocrQMdqxog Ag. Kl"crtogzuoB|E eurulilg Xep"
louolcrgr srQov,notoE, noriQ Maxentius(b. ca.275178? or 283?)28 Oct. 306-28 Oct.3l2
g1wpegp61lorog, r1pcrg1txflE
(b.
I.icinius ca.265) ll Nov.308-19 Sept.324
ncrtpios. vOnctog (SIGj 895)
Constantine 1106(Gaius [also Marcus and Titus] Flavius Valerius Constan-
Quintillus (brother of Claudius II Gothicus) Sept' 270
tinus, b. 27 Feb. 272 or 273) 25 lvly 306-22 May 337
Aurelianse(L. Domitius Aurelianus,b. 9 Sept.214?)Sept' 270-Sept'lOct' 275
72 O?\F.Oa),. Korvoravtivou )eBcoro rb [. ]' (SfG3901)
67 Atoxputtrrg Kclocp ox(r,oE)Aopiflog Agql"r'ovEErioepfiE,Et-
73 rbv M6yrorov Ariroxqarogo l,oBrov Kovorqvrlvov (SIG3903A)
uxqE. XeB(aors) (SEG 26'1298)'
Tacitusl[ (M. Claudius Tacitus, b. ca. 200) late 275-mid-276
Florianustol(M. Annius Florianus) wntet 276
probus (M. Aurelius Probus, b. 19 Aug. 232) summer 276-wintet 282 SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY

Carusloz(M. Aurelius Carus,b. ca.224?)282-83

Numerianus(youngerson of Carus,b. ca. 253) luly/Aug'? 283-Nov' 284
Carinus(elder son ofCarus, b. ca. 250) 283-Aug./Sept'285
Diocletianto3(b. 22 Dec. ca.245) 20 Nov. 284-l May 305
68 Arltoxpatopc Kcrlocgc f(rcv) Ag{},r"ov Oal6grov A]oxl'qtr'cvv
Euoepq Etu1fl Xepcrotvzcri,Atoxgtogcr M' Aq{}"rov Oo}'6gtov
Mcrlpro,vv (SEG33.1098).
69 AroxBcroQolv Kcrloagorv [f. Oo].. Aloxl'qtr'cvQfl rQ &ver'xfp<p
(SEG
Xep(aotrir) [xcri,I. Oo]'. Molr,prcrvQ tQ &verxfitrp :ep(crottQ)n
3r.932)
Maximianusto4 (b.21 |uly? ca.250) Oct./Dec.285-ca.|uly 310
70 )e$ooto0'IoBlou Mcrflptivou (S/G3900, L. 20)
Constantiusl(FlaviusValeriusConstantius,b. 31 Mar. ca. 250) lMar.293-25
fuly 306
71 Tog peylotoug x or,orcrougatoxqarqoug (sic)ol(Br,ov) Ocrl(q-
tov) Kc,worovilov x fol"(qrov) ocr},(qlov) Mofrptcrvv xeB(aot-
os) (SEG 35.737).
(P. Licinius Galerius,b. 250?260?)2l May? 293-May 311
Galeriustos
99. E.g., SEG28.578.
100. E.g.,SEG 34.1306.
l0l. E.g., 58G35.375.
1 0 2 . E . g . ,S E G3 1 . 1 1 0 1 .
103. F; regnal formulae from Diocletian onward see Roger S' Bagnall and
K' A' Worp'
Formulas in Byzantine Eg,pt, BASP Suppl 2 (Missoula, MO: Scholars, 1979); cf. SEG
Regnal
26.137| ; 28.1426; 30.I 8 I 4; 3 1.932, 9 40; 32.900; 34.713; 35'l 47 l'
104.E.g.,'EG26.|366,|38|;31.932,94o;32.900;33.1098;34.713.SeeDiocletian(nos.58_
6e).
105.E.g.,58G26.722'|366;29.||65;3|.904,932'1101;34.713;35.743'759_60.Cf.Con-
stantiusI (no. 7l).
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'l
itulature
lfrrrcth, Paul. Ies titulatures impriales dans les paPyrus, les ostracaet les inscriptions
,t'ilgypte (30 a.C.-284 p.c.). Papyrologica Bruxellensia 2. Brussels: Fondation
i'gyptologiqueReineElisabeth,1964.
Itrfttrcy, Theodore W. Documentary Evidencefor the Chronology of the Flavian Titu-
/rrtrrrc.IJKP I12. Meisenheimam Glan: Hain, 1980.
148 | An Introduction to GreekEpigraphy

"Consuls ordinaires de la seconde moitie du troisime sicle."

Christol, Michel.
MEFRA 97 (1985):431-58. (Titulature of proconsuls')
"Les
Delmaire, Roland. dignitaires laics au concile de chalcedoine: Notes sur la
hierarchieet les presances au milieu du v's." Byzantion54 (1984): 14l-75. (cf.
SEG36.t524; titulature of the late Roman Empire') Calendars,Ers,and the
"Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the
Hammond, M.
First Two and a Half centuries of the Empire." ln Memoirs of the American
Dating of lrucriptions
Acailemy in Rome,25: 19-64. New York: university PressAssociation' 1957.
(Jntersuchungenzu den sieger-
KneiI, Peter. Die siegestitulatur der rmischen Kaiser:
beinamen des ersten und zweiten lahrhunderts. Hlpomnemata 23. Gttingen:
Vandenhoeck and RuPrecht' 1969.
(indici). Studi di
Mastino. A. Le titolature di Caracalla e Geta attraverso le iscrizioni
storia antica 5. Bologna:Clueb, 1981.
Musca, Dora A. La denominazioni del pincipe nei documenti epigrafici romani. 2 vols,
Bari: Adriatica, 1979-82.
peachin, Michael. Roman Imperial Titulature and chronology, r,.o. 235-284. sfidia
Amstelodamensia ad Epigraphicam, Ius Antiquum et Papyrologicam Pertinentia
29. Amsterdam:l. C. Gieben'1989'(Cf. A' R' Birley,CR al [1991]:410-11') One of the most important questionswith regard to any inscriptions is that of
its date. Unfortunately, many inscriptions give no explicit information con-
cerning their date of origin, making their precise dating quite impossible. The
matter is somewhat simpler when an inscription supplies such information.
However, such data require substantial interpretative skill on the part of the
epigraphist, since many dating systemscan only be understood with reference
to the particular city or region in question.
The subject of calendars and dating is immensely detailed and comPlex.
Athens alone had three calendars: a lunar regulatory calendar, a festival
calendar (which used the same month names but was often significantly out
of phasewith the lunar calendar),rand a prltany calendar.2The purpose of
this chapter is to familiarize the reader with various tJpes of calendars and
dating systems, leaving the reader to consult more detailed treatments as
needed.3

l. Cf. the Metonic cycle (seen. 50).

2. SeeW. Kendrick Pritchett, Ancient Athenian Calendarson Stone,University of California
f,ublications in Classical Archaeology 4.4 (Berkeley: University of California Press),267-402;
lf. D. Meritt, The Athenian Year (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961); O' Neugebauer
,rntl W. K. Pritchett, The Calendar in the Fifth Century (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
l92S); W. K. Pritchett and O. Neugebauer, The Calendarsof Athens (Cambridge: Harvard Univer-
s i t yP r e s s , 1 9 4 7 ) .
3. See Alan E. Samuel, Greek and Roman Chronology: Calendars and Years in Classical
t\tttitluity, HbA 1.7 (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1972);8. I. Bickermann, Chronologtof the Ancient
llorld, rev. ed., Aspects of Greek and Roman Life (London: Thames and Hudson, 1980); W.
Krrlritschek, Grundriss der antiken Zeitrechnung, Altertumswissenschaft (Munich: C. H. Beck,
t e 2 t |) .

t49
150 to GreekEpigraphy
An Introduction Eras,and theDatingof lnstiptions I
Calendars, 15l
|

At the outset, it is useful to mention briefly some of the contours of thir yQotrt"roreE),Boiotia (until the Roman period),7
subject.First, there is the persistentproblem of reconcilingtime basedon the Chalcis (with ilyeptrlv, nol,spcrQxor),Delos (cf.
passageof months (which is a lunar phenomenon) with the notion of a year nr,pel,qr{E),Delphi,8Elateia,Eretria, Halai
(which is solar in nature). Second, the Greeks distinguished between thc (board), Histiaia, Imbros, Karystos, Kytinion,
natural year (vlaurs) as a cycle of seasonsand the civil year (rog): r Lemnos, Magnesiaon the Maeander,eMegara,
natural year could begin at any chosenpoint and would last for one comPletc Melos, Naxos, Olbia (in the Roman period; cf.
cycleofthe seasons; the civil year had a fixed beginning and length, as defined ieqeg), Opons, Paros,Skarphea,Syros,Tenos,
by the city in question. Third, it is necessaryto distinguish between calendric Thasos,Thronion
systems that simply name the years but do not count them (eponymous poor,)"eE Argos, Chalcedon, Heraklea Pontika,ro Methymna
dating) and those systemsthat employ some kind of sequential numeration (Lesbos),Molossis,Samothrace,metropoleisof
(dating according to an era). I will first attend to the subject of eponymous EgFpt
dating and the related issuesof how the length of a year was determined and pol,cq1oE Amphissa
subdivided into months. YQCr,l,rp,flor(xEAmbrakia, Korinth (before 146 n.c.)lr
qg,r.ouqr7E Amorgos, AsQpalaia, cities of Cilicia,l2 Elis,
6.01 Eponymous Dating Kamiros, Knidos, Lousoi (eponyrnouscollege),
Minoa, Nisyros, Olous, Pamphylia, cities of
Peloponnesos,Polyrhenia,Samos,Tritaia
Many Greek inscriptions do not use a continuous numeration of the yea
from a point of origin. Rather, decreeswere customarily dated by specifring
nryel.qt{g Delosl3
nr,ortqE Amphipolis (with an eponymous priest)
the name of the eponymous magistratepresiding at the time, sometimeseven
Sogog Sparta (in Hellenistic period; cf. nc,tgovpoE),
employing emperors and divinities as eponymous officials.a
Thera (replacedby ieqegby the time of
The eponymousmagistratein Athens was the chief archon ( qXolv).He
Tiberius)
was the formal head of state, with all civic decreesbeing dated with his name
(i.e.,qlovrog ro0 eivoE). EachAthenian archon commencedhis one-year lyepv Euboia, Chalcis (with gxorv)ta
term of office on the first day of the month of Hekatombaion. Elsewhere,the
title of the eponymous magistrate varied from place to place throughout the 7. SeeD. Knoepfler,
"Sept
ann6esde recherchessur l'6pigraphiede la Botie (1985-91),"
Greekworld.s Here follows a representativesample. Chiron 22 (1992): 4lI-503 (SEG 42.401); Michel Feyel,Polybe et I'htoire de Botie au lIIe sicle
ovant notre re (Paris: E. de Boccard, 1942),73-74.
"La
8. On chronology of Delphian archons from 346-39 seePatrick Marchetti, construc-
p1mgrovr,E Aigiale
tion du temple de Delphes et la date d'Aristnymos," BCH 103 (1979): 15l-63 (cf. SEG 27.I07 -
g1,nqBou),og Termessos,Sagalassos6 1l, 29.456); Georges Datx, Chronologiedelphique,Fouilles de Delphes: III, Epigraphie: fascicule
"Notes
g1orv Andros, Antikyra (Phokis), Arkensine, Athens (with hors s6rie (Paris: E. de Boccard, 1943) (cf. SEG37a); G. Colin, de chronologie del-
p h i q u e , "B C H 2 2 ( 1 8 9 8 ) :l - 2 0 0 .
4. On emperors see Robert, EtEpPhil,143-50; on divinities, Robert, Hellenica' II, 50-64. 9. Before mid-III s.c., when the Magnesians began to date according to the local sfe-
"The "Prytanis,"
Eponymous Officials of Greek Cities," parts l-5, ZPE 83 (1990): phanephoros (IMagnMai, p. xxix; Fritz Gschnitzer, RE Suppl. 13 [19731:730-815, esp.
5. SeeR. K. Sherk,
249-88;84 (1990):231tr. (corrigendum to ZPE 89 [l99ll: 38); 88 (1991): 225-6Oi 93 (1992): 7 43-47).
"De "The
223-72; 96 (1993): 267-95. Cf. SEG 40.1660, 43.1229;Clemens Gnaedinger, Graecorum 10. SeeBrian C. McGing, Kings of Pontus: Some Problems of Identity and Date," RhM
magistratibuseponymis quaestionesepigraphicaeselectae"(Ph.D. diss.,Argentorati, 1892);Da- 1 2 9( 1 9 8 6 ) 2: 4 8 - 5 9 ( S I G 3 6 . 1 1 6 1 ) .
vid Magie, Roman Rule in Asia Minor to the End of the Third Century after Christ, 2 vols. I l. After 146, duoviri.
: r i n c e t o nU n i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,1 9 5 0 ) ,2 : 1 5 1 8n . 5 0 .
( P r i n c e t o nP 12. SeeMagie, Roman Rule, 2:835 n. 2O; Iones, GreekCity, 339 n. 36.
'13.
6. SeeMagie, Roman Rule, l:264, 2:1506n. 32; A. H. M. iones, The GreekCity fron Alexander With eponyrnousq1ov during the secondperiod of Athenian rule (166-88 n.c.).
"Eponymous
to lustinian (Oxford: Clarendon, 1940), 165. 14. SeeSherk, OfficialsofGreek Cities"'part 2,237-38.
152 An Int oductionto GreekEpigraphy Calendars,
Eras,and theDatingof Inscriptions | 153
|

iepeg Aktion, Amphipolis (cf. ntotcrq5), EB)rPt,rs Minoa on Amorgos (in the Roman period),
Epidauros, Korkyra, Lindos, Megalopolis, Mylasa, Myndos, Nysa (in the Roman period),
Odessos,r6 Olbia (from III s.c. to the Roman Phokaia, Priene, Sardis, Smyrna, Stratonikeia, and
period),r7Olynthos, Pheneus,Potidaea generally through the Greek cities of Caria, Lydia,
(Kassandreia),Rhodes(city), Tegea,Thessalonika and Phrygia2r
(wth agonothefeof Augustus),Thera (by the time orQqrqYoE Akarnania, Achaia, Aitolia, Beroia, Buthrotos,22
of Tiberius; cf. ogog), Torone Thessaly,Epiros, Italos (Phthiotide), Lakonia
iego0rqE Agrigentum (strategosof league), Lamia,z3Mantinea, Phokis,
ieqonorg Erythrai Thebes (Phthiotis)
inrq1qg Kyzikos, Thyatira ro,p[c,E Kalauria
pvoglog Kos (sometimeswith a priest of Roma and norog (consul) Roman provinces
Augustus)
It should be noted that the mere presence of one of the above titles in an
nctgovpoE Sparta (from the Hellenistic period; cf Qoqog)
inscription does not necessarilyimply that the magistrate was eponymous.
nol,pqexog Chalcis (board, with ftyepv, q1orv), Chios,
These titles were also used to name noneponymous civic magistrates (see S
Eretria (with &p1orv)
13.04, 13.08). Which official a given city would select for its eponyrnous
nolrtcglrlg Charadros
magistrate was a matter of choice.
xrQoorrqE Epiros (with ngrcvlE)
The usual formula to designate an eponymous magistrate is ni, toO
ruqrcrvlgl8 Anaktorion, Anazarbos, Apollonia, Chios (through
eivog,2awith or without a designationof office, as in d Eru1lo [during
II s.c.; cf. oteQcrvqQeog),Ephesos,Epiros (with
xleoorqrnE),leEresos,Kolophon, Kyme, Lebedos, [the magistracy] of Eutychidesl.2sThis information was sometimes supple-
mented by citing the corresponding calendar month (and day), as in nl
Lesbos,Methymna, Mirylene, Rhegion, Tarsos,
qpoy6vou g1ovtoE, Mouvrlr,drvog[during the archonshipof Demogenes,
Temnos, Teos
in the month of Mounychionl (IG IP 13288).The sameformula is employed
r[Q(l)r?{,oou,o5 Crete (presidentof board or eponymousboard)2o
to date the inscriptionsof voluntary associations(e.g.,fig. 12).The conversion
rrQ(l)rol,6yoE lkonion
of such information into ]ulian dates requires accessto dated lists of epony-
or00vIoeoE Aphrodisias,Bargylia,Chios (from II n.c.; cf.
mous officials. The dates of many eponymous officials are still uncertain.
nprovrg), Gambreion, Herakleia ad Latmum,
More is known about the precise dates of the Athenian archons than about
Hierapolis, Iasos,Kalymna, Leros (of Miletos),
the eponymousmagistratesof any other city (see5 13.05).26 This information
Magnesiaon the Maeander (by mid-III n.c.),
Miletos (previously oioupvQrcrr,tdrv pol.ndrv), 21. The eponymots stephanephoros spread widely throughout the Roman period, subsuming
this role from other eponymous titles. In the Roman period, in cities where the eponyrnous
official was called prytanis, there was often a constitutional change whereby the eponymate was
15. SeeWilly Clarysseand G. Van der Yeken, The EponymousPiests of Ptolemaic Egtpt (P.L. transferred to the stephanephoros,perhaps in an effort to separate the eponymate from real
"Stephanephoria,"
Bat. 24): Chronological Lt of the Priestsof Alexandria and Ptolemais with a Study of the Demotic political power. See H. E. Stier, RE, 2d ser., 3A (1894), 2343-47; Georg von
Transcriptionsof Their Names,Papyrologica Lugduno-Batava 24 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1983). l\usolt, GriechischeStaatskunde,3d ed.,2 vols., HbA 4.1 (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1963-72), I:499;
"Prtres lones, Greek City, t63, t67, t74, 234, 310 n. 62, 339 n. 36.
16.SeeZ. Goeva, 6ponymesd'Odessoset de Dionysopolis,"Klio 62 (1980):49-53
( s E G3 0 . 8 1 1 ) . 22. In addition to the prostotesand priest of Asklepios.
"The 2 3 . S e eJ o n e s G
, r e e kC i t y , 1 6 2 - 6 3 , 1 6 6 , 1 6 8 ,1 8 5 ,3 3 7 n . 2 2 .
17. Then pltrrv: seeP. O. Karykowskij, Eponyms of Olbia," VDI 2 (1978):82-88 (in "During
Russianr cf. SEG 28.647\. 24. the magistracyof so-and-so" (e.g.,/G ll2 337, L. 2; 1327,L. 2).
18. The eponymots prytanis had no connection with the pfytane, which were subcommit- 75. SEG27.513(Kos, III r.c.).
teesofsome councils (cf. n. 31, S 13.02). 26. For lists of Athenian archons for 500-323 s.c. see Marcus N. Tod, A Sebction of Greek
"Eponymous llistorical Inscriptions,2 ed., 2 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946-48); for the Persian
19. SeeSherk, Officials of Greek Cities," part 2, 234-35.
pcriod: (ieorge F. llill, Sources/or GreekHistory betweenthe Persian and PeloponnesianWars, 2d,
20. Exceptions were Olos and Polyrhenia (cf. r;prtoupyg).
 154 | An lntroduction to GreekEpigraphy

permits many Attic decreesto be dated with considerableaccuracy.Nonethe-

less,the dates of many archonshipsare not known, and the reconstructions of
the lists of some periods is often tentative, still awaiting confirmation on the
basisofnew evidence.
In Delos,the archonsof 326-168 B.c. are known from the inventory lists
of the temples.2TSome lists of stephanephoroiare also available,as in Miletos,
Priene, and Herakleia.28Incomplete lists of eponyrns are available for many
other areas,including Boiotia, Achaia, Delphi, Aitolia, and Thessaly.2e In the

ed., rev. R. Meiggs and A. Andrewes (Oxford: Clarendon, t95l),397-4Ot; for 480-307 s.c., pA
2.631-35; for 34716-34817,B. Meritt, Historia 26 (1977): t6I-91; for 307-100 s.c., W. K.
Pritchett and B. D. Meitt, The Chronologt of Hellenistic Athens (Cambridge: Harvard University
Press, 1940), xv-xxv; for 291-196 n.c., M. J. Osborne, "The Chronology of Athens in the Mid-
Third Century I .c.," ZPE78 (1989):209-42 (SEG39.310);W. B. Dinsmoor, "The Archonship of
Pltharatos (27110s.c.)," Hespeia 23 (1954):284-316, esp.312-16; for 265/4-230/29,B. Meritt,
H e s p e r i a1 ( 1 9 8 1 ) : 7 8 - 9 9 ; f o r 2 2 2 - 1 7 7n . c . , H a b i c h t ,S t u d i e n , T 5 g - 7 7( S E G 3 2 3 a B ) ; f o r 2 3 4 - t 0 0
s.c., W. B. Dinsmoor, The Athenian Archon Lt in the Light of RecentDiscoveries(New york:
Columbia University Press,1939),20-25;for 159-140 0.c., Christian Habicht, "The Eponymous
Archons ofAthens from 159/8to t41l0 a.c.," Hesperia57 (1988):237-47 (SEG 38.274);for 100-
48 n.c., fames A. Notopoulos, "Studies in the Chronology of Athens under the Empire," Hesperia
l8 (1949): l-57, esp. 11-12; Sterling Dow, "New Readingsin the Archons Lists IG II2 lTIj and
1716," AJA 37 (1933):578-88; Sterling Dow, "Archons of the Period after Sulla," in Commemora-
tiw Studies in Honor of TheodoreL. Shear, Hesperia Sr.rppl8 (Baltimore, Md: J. H. Furst, 1949),
l 1 6 - 2 5 ; f o r 4 8 - 2 9 s . c . , 1 G I I 2 , 4 . 1 , p . 2 5 ; f o r 2 g v . c . o n w a r d , s i m o n e F o l l e tB
, ICSSuppl55(t959):
37-44 (SEG 39.311); Notopoulos, "Studies in the Chronology ofAthens under the Empire," l2-
"Ferguson's
19;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;f.
A. Notopoulos, Law in Athens under the Empire," AJP 64 (1943): 44-55; James
"Greek
H. Oliver, Inscriptions," Hesperia ll (1942):29-103, esp. 8l-89. For revisions and new
schemes see W. B. Dinsmoor, "Summary Table of Athenian Archons from 20312 to 101/0,"
Hespeia 26 (1957):94-97; S. V. Tracy, "Notes and Discussions:TO MH AI> APXEIN," Cp 86
lr99rl:20r-4.
27. J. Cospry, Inscriptions de Dlos, vol. 2, Amphictyonie attico-dlienne,actesadministrati
(Nos. 89-104) (Paris: Librairie Ancienne Honor6 Champion, 1972),328-38; lacques Tr6heux,
"Les
dernidres anndesde D6los sous le protectorat des Amphictions," in Mlangesd'arch\ologieet
cl'histoire ffirts Charles Picard I'occasion de son 65e anniversaire, 2 vols. (Paris: Presses
Universitaires, 1949), 2: 1008-32, esp. 103| -32.
28. For Miletos see W. Blmel, "Inschriften aus Karien I," EpigAnat 25 (1995): no. 26. For
the period 525-259 a.c., followed by a gap,then continuing Io ,t.n.3l-32, seeGeorgeKawerau
and Albert Rehm, Miler: Ergebnisseder Ausgrabungenund (Jntersuchungen,vol.3, Das Delphinion
in Milet, ed. Theodore Wiegand (Berlin: Georg Reimer, 1914), Z4t-75, nos. 122-28; Albert
Rehm, MilesischeChronologievon Sullabis Tibeius, SBAW 8 (Munich: K. Alcademie, 1939),3-45,
esp.24*25. For fragments of lists at Priene and Heracleia seelPriene l4l-42; OGl459; Michel
668. Cf. M. Wrrle, "Inschriften von Herakleia am Latmos I: Antiochos III, Zeuxis und
Heracleia," Chiron 18 (1988):421-76, esp.431,437; W. Ameling, "Antiochus II: Herakleia am
Latmos und Rorn," EpigAnat l0 (1987): 19-40, esp. 24-31 (SEG 37.984); Magie, Roman Rule,
837-38 n.23.
29. For Boeotia seesupra n. 7; for Achaia, Andr6 Aymard, "Les stratgesde la confd6ration
Achennede 202 172 av.l.-C.," RE 30 (192S): 1-62, esp.62 (list); for Delphi, supra n. 8; for
Thessaly,IGlYz, pp. rociv-v.

156 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy
absenceof such ancient lists, it is often impossible to translate ePonymously
dated inscriptions into a Julian date. Obviously, the study of institutions
embeddedin this chronological system is affected by this uncertainty.
In addition to ePonymous dating, the Athenians also dated many offrcial
Attic documents according to the prytany calendar. The council was subdi-
vided into executive committees, composed of individual members each
known as a prytaneis (ngutavelg). There were as many executive committees
as there were tribes, each consisting of fifty councillors from the same tribe
(see5 13.02).30 The civil year was divided into a correspondingnumber of
equal periods,eachperiod being known as oneprytany (nqurave[o)'31
Each prytaneis took a tufn as the governing committee' serving in rotation
for the period of one PrFtany. The days within each prFtany were numbered
in successionusing ordinal numbers.32This was sometimes supplemented
with a specification of the corresponding calendar day, though the specifica-
tion of the prytany was considered to be the more important of the two
datings.
In Athens, the name of the recording secretary was also employed as a
meansof dating decrees.33 In the year 36615 s.c., the term of the secretarywas
set at one year.34From 36615to 35716s.c., the annual eponymous secretary
was chosen by lot, with no fixed order. Thereafter, the position was made to
rotate according to offrcial tribal order. Any citizen knowing the tribal affilia-
tions of the demes and the offrcial order of the tribes would have been able to
calculatethe date of a given decreeon the basisof the secretary'sdemotic'35In
Aigeis'
30. The ten Kleisthenaic tribes (olJ),ai), in their regular order, are Erechtheis,
pandionis, Leontis, Akamantis, oineis, Kekropis, Hippothontis, Aiantis, and Antiochis. In 30716
was added, and
s.c,, two new tribes were added,ntigonis and Dem ettias.In224l3 s.c., Ptolemais
in 201 l20o s.c. The tribe of Attalis was added in 200 s 'c',
Antigonis and Demetrias were abolished
time new tribes
the tribe of Hadrianis in t.o.1241125. The official order of tribes changed every
cambridge
were added (seeA. G. woodhead, The study of Greeklnscriptions,2d ed. fcambridge:
UniversityPress,lgSll,lll-15;cf.Iones,GreekCity,l58,l72,176,338n'30'359n'68)'
divided
31. In accordancewith the number of Athenian tribes at any given time, the year was
first four sets
into ten, eleven, twelve, or thirteen prytaneis. When there were only ten tribes' the
making a total
of prytaneis served for 36 days each, and the remaining six served for 35 days each,
abolished.
or as+ duyr; this varied over the centuries as new tribes were added and existing tribes
32. See Samuel, Greek and Roman Chronology,63'
"Alcune obsservazionisui
33. SeeDinsmoor, Athenian Archon List,5; SalvatoreAlessandri'
which
segretariateniesinel IV. sec.a.c.,"ASNP, 3d ser.,12,no. I (1982):7-70, esp.the appendix,
of the archon
tabulates all known secretaries in Athens from 368/7-31817, with the name
(cf' S-EG32'346)'
followed by a year-by-year commentary on each ofthe secretaries
by lot.
34. Prior to this, the secretary'sterm was one prltany in length, as determined
List, 5-6. william S. Ferguson (Athenian Tribal cycles in
35. See Dinsmoo r, Athenian Archon
worked out the
the Hellentic Agefcambridge: Harvard University Press,19321,22-36 [table II])
Calendars,Eras,and theDatingof Inscriptions | 157
such placesas Pergamon and Egypt, ruling kings were used as the eponymous
official (i.e.,Fcroll.eovrogro0 eCvog/pooltroX The rule of a king
eCvog).36
was counted from the year of his to
accession the throne. For example'a series
of inscriptions on cinerary urns found at Alexandria are dated according to
the regnalyearsof the Ptolemies.Someof theseare also dated by the months
of the Syro-Macedonian calendar or the Egyptian calendar. The following
'YnegBegtro,iou X Otrqpou0i (
example datesby all three methods:37L0' I
[Year nine [of Ptolemy IV], thirtieth day [of the Syro-Macedonianmonth] of
Hyperberetaios,seventh day [of the Egyptian month] of Pharmouthil.
Under the Roman empire, inscriptions of formal documents issuing
from Rome or Roman authorities were often dated according to the name of
the first of the two consuls (known as the consulesordinar) in office in a
given year, that is, trncrt(e)io ro0 ivoE (see S 14.01, 14.05).38A list of
consuls for the period prior to Augustus was made availableto the public on
the Arch of Augustus.reToday, most (but not all) of the consuls up to the
seventh century A.D. are known.a0The consulessffictial also frequently occur
cycle oftribal rotations ofsecretaries for the years up to 103 n.c. This cycle was broken at least
twice (cf. Williarn S. Ferguson, The Priestsof Asklepios:A New Method of Dating Athenian Archons,
University of California Publications in Classical Philology 1, no. 5 [Berkeley: University of
for
California Press,19061,131-73, esp. 172-73 lapp.1, list ofpriestsl). For a list of secretaries
the period 23413-llo seeDinsmoor, Athenian Archon Lt, 20-25.
J6. Summarized by L. Robert in Etudes pigraphiqueset philologiques,BEHE 272 (Paris:
Ohampion, 1938), 143-44; seealso Robert, Hellenica, Il, 520.
37. Brian F. Cook, Inscribed Hadra Vasesin the Metropolitan Museum o/rr (New York:
Meriden Gravure, 1966),24, no. 9.
38. However, under the empire, the date is more often implied by the current emperor's
titles. Documents issuing from a civic authority, or even a Roman colony, did not also date
inscriptions by consul.
39. See. K. Michels, The Calendar of the Roman REublic (Princeton: Princeton University
l'ress.1967).
40. SeeAttilio Degrassi,I Fasti consolaridell'Imperc romano dal 30 avanti Cristo al 613 dopo
"Consuls
<lrisro, Sussidi eruditi 3 (Rome: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura, 1952); Gza AlfOldy,
(1976,263-99, trans-
.rnd Consulars under the Antonines: Prosopography and History," AncSoc,
lirted from lnis Konsulat und Senatorenstandunter ilen Antoninen (Bonn: Rudolph Habelt, I977)i
l,aul M. M. Leunissen, Konsuln und Konsulare in der Zeit von Commodus bis SeterusAlexander
( 180-235 n. Chr.): Prosopographkche[Jntersuchungenzur senatorischenElite im RmischenKai-
scrreich,DMAHA 6 (Amsterdam:I. C. Gieben,19S9)(cf' B. M' Levick, CR 42 11992):116-17); R.
S. Bagnall, A. Cameron, S. R. Schwartz, and K. S. Worp, Consuls of the Later Roman Empire,
f,hilological Monographs ofthe American Philological Association 36 (Atlanta: Scholars, 1987);1.
"Chronology
Itodel, and Succession2: Notes on SomeConsularLists on Stone,"ZPE 105 ( 1995):
"The
)79-96; E. Badian, Consuls, 179-49 s.c.," Chiron 20 (1990): 371-413 (SEG 40.1703);
lf ickerman, Chronologyof the Ancient World, 140-62.
4l . After six months of office or even less, the consulesordina of a given year would resign,
.rrrtl cunsuJes sufecri (supplementary consuls) would take of6ce in their place. This practice was
lrcgun under Caesar,resumedby Augustus in 12 r.c., and made the regular practice in 3 n.c.
158 to GreekEpigraphy
An lntroduction
|
in dating formulae but can only be used to date an inscription if their years
ofoffice can be assigned.
Dating according to Roman emPerors also found its way into Greek
inscriptions.a2Inscriptions that employ this system tend to count the tri-
bunatesof emperors,not the yearsof their reign' The chief featureof becom'
ing princeps was the tribunicia potestas(rlpaqpxil 6[,ouolc)' a right that
began when a man was elevatedas emperor (see 5 5.13.8;cf' 7.08, n. 3l).
Despite the fact that it was a perpetual title, it was renewed at the beginning of
eachyear, marking the beginning of the regnal (but not calendar)year (e.g.'
qpaqlr,xQglouolaE rb xtov).a3
There are exceptions to this practice. Inscriptions from the provinces are
usually dated by the regnal years of the current emperor' using the simpler
"in
formula the rth year of the reign of . . ."44This simplified dating formula
was employed in Egypt under Roman rule up to the time of Diocletian and in
Palestine,Syria, Arabia, Clprus, Bithynia, and Pontus'
Beginningin e.o. 312, some inscriptionsare dated accordingto indiction
(ivlxriov), often abbreviatedINA, as in iv(rxtrivog) r,B'zutuleorrr1E
Iin the twelfth [year] of the most blessedindictionl (ISardBR 18, L. 5)' Each
indiction consisted of a cycle of fifteen years, usually commencing on I
September,except in Egypt, where it varied.4sThe first year of an indiction
was the tax year for the people.a6Since people tended to know the tax years
better than the official consular dates,indictions becamethe standard method
for dating documents from the reign of Diocletian onward' and this method
became obligatory in e .o. 537. The number of an indiction specified the year
within this fifteen-year tax cycle, not the cycle itself.aTSince the indiction
cyclesthemselveswere not numbered, dating by indiction is useful only if it
can be relatedto another dating system.48
42. SeeRobert, EtLgenit, t+z-so.
".
43. . . having had his tribunate renewed six times" (SIG380lC).
44. The indices to IGRR I and III show dating by regnal years in Bithl'nia, Pontus, C)?rus,
"The
Egypt, Palestine,Spia, and Arabia. SeeJonathan A. Goldstein, Spiac Bill of Salefrom Dura-
Europos,"/NES 25, no. I (1966): 1-16, esp.8 (dating conventions); cf' Luke 3:1.
45. SeeFranz Hohmann, Zur Chronologieder Papyrusurkunden(RmischeKaiserzeit) (Berlint
Franz Siemenroth,1911), 40.
"Notes
46. On the problem of the beginning of the anntal indictio see Denis Feissel,
d'6pigraphiechr6tienneVII," BCH 108 (1984): 545-79, esp. 568-71 (SEG 34.1683)'
47. The indiction number of a given year can be calculated by adding 3 to the year number
of the Christian era and dividing this sum by 15; the remainder is the indiction number of the
year (seeBickerman, Chronologyof the Ancient World,79).
"Aera,"
48. SeeJ. W. Kubitschek, R-E1 (189a): 606-66' esp.666.
Eras,and theDatingoflnscriptions I
Calendars, 159
6.02 Lunar and Lunisolar Calendars
A lunar (i.e., synodic) month is29Vz dayslong.aeHence, a lunar year (twelve
synodic circles of the moon) is 354 days long, that is, lIVz days shorter than
a solar year. Prior to Solon (archon 5941593n.c.), Greek calendarswere
lunar in structure, the first month being counted as thirty days, and the
remaining months begin counted alternately as 30- and 29-day months,
respectively(:35+ days), 11 days less than a solar year. Lunar calendars
were obviously impractical, because they shifted over time with respect to
the seasonsofsowing and harvesting and their related religious festivals.
To compensatefor this shortfall, the Greeks adopted a lunisolar calendar
for their civil calendar.This calendarintercalatedextra daysto keepthe months
in relative synchrony with the seasonsand religious festivals. Fractions of
months or even single dayswere added according to the need of the moment.
Such was the irregularity of intercalation in earlier times that it is often not
possible to determine ]ulian equivalents for many dates. This problem was
somewhat alleviated when the Greeks began to intercalate extra months at
prespecifiedregular intervals in the cycle of the lunisolar calendar.so
6.03 The Naming of the Months
In many inscriptions, the day and month (in the genitive case)are specified,
in addition to the name of the eponymous magistrate.The customary formula
for a Greek date is eponyrn, month, day5r (e.g., nl Nlxootqotou q1o-
'El"aQrlBol,rdrvogvtet iotapvous2
vrog . . . [during the archonship of
49. It is measured sometimes as the time between two new moons but more cornmonly
(since it was easier to determine) as the point of the first visibility of the crescent. Dates
establishedaccording to the moon are termed xcr Otv.
"Kalender,"
50. See E. Bischoff, RE 10 (1919): f568-1601. On the Athenian calendar cf'
supra n. 2. The Athenian calendar does not appear to have followed the Metonic cycle, a solar
calendric cycle ofnineteen solar years, or 235 lunar months (ll0 months with twenty-nine days
Ii.e., hollow], 125 months with thirty days Ii.e., full], probably intercalating a thirteenth month in
the same year as the Babylonian calendar), in which the moon (nearly) returns to the same
apparent position at the same dates in the corresponding year of each cycle. The month names in
the Metonic cycle were the same as the Athenian month names. This cycle was particularly useful
for dating astrological observations and constructing almanacs that offered weather forecastsfor
agriculture and their related festivals.
51. SeeWilhelm Larfeld, GriechischeEpigraphik,3d ed., HbA 1.5 (Munich: C. H' Beck' 1914)'
-r34-38.
52. On the word iotouvor seeS 6.04.
160 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy
Nikostratos... lin the month ofl Elaphebolion,on the ninth [day] of the
rising of the monthl UG II' 646, L. 1l).
The names of the months varied from town to town.s3This is largely due
to the fact that month names are often derived from the names of local or
regional festivalsand deities. For example, the month of Lenaion received its
name from the Dionysian festival of Lenaia celebrated at that time. Hence,
differences in the local cults gave rise to differences in the naming of the
months. In the Hellenistic period, variations were also introduced as a result
of the dependency of cities on different monarchies (e.g., Syrian, Ptolemaic;
cf. S 6.06).
From the time of Solon (archon 5941593r.c.), the Attic civil year began
with Hekatombaion, theoretically coming immediately after the new moon of
the summer solstice.In the first century A.D.,Boedromion was appointed first
month of the year instead of Hekatombaion' A thirteenth month (pip
pB6h.pog/ppol,r,paiog)was intercalated at fixed intervals known variously
as flooeledv B or flooer,ev otegogand later as'Agtavlv. cycle. The alignment of the columns in the table is valid only for the imperial
Attic Month Names
'ExcropBolrirv (first month until I a.n.; approx.
fuly)
Metayeltvlv
Boqgopr,v (first month in early I a.o.)
flucverpr,olv
Malpcrzrqqrv
flooeedv
[flooerev B /oregog or'Aqlcrvtrirv] (intercalarymonth)
fopql,r,v
Av0eorqqtv
'El,a$qBol.rv
Mouvulrv
@crq^yql.tv
)xLqoQoqrv
The names of the months of many cities and regions are known, but their
relative order cannot always be determined with any degree of confidence
53. See C. Trmpy, IJntersuchungenzu den altgriechischenMonatsnamen und Monatsfolgen
(Heidelberg, 1997); Ludwig Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischenund technischenChronologie,2
vols. (Berlin: August Rcker, 1825), l:97-98, 275, 393,414-30; IBM lll' 78-79 (Ephesos);
Bickerman,Chronolog of theAncient World,20-48. The namesof months are alwaysmasculine.
Calendars,
Eras,and theDatingof Insoiptions | 161
(e.g.,in Samos,Lesbos,and Crete). Under the empire, the practice arosein
some citites of Asia Minor of naming particular months after emperors(e.g.,
Kaloaqrog, TlB6gr,oE,'Aqrcvlv) or substituting ordinal numbers for the
correspondingmonth names (e.9.,pqn Exrog,pilv vcroE, plv o6xcrog).
Some cities, such as Phokis, had two calendars, one that numbered the
months ordinally and a secondwith proper month names.
Frequently, calendarsperiodically intercalate an extra month to keep the
months in relative synchrony with the seasonsand religious festivals.saFor
example, in Delphi, the sixth month, flotrgrur,oE ngdrroE, was followed by
an intercalarymonth, Ilowgnlog eregog,in the years 17615,16817,163l
2 (?), 15413,14312,140/39, and 130/29 (2.;or 134133)r.c. In Aitolia, the
intercalary month followed the month of Aiog and was known as AioE
pBl,r,poE.
Table 12 lists some of the best-attestedGreek month nameswhose order
has been established.s5 Names marked with (1) are the first months of the
period.
6.04 The Counting of the Days
The practice of numbering the days of the months in three successivedecades
is widely attested throughout Greece.The first day was known as voupqvi,a
(first of the month/new moon). The second through tenth days counted the
"rising"
of the month (iotcp6vou pqv6g), using ordinal numbers.
The second decade(i.e., days ll-19) was counted either by continuing
the previouscount (i.e.,llth, l2th, l3th, ... lgth) or by recommencingthe
count with 1 (i.e., lst, 2d,3d,. . . 9th) followed by term peoo8wog (pquS).
The twentieth day was known as sixE or eixoori'1.
The third decade(days2I-29130) was counted in terms of the "dying" or
waning of the month (pnvS Q0ivovrog/ncuop6vou/1,{lovroE/&nrovroE/ped
54. SeeP. Roesch,Etudesbotiennes(Paris: E. de Boccard, 1982),3-76 (SEG 32.427), regard,-
ing the intercalary months, the federal calendar (33-46), the urban calendar (47-54), the
Boiotian year (55-70), the calendar xct 0e6v, and the counting ofdays in the Hellenistic period
(7r-76).
55. There has been considerable argument over the calendar of Kos; table 12 lists the most
probable ordering of the months, but see Samuel, Greek and Roman Chronologlt,1I 1- 13, for an
overview of the problem. On the Rhodian calendar seeC. Brker, "Der rhodische Kalender," ZPE
.rl (1978): 193-218 (SEG 28.687;Robert, BE [1979]: 310); the Rhodian year was divided into
semesters,called lerpeqrv laplvoE and Oeqrv lpqvoE QLindos707,L.8;IGXlllt,94,L.
I l; IG Xll/I,9sb, L. 5).
 Calendars,
Eras,
and the Datingof Inscriptions I fO:

TABLE 12. Greek Month Names eixoaE). Sometimes,the waning days were counted lst, 2d, 3d, and so on,
Phokis Locris Delphi Amphissa Aitolia but more often they were counted in reverseorder, that is, from the last day in
the decade(the 30th/29th) to first day in the decade(the 2151).s0According to
AexoroE Ao6xorog Anel,iraioS (1) fIvcrpog cQpcrioE
Bocppr,og/'Evxcrrog nqrog (l) Bouxrlog Alpoorucbv (l) flcvopog this latter scheme,the 30th (or 29th) is known as nqq (frlpSc)Q0ivovtog
oxarog ArrrQoE Bo0ooE (unlnown) fleoxuxh,og (1) : (pnvS) or as vrl xci vcr,and the 2lst is called 6xar4 S0ivovroE:57for
'Hgoiog 'El"aQqBol.unvog
nqrog (l) Tplrog (unknown) 0cvciog example, pqvE xtn (ip6qq) Q0ivovrog means "on the
Apl"roE/AerepoE TtcqtoE ar"cgqr.og (unknown) Bouxntuog :
Tqitog fl6pnrog fIonq6nrcg flavcyproE iog
sixth day of the waning [: the 25th of the month] of Elaphebolion," with
ArovoloE/TtcqroE 'Txrog
Apcrtrlog fryovrrog E0uciog/Eo<riog Elaphebolionhaving thirty days.From about 307s.c., the expression"ordinal
'EpopoE (unknown) 'Opol.or,og
fl6pnrog BoloE number" * Q0[vovroEpqvgwas replacedwith ped eixcrE(afterthe twenti-
Qqrog/'ExroE "OyooE 'EqpaioE
@eol6vrog florrqrloE
"Epopog 'EvcrroE 'Evuonorrqnlog 'Aqer,og eth day).s8In a month with twenty-nine days (i.e., a "hollow" month), one
flolrqnrog Alovor,oE ;
"Oyoog 'Hgxiter,og day was omitted.se
AzctoE fIxr.oE Ayerog/'Apiqog
AQc,progfEvcrtoE 'Evxcrrog 'Il,niog 'Innoppr,og
Aprirv The days of the months were counted according to decadesin many other
regions, in ways very similar to that already described. Other calendars
Boiotia Thessaly Halos Lamia Epidauros counted the days of the month sequentially from the first day of the month to
'Innogprog 'ExotpBrog 'Innoqprog the last.60
Ou),1"lxoE 16orog/'A!ong (
flovcpoE 'IrvroE(l) 'OpoIloE
flcrvcrpog Kcrqveiog
flcpBor,nog flvqpog @uioE 'Irvr,og flpogrlog
'Aqprog(1) 'EppcioE I 6.05 Roman Calendars
cpcrtqloE @eplorr,oE Anel.l.oiog
trotrxop6vrog Aycyl.rog Evrog @etrriorlog lopog l
BorxcnoE (l) 'Egpcriog
fhl0oiog Bprcg (1) T6l.eoE The pre-fulian Roman calendar6rwas basedon a lunisolar year of 355 days
'Eppaiog 'Ano),),vr,oE 'ApcrioE
@qftrtrros fIoor,criog beginning in March. To maintain some degree of synchrony between the
flqootarrlqr,og eo1cv6grcg Arovolog fe0oroE 'AqraplrloE
'AQqrcg i months and the seasons,an additional month was intercalated every few years.
Ayqrvrog fev6rrcE Axeog prylcvrog
@rot-rr,oE @uioE Melcrlqr.og @tog flvopog ' This intercalation was not performed at regular intervals. Consequently the
'Opotrr.oE 'Opol.r,oE 'AqroE
@epionoE Kxl,roE
'InnoqproE ' 56. E.g., ni AnQiou pqv[]E Aou n' nr.ov(tog) [In the year when Apphion held office, on
@ell,ol0loE ApcrrgoE Xqurroiog Anel.),cioE
the eighth day from the end ofthe month ofLoosl (lSardBR 119).
"hollow"
57. It is called vq $OivowoE in a month (i.e., in a twenty-nine-day month).
Delos 58. The new count was not entirely consistent, sometimes being counted backward (see
(until 166r.c.) Kos Rhodes "Greek
Benjamin D. Meritt, Inscriptions," Hespeia 4 [1935]: 525-85; S. Charitonides, "The First
'ExoropBor,tov flvcpog flvcrproE (intercalary) Half of a Bouleutai List of the Fourth Century s.c.," Hesperia [1961]: 30-57, esp. 51-52).
Metcyerrvlv A),rog Kcqveiog Dinsmoor ("Review: O. Neugebauer, W. Kendrick Pritchett, The Calendarsof Athens," American
'Al,oeioE Historical Review 54, no. 2 [1949],337) has proposed that after 307, the count was uniformly
BolQovlv A)'rog
'Anorouqltirv backward. Pritchett (in Neugebauer and Pritchett, The Calenilarsof Athens [Cambridge: Harvard
KapveloE @eopoSgrcE (l)
Agqor,drv @euci,orog ro0uoE University Press, 19631,349-50) rejects a forward count.
flooer,ecbv fIerc.lelrvuoE Oeuc[orog 59. According to W. K. Pritchett ("The Calendar of the Gibbous Moon," ZPE 49 lt982l:
Aqvor.v(2) KcrQlorog flecyelrvuoE 243-66; cf . SEG32.353,156; cf. also Mogens H. Hansen, "When Did the Athenian EcclesiaMeet?"
'IepE GRBS 23 [1982]: 331-50), the omitted day in the last decadeof a hollow month was the day with
Boqopng Boqpr,oE
folcfuirv feqottog Xp[v0loE which the backward count ended, i.e., eor6gcr Q0ivovrog. According to Samuel (Greek and
'Aqrapitrog Roman Chronology,59-60) eur6qc Q0tvovtog is replaced with v4 noi. v6a. However, f. A.
Agtepr,orv AqrcrplrroE
@crqyr1fu.v Ayqr,crvr,og Ayglcvlog Walsh ("The Omitted Date in the Athenian Hollow Month," ZPE 4l ll98Il: 107-24; cf. SEG
'Yoxiv0r,oc 'Yaxiv0roc 31.124) defends B. D. Meritt's view that the omitted day in a hollow month was enrr/vt1
fIvrlpog
S0ivovrog, not eur6pcr Q0ivovtog.
60. Seee.g., IAmyzon 194; IKosPH, index V.
61. See Gerhard Radke, Fasti Romani: Betrachtungen zur Frhgeschichteiles rmischen
Kalendars,Orbis Antiquus 3l (Mnster:Aschendorff, 1990)(cf. ). Briscoe,CR al [1991]:404-6).
164 | An Introduction to Greek Epigraphy Calendars,Eras, and the Dating oflnscriptions | 165

TABLE 13. The Counting of Attic Days Iulian Month Names

lst vouplvl(r l6th xtq dni xcr
2d eurqc iotcrg,vou lTth 6Bop1ri xa 'Icrvougr.og
3d tqi,rrl iorcrp6vou lSth oyr1dni xcr
OeBguqrog6a
4th rrQE(not rroQrl) lgth vq dni xa
iorcrp6vou Mcprr.og
5th n6pnq iotcpvou 20th eixg/eixooti/exrq ngotpc (backwardcount) Anqil.r.og6s
6th xq ioropvou 21stexrq Q0ivovrog/xrq {rotpcr Ma[o966
7th 6popq iorcrp6vou 22d,vrr1Q0ivovroE/vtr1 ped eixaE (i.e.,20th dry) 'IovtoE6z
Sth oyo1 iorcrp6vou 23d otoq gOr.vovtog/yqp# eixcrg
'Iol,r.ogoa
9th vtq iorcpvou 2ath 6Bp"4Q0[vovrog/6ppr1 pet' eix<rg
1Othexrn iorapr6vou 25th xq $Olvovtog/xtq pet' eixcog AyouotoE
I lth vexrrl 26th nt$TrrqQ0ivovtoE/n6pntqped eixocg
)entpBgr,oE6e
l2th (l)sxrn 27th rerqE S0i,vovtog/tetqgpret'eixcrcrE 'Oxr613groE70
13thrQirq ni,6xa 28th tqirq Q0lvovtoE/tqitq pet' eixng
14thtergg dri, 6xa 29th eurpc Q0ivovtoE/eut6gcr ped eixccg No6ppgr,o971
(i.e.,in tull Ii.e.,30-day]month)
Aezprl3qrog
15thn6pnrq ni 6zc 29th q xoi v6cr/aqtq (tpS") Q0i,vovtog(pnv6S)
(i.e.,in hollow [i.e.,29-day]month)
30th vr1xci vic/nptlq Each month was divided into three parts with respect to three particular
(tp6eo) S0ivovroE(pnvs)(in tuIl [i.e.,30-day]month),r
dates:the calends(xal,avo[) was the first day of eachmonth, the noneswas
and the ides (eioi/iol) was the middle day
the ninth day before the ides,72
of each month.73 Days were not numbered from the beginning of the month
pre-fulian calendar became irretrievably confused, especially when corrupt' but counted backward from the next calends, nones, or ides, as the case
officials added days and months to prolong their terms of office or to dehy may be.
elections. The days were counted inclusively, that is, including the final day itself.
' 'fhus,
In 45 n.c., Julius Caesarimplementedthe so-calledJulian calendar,which whereas one might consider the third day before the ides (l3th) of
was a solar calendar. It was based on the Egyptian solar calendar but imple' . January to be 10 fanuary, it was actually 11 fanuary. Similarly, ng nvre
mented a superior form of intercalation.The Julian calendarhad 365 dap' , xal.avdrv MqiovTa [on the fifth day before the calends of May] is the 27th
"bissextile"
with one day intercalated every fourth year in February (e.g.,in 9, (not the 26th) of April. Though many local calendarsand month names
5, and I s.c. and in e.o. 4,8, 12, etc.). Four months had thirty days (i.e.' ,
September,April, ]une, and November), February had twenty-eight days,and 64.Also(DeBpooqtoE, (DeBl"cgr.oE,
Qqepgtog, (Derpor-rproE,
(Deppouogr"oE.
the remaining months had thirry-one days.62The month names were derived l 65.AlsoAngeltrroE,
np4lqoE, Aagf ],roE.
66. Also Mc1og.
from numbers and from the names of gods, the sun, the moon, and planets;
67. Also'HovroE.
the two exceptions to this rule were Quintilis, later changed Io Julius, and 68. Also'Ioui.1oE,'Ho),qog.
Sextilk,later changed to Augrlstul63 69. Also EentrBproE.
70. Also'OxrBgroE,'QrtBgroE,'Qrropgqog,'OxtqproE.
62. This is virtually identical to our own Gregorian calendar. The lulian calendar advancd 71. Also Nor6ppqr.oE, NoBppqr.oE,
Nou6pBqroE.
by forty-four minutes every four years with respect to the sun. The Gregorian calendar omi11 72. The nones was either the seventh day ofMarch, May, luly, or October or the fifth day of
three intercalary days every four hundred years beginning in e.o. 1600. thc remaining months.
63. The month name lanuary was derived from ]anus; February from februus (meaning 73. The ides was either the fifteenth day of March, May, )uly, or October or the thirteenth
"purificatory ,l.ry of the remaining months.
lsacrifices]"); March from the god Mars; May from a deity' perhaps Maius or Maia; "Remarks
lune apparently from the diety luno. The month name April is of unknown origin. In thcir 74. ISardBR 18, L. 4. On the naming of weekdaysin late antiquity seeK. A. Worp,
original form, the month names for July-December, were derived from numbers. luly and rrrr Weekdays in Late Antiquity Occurring in Documentary Sources," Tyche 6 (1991): 221-30;
August were then renamed for lulius and Augustus,respectively' s l t ( ;4 1 . 1 7 5 3( c f . 3 4 . 1 6 8 4 ) .
 Calendars,
Eras,
and the Datingof Inscriptions I fO:

TABLE 12. Greek Month Names eixoaE). Sometimes,the waning days were counted lst, 2d, 3d, and so on,
Phokis Locris Delphi Amphissa Aitolia but more often they were counted in reverseorder, that is, from the last day in
the decade(the 30th/29th) to first day in the decade(the 2151).s0According to
AexoroE Ao6xorog Anel,iraioS (1) fIvcrpog cQpcrioE
Bocppr,og/'Evxcrrog nqrog (l) Bouxrlog Alpoorucbv (l) flcvopog this latter scheme,the 30th (or 29th) is known as nqq (frlpSc)Q0ivovtog
oxarog ArrrQoE Bo0ooE (unlnown) fleoxuxh,og (1) : (pnvS) or as vrl xci vcr,and the 2lst is called 6xar4 S0ivovroE:57for
'Hgoiog 'El"aQqBol.unvog
nqrog (l) Tplrog (unknown) 0cvciog example, pqvE xtn (ip6qq) Q0ivovrog means "on the
Apl"roE/AerepoE TtcqtoE ar"cgqr.og (unknown) Bouxntuog :
Tqitog fl6pnrog fIonq6nrcg flavcyproE iog
sixth day of the waning [: the 25th of the month] of Elaphebolion," with
ArovoloE/TtcqroE 'Txrog
Apcrtrlog fryovrrog E0uciog/Eo<riog Elaphebolionhaving thirty days.From about 307s.c., the expression"ordinal
'EpopoE (unknown) 'Opol.or,og
fl6pnrog BoloE number" * Q0[vovroEpqvgwas replacedwith ped eixcrE(afterthe twenti-
Qqrog/'ExroE "OyooE 'EqpaioE
@eol6vrog florrqrloE
"Epopog 'EvcrroE 'Evuonorrqnlog 'Aqer,og eth day).s8In a month with twenty-nine days (i.e., a "hollow" month), one
flolrqnrog Alovor,oE ;
"Oyoog 'Hgxiter,og day was omitted.se
AzctoE fIxr.oE Ayerog/'Apiqog
AQc,progfEvcrtoE 'Evxcrrog 'Il,niog 'Innoppr,og
Aprirv The days of the months were counted according to decadesin many other
regions, in ways very similar to that already described. Other calendars
Boiotia Thessaly Halos Lamia Epidauros counted the days of the month sequentially from the first day of the month to
'Innogprog 'ExotpBrog 'Innoqprog the last.60
Ou),1"lxoE 16orog/'A!ong (
flovcpoE 'IrvroE(l) 'OpoIloE
flcrvcrpog Kcrqveiog
flcpBor,nog flvqpog @uioE 'Irvr,og flpogrlog
'Aqprog(1) 'EppcioE I 6.05 Roman Calendars
cpcrtqloE @eplorr,oE Anel.l.oiog
trotrxop6vrog Aycyl.rog Evrog @etrriorlog lopog l
BorxcnoE (l) 'Egpcriog
fhl0oiog Bprcg (1) T6l.eoE The pre-fulian Roman calendar6rwas basedon a lunisolar year of 355 days
'Eppaiog 'Ano),),vr,oE 'ApcrioE
@qftrtrros fIoor,criog beginning in March. To maintain some degree of synchrony between the
flqootarrlqr,og eo1cv6grcg Arovolog fe0oroE 'AqraplrloE
'AQqrcg i months and the seasons,an additional month was intercalated every few years.
Ayqrvrog fev6rrcE Axeog prylcvrog
@rot-rr,oE @uioE Melcrlqr.og @tog flvopog ' This intercalation was not performed at regular intervals. Consequently the
'Opotrr.oE 'Opol.r,oE 'AqroE
@epionoE Kxl,roE
'InnoqproE ' 56. E.g., ni AnQiou pqv[]E Aou n' nr.ov(tog) [In the year when Apphion held office, on
@ell,ol0loE ApcrrgoE Xqurroiog Anel.),cioE
the eighth day from the end ofthe month ofLoosl (lSardBR 119).
"hollow"
57. It is called vq $OivowoE in a month (i.e., in a twenty-nine-day month).
Delos 58. The new count was not entirely consistent, sometimes being counted backward (see
(until 166r.c.) Kos Rhodes "Greek
Benjamin D. Meritt, Inscriptions," Hespeia 4 [1935]: 525-85; S. Charitonides, "The First
'ExoropBor,tov flvcpog flvcrproE (intercalary) Half of a Bouleutai List of the Fourth Century s.c.," Hesperia [1961]: 30-57, esp. 51-52).
Metcyerrvlv A),rog Kcqveiog Dinsmoor ("Review: O. Neugebauer, W. Kendrick Pritchett, The Calendarsof Athens," American
'Al,oeioE Historical Review 54, no. 2 [1949],337) has proposed that after 307, the count was uniformly
BolQovlv A)'rog
'Anorouqltirv backward. Pritchett (in Neugebauer and Pritchett, The Calenilarsof Athens [Cambridge: Harvard
KapveloE @eopoSgrcE (l)
Agqor,drv @euci,orog ro0uoE University Press, 19631,349-50) rejects a forward count.
flooer,ecbv fIerc.lelrvuoE Oeuc[orog 59. According to W. K. Pritchett ("The Calendar of the Gibbous Moon," ZPE 49 lt982l:
Aqvor.v(2) KcrQlorog flecyelrvuoE 243-66; cf . SEG32.353,156; cf. also Mogens H. Hansen, "When Did the Athenian EcclesiaMeet?"
'IepE GRBS 23 [1982]: 331-50), the omitted day in the last decadeof a hollow month was the day with
Boqopng Boqpr,oE
folcfuirv feqottog Xp[v0loE which the backward count ended, i.e., eor6gcr Q0ivovrog. According to Samuel (Greek and
'Aqrapitrog Roman Chronology,59-60) eur6qc Q0tvovtog is replaced with v4 noi. v6a. However, f. A.
Agtepr,orv AqrcrplrroE
@crqyr1fu.v Ayqr,crvr,og Ayglcvlog Walsh ("The Omitted Date in the Athenian Hollow Month," ZPE 4l ll98Il: 107-24; cf. SEG
'Yoxiv0r,oc 'Yaxiv0roc 31.124) defends B. D. Meritt's view that the omitted day in a hollow month was enrr/vt1
fIvrlpog
S0ivovrog, not eur6pcr Q0ivovtog.
60. Seee.g., IAmyzon 194; IKosPH, index V.
61. See Gerhard Radke, Fasti Romani: Betrachtungen zur Frhgeschichteiles rmischen
Kalendars,Orbis Antiquus 3l (Mnster:Aschendorff, 1990)(cf. ). Briscoe,CR al [1991]:404-6).
166 An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy Calendars,Eras, and the Dating of Inscriptions | 167
|

continued in use after the introduction of the Julian calendar, they were lopnlaIog
'YneqpeqeraioE (intercalary)
gradually replaced by the )ulian system with the.notable. exception of the
)ewish calendar. ACoE

6.06 The Syro-Macedonian, Egyptian, and Ptolemaic Calendars The Egyptians were the first to adopt a purely solar calendar. Their solar
year was divided into twelve months of thirty days each, with five intercalary
days being added to bring the total to 365 days.The new year began on the
Though poorly attestedin the sirviving sources' it is known that the original
first day of Thoth, which, in the time of Alexander, fell in mid-November.
Macedonian calendar developed as a result of Alexander's contact with Baby-
"Macedonian" llowever, owing to a quarter-day inaccuracy of the calendar, Thoth had
lon. This calendar was essentially the lunar calendar of the
shifted to 31 August by the time of Octavian's arrival in Egypt. This calendar
Babylonians,with the substitution of Macedonian month names for the origi-
was used in Eglpt and Kyrenaika in both the Ptolemaic and Roman periods.T6
nal Babylonian names. It intercalated seven lunar months over a nineteen-
year cycle.The Macedonian calendar is best known through its adapted forms
Egltptian Month Names
in the Seleucidterritories and in Egypt as the so-calledSyro-Macedonianand
@trl0?7(1) ()el3cotE)78
Ptolemaic calendars,respectively.
"Seleucid" @crorQlTe (>rtttg)
The Syro-Macedonian calendar, also known as the calendar,
A0gao (Nog )eBcotg)
assignedMacedonian month names to the months of the Babylonian cycle,
Xolcr,x81 (Ioul.rcg)
with the months Xandikos (: Addaru) and Hyperberetaios(: Ululu) being
Tupi82 ( @eoy6vr.og)
intercalary months, and with a nineteen-year intercalation cycle.TsHowever,
Me1[q83 (NeqvroE)
the choice of the first month in the twelve-month sequencevaried from city
Qo,pev084 (fciog/fatrloE/f'tog )eBcrotE)
to city. The days within each month were counted with alphabetic numerals
<Dcgpou0[85 (Ayqi,nrurvog)
(a'-l,a Isee$ 2.09J),not accordingto a decadalsystem.This calendarwas in
llcltilv (legpcvixercE)
wide use in areas originally under Seleucid control in the Roman East. It
flav[86 (Aqouoil.l.qog)
survived in Syria at least until e,.o.46147and was still in use in Dura Europos 'Enr'Qiaz
(Agou oeg/Aqouor,eg)
in the late secondcentury A.D.
Meoopi,88 (Karocqelog)

Syro-M acedonian M onth N ames 76. See T. C. Skeat, The Reigns of the Ptolemies,2d ed., Mnchener Beitrge zur Papy-
ArueltrcrCoE rrrslirrschungund antiken Rechtsgeschichte 39 (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1969).
77. Also @co0,@0u.
ASuvaCoE 78. Month names in parentheseswere in use under Caligula. See A. E. Hanson, Atti XWI
fleqitrog ( otlressolnternazionale di Papirologia,3 vols. (Naples: Centro Internazionale per lo studio dei
AorgoE l'.rpiri Ercolanesi,1984), ll07-13; cf. SEG34.1523.
79. Also (Do<ir,Ilaori.
Eov0rx6g (intercalary)
ttO.Also Arrq.
Agreplotog ttl. Also Xux, Xor.1, Xotoli, Xoic1.
Aa[.olog tl2. Also Ttrrel.
t r . t .A l s o M e X e i p .M e 1 6 g .
flcvqpog
ti4. Also (Dcrpevt.
oc lJ5.Also @<rppour[,@crqpouOe[, <Dcrpou0q.
tl6. Also flcrervi, llarvei, floolvl.
'Ene 'EnrQei, 'EniQ, 'Erei$.
75. SeeSamuel, Greekand Roman Chronologt, 139-45; cf. 142-43 for attempts to correlate tt7. Also rgi,
the Seleucidcalendar with the Babylonian calendar. uti. Also Meoopil, Meooql, Meoop, Mloougil, Mr1ooqr1,Meop.
168 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy
The Egyptiansalso had a lunar calendarthat employed the same month
names as the Egyptian solar (i.e., civil) calendar. An intercalary cycle of.
twenty-five years was used to regulate the lunar calendar with respect to the
solar calendar.seThe Ptolemaiccalendar,an adaptedSyro-Macedoniancalen-
dar, was also used in Egypt alongside the Egyptian lunar and solar calendars.
This Ptolemaic calendar employed the same month names as the Syro-
Macedonian calendar, with the year beginning with the month of Dystros.
The rycle of the calendar was adapted to the Egyptian solar calendar, the
latter determining the day on which each Macedonian month should begin.
The month of Peritios was an intercalary month, with a second Peritios
(called Peritiosembolimos)being inserted on a biannual basis.This system of
intercalation lost seven and a half days every two years with respect to the
Egyptian solar calendar.
From the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, Egyptian state documents were
double-datedaccordingto both the Ptolemaicand Egyptiansolar calendars.e0
Following his reign, attempts to regulate.theMacedonian rycle with respectto
the Egyptian cycle seemto have ceased,with the Macedonian calendar pursu-
ing an independentcourse.In the reign of PtolemyV Epiphanes'the Macedo-
nian calendar was completely assimilated to the Egyptian solar calendar by
equating Macedonian month names to the Egyptian civil months, with the
Macedonianmonth Dystrosbeing equatedwith Thoth. In other words, dates
were in fact Egyptian datesstated in terms of Macedonian month names,with
no relationshipto the moon whatsoever.el
In 119/118n.c., in the reign of Ptolemy II Euergetes,the Macedonian
months were reassimilatedto the Egyptian calendar,this time by equating the
Macedonian month of Dios with Thoth, a correlation that lasted throughout
the Roman period.e2In 30 s.c., Augustustied this Ptolemaic (Egyptian)year
to the Julian system.
A Macedonian calendar of some kind was also used in previous Ptolemaic
possessionsin Asia Minor, most notably in Lycia.e3It seemsunlikely that the
89. SeeR. A. Parker, The Calendarsof Ancient Eglrpt, Oriental Institute of the University of
Chicago, Studiesin Ancient Oriental Civilization26 (Chicago: University ofChicago Press' 1950).
90. The tables of Theodore C. Skeat (Reignsof the Ptolemies)provrde a means to convert into
Julian dates.
91. SeeSamuel,Greekand Roman Chronology,149-50
"The
92. SeeT. C. Skeat, Macedonian Calendar during the Reign of Ptolemy EuergetesI,"
JEA 34 (1948):75-79.
93. See Louis Robert, Documents de I'Asie Mineure midionale: lnscriptions, monnaies et
g1ographie,CRHP 3, Hautes iitudes du Monde Gr6co-Romain 2 (Geneva: Librairie Droz; Paris:
Librairie Minard, 1966), 54.
Oakndars,Eras,and theDatingof Inscriptions I tOl
l)tolemaic calendar was then used; as Alan Samuel obseryes,"it would be
difficult to preserve the cyclical arrangement outside Eg1pt, since the cycle
clependedupon the old Egyptian calendaras its control."eaMore probably,
local calendarssimply adopted the Macedonian month names or adopted a
Seleucid-typecalendar.
6.07 Calendars of the Hellenistic Kingdoms and Eastern
Roman Provinces
A number of other calendric systemswere used in the Hellenistic kingdoms
and cities of the easternMediterranean prior to the establishmentof Roman
rule. Many cities had their own city-state calendars.The manner of counting
the days varied from city to city and from time to time; there is evidence of
.both a decadalcount (seeS 6.04) and a sequentialcount, either with alpha-
betic numerals (c-l.a [seeg 2.09]) or with the ordinals written out in full
(seeS 2.07,table 3).es
There was also innovation: the so-called Asian calendar was used exten-
sively in Asia Minor, its new year commencing on 23 September,with one
intercalary day inserted into the month of Xanthikos every four years. It
applied Syro-Macedonianmonth namesto the establishedlength of the Julian
year.96
Such local systemswere gradually replaced with the |ulian system,intro-
duced into Asia in 9 u.c. The Julian basisfor many calendarsin Asia Minor is
clearly indicated by the fact that the start of their new year was often Augus-
tus's birthday, 23 September(literally the ninth day before the calendsof
October), and by their intercalation of one day every four years.The methods
of regulating other local calendars with respect to the Julian system varied
from place to place. However, the local month names persistedin many Asian
cities, such as Ephesos, Smyrna, Miletos, Pergamon, and Magnesia on the
Maeander. The names of the months of many of these cities are known, but
their relativeorder cannot be determinedwith certainty (e.g.,at Magnesia).In
such casesas Cappadocia,the names of the months are spelledin numerous
ways in different sources becausethe indigenous names were unfamiliar to
Greek and Latin ears.eT Table 14 lists some of the best-attestedmonth names.
94. Samuel, Greekand Roman Chronologlt,l5l.
95. Cf. Miletos, Magnesia, Ephesos, and Sardis (see Samuel, Greek and Roman Chronologlt,
| L 5 , 1 2 2 ,t 2 4 , 1 3 2 - 3 3 ) .
96. See,e.g.,IPriene 105 (OGI a58); cf. OGI 456.
97. SeeKrister ll.anell, Das Menologium desLiber Glossarum,Bulletin de la Soci6tRoyale des
Lcttresde Lund II (Lund: C. W. K. Gleerup, 1932),13,27-32.
 Calendars,Eras, and the Dating of lnscriptions I l7l
l7O I A, Inttodrctionto GreekEpigraphy
the creation of a Roman province. If one knows the era used and its point of
TABLE 14. Month Names of the Eastern Roman Provinces
departure, civil years can easily be translated into ]ulian years so long as the
Smyrna Asia Miletos C1ryrus
Ephesos calendar was not lunisolar. If the calendar was lunisolar, one must also know
Knr,ocrqr,og Boqgoprv AqlwqetE whether a month had been intercalated that year. Since no Greek year begins
Neoxnr.oagetirv(l) Kar,ogr.ov 'Eo0tog
'Ayvcr6v TtB6qlov Ane)"Iciog fltcrvor!tov
'PtopcioE on fanuary lst, a year dated according to an era will inevitably overlap two
'Anoroqtov Arir-rvcrioE notouplv
Mtrlpcrxtqql<itv
flooer,ov flepitrog flooe 6orv AQqoioroE |ulian years.Therefore, it is necessaryto designate|ulian equivalenceswith a
flooer6trlv
Aorqog Arlvcu,v no1ovr,xE double date (e.g., 13312n.c.). To take a concreteexample,one cannot equate
qvcttirv Aqvcrltv
'Av0eotqqtv 'IeqooPaotov Ecrv0lxg Av0eotqqtv Aivr,xg
'Agrepr,odrv 'Iovtog the year 305 of the Macedonian era with e.o. 157,becausethree-quartersof
Agtepiotov prepr,o<irv
Aptepr.or,v the Macedonianyear 305 actuallyfell in a.o. 158.Thus,t.o.157/8 is the cor-
Aclorog Tnuqev (1) KclocgercE
I 0uQ(l)v Ericy16l.r.og
fIvrlpoE @cgyt1l,tv XepcorE rect ]ulian equivalentto 305.ee
@oqyqlrv Xtqotvlxov
'ExotoprPcriov A,i,oS Ktr)"<rPctv AroxQcrroQrxE
K)"<rqlv The tremendous profusion of such eras makes a detailed discussion here
'Avttolev IoqntoioE flovtlpog Aqproglelootog
K?toqrv 'YnepPegetcriog Meroyeltvlv fIl.q0rcrtoE impossible. Alan Samuel remarks, "the number of eras which came into use
Metcyer,wl6v noi,xlov
,and then expired to be replaced by yet other eras during Hellenistic and
Kyzikos Cappadocia Roman times is probably not infinite, but I have not yet been able to find the
Byzantium Perinthos Bithynia
end of them."roo I limit my discussion here to those eras that are employed
'Ycrxi,v0tog fIqltr,oElflqr,qoE IIvqpog Anopevcrptr
flucrverl-rt6v most frequently in the epigraphic record.
QgoloroE (unknown) Aq0p
Aqygnvr,og floorev/!ePcotg
'Av0eotqqr,v qpftqroE (unknown) Terouoi,tr SeleucusI counted his regnal years according to the Babylonian calendar,
Mcrl,oQqr,og 'Hqcr[oE/'AqeroE 'Qoptovicr
'Hp<rio Aqtepi,otoE Kucrverl.rxitv beginning (accordingto the Julian calendar)in the autumn of 3l2l I B.c. ( :
'Eqperog Ancrtouqev Ivnpo
KcqeivoE Acrior.og year 1). This counting was continued by his son, Antiochus I, and his succes-
Mqtpog IIooet<ov Epagomenal
Mayrveg IInvrlpoE 'Aqtcrvlcr
Kol.opcriog Ar,ovotog Aqvcu,v sors. This so-calledSeleucidera (or Syro-Macedonianera), which counted
fletoleitvtog 'HqxIer,oE
(unknown) Av0eotqqtv gtoeot[v the years of the Seleucid dynasty, was employed in Apameia, Epiphania,
Alovrorcg 'Aqorotato
ArlvotoE Aiog Agteopror,v
Exler,og
Tlqtl
Damascus,Palmyra, Syria, Phoenicia, Lebanon, Arabia, and parts of Asia
(unknown) BevrnioE Tnupev
AgtePi'otog Minor.101However, in actual fact, the precisebeginning of the Seleucidyear
Xrqtetog @crqy1)rrv Armotat
AulitoE Boqpoprv
'Aqerog Kn?,.crpctv Eovcv0qqI varied from city to city.
Boonqr,oE Kqovuirv
Mt0pI
. Prior to 148 n.c., the Macedonianscounted their yearsof independence
on the basisof the yearsof the reign of Alexander IV, beginning in the autumn
of 3\7 s.c. PharnacesI of Pontos counted the yearsfrom the accessionof the
for the imperial
The alignment of the columns in the table is valid only founder of the dynasty, Mithridates of Cius in 337 s .c. (the era of the rule of
period. Mithridates), while his successor,Mithridates II, reckoned from297 n.c. (the
Pontic regnal era, as in Bithynia).Io2There were also commemorative erasthat
6.08 Dating according to Eras counted the years from a particular historical event. Paphlagonia dated

preferred to date "The

Beginning in Hellenistic times, some geographical areas 99. SeeMarcus N. Tod, Macedonian Era Reconsidered,"in StudiesPresentedto David
Such erascommemo- Moore Robinson on His SeventiethBirthday, ed. George E. Mylonas and Doris Rayrnond, 2 vols.
inscriptions according to erasrather than by eponl'm'e8 (St. Louis, MO: University of Washington, t953),2:382-97, esp. 395.
or the year of
rated events,such as victories in battle, the liberation ofcities' 100. Samuel, Greekand Roman Chronolog1t,246.
und l0l. 8.g., Apollonia (MAMA VI, 154).
gg. The best overview of the eras is w. Leschhorn, Antike Aren: Zeitrechnung, Politik
81 102. SeeChristian Marek, Stailt, Ara und Territorium in Pontus-Bithynia und Nord-Galatia,
nrdlich des Tauros,Histoia Einzelschriften
Geschichteim schwarzmeenaum und in Kleinasien IstF 39 (Ttlbingen: E. Wasmuth, 1993), 129-33 (app. l); Louis Robert, Erudes anatoliennes:
(Stuttgart:FranzSteiner,lgg3)(SEG43'1218)'withacatalogueoferason435-541(SEG Recherches sur les inscriptionsgrecquesde l'AsieMineare, Etudes Orientales 5 (Paris: E. de Boccard,
(oxford: clarendon, l9ll), 944-45;
iz.tzill. cf. B. v. Head, Historia Numorum, 2d ed. t937).23r.
"Aeta," 632ff.;Bickerman, Chtonologyof the Ancient World' 70-78'
Kubitschek,
 Calendars,Eras, and the Dating of lnscriptions I l7l
l7O I A, Inttodrctionto GreekEpigraphy
the creation of a Roman province. If one knows the era used and its point of
TABLE 14. Month Names of the Eastern Roman Provinces
departure, civil years can easily be translated into ]ulian years so long as the
Smyrna Asia Miletos C1ryrus
Ephesos calendar was not lunisolar. If the calendar was lunisolar, one must also know
Knr,ocrqr,og Boqgoprv AqlwqetE whether a month had been intercalated that year. Since no Greek year begins
Neoxnr.oagetirv(l) Kar,ogr.ov 'Eo0tog
'Ayvcr6v TtB6qlov Ane)"Iciog fltcrvor!tov
'PtopcioE on fanuary lst, a year dated according to an era will inevitably overlap two
'Anoroqtov Arir-rvcrioE notouplv
Mtrlpcrxtqql<itv
flooer,ov flepitrog flooe 6orv AQqoioroE |ulian years.Therefore, it is necessaryto designate|ulian equivalenceswith a
flooer6trlv
Aorqog Arlvcu,v no1ovr,xE double date (e.g., 13312n.c.). To take a concreteexample,one cannot equate
qvcttirv Aqvcrltv
'Av0eotqqtv 'IeqooPaotov Ecrv0lxg Av0eotqqtv Aivr,xg
'Agrepr,odrv 'Iovtog the year 305 of the Macedonian era with e.o. 157,becausethree-quartersof
Agtepiotov prepr,o<irv
Aptepr.or,v the Macedonianyear 305 actuallyfell in a.o. 158.Thus,t.o.157/8 is the cor-
Aclorog Tnuqev (1) KclocgercE
I 0uQ(l)v Ericy16l.r.og
fIvrlpoE @cgyt1l,tv XepcorE rect ]ulian equivalentto 305.ee
@oqyqlrv Xtqotvlxov
'ExotoprPcriov A,i,oS Ktr)"<rPctv AroxQcrroQrxE
K)"<rqlv The tremendous profusion of such eras makes a detailed discussion here
'Avttolev IoqntoioE flovtlpog Aqproglelootog
K?toqrv 'YnepPegetcriog Meroyeltvlv fIl.q0rcrtoE impossible. Alan Samuel remarks, "the number of eras which came into use
Metcyer,wl6v noi,xlov
,and then expired to be replaced by yet other eras during Hellenistic and
Kyzikos Cappadocia Roman times is probably not infinite, but I have not yet been able to find the
Byzantium Perinthos Bithynia
end of them."roo I limit my discussion here to those eras that are employed
'Ycrxi,v0tog fIqltr,oElflqr,qoE IIvqpog Anopevcrptr
flucrverl-rt6v most frequently in the epigraphic record.
QgoloroE (unknown) Aq0p
Aqygnvr,og floorev/!ePcotg
'Av0eotqqr,v qpftqroE (unknown) Terouoi,tr SeleucusI counted his regnal years according to the Babylonian calendar,
Mcrl,oQqr,og 'Hqcr[oE/'AqeroE 'Qoptovicr
'Hp<rio Aqtepi,otoE Kucrverl.rxitv beginning (accordingto the Julian calendar)in the autumn of 3l2l I B.c. ( :
'Eqperog Ancrtouqev Ivnpo
KcqeivoE Acrior.og year 1). This counting was continued by his son, Antiochus I, and his succes-
Mqtpog IIooet<ov Epagomenal
Mayrveg IInvrlpoE 'Aqtcrvlcr
Kol.opcriog Ar,ovotog Aqvcu,v sors. This so-calledSeleucidera (or Syro-Macedonianera), which counted
fletoleitvtog 'HqxIer,oE
(unknown) Av0eotqqtv gtoeot[v the years of the Seleucid dynasty, was employed in Apameia, Epiphania,
Alovrorcg 'Aqorotato
ArlvotoE Aiog Agteopror,v
Exler,og
Tlqtl
Damascus,Palmyra, Syria, Phoenicia, Lebanon, Arabia, and parts of Asia
(unknown) BevrnioE Tnupev
AgtePi'otog Minor.101However, in actual fact, the precisebeginning of the Seleucidyear
Xrqtetog @crqy1)rrv Armotat
AulitoE Boqpoprv
'Aqerog Kn?,.crpctv Eovcv0qqI varied from city to city.
Boonqr,oE Kqovuirv
Mt0pI
. Prior to 148 n.c., the Macedonianscounted their yearsof independence
on the basisof the yearsof the reign of Alexander IV, beginning in the autumn
of 3\7 s.c. PharnacesI of Pontos counted the yearsfrom the accessionof the
for the imperial
The alignment of the columns in the table is valid only founder of the dynasty, Mithridates of Cius in 337 s .c. (the era of the rule of
period. Mithridates), while his successor,Mithridates II, reckoned from297 n.c. (the
Pontic regnal era, as in Bithynia).Io2There were also commemorative erasthat
6.08 Dating according to Eras counted the years from a particular historical event. Paphlagonia dated

preferred to date "The

Beginning in Hellenistic times, some geographical areas 99. SeeMarcus N. Tod, Macedonian Era Reconsidered,"in StudiesPresentedto David
Such erascommemo- Moore Robinson on His SeventiethBirthday, ed. George E. Mylonas and Doris Rayrnond, 2 vols.
inscriptions according to erasrather than by eponl'm'e8 (St. Louis, MO: University of Washington, t953),2:382-97, esp. 395.
or the year of
rated events,such as victories in battle, the liberation ofcities' 100. Samuel, Greekand Roman Chronolog1t,246.
und l0l. 8.g., Apollonia (MAMA VI, 154).
gg. The best overview of the eras is w. Leschhorn, Antike Aren: Zeitrechnung, Politik
81 102. SeeChristian Marek, Stailt, Ara und Territorium in Pontus-Bithynia und Nord-Galatia,
nrdlich des Tauros,Histoia Einzelschriften
Geschichteim schwarzmeenaum und in Kleinasien IstF 39 (Ttlbingen: E. Wasmuth, 1993), 129-33 (app. l); Louis Robert, Erudes anatoliennes:
(Stuttgart:FranzSteiner,lgg3)(SEG43'1218)'withacatalogueoferason435-541(SEG Recherches sur les inscriptionsgrecquesde l'AsieMineare, Etudes Orientales 5 (Paris: E. de Boccard,
(oxford: clarendon, l9ll), 944-45;
iz.tzill. cf. B. v. Head, Historia Numorum, 2d ed. t937).23r.
"Aeta," 632ff.;Bickerman, Chtonologyof the Ancient World' 70-78'
Kubitschek,
 Calendars,Eras, and the Dating of lnscriptions I l7l
l7O I A, Inttodrctionto GreekEpigraphy
the creation of a Roman province. If one knows the era used and its point of
TABLE 14. Month Names of the Eastern Roman Provinces
departure, civil years can easily be translated into ]ulian years so long as the
Smyrna Asia Miletos C1ryrus
Ephesos calendar was not lunisolar. If the calendar was lunisolar, one must also know
Knr,ocrqr,og Boqgoprv AqlwqetE whether a month had been intercalated that year. Since no Greek year begins
Neoxnr.oagetirv(l) Kar,ogr.ov 'Eo0tog
'Ayvcr6v TtB6qlov Ane)"Iciog fltcrvor!tov
'PtopcioE on January lst, a year dated according to an era will inevitably overlap two
'Anoroqtov Arir-rvcrioE notouplv
Mtrlpcrxtqql<itv
flooer,ov flepitrog flooe 6orv AQqoioroE |ulian years.Therefore, it is necessaryto designate|ulian equivalenceswith a
flooer6trlv
Aorqog Arlvcu,v no1ovr,xE double date (e.g., 13312n.c.). To take a concreteexample,one cannot equate
qvcttirv Aqvcrltv
'Av0eotqqtv 'IeqooPaotov Ecrv0lxg Av0eotqqtv Aivr,xg
'Agrepr,odrv 'Iovtog the year 305 of the Macedonian era with e.o. 157,becausethree-quartersof
Agtepiotov prepr,o<irv
Aptepr.or,v the Macedonianyear 305 actuallyfell in a.o. 158.Thus,t.o.157/8 is the cor-
Aclorog Tnuqev (1) KclocgercE
I 0uQ(l)v Ericy16l.r.og
fIvrlpoE @cgyt1l,tv XepcorE rect ]ulian equivalentto 305.ee
@oqyqlrv Xtqotvlxov
'ExotoprPcriov A,i,oS Ktr)"<rPctv AroxQcrroQrxE
K)"<rqlv The tremendous profusion of such eras makes a detailed discussion here
'Avttolev IoqntoioE flovtlpog Aqproglelootog
K?toqrv 'YnepPegetcriog Meroyeltvlv fIl.q0rcrtoE impossible. Alan Samuel remarks, "the number of eras which came into use
Metcyer,wl6v noi,xlov
,and then expired to be replaced by yet other eras during Hellenistic and
Kyzikos Cappadocia Roman times is probably not infinite, but I have not yet been able to find the
Byzantium Perinthos Bithynia
end of them."roo I limit my discussion here to those eras that are employed
'Ycrxi,v0tog fIqltr,oElflqr,qoE IIvqpog Anopevcrptr
flucrverl-rt6v most frequently in the epigraphic record.
QgoloroE (unknown) Aq0p
Aqygnvr,og floorev/!ePcotg
'Av0eotqqr,v qpftqroE (unknown) Terouoi,tr SeleucusI counted his regnal years according to the Babylonian calendar,
Mcrl,oQqr,og 'Hqcr[oE/'AqeroE 'Qoptovicr
'Hp<rio Aqtepi,otoE Kucrverl.rxitv beginning (accordingto the Julian calendar)in the autumn of 3l2l I B.c. ( :
'Eqperog Ancrtouqev Ivnpo
KcqeivoE Acrior.og year 1). This counting was continued by his son, Antiochus I, and his succes-
Mqtpog IIooet<ov Epagomenal
Mayrveg IInvrlpoE 'Aqtcrvlcr
Kol.opcriog Ar,ovotog Aqvcu,v sors. This so-calledSeleucidera (or Syro-Macedonianera), which counted
fletoleitvtog 'HqxIer,oE
(unknown) Av0eotqqtv gtoeot[v the years of the Seleucid dynasty, was employed in Apameia, Epiphania,
Alovrorcg 'Aqorotato
ArlvotoE Aiog Agteopror,v
Exler,og
Tlqtl
Damascus,Palmyra, Syria, Phoenicia, Lebanon, Arabia, and parts of Asia
(unknown) BevrnioE Tnupev
AgtePi'otog Minor.101However, in actual fact, the precisebeginning of the Seleucidyear
Xrqtetog @crqy1)rrv Armotat
AulitoE Boqpoprv
'Aqerog Kn?,.crpctv Eovcv0qqI varied from city to city.
Boonqr,oE Kqovuirv
Mt0pI
. Prior to 148 8.c., the Macedonianscounted their yearsof independence
on the basisof the yearsof the reign of Alexander IV, beginning in the autumn
of 3\7 R.c. PharnacesI of Pontos counted the yearsfrom the accessionof the
for the imperial
The alignment of the columns in the table is valid only founder of the dynasty, Mithridates of Cius in 337 s .c. (the era of the rule of
period. Mithridates), while his successor,Mithridates II, reckoned from297 n.c. (the
Pontic regnal era, as in Bithynia).Io2There were also commemorative erasthat
6.08 Dating according to Eras counted the years from a particular historical event. Paphlagonia dated

preferred to date "The

Beginning in Hellenistic times, some geographical areas 99. SeeMarcus N. Tod, Macedonian Era Reconsidered,"in StudiesPresentedto David
Such erascommemo- Moore Robinson on His SeventiethBirthday, ed. George E. Mylonas and Doris Rayrnond, 2 vols.
inscriptions according to erasrather than by eponl'm'e8 (St. Louis, MO: University of Washington, t953),2:382-97, esp. 395.
or the year of
rated events,such as victories in battle, the liberation ofcities' 100. Samuel, Greekand Roman Chronolog1t,246.
und l0l. 8.g., Apollonia (MAMA VI, 154).
gg. The best overview of the eras is w. Leschhorn, Antike Aren: Zeitrechnung, Politik
81 102. SeeChristian Marek, Stailt, Ara und Territorium in Pontus-Bithynia und Nord-Galatia,
nrdlich des Tauros,Histoia Einzelschriften
Geschichteim schwarzmeenaum und in Kleinasien IstF 39 (Ttlbingen: E. Wasmuth, 1993), 129-33 (app. l); Louis Robert, Erudes anatoliennes:
(Stuttgart:FranzSteiner,lgg3)(SEG43'1218)'withacatalogueoferason435-541(SEG Recherches sur les inscriptionsgrecquesde l'AsieMineare, Etudes Orientales 5 (Paris: E. de Boccard,
(oxford: clarendon, l9ll), 944-45;
iz.tzill. cf. B. v. Head, Historia Numorum, 2d ed. t937).23r.
"Aeta," 632ff.;Bickerman, Chtonologyof the Ancient World' 70-78'
Kubitschek,
172 An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy Calendars,Eras,and theDutingof lnscriptions | 173
|

inscriptionsfrom the twelfth consulateof Augustus (5 u.c.).r03At one point
in its history, Athens counted the years from the visit of the emperor Ha-
drian to the city in e.o. L26.The era of Diocletian (touE roxl,rltuovo0) is in the city's history:
reckoned from 29 August ^.D. 284, a date that actually antedateshis acces-
sion on 20 November A.D. 284.104 Though this began as a regnal dating, it
did not continue as such, since it persisted in use long after Diocletian's
abdication. The imposition of the Diocletian reform upon the astronomers
of the time required so much work that when Diocletian abdicated, the
numbering from the beginning of his reign continued in order to avoid
implementing a new system. Cities that won their freedom from the Seleu-
cids often initiated their own eras of liberation, reckoned from the year of
each city's independence.rosEras of liberation were adopted by Tyre (275 ot
274 s.c.), Laodikeia (62 or 81 n.c.), Apameia (41 n.c.), and Tripolis of
Phoenicia (between 105 and 95 n.c.).r00Pompey'sliberation of cities in the
eastin the sixties B.c. also generatedseveralPompeian eras,including that of
Antioch, which beganin 66 B.c.1o7
A number of Caesareaneras arose in the forties B.c. For example, the
Caesarean era of Antioch commemoratedthe Battle of Pharsaluson 6 June48
8.c., when power was passedfrom Pompey to Julius Caesar.l08 The eras of
Cleopatra was reckoned according to the regnal years of Cleopatra from 52
B .C.i09
The determination of which era applies to a particular city must often be
"the
worked out for each city individually. Alan Samuel remarks that scholar
who must work with a specific era is probably reduced, at least for the local
city eras, to examining all the available evidence to come to a new and
103. SeeMarek, Stadt, Ara und Tenitorium, 129-33.
104. SeeBickerman, Chronologltof the Ancient World' 105 n. 59.
105. E.g.,Amyzon, 167 v.c. (IAnyzon 3O9);Tyre, l8 Oct. 126 a.c' (SEG 2.330)' SeeHenri
"Antiquites
Seyrig, syriennes, No. 56, ires pompiennes des villes de Phnicie," syria 3l (1954):
"Antiquites
73-80; Syriennes,No. 73, Temples, cultes et souvenirs historiques de la D6capole,"
Syria 36 (1959):60-78, esp.70.
"Antiquit6s
106. SeeHenri Seyrig, Syriennes,No.42, Sur les res de quelques villes de Syrie:
Antioche, Apam6e, Ar6thuse, Balan6e, Epiphanie, Laodic6e, Bltosos, Damas' B6rlte' Tripolis,
"Antiquit6s
l'dre de Cl6optre, Chaichis du Liban, Dolich6," Syria2T (1950):5-50; Syriennes,No'
48, Aradus et Baetocaec6,"Syria 28 (1951): l9l-220, esp.210-16.
107. The cities liberated by Pompey include Gadara (64 s.c.), Gerasaand Philadelphia (63
s.c.), and Apamea (66 s.c.). SeeSamuel,Greekand Roman Chronology'247 n. l.
108. SeeRobert, BE (1972):388.
"Antiquites
109. Dated fifteen years before this in some papyri (see Seyrig, S1'riennes,No'
42.43).
satisfactoryconclusion."ll0In Syria, for example,the cities evince consider-
able variety. In Antioch alone, four different eraswere used at different times
Seleucidera -6514s.c.
Pompeian era 6514-50149s.c.
Caesareanera 49/8-716 s.c.
Aktian era 716s.c.-
There are also a number of so-called provincial eras, most important of
which arethe Macedonianera (autumn of 148s.c.), the Achaianera (146n.c.),
and the Sullanera (85 r.c.), eachcounting the yearsof Roman rule in particular
regions. The Sullan era was used widely in Asia Minor, Sulla being regardedas
the region's great reorganizer. The Sullan era was reckoned from Sulla's tri-
umph over Mithridates and his reconquestof Asia in 85 s.c. (23 September).lrr
For example, inscriptions from Saittai (Lydia) are dated by the Sullan era (e.9.,
t(oug) ov pn(vg) An[e],].crlou] tt' [i" the year 255 [of the Sullanera : e.o.
1701,in the month of Apellaios,on the eighth dayl).tt2
The Augustan era, also known as the Aktian era, counted the years from
the victory of Augustus over Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium (2
September3l n.c.).rr3All cities who adopted the Augustan era shared this
same reference point, with year I being the year in which the battle was
f o u g h t( 3 1| 3 0 B . c . ) . r 1 4
Two eras existed side by side in Macedonia, the provincial era and the
Augustan era.lls The provincial era, the older of the two, counted from the
organizationof the Roman province in the autumn of 148 n.c. (1 Dios [: 15
"in
Octoberl). Thus, an inscription dated the three hundred and fifty-seventh
year" of the provincial era would be from .q,.o.209. The Augustan era (tog
'Iotrr,ov/roEvixlg) was counted from the third year of
)eBcot6v/kog
110. Samuel, Greekand Roman Chronology,246, 248.
ll1. See Wilhelm Kubitschek, Grundriss der antiken Zeitrechnung (Munich: C. H. Beck,
"Aera,"
1928),76; Kubitschek, 638. Cf. Pliny Natural History 33.16.
l12. SEG29.1l88.Cf.SEG29.l183-87;LBWl146;W.M.Ramsay,"TheCitiesandBishop-
rics ofPhrygia," part2, IHS 8 [1887]: 461-519, esp. 517-18.
"Octavian
l13. SeeU. Wilcken, after the Fall ofAlexandria," JRS27 (1937): 138-44, esp'
"Le
138; Iean Bingen, Sammelbuch I 5244 et l're August6enne d'Eg)?te," Chronique d'Egryte ZZ
(1964): 174-76..
"Macedonian
l14. SeeTod, Era Reconsidered,"394.
115. These are in addition to the counting of the yearsof independencefrom 317 s.c., in
use prior to 148 B.c.
174 An lrtroductionto GreekEpigraphy Eras,and theDatingof lnscriptions |
Calendars, 175
|

Augustus(reckonedfrom 3ll30 B.c.).r16 It was adoptedby Macedonia after27 The Augustanera was usedas a basisfor counting the yearsin many other
Augustus.lrE
B.c- by which time the title xeBaor5r17had been bestowedon parts of the Greek-speakingworld during the Roman era.122 ln Samosand
TheworkofMarcusTodformsthebasisofallresearchontheMacedo. Philadelphia, for example, one finds inscriptions dated from fuog rflg
not always
nian era.lle However, contrary to Tod, the Augustan era was Koi,ocrpoEvlxqE [the year of the victory of Caesar].123When the Augustanera
dated
specified by the formula tog Xepaordv, nor are all anonymously was used, it was on account of local initiative, not imposition by the Roman
inscriptionsdated accordingto the provincial era'120 FanoulaPapazoglouhas government. For example, the region around Akmonia first dated documents
been able to rehabilitate Tod's general principles. Her conclusions are as according to the Sullan ra,t2agr"tt subsequently switched to dating by the
era, inscriP- Augustan era sometime in the third century a.o. There are also instancesof
follows: Immediately following the introduction of the Augustan
to such double-datingaccordingto both eras(e.g.,[t]ouE l( [Augustanera] toO
tions were alwaysdated with the formula TogxeBootdv. This applies
low dates as rouE 11xol l' and roug y xui V' Conversely' low
dates lacking cro0 gxo [era of Sulla] : A.D.3617).125
the provincial era. By the second A special subclassof dating according to era is the system of reckoning
the formula fuoE xeBcorv always refer to
halfofthefirstcenturyA.D.,theAugustanerabecamesoestablishedthatit time on the basis of regional games.From the third century n.c. onward,
era was used in some inscriptions are dated by counting Olympiads (e.g.,S1G3557), taking
was cited without the rog xeBcorv formula. The Augustan
to be used in
most inscriptions of the state, while the provincial era tended their name from the gamesknown as the l.utrrntEheld in Olympia. Accord-
private inscriPtions.l2r ing to this reckoning system, the sequential number of the Olympiad (Ol.)
was cited following by a specification of the year within that four-year cycle,
l16. See,e.g.,PaulFoucart,"DcretdesartistesDionysiaquesd'Argos"'R422(1871):107- with Ol. 1 being equivalent to 776 s .c.126The term l.uprr,crgwas also applied
1 5 ,e s p .1 0 9 . to the period of four solar years following the Olympic games:thus, there was
1i7. As opposed to the epithet oeBcotE' "Olympic
no year" per se, since the games were held at four-year intervals
llS.SeeSalomonneinach,Traitd'epigraphiegrecque(Paris:E.Leroux'1885)'479-8|;
" (e.g.,776,772,768 n.c.,etc.);r27
hence,l.upntgxctootil could refereither
Kubitschek, Aera," 632ff.
.'The Macedonian Era I," BSA 23 (1919):206-17; "The Macedonian Era II','
11g. SeeTod,
382-87; cf. Magie, Roman RuIe, 122. Though William Ramsay (The Historical Geography of Asia Minor [London: John
BSA 24 (|92|): 54-67;,,The Macedonian Era Reconsidered,''
553. Tod ("Macedonian Era Reconsidered"' 387-89) pro- Murray, 1890),441-42) claimed that Augustan or Aktian dating was not in use in proconsular
2:1289-90;Robert, Hellenica, xI-xII,
classedinto three groupings: those Asia, this is false. The dates on many inscriptions make senseonly if calculated according to the
duced a list of dated inscriptions ftom Roman Macedonia, "Lydian
to the Augustan era,(twenty. Augustan era (seeW. H. Buckler, Records," JHS37 [1917]: 88-115; e.g.,/GRR IV,626
that were double-dated (five inscriptions), those dated according
an anonymous era (forty-six [region of Akmonia]). An interesting example surviving from Grimenothyrae (Traianopolis) is
two inscriptions), and-the largest number-those dated from
datedtotrgonB(year282),followedbyanerasureofthenameoftheemperor(/GRRIV,626).
inscriptions).
If this date is reckoned by the Sullan era (cf. IGRR IV, 623-25), the year would be t.o. 197,
120'D'Decev(..L'inscriptiondeSveteVrac,,'nnuairedeMus6eNationalArcheologiquede
leading to the conclusion that the expunged name must be that of Septimius Severus.However,
Ploydiv2[19501:51_52,no.t)hu,providedindisputableproofoftheanonlnnouslydated
era: e.g.' fxcrt M]crzevcrgtouE his name was not normally erased.Ifthe date is reckoned according to the Aktian calendar (:
inscriptions thaiare actually dated according to the Augustan
ofrhessalonica," HThR4t [1948]: 153-204, esp. 162;Robert,BE ,r.o. 251), the name must be that of Trebonianus Gallus, which makes much more sense (see
["r,. cr. charles Edson,,,cults
l 1 2 , 9 9 ) . Magie, Roman Rule, l;1290 n. 37). Cf . the era of Actium in Kyrene: seeRobert, Hellenica, XL-XII,
ll948l: [19a9]: "Die
533; Gerhard Perl, rmischen Provinzbeamten in C1'renaeund Creta zur Zeit der Republik,"
l2l.Seef'Papazoglou,"Notesd'6pigraphieetdetopographieMac6doniennes"'BCH87
from the region of (1970):
(t963):5t7--44, esp.5L7_26. p. perdrizeiaigued that some inscriptions Klio 52 319-54, esp.320.
123. ForSamosseeVictorChapot,LaProvinceromainepronconsulaired'Asie(Paris:Librairie
Philippimustbedatedbyaneralaterthantheprovincialera;moreover'thefactthattheRoman "studien
to determine whether it reckoned its Emile Bouillon, 1904), 385-86; ILydiaB 20-21; Walther Kolbe, zur Attischen Chronol-
colony of rhilippi was founded in 30 s.c. makes it difficult
(Augustan) or from 30 s'c' (i'e', from its founding) (seeTod"'Macedonian Era ogie der Kaiserzeit,"AiVf a6 (1921): 105-56, esp. 115-16 (table IV). Cf. IGRR IV, 991 (rorE y' :
y.ur fto- fz nr.
Philippi reckoned according to the 29/28 s.c.). For Philadelphiasee/GRR IV, 1615 (rouEo xci c rflE Kciocgog veixqE [e.o. a0]),
ir,. esl. l. Coupry, M. Feyel, Paul Collart, and Tod agreethat
de Philippes,,,BCH60 [1936]: 1619 (SIG3883), 1653 (r.n.214; rescript ofCaracalla); ILydiaKP III, no. 54 (r,.o.42143).
provincial era (,." Ju.q,,., Coupry and Michel Feyel,..Inscriptions "The
jusqu'iLlafnde 124. SeeRamsay, Cities and Bishoprics," 517-I8; LBW 1676.
fZ_ra,"rp.38_41;paul Coluri,'fhillpp"r:VilleieMacdoine,depuissesorigines
d'Athnes, Travaux et m6moires 5 [Paris: E. de Boccard' 19371, 125. ILydiaB 29 (Daldis, Lydia).
l,poqueimaine,i,cole frangaise
126. SeeSamuel,Greekand Roman Chronology,189-90.
306-11;Tod,..MacedonianEraReconsidered,''395).Theprovincialerawasneverabandoned,
some inscriptions are double- 127. To be more precise, they alternated between spacings of forty-nine and fifty months
becauseit was deeply rooted in the popular consciousness'Hence,
(Samuel, Greekand Roman Chronology,l9l).
dated, with the Augustan era always appearing first'
 Calendars,Eras, and the Dating of Inscriptions | 177
176 | An htroductionto GreekF.pigraphy

be dated accuratelyon the basis of the events,circumstances,or personsto

TABLE15. Summaryof the PrincipalEras
which they refer, when the same events, circumstances,or persons are also
776s .c. Era of the Olympic gamesof Olympia (Olympiads,4-yearperiod)
Era of the Pythian gamesof Delphi (Pythiads,4-yearperiod)
mentioned in other ancient sources. Other inscriptions are associatedwith
582 or 586
582 Era of the Isthmian gamesof Korinth (lsthmiads' 2-yearperiod) buildings or works of art that can be roughly dated on stylistic grounds. For
567 Era of the Argolid games(Nemiads,2-yearperiod) example, the fashion of clothing and hairstyles depicted in reliefs can be
337 (autumn) Era of the rule of Mithridates
helpful in the dating of some epitaphsto a particular period or century.r30In
317 Macedonianera of indePendence
312 (autumn) Seleucidera or Syro-Macedonian era many instances,the epigraphist must search for less explicit clues for dating,
297 Pontic regnalera (after Mithridates VI), Bithynian regnal era such as constitutional arrangementsor the titles of officials. For example, the
2s9 (Oct.) Era of Aradus use of Roman names for officials in inscriptions from Rhegion points to a date
148 Macedonianprovincial era
Achaianera after the grant of Roman citizenshipthroughout Italy in 89 n.c.
146
8s (23 Sept.) Sullanera/eraof Sulla The studious observation of the grammatical, orthographic, and syntacti-
7l Era of Amastris cal features of an inscription, as well as its distinctive vocabulary and formu-
Era ofSinope (later45 r.c.)
lae, can also lead to inferences with respect to dating. For example, the
66 Era of Pompey (Syria)
52 Era of the rule of CleoPatra formula xxl,qoioE riuelo5 yevopvrlEis attested with notable frequency in
48 (6 lune) Pharsalianera, Caesareanera (Antioch) many decreesof third-century A.D.Lycia (seeS 8.06, 13.01;.tarIf the inscrip-
31 (2 Sept.) Aktian eralAugustanera
tion in question has been unearthed in an archaeological excavation, the
L) Galatianera, Chersonesos(local urban era)
2l Era of Tavion stratigraphic layer may also provide crucial information. As a last resort,
6 PaphlagonianNeoklaudiopolis,Gangra,and Pompeiopolis though notoriously unreliable, letter forms and the forms of abbreviations
5 s.c. Era of Paphlagonia may provide the only availableclue to the date of an inscription (seeS 2.02).
l.o, 34 Era of Komana
56 Era of TlTas
64 ErasofTrapezous,Neokaisareia,and Zela
284 (29 Nte.) Era of Diocletian
SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brindamour, Pierre. Le calendrierromain: Recherches chronologiques.Ottawa, Ontario:

to the hundredth set of games or to the four-year period following the
Editions de I'Universit d'Ottawa, 1983.
hundredth games.olympiads were counted uP to the 294th olympiad in the Buckler, l. Philip II and the Sacred War. Mnemosyne Suppl. 109. Leiden: E. J. Brill,
reign of Theodosius(,q.o.400). 1989. Pp. l5l-55, 196-204. (Cf. SEG 39.461;chronology of Delphi during the
Other regions employed comparable systemstied to regional games' such Third SacredWar.)
"Colonia
as the Pythian gamesin Delphi (counting Pythiadsfrom 582 or 586 B.c.),128 Calder,W. M. CaesareiaAntiocheia."/RS 2 (1912):79-109. Esp.p. 84, no. 3.
the Isthmian gamesof Korinth (counting Isthmiads from 582 n.c.), and the
(Cf. SEG42.116l; era of Tavion.)
"Du
Charneux, Pierre. ct6 de chez Hra." BCH 114 (1990): 399-402. (Argive
Argolid games(counting Nemiadsl2efrom 56716s.c.). Table 15 lists some of
calendar.)
the best-attestederas. Eck, Werner.
"Die
Legaten von Lykien und Pamphylien under Vespasian." ZPE 6
(1970): 65-7 5. (Galatianera.)
6.09 Dating Inscriptions That Are Not Self-Dated Follet, Simone. Athlnes du II au III' sicle:Etudeschronologiqueset prosopographiques.
"Les
Collection d'6tudes anciennes.Paris: Belles Lettres," 1976.
Since many inscriptions do not contain exPlicit dating information, various
interpretive strategiesare required to deducetheir date. Some inscriptions can 130. On the poor possibilities of dating inscriptions on the basis of reliefs see T. Corsten,
"ber
die Schwierigkeit, Reliefs nach Inschriften zu datieren," IstMitt 37 (1937): 1S7-99 (SEG
"ttic
37.1778). Cf. Alice MLhsam, Grave Reliefsfrom the Roman Period," Berytus 10 (1952-53):
128. Four-year periods that coincided with the third year of the Olympiad'
"The s3-114 (pl. VII-XXN); Larfeld,,GriechischeEpigraphik, 183-86, S 138.
l1g. Cf . p. perlman, Calendric Position of the Nemean Games,"thenaeum 67 (1989)t
131. SeeRobert, Documentsde l'Asia Mineure, 54.
s7-90 (sEG 39.343).
178 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy

zeit-
Ginzel, F. K. Handbuch der mathematischenund technischenchronologie:Das
rechnungswesen der Vlker.3 vols. Zwickau: Ullman, 1906-14' Part2
"rn.
Knoepfler, b. Calendar of olynthos and the origin of the Chalcidians in
Th.uce." It Greek colonists and Native Populations:Proceedingsof the First Austra-
lian congressof classical ArchaeologyHeld in Honour of Emeritus Professor
A. D. The[Yarureof
Trendal{ Sydney,9-14 luly 1985,ed. Jean-PaulDescoeudres,99-l 15. Canberra:
Humanities Researchcentre, 1990.(cf. sEG 40.545;olynthos calendar.)
Creek Inscriptions
"Le
Knoepfler, D. calendrier des chalcidiens de Thrace: Essaide Mise au Point sur la
Liste et I'ordre des mois Eub6ens."JSav(1989):23-59' (Cf' SEG39'579')
"Die
Leschhorn,w. Anfnge der Provinz Galatia." chiron 22 (1992):315-36. (Cf. sEG
42.7161;Galatianera.)
Minel-
Lietzmann, Hans, and Kurt Aland. Zeitrechnung der rmischenKaiserzeit, des
alters und der Neuzeit die Jahre 1-2000 nach Christus. 3d ed. Sammlung
ff
Gschen1085.Berlin: W. de Gruyter' 1934'
"The Era of the Martl'rs." In Miscellanea
MacCoull, L. S. 8., and K. A. worp.
papyrologicain occasionedel bicentenariodell'edizionedella charta Borgiana,2 vols-
ed. Mario Capasso, Gabriella Messeri Savorelli, and R' Pintaudi' 375-408'
papl,rologicaFlorentina 19. Florence:Gonnelli, 1990.2. (cf. sEG 40.1545;Egyp-
tian chronology, era of Diocletian.)
Meimaris, Yiannis 8., in collaboration with K. Kritikakou and P. Bougia. Chronological
Greek
systemsin Roman-ByzantinePalestineand Arabia: The Evidenceof the Dateil
inscriptions. Meletmata 17. Athens: Kentron Hellenikes kai Romaikes Archaio-
tetos Ethnikon Hydryma Ereunon, 1992. (Cf' SEG 4l'1753, 42'7383; AEpigr
lr992l:17r0')
califor-
Meritt, BenjaminD. TheAthenian Year.sather classical Lectures 32. Berkeley:
nia University Press'1961.
Michels, Agnes Kirsopp. The calendar of the Roman Republic.Princeton: Princeton
University Press,1967.
Mikalson,|onD.TheSacredandCivilCalendaroftheAthenianYear'Princeton:
Princeton UniversitYPress,1975.
Mommsen, August. chronologie: (Jntersuchungenber das Kalenderwesender Griechen,
insonderheitAthener. Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1993. Reprint, Hildesheim: Gerst-
enbert, 1975.
(332 av. I.-C.-45i
Pestman, P.W. Chronologiegyptienned'aprsles textesilmotiques
apr. I.-C.). Papgologica Lugduno-Bataval5' Leiden: E' I' Brill' 1967'
Radke, Gerhard. FastiRimani: Betrachtungen zur Frhgeschichte des rmischenKalen'
dars. orbis Antiquus 31. Mnster: Aschendorfi 1990. (cf. l. Briscoe, cR al [1991]:
404-6.)
"Provincia Asia." TAPA 118 (1988): 123-53. (sEG 38.1263;dating
Rigsby, Kent l.
formulae in inscriptionsfrom Pergamum.)
"Calendrier de Paros et calendrier de Thasos Bodromia, Badromia et la
Salviat, F.
solidarit des armes." In MlangesPierre Levque6: Religion, ed' Marie-Madeleine
Mactoux and Evelne Geny,26l-67. Centre de Recherchesd'Histoire Ancienne
"Les
113.Paris: BellesLettres," 1992.(sEG 42.770;calendarofParos and Thasos.)
"A
sherk, Robert K. chronology ofthe GovernorsofGalatia: e.o. 1l2-285." AIP 100
(1979): 166-75.
 The Classificationof
Creek lnscriptions

Though any system of classification is to some extent artificial and arbitrary,

inscriptions do nonethelessmanifest characteristicsthat permit them to be
legitimately grouped in various ways, such as on the basis of content, form,
location, and date. Larger corpora (collections) of inscriptions usually orga-
nize inscriptions according to several of these criteria in some hierarchical
order of precedence.rFor example,Wilhelm Ditttenberger'sSyllogeInscrip-
tionum Graecarumgrouped inscriptions firstly on the basis of broadly defined
chronological periods and secondly on the basis of content, according to
whether they were public (respublicae), sacred (ressacrae),or private inscrip-
"Public"
tions (vita privata). inscriptions include any official transaction ofan
emperor, league, amphictyony, state, or subdivisions of the state, such as
"Private"
tribes and demes. inscriptions are the reverseof this, encompassing
all inscriptions relating to private life (e.g.,funerary inscriptions).
The distinction between public and private inscriptions is helpful, since
thesetwo types of inscriptions tend to manifest different characteristics.Most
public inscriptions were drafted by administrators and engravedby the of6-
cial or preeminent workshops of the state;they are generallymore monumen-
tal in character than private inscriptions and more homogeneous in style.
Private inscriptions are largely the product of the peripheral workshops.
Though some are quite formal in style, they generally tend to have more

1. On the criteria of classification used by antiquarians from the sixteenth through the
"Note
eighteenth centuries see I. Calabi Limentani, su classificazioneed indici epigrafici dallo
Smetio al Morcelli: Antichit, retorica, critica," Epigraphica49 (1987):177-202.

181
 'l'he
Clussilication
of GreekInsriptiotrs | 183
182 | An lntrodrctionto GreekEpigraphy

and gories in sections7.06-18 will be discussedin greater detail, since they will
errors and to be more heterogeneousin style, esPeciallyin multilingual not be dealt with elsewherein this book.
multicultural contexts' such as Asia Minor and Palestine'
private'
Though a classificationbased on this distinction between public'
it also has 7.01 Decrees,Laws, Treaties, and Official Letters
and sacredis undoubtedly helpful for some researchapplications,
form into
disadvantages,for it separatesinscriptions that share a common
according to this classification, all decrees A decree (p\Qwp"aldecretum) is an authoritative decision with the force of
separatecategories.For example,
be separated into the categories law handed down by an official body or person, such as a civic council,
would not be grouped together but would
same. phratry, confederacy,or emperor (seechap.8). At the level of civic govern-
public and sacred,despite the fact that their forms are essentiallythe
ment, most decreeswere enacted by some combination of council, assembly,
No single classification system is ideally suited to all types of inscriptions
on the and principal magisterialboard of state.Theseare comparableto the senatus
and all researchapplications. This book classifiesinscriptions primarily
honorific inscriptions, epitaPhs' consuba(1para o!yx),trou) of the Roman Senate.
basis of form (e.g., decrees, dedications,
in Other kinds of legal documents include letters of kings and emperors,2
manumissions). However, some inscriPtions are more naturally classified
objects' treaties (see S 8.12), and laws.3There were laws to govern virtually every
other ways (e.g., inscriptions on metal' inscriptions on portable
chapter discusses the following categories of aspectof society: for example, agrarian laws,alaws governing the conferral of
graffiti). The remainder of this
citizenship on foreigners, customs laws,s tax laws,6 funerary laws,7laws to
inscriptions:
regulate public and private disputes, laws concerning the distribution of
1and,8and laws concerning the army. Sacred laws will be dealt with in a
7.01 decrees'laws, treaties,and offrcial letters
separatesection(S 7.10).
7.02 honorific decrees,proxeny decrees,and honorific inscriptions
7.03 dedicationsand ex-votos
7.04 prose and metrical funerary inscriptions 7.02 Honorific Decrees,Proxeny Decrees,
7.05 manumissioninscriPtions and Honorific Inscriptions
7.06 other legal instruments of common law
7.07 boundary stones Honorific decreeswere enactedto publicly recognizeand commend persons
7.08 milestones who had served as patrons or performed exemplary service for the city (see
7.09 herms chap. 9). They often include a citation ofthe exact text to be inscribed on a
7.10 sacredlaws steleor base.Forming a subclassofhonorific decreesare proxeny decreesby
7.lL other sacredinscriPtions
2. See, e.g., Iean Pouilloux, Choix d'inscriptions grecques:Textes,traductions et notes (Paris:
7.12 inscriptions on public and Private works and buildings "Les
Belles Lettres," 1960): ll5-17. See also SEG 28.1224, 1566; 31.1088; 32.460-61, 1252;
7.I3 accountsand catalogues 35.10831 , 1 5 0 ;3 6 . 6 8 1 ;3 7 . 9 9 ; 3 8 . 1 0 7 5l l, 7 0 - 7 1 ; 3 9 . 6 1 5 ; 4 2 . 4 1 1 , 5 7 3 , 9 8 9 , 9 9 4F. o r a r e s c r i p ts e e
7.I4 inscriptions on portable objects s E G 3 7 . 11 8 6 .
quarry and masons'marks 3. See,e.g., Ilias Arnaoutoglor, Ancient GreekLaws: A Sourcebook(London and New York:
7.I5
Routledge, 1998); Pouilloux, Choix, II8-35; SEG 33.638, 665; SEG35.823.
7.16 inscriPtionsin metal 4. See,e.g., Daniel I. Gargola,
"Grain
Distributions and the Revenue of the Temple of Hera
"Distributions
7.17 graffiti on Samos,"Phoenix46 (1992): 12-28;L. Migeotte, de grain Samos la priode
'pain
7.I8 artists' signatures hellnistique:Le gratuit' pour tous?" SE/G 3l (1989-90), 297-308 (SEG 40.735); SEG
3 7 . 7 2 44. 2 . 7 7 6 .
5. See,e.9., SEG36.991,1027;37.865;43.752.
of these
It is beyond the scope of this book to treat in equal detail each 6. See,e.9., SEG34.1449,37.1458i/GRR III, 1056.
"The
eighteencategoriesofinscriptions.separatechaptershavebeendedicatedto 7. See, e.g., R. Garland, Well-Ordered Corpse: An Investigation into the Motives of
their (ireek Funerary Legislation,"BICS 36 (1989): 1-15 (SEG 39.1795);SIG312l8 (decreeofSolon).
the first five of these (S 7.01-05; cf. chaps' 8-12, 16)' Consequently'
8. See,e.g.,IC; IX1l,609 (SEG 29.468).
brief. conversely,the cate-
expositionin this chapterwill be corresPondingly
 'l'he
Classifcation
of Greeklnstiptions | 185
184 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy
were frequently inscribed, perhaps to ensure that as many people as possible
to a citizen of a foreign state who was
whicha city would expressits gratitude might know of the person'snew legal statusin society(seechap. 12).10
to offer hospitality to one of its own citizens (seeS 9'03)'e
going
' groups' and
Ho.rorific inscriptions (tituli honorar) werc used by cities'
and exemplary service' They are similar 7.06 Other Legal Instruments of Common Law
individualsto commend benefaction
lackthe formal structure of a decree(see
ininr.n, to an honorific decreebut "the
the formula of a civic honorific inscription, namely, In addition to manumission contracts,there are other legal instruments of
s's.Oal.However,
passageof an honorific decree for the common law (instrumenta iuris privati). These include leasesand deeds of
.,ry horrorc so-and-so," implies the
of the decree is not quoted on the sale,ll mortgages,contracts,12 loans of money, and wills.13Such documents
f,onorurra,despite the fact that the text
are usually engraved on statue bases' were usually written on papyrus or wooden tablets. Sincethere was usually no
steleitself. Inscriptions of this kind
reason to publicize their contents, most of these documents were not en-
columns,and stelae.
graved in stone. People went to the expenseof having them inscribed only
when some particular benefit was to be expected from this. Some were in-
7.03Dedications and Ex-votos
scribed so that they might be set up in a sanctuary, thereby putting the
offerings made to the gods as acts of transaction under the protection of the deity. An abridged version of the will
Dedications(dedicationes)record the
of Ptolemy VII, referring to a foiled assassinationattempt in 155 n.c. by
piety, often in conjunction with petitions or thanksgivings' Ex-votos
'1donaria1, vow Ptolemy VI, was published for propagandapurposes.ra
or votive offerings, are dedications made in fulfillment of a
Some inscriptions make direct reference to the deceased'swill as the
chaP.10).
(see
authority under which an action has been taken, with such expressionsas
r,o0ixlv or x nO{1xqg (in accordancewith [his] will). Sometimesa
ltcr,r&,
7.04Prose and Metrical Funerary Inscriptions will was engraved to publicize the terms under which a bequest was given, in
an attempt to ensurethat the terms would be fulfilled. For example,one such
are more numerous than inscriptions
Funeraryinscriptions (tituli sepulcrales) will requires that the beneficiaries erect and crown a statue in honor of the
ofunyoth..category.Theymaybewritteninproseorverse(seechaps.ll' deceased(IG ll2 277I-76). Another recordsthe will of a priestessof Dionysos,
sarcophagi' funerary reliefs'
16). They appear on plain stelae, tombs' included within which is a bequest to the mystai of a Dionysiac religious
cippi'
o$othekae,cinerary boxes, columnellae'and association (thiasos), made under the condition that crown of roses be
offered on the funerary bomosof the priestess,presumably on the anniversary
7.05Manumission InscriPtions
10. SeePouilloux, Choia 135-39.
of the most important social
Themanumission or liberation of slaveswas one ll. E.g.,forleasesofpubliclandsseeM.B.WalbankrnAgoraXIX,145-207,nos.Ll-L16,l/.1-
"The
world. Manumission contracts LA8 (SEG41.103); for leasesoftemple estatessee|ohn Harvey Kent, Temple EstatesofDelos,
andlegal institutions throughout the Roman Rheneia and Mykonos," Hesperia 17 (1948): 243-338, esp. 320-38. Cf. the corpus of inscriptions
concerning real estateand house prices in Attica (V-III r.c.): seeK. Hallof, EZ 3l (1990): 517-22
g.See,e.g.,OnnoM.vanNijf,TheCivicWorldofProfessionalA.ssociationsin.the.GreekEast' ( S E G4 0 . 2 9 6b i s ) ;S E G1 1 . 1 1 8 5 , 2 8 . 8 3 3 , 3 1 . 1 63520.,2 2 5 , 3 7 . 5 4 2 , 3 8 . 6 7 0 - 7 3 , 4 2 . 6S9I4C; P3 O 2 .
1997); Jean-pierre waltzing' Etude historique sur les
DMAHA U fA,,,'rt"rdu-, J. c. Gieben, 12. E.g., for a financial contract between a private person and the temple concerning a loan
depuis les oigines jusqu' Ia chute de I'Empire
iorpororio^ professionnelleschez les Romains (late II s.c.) seeD. Mulliez "Un document firancier in6dit de la fin du II's. av. n. d.," in Delphes:
couronn par I'Academie royale des Sciences,des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts "grande
d,ccident,M6moire Centenaire de la fouille" rmlise par l'Ecole frangae d'Athnes, 1892-1903: Actes du
dsBelgique(Louvain:peeters,l89s-1900;reprint'Hildesheim:GeorgOlms'1970);Erich nlloque Paul Perdrizet,Strasbourg,6-9 novembre 1991,ed. |ean-FrangoiseBommelaer, TCRPO 12
(Stuttgart: S' Hirzel' 1896; reprint' Wiesbaden: M' Sndig'
L;rb^rln,^Oo,gri"chischeVereinswesen ( l-eiden: E. J. Brill, 1992), 317-32. Cf. IG ll' 2499 (: SIG31097); IDidyma 292-93, nos. 492A-C;
vereinswesens(Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1909);
$1691;rranzioland, Geschichtedesgriechischen Welles 18-20; OGI 225 (B and C only).
puulton."rt, Des associationsreligieies chez les Grecs: Thiases,ranes,orgons,avec le texte des
"Hierarchically 13. For a loan see SEG42.472: for a will, SEG 30.1392.
rlatives res ossociations(paris: Klincksieck, lg73); B. H. Mclean,
inscriptions "The 14. SEG9.7 (ca. Mar. 155 s.c.); seeW. F. Walbank, A HistoricalCommentaryon Polybius3
Xl, 361-7O; J' Ustinova' Thiasoi of Theos
rgrtir"a Associations on Delos," in CongrEpigr vols. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1970-79), 3:553-54.
(1991-92): 150-80 (SEG 38'1648' 42'726)'
Upritto, in Tanais"'HR 3r
 TheClassification
of GreekInscriptions I tAZ
186 | A, lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy

condition' the funds were erty. These stones are often quite laconic, simply reading eoE" or qoE
of her death.rsIf this associationdefaultedon this
ltoplou/oixioE ro0 eivoE (stone [marking the boundary] of the property
forfeitedto|hemystaiofasecondassociation'andifthissecondassociation
city' of so-and-so).23
defaulted, the bequest was to be handed over to the
So-calledmortgagestoneswere erectedon mortgagedland, bearing some
such formula as eoE XtlrQlounengcp6vou ri l,oer rQ eivr (this stone
7.07 Boundary Stones
[marks] the property being held for redemption by so-and-so.)2a Boundary
the territorial limits of stoneswere also used to mark land put up as security for a bride's dowry, with
Boundary stones (gor,ltermini) were used to mark
the limits to which the right the formula qog oixiog v nqor,xi.norerupr;p6vqErQ eivr, (this stone
states,l6*itiu.y zonesforbidden to public access'
the limits of temple estates (even [marks] the boundary of property pledged as a dowry for so-and-so).2s
of asylum of a sanctuary extended, and
reads' goE ieqoO Boundary stonesbearing the words qoE pv{paroE ro0 eivoE G.g., IG ll2
where there was no qr'r.rtion of asylum)' An example
'Hqaxl,elou no6v nvrilxovrcr [[this stone marks the] boundary of the 2527-42), qog Otxqg ro0 elvoE UG Ll' 2586-88b), or QoEoqparog ro0
eivoE gG Il2 2572-77) were set up to mark private burial plots.
sanctuaryof Heraklesfifty feet [ahead]l'17
CharlesClermont-Ganneaudiscoveredoneofthestelaethatwereplaced
jerusalem' forbidding pagansand 7.08 Milestones
at intervals around the Herodian Temple in
pn0vo &)'Ioyevflr8
Gentiles from passing through the sacred enclosure: Milestones (milliaria) are rylindrical distance markers-normally about 1.8
v
eionoqeeoOcrr, vtg to0 negl tb iegv rQuQoxrou nci' rueglBl'ou'q
no foreigner meters in height-which were placed on roads throughout the Roman
it$0; outtir altlog ota't r,tb fcrxolouOe[v 0ovatov [let world.26 They measured distances in two directions, often stating both the
the sanctuary; [for] who-
enter within the screen and enclosure surrounding number of Roman miles from the previous major town and the number of
to himself that death
ever is apprehended [doing so] shall be the cause miles to the end of the road in the next major town (see,e.g.,IG ll, 5l8l-2,
from Herakleiapro-
overtakeshim].leA circular sanctuaryboundary marker 5202-4). On some milestones, only one of these measuresis given.
t ieq (: ttQ ieq'Q)'
hibits the interment of corpsesin the sanctuary:QoE The letters on milestones tended to be large, perhaps to enable a traveler
for the sdnctuary;
rto vgpi1 0nter,v [this stone [marks the boundary] to read them without stopping his carriage or horse.27However, the curved
boundary stones can be
do not inter [corpses] in this areaf'20Occasionally' surface of the stones made them more difficult to read than modern road
the case of a boundary
quite verbose, i.tclrrdirrg various sacred laws' as in
of Dionysos in Tralles'2r
-u.k., from the asylum of the sanctuary 22. E.g., IG Il' 2516-23.
"Horoi
the limits of private prop- 23. See J. H. Oliver, as ReservedAreas," GRBS a (1963): 141-43; S. D. Lambert,
Boundary stones were also erected to mark "Notes
on Two Attic Horoi and some Corrigenda to The Phraties of Attica," ZPE ll0 (1996):77ff.
Vertical inscriptions (i.e., inscriptions read from the top down) are found in some Greek horoi
15.SeeCharlesEdson,"CultsofThessalonica'-HThR4L(1948):153-204'esp'167-68;lG "Paestum:
and cippi: seeM. Guarducci, Cippo arcaico col nome di Chirone," NSc ( 1948): 185-92,
x|2,260.
(virrys boundary market.s)' IPriene esp. 185-86; for security horoi seeAgora XIX, l8-2I, 37 -51, nos. H73- I 30; SEG37.1336, 1409;
16.E.g.,SIG3 936-38; SEG 39'608, 42'406; SEG 36'234
sEG 38.165-67, 39.199-20r, 4r.r33.
l 5 l a n d l 5 4 a r e p r o b a b l y a s e r i e s o f f r o n t i e r m a r k e r s ; t h e y a r e n u m b e r e d a l p h a b e t i c a \ ( ethinks
.g.'
F' Hjller von Gaertringen 24. Seelohn van Antwerp Fine, Horoi: Studiesin Mortgage, RealSecurity,and Land Tenure in
q(oE) o and qog 0 ) and probably sequentially'.lho3gh
84)' thev Ancient Athens, Hesperia Suppl 9 (Baltimore: American School of Classical Studies at Athens,
lpriene t53and 155 were nr-i...d aiphaetically, q(og) AI and gog AII (i'e'' 14 and
"The Greek Numeral 1951). For examples see IG II2 2684-756; SEG 29.157-59, 31.150-51, 32.235-37. L. R. F.
acrophonicalli (i.e., 1l and 15) (seeMarcus N. Tod,
are more likely numbered
Germain ("The Attic Apotimema," in Studi in onore di Arnaldo Bismrdi,6 vols. [Milan: Istituto
N o t a t i o n ,B" S Al 8 [ 1 9 I 1 - 1 2 ] : 9 8 - 1 3 2e, s p 'I 2 l ) '
Hl-72 (SEG 4l '126); SEG43 '54-57 editoriale cisalpino, La Goliardica, 1982-871,3:445-57 ISEG 32.226; cf. SEG23.961) studies the
t7 . tG lI2 2611. Cf. lG II2 2602; AgoraXlX,5-37, nos'
meaning of the term notlpqpo in IG II2 2498 and in mortgage horoi (IG 1122656,2678, 2701,
(securityhoroi)'
2767). These inscriptions illustrate the principle of &nottpilpoto (mortgaged property) held in
18. Cf. Robert, BE (1948):251, on trIoyevfg'
"The Warning Inscriptions of Herod's Temple"' IQR 37 (19a7): favor ofa deme, temple, and eranos, but not for a private individual.
19. See E. I. Bickerman,
25. E.g., IG Il2 2659-83.
387-405. Cf. OGI 598; SEG 8' 169' 26. Seeentries concerned with milestones in the supplementary bibliography in this chapter.
within the temple grounds' is a common
20. This inscription, referring to a peribolos
27. Questioned by G. Walzer, noting that the figure may be unusually large, while the
ordinance for Greek temples (ISAM 83)'
remainder mav be cuite small.
2r. LSAM 75 G CIG 2919; Michcl tt04)'
 The Classifcation of Greeklnscriptions | 189
188 | An htroductionto GreekEpigraphy
an 7.09 Herms
been mass-produced'completewith
signs.The actual stonesseemto have
Theseframed panels with ornamentd
insettabulaAnsatt,"uai f"' l""ribing' A herm (ppts) is a quadrangular pillar, lesseningin width toward the base,
"handles"werefrequentlytoosmalltoaccommodatethecompletetext'neces'
about the height of a man, and dedicated to Hermes Propylaios. Herms were
outside.the panel'
sitating the continuation of the text surmounted by busts of Hermes or sometimesother deities, depicted without
maln 'o"d' oftett bore the names of
Under the Republic, milestones on roa&' ; arms or legs but usually with an erect phallus.32When the bust is of a divinity
with the construction (or repair) of
consuls or other officials involved was usually
I other than Hermes, such as Athena or Herakles, the work is called a Her-
the name and titulature of the reigning emPeror
In the Principate, mathena, Hermeracles,and so on, as the casemay be. Herms were symbolic of
cited.InLatininscriptions,thenumberindicatingthedistancefromthecityisl Hermes as presider over matters of boundary.
while.^Gree'inscriptions use the symbol
preceded by MP (milia passuura)'28 Sometimesherms were inscribed with riddles, apothegms,moral precepts,
p(il')"tcr)() [sevenRoman miles from
M or MI (e.g.,n trlE eivog n6LeorE or the names of those who fought in battle. They were erectedon streets,near
the city of such-and-suchl)' porches,on doors, on tombs, and in gymnasia,palaestrae,sanctuaries,temples,
set up at intervals of one rhou-11i
Under the Republic, milestones were official
;
' and agorae.For example,in the ancientagoraof Athens,herms were arranged
roads' In.ihe imperial Period' the
paces(one Roman mlej on military along the colonnade between the Stoa Poikil6 and the Stoa Basileios.
r o a d S y s t e m w a S g r e a t l y e x p a n d e d , r e s u l t i n g i n a n e x t e n s i v e s y frontier
Stemofmile-
throughout the t*pitt' serving the interests of both trade and
stones on the ' 7.10 Sacred Laws
milJstones have been discovered
defense. For example, *t;"
Italy with Greece'2eThe earliest and
Egnatian Way, the -ui" toud linking Civic cults33 and voluntary religious associations3aprescribed sacred laws
the time of Trajan' was discoverednear
most important of these,dating from (legessacrae)concerning all aspectsof their cultic life and membership. There
set up by Cn' Egnatius' proconsul of
Thessaloniki; it is a bilingual inscription
its name'30
Macedonia,after whom the road took esp. l3). A milestone found in the vicinity of Raphia (a.o. 233) measuresthe distance from the
significance.They bear witness to borders of the province of Syria-Palestine: At(oxpctopr) Kaio(ogt) M(cpxQ) aq(qliQ)
Some milestones are of great historical Xeortqe A),elnvg<p zuoeB(ei) eutul(ei) XeB(corr!), fup(og1txr1E) louo(icg) t rB', nct<p
constructed' and they sometimes Provide
the date when principal roads were men- r y', &v0r.rncr(e), n(crtqi) n(ctgi.og)' n pov Xupicrg flcrl"crt[ot(iv1E) pi.trr,cr--] [To the
and construction of roads' not to
information regarding the financing Roman
emperor CaesarMarcus Aurelius SeverusAlexander the pious, the fortunate Augustus, fendowed
the timing of the arrival of with the] tribunicia potestas for the twelfth time, consul for the third time, proconsul, father of
tion other historical Jttt't'' For example' "The
by abilingual.milatole on the the country; from the borders of Syria-Palestine [X Roman miles]l (D. Barag, Borders of
Legio VI Ferrata i" C"f"ttcr'"u i' tottfitt"d year of Syria-Palaestinaon an Inscription from the Raphia Area," IEJ 23 11973):50-52).
road' dated from the fourteenth
Diocaesarea(S.ppt'oti')Caparcotna 32. SeeHenning Wrede, Die antike Herme, Trierer Beitrge zur Allertumskunde 1 (Mainz: P.
v o n Z a b e r n ,1 9 8 5 ) .S e ea l s oS E G2 9 . 1 6 1 , 1 7 4 , 1 8 01, 9 6 ;3 0 . 1 2 3 , 1 4 3 , 1 8 1 ; 3 1 . 3 6 , 3 1 82 , 3 ,1 8 5 , 5 1 9 ;
thetribunateofHadrian(o.o.rgo).TheGreekSectionoftheinscriptionreads
: fifteen
[ten Roman miles 3 2 . 2 r 3 , 2 3 9 - 4 0 , 3 1 5 , 3 1 7 , 1 0 5 0 - 5 13;3 . 3 5 0 , 7 1 6 , 9 4 6 ; 3 4 . 1 9 5 - 9 6 , 3 1859,8 ;3 5 . 2 6 , 2 8 , 2 0 9 - 1 0 , 3 4 2 .
n Ar,ozaloagicrg pitrtcr r" [ten thousand Paces 33. On epigraphical sources for Greek religion see
"Epigraphic
Bulletin for Greek Religion,"
k i l o m e t e r s l f r o m D i o c a e s a f e a ) . T h i s m i l e s t o n e p r o v e s t h a t b y t h ealready
year,r.o. Kernos4- 199I ( -) (annual review); Brigitte Le Guen-Pollet, Ia vie rtligieusedans le tnondegrecdu
Caparcotna road and camp had
130,Legio VI was in Palestineand the V" au III" sicleavant nofie erc: Choix ile documentsepigraphiquestraduits et coffiments,Collection
"Amphi
7" (Toulouse: Pressesuniversitaires du Mirail, l99I) ll992l (SEG a2.1992); Robin Hgg
been constructed'3r and N. Marinatos, ed.,Ancient Greek Cult Practicefrom the Epigraphical Edence: Proceedingsof
the SecondIntemational Seminar on Ancient Greek Cult, Organized by the SwedishInstitute at

BcHr00(1e76): t77'-2'00(cr'BE Athens, 22-24 November199-l (Stockholm: Svenskainstitutet i Athen, 1994); Tullia Linders and
il.3;?'#Jti;,1'?tt:1fifi"t'esderaviaEnatia"' (1977)t Brita Alroth, ed., Economics of Cult in the Ancient Greek World: Proceedingsof the Uppsala
"Le Via Egnatia au Mus6e de Louvre"' ISav
milliaire de la
Il977l: l));Georges Daux' lTht 64 (197a): 185-94 (cf'
Symposium, 1990,Boreas: Uppsala Studies in Ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern Civiliza-
Hammond, W"tt""t Part of the Via Egnatia"'/RS tions 2l (Uppsala: Almqvist and Wiksell, 1992) (SEG 42.1822); LSAM, LSCG, LSCG Suppl'
145-61; N. G. L.
tt" I LegesSacr. On gender difference in sacredlaws seeS. G. Cole, Helios 19 (1992): 104-22. Cf. IG V I
"un nouveau milliaire de la via Egnatia"' BcH sB (1974): 813-16'
i3.ur1?;."" Bousquet, Palestine," LatoTtut l, l3e0 (SEG 42.34r);LSCG Suppl 121 (S-EG28.866);ISCG 140 (58G34.792); ISCG l7s (SEG
,.;;; i;;;t. J,, iru.,rr"rt ae la leeio-vl Ferrata en
31. SeeBaruch Liht,", been found on the route of .13.669);SEG33.149;SEG35.956-57; SEG36.376,l22r; SEG37.J43,743;SEG38.335.
(;;'';-;: q); othermilestoies have "Deux
19 (1960): 109-11, esp' 111 Pl'
Hadrian (M' Avi' 34. See,e.g.,LSAM 20 (SEG 31.1002);Louis Robert, inscriptions de l'6poque imp6-
tht ntrn" of the..emperor
Diocaesarea(Sephhoris),rl""'it"'i'U t z
!T'litt)
9 8 - 1 0 2 ' nos' I l-16' riale en Attique," AJP 100 (1,979):153-65,esp. 152-59. On cults performed not as part of the
l l 9 4 6 l :
y o n a h , . . N e w l yf ) i s c o v e r e d , , r " " t . J r , " , , " I n s c r i p t i o n s , "e i a p
 190 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy

were, for example, laws for ex-votos (e.g., LSAM 74; LSCG 70), laws for
participation in cults (e.g., LSAM 58), laws concerning the prophets (e.g.,
LSAM 53), laws outlining the duties and arrangements for the sale of the
office of the priesthood,3sand laws concerning the nature, time, and cost of
sacrificesto particular gods (e.g.,LSCG 96).
Unlike sacred decrees,sacred laws provide no explicit information con-
cerning their enactment.36When such laws are directed toward the public at
large, one suspects that the priests or state officials were responsible for
enforcing such laws and that the collecting of fines may have initiated the
legislation.In the caseof voluntary religious associations(0i.ooot, gavol,
fuyedrvcn), the founder of the associationhad the prerogative to establishthe
cultic laws.
For example, a Lycian slave who worked for his Roman master in the
Laurian silver mines founded a cult to the lunar god Men Tyrannos (IG II,
1366).Sincehe lackedthe funds to erecta new temple for his new association
(eranos),he adaptedan abandonedheroon (shrine of a hero). He laid down a
set of sacred laws and then invited others to join him in the worship and
sacrifice to Men, the observanceof these laws being the primary requirement
of membership. Fines were often imposed on anyone who transgressedthe
law or attempted to change the fundamental laws of the associations.3T
Some sacredlaws were often set up at the entrancesto sacred enclosures,

communal religion of the citybut by private religious societiesseeM. L. Freyburger-Galland, G.

Freyburger, and f. C. Tautil, Sectesreligieusesen Grdceet Rome dans I'antiquit paienne, Collec-
"Les
tion Realia (Paris: BellesLettres," 1936) (cf. I. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz,CR 33 [1938]:296-
98); Marie-Frangoise Baslez,Recherches sur lesconilitions de pntration et de diffusion iles religions
orientales d Dlos (II"-P, avant flotre re), Collection de l'Ecole Normale Supdrieure de Jeunes
Filles 9 (Paris: L'Ecole Normale Suprieure de feunes Filles, 1977) (SEG 40.361).
35. For duties seeLSAM79; IGYII,235. For saleseeIS.rVf3-5,23,52,56,7I; LSCG Suppl
77; IPiene 174. Sacredlaws can take the form ofa seriesofinjunctions followed by the penalties
against transgressors;these injunctions may be expressedeither as third person imperatives or in
infi nitival constructions.
36. The processwhereby laws (vpor) were passed differed from that of decrees.In Athens,
the chairman (drYrotcqg) of the council would ask at the first regular meeting of the year if there
were any proposals for new or altered laws to be brought forward. In the third regular meeting of
the council, a legislative commission of vopo06rcr, was appointed to deliberate over these new
laws. This processwas known as "voting [nlle4otovic] upon laws." If the verdict was in favor
of the new law, it had the same authority as a decree of assembly. The practice later arose of
bringing new legislative proposals before the people at any meeting and allowing the people
themselvesto decide.
37. See,e.9., IG Il2 1275 (obligations of members of a thiasos);IG ll2 t36B (minutes of the
society of Iobacchi); IG ll2 1369 (regulations of an eranos); SIG3 985 (regulations of a private
religious association in Philadelphia); LSAM 2 (regulations of a thiasos);LSAM 60 (regulations of
a funerary cult); CIl I, 694 (regulations of a synagoguein Stobi).

192 | An Intoductionto GreekEpigraphy
forbidding entry to anyone in a state of ritual impurity.3s For example, per-
sons who had committed forbidden acts or had come into contact with
particular animals or objects-thereby being in a state of ritual impurity-
were forbidden access.The minutiae of theselaws vary significantly according
to the nature of the cult and local custom. For example, an inscription from
Lindos declaresthat all who enter should be in a stateof purity, which, among
(three
other things, required that members refrain from lentils, goat's flesh
days prior), and cheese(one day prior); those who had come into contact
with a corpse had to stay away for forty days.3eThe cult of Men in sounion
required its members to abstain from eating garlic and pork and excluded for
only ten days those who had come into contact with a corpse'40
7.11 Other Sacred InscriPtions
Sacredinscriptions (tituli sacri)ofall sorts abounded in sanctuaries,either in
the form of stelaeor engravedon small monuments and walls' Some sanctuar-
ies are noted for their profusion of sacredinscriptions' such as the temple of
(Ca-
Apollo at Didyma (see lDidyma), the sanctuary of Zeus at Labraunda
ria),arand the Asklepieionat Pergamon(seelPergamonlll)'
In Epidauros, miraculous accounts of healingswere set up within the pre-
cinct of the temple of Asklepios. Votive stelae, statuettes, and altars were
sometimesplaced in the pronaos or opisthodomosof the temple, and some
were even hung on walls or columns within the cella itself'
This category of inscription includes reports of sacredgamesand religious
festivals,a2ritual calendars,43responses from the oracles,u hymns and
three different
3g. cf. an inscription from Ialysos (Rhodes) requiring that copies be set up in
in
places (ISCG 136). on purity and sacredlaw seeR. Parker, Miasma: Pollution and Putification
Early GreekRetigion (Oxford: Clarendon, L983)' 352-56 (app' 3)'
39.IG XIVI, 789 (: LSCG139).
40.lGll2 1366 (: ISCG s5).
4|. SeeILabraunda; |onas Crarnpa, The Greek Inscriptions,2 vols.
(Lund: c. w. K. Gleerup,
1969-72).
"Festivals,
42. see Mitchell, Games," 183-95; M. Wrrle, sradt und Festin kaiserzeitlichen
Keinasien: Studien zu einer adonischischen Stiftung aus Oenoanda" Vestigia, Beitrge zur Alte
"Sich
Geschichte39 (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1938); A. Chaniotis, selbst feiern? Stdtische Festedes
Hellenisimus im spannungsfeld von Religion und Politik," in Michael wrrle, Paul Zanker, eds.
1993' (Munich:
Stadtbild und Brgerbild im Hellenismus:Kolloquiutn' Mnchen, 24. bis 26. Iuni
Beck, 1995), 147 -72t R. Ziegler, Prestige
Stdtisches und kaiserliche Politik: Studien zutn Festwesen
in Ostkilikien im 2. und j. Jahrhundert n. Cftr. (Dsseldorf: Schwann' 1985); P' Ghiron-Bistagne'
..Les (1990): 223-32 (sEG
concours grecsen occident, et notamment i Nimes," spectacula2
see Frangoise
40.913)r TAMIt,549 (SEG 28.1227).On the role of feastsin Hellenistic society
'l'he
Classifcation
of GreekInscriptions I f lf
aretalogies,4s
healingnarratives,46 magicalformulae,aT prayers,4s
confessions,ae
curses,so
oaths,slinscriptions on cult tables,s2
sacredstones,s3
and quotations
Dunand,
"Sens
et fonction de la fte dans la Grcehell6nistique,"DIIA225 (1978):201-19 (SEG
28.1606);on festivalsof Attic demesseeSEG 37.243,42.1764.
43.8.9., SEG 30.1327,37.244, 38.134,4r.744, 43.605;SIG3 1024; LSCG 52, 15lA (SEG
28.699, 39.849). LSAM 4I; LSCG 20, 28, 62, 64, 96, 165, 169; ISCG Suppl t0; M. H. lameson,
"Sacrifice
and Anirnal Husbandry in Classical Greece," tn Pastoral Economiesin ClassicalAnti4-
uity, ed,.C. R. Whittaker, CPS Suppl l4 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1988), 37-119
( s E G3 8 . 2 0 1 7 ) .
44. Seethe listings on oracles in this chapter's supplementary bibliography.
45. E.9., Isis hymns of Medinet Madi, metrical inscriptions of pope Damasius. See S. M.
Burstein, ed., The HellenisticAgefrom the Baxle of lpsosto the Death of Keopatra VII (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985), 146, no. 112; the listirgs on hymns and aretalogies in this
chapter's supplementary bibliography.
46. Seethe listings on healing narratives in this chapter's supplementary bibliography.
47. For apotropaic statues seeChristopher A. Faraone, Talismansand Trojan Horses:Guard-
ian Statuesin Ancient GreekMyth and Ritual (New York and Oxford University Press,1992); SEG
42.1816 (cf.30.1662); Armand Delatte and Ph. Derchain, Les intailles magiquesgrco-gyptiennes
(Paris: Bibliothque nationale, 1964) (cf. SEG 31.1595). For a love charm see SEG 30.1742. Cf.
Hondius, l15; SEG 33.1603,34.1436,36.676-78,36.692;Horsley in New Docs1.34,47. Seealso
the listings on curses in this chapter's supplementary bibliography.
48. See Simon Pulleyn, Prayer in Greek Religion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997);
sEG 28.I 568, 29.1773,34.1125-26,36.1577, 37.100l, 40.1049.
49. SeeG. Petzl, Die BeichtinschifienWestkleinasiens(Bonn: Rudolph Habelt, 1994); M. Ricl,
"The
Appeal to Divine ]ustice in the Lydian Confession Inscriptions," in Forschungenin Lydien,
ed. E. Schwertheim, Asia Minor Studien 17 (Bonn: Rudolph Habelt, 1995), 67-76; A. Chaniotis,
"Tempeljustiz
im kaiserzeitlichen Kleinasien," in Symposion 1995, ed. Gerhard Thr and lulie
V6lissaropoulos-Karakostas(Cologne: Bohlau, 1997), 357-84; J. C. Nieuwland and H. S. Vernsel,
"Een
Kleinaziatisch Staphorst: De religieuze cultur van de biechtinscripties," Lampas 23 (1990):
"In
165-86; H. S. Versnel, he grensgebiedvan magie en religie: Het gebed om recht," Lampas 19
( 1 9 8 6 ) : 6 8 - 9 6 .S e ea l s oS E G 2 8 . 9 1 0 , 9 1 4 ; 3 3 . r 5 9 83, 5 . 1 2 6 9 ; 3 6 . 1 5 7 7 ; 3 7 . t 0 0 0 - 1 0 0 1 ; 3 8 . 1 2 2 9 - 3 0 ,
1233-37, 1265-67; 40.1050, I 7l l; 43.855.
50. Seethe listings on cursesin this chapter's supplementary bibliography.
51. The verb ofoath taking, pvupr, is a transitive verb that takes the accusativecaseofthe
deity sworn by, as well as the oath sworn. The expression pvvcl toE Oeog(swearby the gods)
seemsto be an abbreviation of pvvor pxov rv 0e6v. The alternative is the formula pvvcr
rv pxov (swear to an oath). The verb ntoqreiv is the usual verb for "to swear falsely," An
example is the oath of Berenike and her sons (ca. 300-280 r.c.): see IGBulg llll}, 1731; K.-L.
"Der 'Eid
Elvers, der Berenike und ihrer Shne': Eine Edition von IGBulgllIl2, I73I," Chiron 24
(r994):241-66.
52. SeeD. Gill, Greek Cult Tabbs (New York Garland, l99l) (SEG 42.1306). On cult tables
in Christian churches see E. Chalkia, Le mensepaleooistiane: Tipologia e funzioni delle mense
secondarienel culto paleocistiano, Studi di antichit cristiana 47 (Yatican City: Pontificio Istituto
di archeologia cristiana, l99l); Anastasius C. Bandy, "Early Christian Inscriptions of Crete,"
Hesperia32 (1963):229-47 (cf. SEG42.1807).
"Heilige
53. SeeUta Kron, Steine," in Kotinos: Festschift fr Erika Simon, ed. Heide Froning,
Tonio Holscher, and Harald Mielsch (Mainz: P. von Zabern, 1992),56-70 (SEG 42.lBZl).
 The Classilrcation
of GreekInscriptions I ff S

from Jewishand Christian scriptures.sa In its fullest sense,this categorycom-

prisesall inscriptionsrelativeto religiouscults,both public and private.How-
ever,in actualpractice,certaintypesof inscriptionsarecustomarilytreatedasa
separategroup; theseinclude dedications,sacreddecrees,cataloguesofsacred
treasures,lists of priests,and recordsof temple administration.
Also included within the category of sacred inscriptions are the so-called
pqoen inscriptions. They are often found in sanctuaries,though the formula
is also attested in building inscriptions and funerary inscriptions. The expres-
"to
sion r xreooz{vqpcfioriv usually means write (the text of an inscrip-
tion, known as) a proskyneme(on a stele or wall)." In his study of these
inscriptions, Albert Rehm identifies two main types of formula.ss The so-
called metropolitan tl?e is attested in continental Greece, on the Greek is-
lands, in Egypt, and in graffiti in many places and is found especially in
sanctuaries.It employsthe formula pvfoOr1 eivc ro0 eivog (I, so-and-
so, commemoratedso-and-so).so The secondtype, using the formula pvloef
eivq,,was more popular in the GreekEast.57 When such a term as pvfoOr1
is used, the person named is absent, and the worship is offered on his/her
behalf. Such acts of worship could be made in an effort to placate a god or to
seekdivine blessing.s8

54. See,e.g., L. Malunowicz in Studia Evangelica(PapersPresentedto the Fifth International

Congresson Biblical Studiesheld at Oxford, 1973), ed. Elizabeth A. Livingstone, (Berlin: Akademie-
Yeflag, 1982), vol. 2 p. 3 (SEG 39.1836). Seealso SEG 34.1428, 1668, 7727-28; 37.1272-73.
"MNH)@H,"
55. Albert Rehm, Philologus94 (1939-40), 1-30; cf. L. Robert, BE (1942):2a.
56. E.g., Apqr.pvoE pvi1ofu Agprovi,cE rrlE eii.cg (: iioE) xugioE d &^ycOr! fig 6
dglOpg pe' (or ole ) to0 nalo0 vpotoE (I, Amerimnos, commemorated my own mistress,
Harmonia, for a good [ife], who [attained] an age of forty-five [or thirty-six?] with a good
name). Cf. Robert, BE (1964):618.
57. See,e.g., SEG37.1442,40.1604.
58. In the so-called prosl<ynemainscriptions of Egypt, nqooxv1po (an act of worship) is
offered to a god. The basic formula is r nqoorv1pc ro0 e0vog, often supplemented with
additional information, such as the names of the deities to whom the inscription is addressedand
the names of friends or relatives of the proskyrema writer. The customary formula cites the name
of this third party in the genitive using the formula r :rpooxv1po rot elvoE noreiv ncrp OeQ
(to perform an act ofworship before the god on behalfofso-and-so). A common variant ofthis
formula employs the dative case(i.e., r nqooxvqpc rQr eivl nore iv nop 0erir). SeeG. Geraci,
"Ricerche "R6flexions
sul proslcynema,"Aegptus 51 (1971): 3-162; E. Bernard, sur les pro-
scyndmes," in MlangesFrangoisKerlougan,ed. Daniele Conso, Nicole Fick, and Bruno Poulle
(Paris: "Les Belles Lettres," 1994),43-60; Adam Lajtar, "ProskynemaInscriptions ofa Corpora-
tion of lron-Workers from Hermonthis in the Temple of Hatshepsut in Deir El-Bahari: New
Evidence for Pagan Cults in Egypt in the Fourth Century r,.o.," JJurP 2l (1991):53-70 (cf. SEG
4l.l6L2-15); Andr6 Bataille, Les inscriptions grecquesdu temple de Hatshepsout Deir el-Bahai
(Cairo: Institut frangais d'archdologie orientale, l95I); CIG 4760, 48978, 4900, 4940. See also
SEG33.1315,1320-22;36.1405,14l 1-15, 1417, 1419-30,1433-34,1438-40, l45l-52;37.1640;
3 8 .r 8 4 5 .
 'l'he
An htrodrctionto GreekEpigraphy Classifcation
of GreekInsoiptions | 197
196 |
of the patron, and (4) a specificationof the year when the structure was
T.l2Inscriptions on Public and Private Works and Buildings
completed.66The name of the patron usually appears in the nominative
case.67If the patron happensto be a god, the cost of constructionwaspaid out
Throughout the Hellenistic and Roman Periods, there was an increasing of the temple treasury. The verb of construction or dedication (e.g.,
privatc
tenderrcy to engfave the names of benefactors on both public and noiqoev, xoLreoxeuo,oev,&v60r1xev,xrloev) is frequently omitted. How-
namc
edifices (aedificiorum publicorum et pfivatoruffi tituli).se A Patron's ever, verbs expressing the rebuilding or renovation of a monument (e.g.,
might be written on a particular building part that the patron had financed,
noxcrrotqov) are normally expressed.The specification of the year of the
often
su as a single column,60portico, or mosaic.6lBuilding inscriptions are structure's completion (or restoration) usually takesthe form ni, followed by
found on temples, theaters, gymnasia, baths, gates, towers' walls' bridgest the name of the eponymousmagistrate(seeS 6.01).
at
arches,architraves,62columns, and aqueducts,most of which were funded The identity of the building or structure may also be cited (in the accusa-
private expense(though their upkeep was the responsibility of the city)- Therc
tive case), the interpretation of which may require specialized knowledge.
was a significant increasein building under the Flavian emPerors and Trajan' Fortunately, an afiay of reference aids for architectural terms is available.68
in a ,
a trend that continued throughout the second century 4.D., resulting Many inscriptions do not record the name of the structure, this fact being
profusion of building inscriptions in this period' self-evident when the inscription was in situ. However, when a building
A building inscription engraved on an architrave, archivolt, or architec- inscription is not found in situ and its exact provenance is unknown, it is
tural molding forms an integral part of the structure and overall decorative often impossible to determine the nature of the structure to which a building
on thc
scheme of the building, as in the case of the inscriptions engraved ' inscription refers.
architraves of the portico of the peribolos (enclosure wall) of the temple of
Athena Polias in Pergamon63and the portico of Philip in Delos.e In contrast' 66. See, e.g., Heinrich Lattermann, GriechischeBauinschiften, Dissertationes Philologicae
erected Argentoratenses SelectaeXIII, no. 3 (Strasbourg: Karl J. Trbner, 1908); D. Knoepfer, "Sept
a building inscription inscribed on a wall Panel,6sa stele, or a block
ann6esde recherchessur l'6pigraphiede la B6otie (1985-1991)," Chiron22 (1922):4ll-502, esp.
near a building was not an integral part of the overall design'
489-90, no. 16l; E. Ziebarth's comments in Dittenberger'sSIG3,p. 26, under nos. l182-203,
The most detailed building inscriptions typically record a number of l213-17: SEG 38.691,42.417.
points of information, such as (1) an account of the circumstances under 67. On the contribution ofwomen to the construction and repair ofbuildings in Ephesossee
"The
who
which the edifice was constructed, (2) a record of the name of the person Constructions of Women at Ephesos," ZPE 90 (1992): 215-23 (cf. SEG
Guy Rogers,
42.1028).
had the structure built (or restored), (3) an acknowledgment of the generosity 68. A. K. Orlandos and I. N. Travlos, elrxv p1ci<ov plrtextovrxCrv oprirv (Athens,
1986) (SEG 38.2O24);Marie-Christine Hellmann, Recherchessur le-vocabulairede I'architecture
grecqued'aprs les inscriptionsde Dlos,BEFAR 278 (Athens and Paris: Ecole frangaised'Athnes,
59. E.g.,SEG 43.478,790
(IEphVI' 2076-83). 1992) (cf. SEG 42.735); R. Ginouvs and R. Martin, Dictionnaire mthodique de I'architecture
60. E.;., columns contributed by M. Fulvius Publicianus Nicephorus
wirtschaftliche und grecqueet romaine, vol. I, Matriaux" techniquesde construction,techni4ueset formes du dcor, vol.
61. on mosaics see M. Donderer, Die Mosaizisten iler Antike und ihre
(Erlangen: universittsbibliothek, 1989) (cf. SEG 39'1805); 2, Elments constructifs,supports, couvertures,afiAnagementsintrieurs (Athens: Ecole frangaise
soziale stellung Eine Quellenstudie
on methodological questions concerning d'Athnes;Rome: Ecole frangaisede Rome, 1985-92) (SEG36.1598,38.2024,42.1850); Auguste
sEG 37.1289-93 (Aphrodisias), 1465-69, l7g0-91. "Philologie
Mosaistique," ISav (1988):3-7t Choisy, Etudes pigraphiquessur I'architecturegrecque(Pais: Librairie de Ia Soci6t6 anonyme de
ancient written sourcesand mosaics seeP. Bruneau,
publications p6riodiques, 1884); F. G. Maier, GriechischeMauerbauinschriften,2 vols., Vestigia l-
(SEG 38.l gSS); SEG 42.965' 983, 1295' 1423-29'
of temples and other 2 (Heidelberg: Winter, 1959-61); Friedrich Ebert, FachausdrckedesgriechischenBauhandwerks,
62. on the practice of having one's name engraved on the architrave
vol. l, Der Tempel (Wnrzburg: Druck der Knigl. Universittsdruckerei H. Sturtz, 1911). On
public buildings, and on the role of the Hecatomnids in this, see Simon Hornblower, Mausolus'
-Classical religious architecture see H. F. Mussche, GreekArchiteaure, 2 vols. Monumenta Graeca et Ro-
Civilizations (London and New York Methuen, 1982)'
von Perga- rnana 2 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1963-68). Cf. F. Courby, "Sur quelques termes d'architecture qui se
63. see Richard Bohn, Das Heiligtum der Athena Polias Nikephoros,Altertmer
rccontrent dans des inscriptionsde D6los," BCH 34 ( 1910):501-7; S. Keyer,"La terminologie de
mon II (Berlin: W. Spemann,1885)'40-44.
EAD VII. I (Paris: I'architecture grecque," MusBelge l3 (1909): 37-55, 123-45,207-26. On referencesto profiles
64. SeeRen Vallois, Lesportiques au sud du hiron: Le Portique de Philippe'
(fig. .rrrd ornaments in stone and wood see S. Altekamp, "Griechische Architekturornamentik:
E. de Boccard, 1923),4-8 13).
Iiachterminologie im Bauhandwerk?" ZPE 80 (1990): 33-64 (corrigendum to ZPE 8l ll990l:252;
65.See'e.g.,DominiqueMulliez'..Notesd'6pigraphiedelphiquelletlll,''BCH1l2(1988):
.\t(; 40.1732).
37s-9r(sEG37.3e5).
 'l'he
Classilication
ttf GreekInscriptions | 199
198 | An lrt oductionto GreekEpigraphy
Building accounts constitute an important subsection of the accounts
7.13 Accounts and Catalogues
category.It was once thought that such accountsservedascheckson adminis-
trative competenceand as guidesfor subsequentbuilding projects.However,
is comprised of financial records'
The category known as accounts (tabulae) Alison Burford has noted how the production of these accountsvaried dra-
building accounts,6gtribute lists'
such as lists of assets'expenditure accounts, matically over time, even in the samelocation. Moreover, on close inspection,
were chargedwith financial man-
and treasury inventoriesio Magistrateswho it is clear that theseaccountswere often not carefully produced or particularly
and hand them over for inspec-
agement had to keep such financial records accurate. Burford concludes that building accounts were inscribed to ensure
For example' inventories of
tion to those who followed them in offrce' "the
preservationof as many namesas possibleof those who had contributed
veriffing that nothing was miss-
temple treasuriesserved as an official audit' effort and interest to the work, whether as financial administrators, building
when the responsibility was
ing from the treasury contents at the time commissioners,entrepreneurs,or craftsmen."76 Consideredin this light, build-
handedoverfromoneboardoftreasurerstoanother.TlTheinventorylists ing accounts could actually be treated as a form of honorific inscription.
(Oeoi')'rae (nqoo)ttQ6ooovoi taplcl
are precededby such a formula as The categoryknown as catalogues(catalogi)consistslargely of lists of names,
0so0 oi ni eivog plovtog/lqopu'q'teos
i",i,n ire,nu lqrlptov) ro0 the suchasnamesofeponymousmagistrates,magistrates,TT archons(e.g.,
councillors,Ts
what the treasurers [of the sacred goods] of
igod, (b. with us!) This is 9EG29.289),theoroi (S 9.03,I3.05),7e
prytanels(S 6.01,13.02,4,7,8),80ephebes,8l
so-and-so was archon/seqetaryf '72
ia n*a.a over when
to label sequentially' and
Marcus Tod has studied the use of letters letter labelssometimesconsistof two letters (e.g.,t: AA: llcIl2 I443,L.731; {ro: AA: [IG
the various parts of financial 1I21491,L. l3 I I ); third, they are usuallyprecededby Q r, Q' ei, or Q' crig (by lvo in earlier
thereby otganize,sections of a text' especially
sequential seriesof letters documents ftom 371-342 s.c.); fourth, following each letter label, the word ncqcoeoqprovrcl
reports and inventories.T3In Athens' for example' (stamped on) is implied or expressed in whole (e.g., IG II2 1496, LL. 176ff., 2l7ff.; see Tod,
clausesof the reports of
(A, B, f, A, etc.) were used to indicate the separate
"Letterlabels,"
5). Cf. Threatte, Grammar, l.ll7-19 $ 5.0221.
By comParison' the records of
the treasurers,as well as lists of magistrates'i4
75.8.g., in records of weights, one finds ordinal numbers written out in full, e.g., rqrog
),xd1vqa1pE HCT, vcrog xoi. 6xcroE (IG XI 1618, 107tr., Il3-14). Alternatively, one
the hieroDoioiin Delos used letter labels sparingly'7s finds letter names used (t l.Qc, r pfircr, etc.) (IG XI, 205). A. T. Linders (OAth 19 [19921: 69-
73; cf. SymbOslo67 [1992]:37-40 ISEG 42.17681) argues that the Delian temple accounts were
to describe the squaring of stone blocks see meant not as instruments of efficient accounting but rather as instruments to control the sacred
69. on technical terms used in building accounts overseers (hieropoioi); cf. f. Bousquet, Les Comptesdu quatrime et du troisimesicle,IDelph 2
(Wirsaw). 3l (1981): 11-18' Dworakowska discusses
Angelina Dworakowska, erchcologia 476; IG 112 (Paris, 1989) (SEG39.460).
ntxopntov' and xcrprritrog in lG 13 474'
&notetvor entevfig, neprtvelo, n":xcpnil' 76. Alison Burford,
"The
PurposeofInscribed Building Accounts," in CongrEpigrV,Tl-76,
1 6 6 6 , 1 6 7 01, 6 7 l ' 1 6 8 2 '1 6 8 5 . esp.75.
T0.SeeSaraB.Aleshire,TheAthenianAsklepieion:ThePeople,TheirDedications,an.dthelnven.
'fsur l"s rapports financiers entre le 77.8.g., SEG36.465.For neopoioiseeSEG36.1028;for hieropoioi,SEG32.216.
Migeotte'
tories (Amsterdam: j. C. Gieben, l9S9); Lop;ld colloque 78. ..g.,IG II2 1999 + 2oo3 + 2339 (SEG13.ls3)r SEG32.172.
et inventaires dans la cit grcque:Actes du
sanctuaire et la cit6 de Locres,,' in comptes 79. 0eorpoi:seeIG XII/8, 273-80,283,2851'SEG29.763-64;A. I. Graham,
"On
the Great List
du 23 au 26 septembre 1986' en l'honneur de lacques
international d'ipigraphie tenu it Neuchtel of Theoi at Thasos,"AncW 5 (1982):103-21 (SEG 31.755);SEG 30.1821.
de Neuchtevlibrairie
Treheux,Recueil de o-ur* nb'iN.r,chtel: Facult des letires, universit6
80. E.g.,IG II' 1368, 1786(AgoraXY,382),1787 (AgoraXY,394); SEG28.161-89,34.136.In
Droz,1988);D.Hurrir,Th'Tn^"noftheParthenonandErechtheion(Oxford:Clarendon'1995); the Roman period, cataloguesof prytaneis were grouped according to deme and introduced with
(cf. M. I. Edwards, cR 39 [19s9]: 27o-71); Guarducci'
Denis Knoepfler in comptes et lnyentaires the formula ni plovtoE to6 eivoE oi nqutveq t{g eivoE Qr.rlfg trp{o<rweE ourog xci
Seealso SEG 28'832;37'692;42'730'73o'
EG,2.I89-314;Pouilloux' Choix, L40-45' -40; cf . sEG roi.rg&eroitorE &vrilgorlrav (CIG 184, l9O, 192).
to T. Lid;;i"I*criptions and orality," symboslo 67 119921:27
71. According 81. Lists of ephebeswere set up in the gymnasia beginning with the formula ni to0 eivoE
and' to a lesser extent' temple accounts are dedica-
38.767, 39.312, 42.1768),,.*ptt lt"""to'ies g1ovroE... nooplreovroE... ncr,orplBo0vrog... ro0 elvog xoopqreovroE... ni
tions to the gods and have a symbolic character' accounts q,uplvooroglor to0 eivoE xci noyupvooloq1ou to0 eivog. See M. B. Hatzopoulos in Re-
temple accounts are from Delos' where
72. Cf. IG Il2,vol.2.2.Ttie most complete economic life cherchessur les marchesorientalesdes Temenides,vol. 1, Athnemonte-Kalindoia, ed. Miltiades B.
give.valuable information about the
were published on stone "".;;;;;;i;;ey "The Temple Estatesof Delos' Hatzopoulos, Meletmata I I (Athens: Kentron Hellenikes kai Romaikes Archaiotetos, 1992), 87-
ci'|ohn Harvey Kent'
of Delos and the Aegean (e.g.'I xllz,1611|; cf' te 94; Robert, Hellenica,XI-XII, 369-80; SEG 42.580-83,28.192-200,29.152, 33.158, 34.153,
243-338i ESAR 4'334_57)' Elsewhere
Rheneia, and Mykonos," Hesperia 17 [1948]: For record of the 36.797-99,38.675-86, 39.184-89, 40.1568, 42.108. On foreigners in Ephebic lists see M.-F.
1'546)' See' e'g'' IG ll2 L296; SlG3 t}Zg'
nopoocv nrottcrt ' . ' (fG II' 1544' Baslez,
"Citoyens
et non-citoyens dans I'Athnes imp6riale au I" et au II'sicles de notre re," in
sale of sacrificial animals see lG II2 1533' The Greek Renaissancein the Roman Empire: Papersfrom the Tenth British Museum Classical
"Letter-Labelsin Greek Inscriptions"'BSA 49 (1954): l-8'
73. Marcus N. Tod, Colloquium, ed. Susan Walker and Averil Cameron, BICS Suppl 55 (London: University of
7 4 ' F o u r p o i n t s s h o u l d b e m a < l e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e u s e o f l e t t e r l a b e l s i nl A ttica : fci rosntd, l' e t t e r
se L o n d o n , 1 9 8 9 ) ,l 7 - 3 6 ( S E G3 9 . 3 1 5 ) ;S E G3 8 . 2 7 8 .
( o r r i r ) ( c . 8 . ,i r ; t l , t + o s , L L . 7 f f . ; l 4 7 l ; 1 4 7 6 , L L . T f f ' ) ;
l a b e l sa r e o f t e n p r e c e d e db y r
 TheClassifcation
of Greeklnscriptions | 201
200 | An ht oductionto GreekEpigraphy
phratry amulets,esterracottaseals,e6 ossuaries,eT
bones,e8
weightsand measures,loom
priestsand priestesses,82 theorodokoi(S 9'03)'83demes (SEG 36'230)'
(SEG 37'333)' officials com- weights,ee glassware,tmtesserae,handbells,spoons,bricks, tiles,lotanchors,lo2
members,84 benefactorsand donors,sstaxpayers
battle'87 Lists of the victors of and javelin heads.104
sling bullets,r03
mended for service,s6and soldiers killed in
were set uP in public
prizes at the agonistic and gymnastic competitions Boccard, 1996). On onomastics on amphora handles seeO. Masson in Recherches sur lesamphores
worshiPers'8e and members of volun-
places.'8Membership lists oiinitiates, grecques:Actes du colloqueinternational organispar le centre national de la recherchescientifique,
down to us; for example' an I l'Universit de RennesII et l'Ecolefrangaise d'Athines (Athnes,10-12 Septembre 1984), ed,.l.-Y.
tary religious associationsmhave also come Empereur and Y. Galan, BCH Suppl 13 (Athens: Ecole frangaise d'Athnes; Paris: E. de Boccard,
in the Roman campagna
inscription from a Dionysiac associationdiscovered 1986),37-44 (SEG 36.1552);G. R. Tsetskhladze,"Organization ofCeramic Production in Colchis
ffiystaiwhobelonged
(ca.a.o. 150)lists the namesof more than four hundred during the HellenisticPeiod," Eirene2T(1990):93-102 (SEG40.1317).SeealsoSEG28.627,745,
toward the cost of erecting the 1537, 16O3;29.713,792, 923:.32.787, 1454, 16291'34.743,746,753,956, t425; 35.861,891,963;
to this Dionysiac associationand contributed
3 6 . 6 7 0 ,1 4 9 3 ; 3 7 . 6 2 8 ,6 8 0 , 6 9 7 , 7 6 4 i 3 8 . 7 4 0 , 7 4 3 , 7 7 8 , 8 6 0 ; 3 9 . 6 4 5 , 6 7 3 * 7 4 .6 8 7 , 9 1 3 , l l 0 8 ;
statuetooneofitspriestesses.gisomelistsarefollowedbyablankspaceto 4 0 . 2 7 9 - 8 0 , 6 0 7 , 6 4 0 , 1 1 7 6 , 1 3 5 1 , 1 4 8 3 ; 4 2 . 7 0 2 , 7 O 3 b i s , 7 5 4 , 7 8 r , 7 8 6 , 1 5 0 8 -11743, 5 ; 4 3 . 1 0 8 - 9 ,
donations were made'
allow for the addition of more names as new s 0 1 , s 6 9 , 8 7 6 , 9 0 9 , 1 0 0 7 ,1 1 0 9 .
93. See, e.g., R. Boyer et al. "Dcouverte de la tombe d'un oculiste Lyon (fin du II" s.
7.14 Inscriptions on Portable Objects aprs J.-C.): Instruments et coffret avec collynes," Gallia 47 (t990):215-49 (SEG 40.912).
94. See the listings on gems in this chapter's supplementary bibliography. For a gemstone
that are easily portable, depicting a naked Christ on a cross see Cecil Smith, "The Crucifixion on a Greek Gem," BS 3
This broad category comprises all inscribed objects
lamps, statuettes'jewelry' gems'q (1896-97): 201-6; IGLRomania 53.knprecations ofa general nature were engraved on gems and
such asostraca,vases,ampiorae,e2collyria,e3 carried as talismans to ward off sicknessand misfortune (see,e.g., B. Haussoullier, "Inscriptions
de Crdte," BCH9 [1885]: l-28, esp. 25-26,no.23).
S2.ForlistsofannualpriesthoodsatSeleuciainPieriaunderSeleucuslYseelGLSyia|||12' 95. SeeR. Kotansky, GreekMagical Amulets: The Inscribed Gold, Silver, Copper,and Bronze
1184;OGI245.SeealsoS-EG32'2O4;35'1361'1521;36'748;37'1294i42'1162i43'926'Foralistof' Lamellae, Part I, Published Texts of Known Provenance, Papyrologica Coloniensia 22, no. I
p r i e s t e s s es se eS E G3 8 ' 1 8 7 8 ) . , n 2 / r ^ a e .^ ) ) i r (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1994); C. Bonner, Studies in Magical Amulets Chiefly Graeco-
83. 0etoqo6xot:seeSEG 30'494;36'337'50O;37'278;38'413:39'341'468;42'271'
"The Phratry from Paiania"' CQ 39 (1939): 126-35 (SEG Egyptian, University of Michigan Studies, Humanistic Series49 (Ann Arbor: University of Michi-
84. See Charles W. Hedrick lr', gan Press, 1950) (cf. SEG 31.1399); E. Zwierlein-Diehl, MagischeAmulette und andere Gemmen
39.r93).
soup kitchen seeIAphroillud; cf' SEG des Instituts fir Altertumskunde des Uniyerstt zu Kln, Papyrologica Colonensia 20 (Opladen:
85. 8.g., for a list of donors for a Jewish community Westdeutscher Yerlag, 1992); Armand Delatte and P. Derchain, Les intailles magiquesgrco-
contributors to the Dionysia in Iasos see llasos 16O-67
32.218,37.970,43.700. For u ti" of gyptiennes,Bibliothque nationale, Cabinet des m6dailles et antiques (Paris: Bibliothque na-
( s E G4 3 . 7 i 6 ) . tionale, 1964); Roy Kotansky, "Incantations and Prayers for Salvation on Inscribed Greek Amu-
86. E.g.,SEG 15.104;cf' Guarducci' EG' 2'323-416' lets," in Magika Hiera: Ancient Greek Magic and Religion, ed. Christopher A. Faraone and Dirk
8T.E.g.,ClGt65.Theselistsweredividedintomilitaryunitsandspecifiedrank-andPlaceof Obbink (Oxford: Oxford University Press,1991), 107-37; Guarducci, EG,4.27I-83; Reinhard
37 '385; 38'1876; 42'4lO' 414' 429)'
war; cf. military catalogues(SEG 30'448-52 ;36'407; Pummer,
"Samaritan
Amulets from the Roman-Byzantine Period and Their Wearers," RBibl 94
88. SeeIGII2 2371-28.SeeSEG28.1246;29'452;35.930;36'469-76,497.'-499;37'.129;38'162; (1987):25r-63 (SEG 37.183s).Seealso SEG 30.1794;42.1582,1804;43.615,1200,1300-1302.
Eine, agontischeInschrift aus {)rPten und
39.190; 41.114-18, 481. See Ludwig Koenen' Glan: Anton 96. SeeD. O. A. Klose,,lNG34 (1984): 63-76, nos. l-61 (SEG39.1536).
zlur KlassischenPhilologie 56 (Meisenheim am
frhptolemkche Knigsfute,neitrage Greek Festivak chiefly from lnsctip- 97. See f,mile Puech, "Inscriptions fundraires palestiniennes: Tombeau de Jason et
Features of Local
Hain, t977).cf. Irene n rrg*;d,\gontic ossuaires,"RBibl90 ( 1983):481-533, esp.499-533, nos. 1-41 (SEG 33.t275-93); Tal Ilan, "New
Adjacent Islands,exceptEuboia, columbia univer'
tional Evidence:part 1, Non-AtticMalnhnd and OssuaryInscriptions from ferusalem,"SC/ 11 (1991192):149-59, nos. l-4 (SEG 41.1558-61).
1927); E' Norman Gardiner' Athleticsof the Ancient World
sity Dissertation (Poughkeepsie,NY, 98. E.g.,SEG 36.1458.
(Chicago:Ares' 1987).
99. SeeF.FerrandiniTroisi,"'PesidaTelaio'SegnieInterpretazioni,"MGRl0(19S6):91-
8 9 . S e e W . V ' H a r r i s , * A n l n s c r i p t i o n R e c o r d i n g a P r o c o n s u l , s V i s i t t o S a m o t h r a c e , ' ' lof
Pll3 I 14 (SEG36.1538).Seealso SEG 38.269;39.604,1039.
initiates, sEG 42'780;for worshipers
(t992)t 7t-7g.For a list * ^y- *i sBG 35.g64-;iifor
into 100. See,e.g., S. B. Matheson, Ancient Glassin the Yale tJniversityArt Gal/ery (New Haven,
list of the rhiasoi of rheos Hlpsistos was divided
Zeus Karaios, sEG 32.454.ri'" -.-b..rhip 3l CN: Yale University Press,1980) (SEG32.1625);SEG42.t766,43.1228.
elQofand eiono"ltoi' &el$oi (fosterbrothers) (see I' Ustinova' HR
two main categories, l0l. SEG28.717;29.r788;30.327,372;3r.832;32.619,916;35.756;37.765;36.r6rt;39.623,
42'726)'
I r 9 9 ] / 9 2 ] : 1 5 0 - 8 0 ;s E G 2 8 . 1 6 4 8 , | 525; 40.275, I 3 18, I 591, 173 | ; 41.820:42.486,504, 526.
(cf' 36'463)' 700;33'L6r;34'1095; 35'l3l;
90. E.g., IG ll2 1334,li+z-a'' See SEG 32'503 102. S.EG28.1596, 34.999. For a votive anchor seeSEG 33.260-61.
VI' 9-13'
39.l92i 4J.59-60. SeeRobert, Hellenica' 103. SeeMarie-Christine Hellmann, "Collection Froehner: Balles de fronde grecques,"BCH
91. IGUR I, I60. "Bulletin Arch6ologique: Amphores et timbres 106 (1982): 75-87 (SEG 32.1691).Seealso SEG 30.1569,1606;31.1602-23.For a lead slingshot
92. See I.-Y. Empereur and Y' Garlan' se SEG42.428,1417.
" - p h o . i q n . . t l 8 0 - 1 9 8 6 , ' R E G l 0 0 ( 1 9 8 7 ) : 5 8 - 1 0 9 ( b i b l i o g r a p h y ) ; A ' M a r a n g o u - L e (Paris:
t a t ' L e vE'
t nde
et I 04. SeeBrigette Borell, Statuetten, Gefsseund andere Gegenstndeaus Metall, Katalog der
les amphoresde crte ile l,poque classique d l'poque impeiiati, tudes cretoises 30
 'l'he
Classilication
of Greeklnscriptions | 203
202 | An lntroductiottto GreekEpigraphy
Amphorae could also be stamped with single letters or symbols, such as
Ostracaare inscriptions engravedwith a sharp Point or ink on potsherds
anchors, double hatchets,masks, tridents, dolphins, plants, and flowers.l12
(fragments of broken potterf). They have been found in large quantities'
broken Bricks were also stamped, especially in the Byzantine period, thereby dating
part-icularlyin Egypt.10sostraca were used as writing material because
often inscribed with them according to the reign and indiction of the emperor or with the names
pottery was attained easily and at no cost' They were
and ac- of military, civil, or ecclesiastical
offrcials.l13
administrative texts, such as pay receipts' tax documents' contracts'
and even Greek weights (pondera)of stone, lead, bronze, and terracotta were usually
counts, as well as with private letters, magical and astrological texts,
"ostracizing" dangerous politicians' attested in inscribed, though sometimes with only one or two letters or a monogram.ll4
literary texts. The practice of
name from Others carry full inscriptions specifiing such information as the name of the
Megara and Kyrene (not to mention classicalAthens), receivedits
votes'106 town, the name of the agoranomos,the date (according to the eponymous
such ostraca,the broken piecesof pottery employed in the casting of
(or some- magistrate), the nature of the weight, various acclamations, or the term
Epigraphy also includes texts that are scratched or impressed
as lamps'108 vases' and qpolov (belonging to the state), abbreviated in various ways.
times paintea in ink)107on newly made pottery' such
Also included in this category are the many varieties of tesseraethat were
la.r,priortofiring.loeManyvaseinscriptionsrecordthemanufacturerand used in connection with hospitaliry social aid, entertainment, gaming, and
7'18)'tt0
painter of a vase (i.e., eiva noiqoev, eivo ygarlrtv; see 5
the subject military operations.rrsTesseraewere made of a variety of materials,such as
Vasesmight also record the owner of the vase(to0 eivog eipi')'
to illustrations ivory,1r6bone,il7bronze, clay,llsor close-cutwood. Lead tesseraewere struck
o, p..ro* representedon the vase ( eivcr xatrE),captions
object was in a circular form carrying symbols, monograms, and abbreviated words.lle
of mythical scenes' or the name of the divinity to whom the
glue were The inscriptions on some tesseraecombine an abbreviated personal name
dedicated. Small flasks for such things as eye lotion, perfume, and
with its corresponding symbol (e.g., Ao(raz6E) with a picture of a crayfish,
often inscribed with labels describing their contents'
bricks the term 1,(6xroq) with a picture of a cock).
Stampswere impressedinto amphorae' storagejars'11llamps' and
rings. The legal capacity of
by meuns of long-handled metal punches or signet I 12. SeeA. W. Johnston, Trademarks on Greek Vases(Warminster and Guildford: Biddles,
handle with the re79).
u. u*phoru could be guaranteed by stamping its neck or
errors' it I 13. 8.g.,SEG34.1009,
36.921,
37.36s,
43.933.
name of local magistrates.ludging by the frequent orthographical 114. See,e.g., A. Kushnir-Stein, "An Inscribed Lead Weight from Ashdod: A Reconsidera-
tFpe'
would appear that these names were usually stamped with movable tion"' ZPE 105 (1995): 81-84; K. Hitzl, "Antike Gewichte im Tbinger Archologischen Institut,"
AA (1992):243-57. Seealso SAG31.154,967,975,t4t0;35.673;36.332,1292,1339-40;38.t646-
47: 42.221-22t 43.1057.
universitt Heidelberg 3' no' I
Sammlung antiker Kleinkunst des Archologischen Instituts der 115. A tesserahospitalis (oppotrov) was a small die given by a host to his guest on depar-
(Mainz, 1989),nos. 38,46, 48-49,5J-54,56 (SEG 39'1739-45)' ture, at which time it was broken into two halves,with each party retaining one half. If either they
Nubien: Ein Beitrag zur
105. See Ulrich Wilcken, GriechischeOstraka aus Aegypten und or their descendants met again, these tokens would provide a means of recognition for the
wirtschaftsgeschichte,2 vols. (Amsterdam: Adolf von Hakkert, 1899); John G. Tait and
Antiken renewal of the family obligations of hospitality. Tesserafrumentaia and nummaia are engraved
3 vols., Egyptian Exploration
Claire pr6aux, Greek Ostraca in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, voucher tokens given by magistrates to the poor on special occasions,to be exchangedfor bread,
(London: cambridge university Press, 1930-64), esp. the index in vol' 3 by.lean Bingen
Society wheat, wine, oil, or money, according to the inscription. A tesseratheatral is an admission ticket
andMartinWittek;Al.N'Oikonomides,InscriptionesAtticae:supplementumlnscriptionumAt. to a theater and other places ofpublic entertainment. Contorniateswere bronze discs resembling
ticarum,5 vols. (Chicago:Ares, 1976); SEG42'32' coins. A tesseramilitais (ovOqpa) is a small wooden tablet on which was inscribed a watchword;
106.ForMegaraseeSEG3T'37]r:forKyrene,L'Bacchielli,LibyaAntiqua,n.s.,l(1995):162 it was given to soldiers by their officers to provide a means whereby they might distinguish
(pl. LXXVIb); for Athens' Agora XXV. between friend and foe (cf. Guarducci, EG,2.444-58).
107. For paint seeS-EG30.807,33'264;for ink' SEG 30' 1663' 116. See. E. Alftildi-Rosenbaum, "Alexandrica: Studies on Roman Game Counters IIL',
the listings for lamps in
l0g. Lucernaeoften record the name of the owner and maker; see Chiron 6 (1976): 205-39.
this chapter's supplementary bibliography' 117. See L. Marangou, Bone Canings from Eg1,pt,vol. l, Graeco-Romanperiod (Tbingen:
The InscribedPottery (Berlin
109. See,.g., T...rr.. S. Naitflri, The Nymphaeum of Kafzin: I. C. B. Mohr, t976),1J3-34.
and New York: Walter de Gruyter' 1980)' I r 8 . 8 . 9 . ,S r G 3 0 . 11 4 , 3 6 . 2 3 23, 7. 3 4 2 .
110. Seethe listings for vasesin this chapter's supplementary bibliography' 119. See M. Mitchiner, "Rome: Imperial Portrait Tesseraefrom the City of Rome and
Group of Stamped
1l l. See,e.g., D. T. Ariel, I. Sharon, f ' Gunneweg, and l' Perlman"'A Imperial Tax Tokens from the ProvinceofEgypt," NC 144 (1984): 95-114; SEG42.g3,g.
(S-EG35.1534); SEG 30'806'
Hellenistic Storale-|ar Handles from Dor," IEI 35 (1985): 135-52
 'l'he
Classilication
of Greeklnscriptions | 203
202 | An lntroductiottto GreekEpigraphy
Amphorae could also be stamped with single letters or symbols, such as
Ostracaare inscriptions engravedwith a sharp Point or ink on potsherds
anchors, double hatchets,masks, tridents, dolphins, plants, and flowers.l12
(fragments of broken potterf). They have been found in large quantities'
broken Bricks were also stamped, especially in the Byzantine period, thereby dating
part-icularlyin Egypt.10sostraca were used as writing material because
often inscribed with them according to the reign and indiction of the emperor or with the names
pottery was attained easily and at no cost' They were
and ac- of military, civil, or ecclesiastical
offrcials.l13
administrative texts, such as pay receipts' tax documents' contracts'
and even Greek weights (pondera)of stone, lead, bronze, and terracotta were usually
counts, as well as with private letters, magical and astrological texts,
"ostracizing" dangerous politicians' attested in inscribed, though sometimes with only one or two letters or a monogram.ll4
literary texts. The practice of
name from Others carry full inscriptions specifiing such information as the name of the
Megara and Kyrene (not to mention classicalAthens), receivedits
votes'106 town, the name of the agoranomos,the date (according to the eponymous
such ostraca,the broken piecesof pottery employed in the casting of
(or some- magistrate), the nature of the weight, various acclamations, or the term
Epigraphy also includes texts that are scratched or impressed
as lamps'108 vases' and qpolov (belonging to the state), abbreviated in various ways.
times paintea in ink)107on newly made pottery' such
Also included in this category are the many varieties of tesseraethat were
la.r,priortofiring.loeManyvaseinscriptionsrecordthemanufacturerand used in connection with hospitaliry social aid, entertainment, gaming, and
7'18)'tt0
painter of a vase (i.e., eiva noiqoev, eivo ygarlrtv; see 5
the subject military operations.rrsTesseraewere made of a variety of materials,such as
Vasesmight also record the owner of the vase(to0 eivog eipi')'
to illustrations ivory,1r6bone,il7bronze, clay,llsor close-cutwood. Lead tesseraewere struck
o, p..ro* representedon the vase ( eivcr xatrE),captions
object was in a circular form carrying symbols, monograms, and abbreviated words.lle
of mythical scenes' or the name of the divinity to whom the
glue were The inscriptions on some tesseraecombine an abbreviated personal name
dedicated. Small flasks for such things as eye lotion, perfume, and
with its corresponding symbol (e.g., Ao(raz6E) with a picture of a crayfish,
often inscribed with labels describing their contents'
bricks the term 1,(6xroq) with a picture of a cock).
Stampswere impressedinto amphorae' storagejars'11llamps' and
rings. The legal capacity of
by meuns of long-handled metal punches or signet I 12. SeeA. W. Johnston, Trademarks on Greek Vases(Warminster and Guildford: Biddles,
handle with the re79).
u. u*phoru could be guaranteed by stamping its neck or
errors' it I 13. 8.g.,SEG34.1009,
36.921,
37.36s,
43.933.
name of local magistrates.ludging by the frequent orthographical 114. See,e.g., A. Kushnir-Stein, "An Inscribed Lead Weight from Ashdod: A Reconsidera-
tFpe'
would appear that these names were usually stamped with movable tion"' ZPE 105 (1995): 81-84; K. Hitzl, "Antike Gewichte im Tbinger Archologischen Institut,"
AA (1992):243-57. Seealso SAG31.154,967,975,t4t0;35.673;36.332,1292,1339-40;38.t646-
47: 42.221-22t 43.1057.
universitt Heidelberg 3' no' I
Sammlung antiker Kleinkunst des Archologischen Instituts der 115. A tesserahospitalis (oppotrov) was a small die given by a host to his guest on depar-
(Mainz, 1989),nos. 38,46, 48-49,5J-54,56 (SEG 39'1739-45)' ture, at which time it was broken into two halves,with each party retaining one half. If either they
Nubien: Ein Beitrag zur
105. See Ulrich Wilcken, GriechischeOstraka aus Aegypten und or their descendants met again, these tokens would provide a means of recognition for the
wirtschaftsgeschichte,2 vols. (Amsterdam: Adolf von Hakkert, 1899); John G. Tait and
Antiken renewal of the family obligations of hospitality. Tesserafrumentaia and nummaia are engraved
3 vols., Egyptian Exploration
Claire pr6aux, Greek Ostraca in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, voucher tokens given by magistrates to the poor on special occasions,to be exchangedfor bread,
(London: cambridge university Press, 1930-64), esp. the index in vol' 3 by.lean Bingen
Society wheat, wine, oil, or money, according to the inscription. A tesseratheatral is an admission ticket
andMartinWittek;Al.N'Oikonomides,InscriptionesAtticae:supplementumlnscriptionumAt. to a theater and other places ofpublic entertainment. Contorniateswere bronze discs resembling
ticarum,5 vols. (Chicago:Ares, 1976); SEG42'32' coins. A tesseramilitais (ovOqpa) is a small wooden tablet on which was inscribed a watchword;
106.ForMegaraseeSEG3T'37]r:forKyrene,L'Bacchielli,LibyaAntiqua,n.s.,l(1995):162 it was given to soldiers by their officers to provide a means whereby they might distinguish
(pl. LXXVIb); for Athens' Agora XXV. between friend and foe (cf. Guarducci, EG,2.444-58).
107. For paint seeS-EG30.807,33'264;for ink' SEG 30' 1663' 116. See. E. Alftildi-Rosenbaum, "Alexandrica: Studies on Roman Game Counters IIL',
the listings for lamps in
l0g. Lucernaeoften record the name of the owner and maker; see Chiron 6 (1976): 205-39.
this chapter's supplementary bibliography' 117. See L. Marangou, Bone Canings from Eg1,pt,vol. l, Graeco-Romanperiod (Tbingen:
The InscribedPottery (Berlin
109. See,.g., T...rr.. S. Naitflri, The Nymphaeum of Kafzin: I. C. B. Mohr, t976),1J3-34.
and New York: Walter de Gruyter' 1980)' I r 8 . 8 . 9 . ,S r G 3 0 . 11 4 , 3 6 . 2 3 23, 7. 3 4 2 .
110. Seethe listings for vasesin this chapter's supplementary bibliography' 119. See M. Mitchiner, "Rome: Imperial Portrait Tesseraefrom the City of Rome and
Group of Stamped
1l l. See,e.g., D. T. Ariel, I. Sharon, f ' Gunneweg, and l' Perlman"'A Imperial Tax Tokens from the ProvinceofEgypt," NC 144 (1984): 95-114; SEG42.g3,g.
(S-EG35.1534); SEG 30'806'
Hellenistic Storale-|ar Handles from Dor," IEI 35 (1985): 135-52
 'I'he
204 An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy ol GreekInstriptions |
Classilrcation 205
|

7.15 Quarry and Masons' Marks languagein the quarriesof the easternprovincesthat were imperially owned.
However, any individual or city could operate its own quarry. These smaller
quarries-using Greek instead of Latin-tended to remain in private hands
When stoneswere hewn from a quarry, various letters and numbers were cut
and to serve local markets.
into them or inscribed on lead sealsand attached to them.r2oSuch inscrip-
tions range from a full documentation of the quarry operation (e.g., IG XIV, Quarry marks should be distinguished from masons' marks, the latter
serving as instructions for the dressingof the marble into its final architectural
2421, l; ClI VIII, 14560) to a single name or serial number. Quarry blocks
form and for its assemblyinto the overall structure.l23Masons' marks display
generallyrecord, in summary form and in various combinations, serial num-
a great variation in size,depth, and style of lettering. Many record what seem
bers, consular dates,the sector of the quarry from which a stone was hewn or
to be the names (sometimesabbreviated)of the masonswho performed the
squared off, and the names of quarry officials and inspectors.l2l
final carving.l2a
From the early days of the empire, there was a tendency for the more
important quarries to pass under imperial control.l22 Latin was the offrcial
7.16 Inscriptions in Metal
120. SeeS 0.05.
"Iscrizioni
121. SeeL.Brtzza, di marmi grezzi," in AdI 42 (1870):106-2O4; J. Svennung,
"Numerierung von Fabrikaten und anderen Gegenstnden im rmischen Altertum," Ardos 2 Inscriptionswere sometimesengravedon metal. The scantnumber of surviv-
(1958): 164-86; Marc Waelkens, Norman Herz, and Luc Moens, eds.,Ancient stones-Quarrying ing Greek specimensis a result of both their destruction (as subsequent
Trade, and Provenance:Interdiscipliflary Stuilies on Stonesand Stone Technologyin Europe and the generations melted the metal down for reuse) and the limited use of metal
Near Eastfrom the Prehistoric to the Early Chistian Period, Acta archaeologica Louvaniensia
due to the much greatercost of this material.r25The utilization of gold and
Monographiae 4 (Louvain: Leuven university Press, 1992);T. KoZelj, A. Muller, and J.-P. Sodini,
,.Des
mines d'or Thasos," BCH 106 (1982): 409-17 (Thasos). on technical terms used in silver seems to have been reserved for luxury items, such as jewelry, small
building accounts to describe the squaring of stone blocks see A. Dworakowska' Archeologia vases,and gold and silver fillet;r26leavesof gold or silver were also inscribed
(Warsaw) 31 (l9Sl): I l-18. On imperial quarriesin Egypt seeMichael f. Klein, Untersuchungm
and used as amulets.
zu den kaiserlichenSteinbrchenan Mons Porphyrites und Mons Claudianus in der stlichenWste
Agptens (Bonn: R. Habelt, 1988) (sEG 40.1546). on mason marks on blocks in fortressesseeH. "Asia
that of Marcus Aurelius (CII III, 7032). Cf. W. M. Ramsay, Minor, 1924: Y. Monuments
Tieziny in Architecture et socieft de I'archaismegrec h fn de la rpublique romaine: Aaes du
from the Upper Tembris Valley," /RS l8 (1928): 2l-40, esp.22-23, no.233; CIL III, Suppl. part
Colloque intemational organis par le Centfe national ile la recherchescientifque, Rome 2-4 "Julia-Ipsus
II, 12227-9; W. M. Calder, and Augustopolis,",lRS2 (1912):237-266, esp.251-52,
dcembre1984 collection de l'6cole Frangaise de Rome 66 (Paris: Le centre; Rome: L'Ecole
n o s .5 - 6 .
francaisede Rome, 1933), l0S n. 11, lll-13 (SEG33.758);cf. SEG30'1397,42'394' "Anchoring
()perations ofthe Roman 123. SeeWilliam B. Dinsmoor fr. Two Floating Temples,"Hesperia5l (1982):
122. SeeJ. C. Fant, Cayum Antrum Phrygiae:The organization and
International Series482 (Oxford: British Archaeologi- 410-52. On marble workers' marks see I.-P. Sodini in Artistes,artisdnset productionartistiqueau
Impeial Marble Quarries in Phrygia, BAR
"From moyenge,ed. Xavier Barral i Altet, 3 vols. (Paris:Picard, 1986-90), 2:503-18 (SEG37.1788);F.
caf Reports, 1989); Marc Waelkens, a Phrygian Quarrp The Provenance of the Statuesof
W. Deichmann, Ravenna:Hauptstadt dessptantikenAbendlandes,2 vols. (Wiesbaden: F. Steiner,
the Dacian Prisonersin Trajan's Forum at Rome," / 89 (1985): 641-53 (sEG 35'1364);T.
1969-89), 2:206-30. Cf. Vallois, Les portiques au sud du hitron, 63-73 (alphabetic decimal
KoZelf in Roman Marble Quarrying and Trade: Papersfrom a colloquium Held at the Annual "Tripolitania,"
system); I. Ward Perkins, 93-94 (cf. figs. 7-8 for Greek mason's marks).
Meeting of the ArchaeologicalInstitute of America, San Antottio, Texas, December 1986' BAR "Tripolitania,"
124. SeeWard Perkins, 94.
International Series 453 (oxford: British Archaeological Reports, l9s8), 8-9 (SEG 38.1952); "Die
125. See, e.g., Karin Braun, Dipylon-Brunnen Bl: Die Funde," .rVf85 (1970): 129-
Arrgelina Dworakowska, Quarries in Roman Provinces,ftans. Jerzy Bachrach (wroc,hw: Zaklad
268, esp. 197-269.
Naiodowy im. Ossolinskich, t9s3) (SEG 35.1776); SEG 26.1384,30.1476' 33.1217,35.1364' "Golden
"Zur 126. On the use of gold and silver by wealthy Athenians see Michael Vickers,
36.1194,39.1373;K. Strobel, Dislozierung der rmischen Legionen in Pannonien zwischen
Greece:RelativeValues, Minae, and Temple Inventories,"AJA9a (1990):613-25, esp.616-17.
89 und 118 n. Chr.," Tyche 3 (1988): lg3-222, esp. 194-95 (Egvpt) (SEG 38'1673); Fiehn' "Orphic" "Le
"Steinbruch," RE 3A (1929): 2242-93;f. Ward Perkins, "Tripolitania and the Marble Trade"',lRS On lamellae see Maurizio Giangiulio, laminette auree nella cultura religiosa della
Calabria greca: Continuit e innovazione," in Calabria antica, vol.2 (Reggio Calabria, 1994), 8-
4l (1951): 89-104. Phrygian marble (marmor Synnadieum) was taken from quarries at
102; Giovanni PuglieseCarratelli, Le lamine d'oro'orfche'(Milan: Libri Scheiwiller,1993); F.
Dokimeion (Docimium) in the Upper Tembris Valley, which is thirty-six miles north of Synnada, "Dionysian
Graf, and Orphic Eschatology: New Texts and Old Questions," in Masks of Dionysus,
the latter serving as the administrative center and collection point. SeeM. Waelkens, Dokimeion:
ed. Thomas H. Carpenter and Christopher Faraone (lthaca and London: Cornell University
Die Werlestattder reprsentatiuenkleinasiastischenSarkophage-Chronologie und Typologie ihrer
proiluktion,ArchologischeForschungen,l1 (Berlin: Mann, 1982);f. M. Reynoldsand f' ward Press,1993),240-58. For a phylacteryon a gold tablet seeSEG35.1051;for a silver drinking cup,
"Orphic"
perkjns, Inscriptions of Roman Tripolitania (Rome: British School at Rome, 1952), no. 794t SEG 34.1036;for a gold ring with a horoscope, SEG 30.1795;for gold leaves,SEG
monograms on gold rings, SEG 42.705.
42.530;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;tbr
MAMAIV,6-8. Dated blocks in Phyrgianquarriesrangefrom the time of Nero (cll III' 7005) to
 An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy I'he Classilication
ol Orecklnscriptitttts I ZOI
206 |
than in the theseletterswere in use for lengthy periods of time.rrsAs a result,the evolu-
Extant bronze specimensare less numerous in the Greek
available to tion of the paleographyof bronze letters is much slower than that of stone
Roman world, since Greece lacked the abundant copPer mines
127 Greeks of western Greece and Italy inscriptions, with archaic forms tending to survive longer.
the Romans. Fof this reason, only the
used for solemn docu- Inscriptions in iron are rare becausethis metal was subject to rusting,
are known to have used bronze routinely. Bronze was
decrees.l2s quickly destroying the vestiges of any inscription. Lead, in contrast, resists
ments, such as laws, treaties, votive inscriptions, and honorific
to bronze stelae (orfltrcrr exceptional
Xgtrx11i"), ex- oxidation and was inexpensive and easyto cut and engrave.l36For example,
Ancient writers refer
A remarkable bronze inscrip- inscriptions are found on lead water pipes and lead missiles.
amples of which have been found at olympia.l2e
of a treaty Lead was also used for oracles,magical incantations,votives, and espe-
tion from Elaea near Cyme (II B'c') concerns the publication
records the cially curse tablets (xotaeopor/zota6oerE, defixiones/devotiones).137 Curse
arrangementwith Rome agreed on in 129 8.c.130This decree
the treaty on tablets, also known as defixiones,were normally inscribed, small, thin sheetsof
..rpotr. of one Greek city to the Roman's request to publish
lead. They were often written in cursive script or in relief, the letters being
bronze.l3l
(inscrip- impressed from the reverse side. Curse tablets were intended to influence,
Letters made of bron ze wete inset into monumental inscriptions
through supernaturalmeans,the actions or welfare of persons,againsttheir
tionescaelatae),especiallyonthefacadesofgreatedificesandontheepistyles "person
with hooks for will. They were usually buried in the grave of a untimely dead"
of temples, arches' and rostra. These letters came equipped
holes in the stone.132 In most cases'the (trlgog)or in the chthonic sanctuariesor placedin wells.r38
their insertion into speciallybored
holes often remain in the
letters have long since disappeared,but tracesof the
architrave of
stones.For example,an honorific inscription for Nero on the east 7.17 Graffiti
the Parthenon(e.o. 61t62)is equippedwith attachmentholes'r33
processknown "a
sometimes, gold or silver was overlaid on bronze letters, a The term grffiti is the plural form of the Italian word grffito, meaning
bronze letters were discov-
as xoroxQuooov. In Attaleia, a dozen such gilded scratched thing." It comprises all manner of inscriptions, drawings, and
to produce
ered at the foot of the Gate of Hadrian.r3aThe foundry molds used scrawls, written on walls, pillars, tombs, and doorposts. Graffiti are usually
in Athens (303/2 r.c.; olga
written in cursive script, either scratchedinto the surfacewith a sharp instru-
127. Examples include a gilded bronze statue with inscription
palagia, ,.A colossal Statue of i personification from the Agora of Athens," Hespeia .5.1
(1982); ment (stilus) or written in charcoal, paint, or chalk.
g9-Il3,esp.l11-12),bronzededications(Is'c';SEG32:391'399)'andabronzeshield(SEG As one would expect,graffiti subject matter varies widely, including bawdy
43.377). jokes,messages to lovers,popular catchwords,insultsto enemies,versesof un-
l2S.SeeCallieWilliamson,"MonumentsofBronze:RomanLegalDocumentsonBronze
Robert, Hellenica,III, 170_72;Robert'
Tablets,,'CtAnt 6 (|987):160-83, esp. |7| n.33,180_82;
135. For inscribedbronze molds seeSEG 31.879,966l'37.624.
Hellenica,VII, 194-96.
is a well-preserved proxeny 136. Pliny (Natural Htory l3.ll) refers to plumbea volumina as an early writing material.
129. Among the latest examples (IOlympia V, nos' 36-43) "n
(t'o' 39 : GDI l' l 172]) ' SeeW' Gauer
' Die Bronzegefssevon olympia' On lead tablets seeJ. H. Kroll, Archive of the Athenian Cavalry," Hesperia46 (1977): 83-146i
decreedating IIIIII u... [
Horsley, NewDocs 4.134-35. For a lead curse tablet see R. A. Blllows, ClAnt 8 (1989): 173-205
OlympischeForschungen20/l(Berlin:W'deGrulter'1991)'Cf'SEG42'382;Guarducci'EG'
(SEG 39.293). For a lead tablet addressedto the oracular shrine at Dodona seeSIG3 I 163; H. W.
2.539tr.
recalls the dedication of a Parke, The Oraclesof Zeus:Dodona, Olympia, Ammon (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1967),266, no. ll;
130. sIG3 694, LL. 23-29; another excellent bronze specimen "Ten
Euergetes I and Queen Berenice (CIG 4694)' SEG40.1595-96;cf. Ned Nabers, Lead Tabellaefrom Morgantina," AIA83 (1979):463-64
tetrrcnosto Osiris by Ptolemy
"lrionuments of Bronze: Roman Legal Documents on Bronze (SEG 29.927-35); Guarducci,IG, 4.85-86 (fig. 3l); SEG 38.300.For lead urns see SEG37.655-
131. See C. Williamson,
(I987)t 160-83' esp' 181' 60; for a lead token, SEG42.219; for lead tablets, SEG42.794, 43.488.
Tablets,"ClAnt 6
1 3 7 . E . g . , S E G 3 0 . 3 2 5 - 2 6 ,3 5 3 ; 3 4 . 9 5 2 - 5 3 ; 3 5 . 2 r r - 2 7 ; 3 7 . 2 1 7 - 2 4 , 2 6 8 , 3 8 9 , 6 7 3 , 6 8 1 ;
132'SeetheexcellentcollectionsintheArchaeologicalMuseumatTarracinaandthe
43.3t8-31.
National Museum at BudaPest. "A
9 (Durham, NC: Duke Univer- 138. SeeD. R. Jordan, Survey of Greek DertxionesNot Included in the Special Corpora,"
133. SeeKevin K. Calxol., The Parthenon Inscription, GRBM "The
GRBS26 (1985): l5l-97; CristopherA. Faraone, Agonistic Context ofEarly Greek Binding
sity Press,1982) (: IGII' 3277). ..Augustus und die Inschrift en,', Gymna- Spells," in Magika Hiera: Ancient GreekMagic and Religion, ed. Christopher A. Faraone and Dirk
134. SeeLanckorotlski 1.161,no. 5; cf. G' Alfldy,
Obbink (Oxford: Oxford University Press,1991),3-32 (cf. SEG41.1831).
sium 98 0991);289-324.

208 | An lntroductionto GreekF'pigraphy
known poets,and allusionsto local events.l3eThey are often the work of people
with time on their hands, such as tourists, slaves,and schoolboys. Graffiti
provide invaluable information concerning the popular language, thoughts,
ideas,and religiousbeliefsof common people.For example,a well-known in-
scription discoveredin the subterraneanchambers of the Roman Palatine Hill
ridicules one Alexamenos,who is representedas worshiping a crucified figure
representedwith the head of an ass:Al"el!pevog I o6Bete (: -erar) Oev
[Alexamenosworshipshis god]. The figure is probably a mock representation
of Christ or of Anubis, the jackal-headedgod of Egypt (III e 'o.).140
7.18 Artists' Signatures
Many funerary, dedicatory, and honorific monuments and many ceramic
works bear the signatures of the artisans who created them (signaturae
artificum).tatSignaturesconnectedwith sculptureusually apPearon the ante-
rior faceof the base,under the main inscription, though they may also appear
in the fluting of a column
on the base'sside,la2on its horizontal surface,l43
In later periods, signatures
servingas a base,144or even on the statueitself'1as
were also engravedon the plinth.ra6
The customary verb for artists signatures is nots0v. Earlier inscriptions
preferred the aorist form (noiqoe), while the use of the imperfect form
(noi,el)increasedgraduallyuntil it predominatedin the imperial period. The
basic formula for an artist's inscriptions is eivcr ro0 elvoE * ethnic/
patronymic/demotic * noi.loe/noiel. There are many variations of this
formulae (e.g.,q1ovro0 e[vog), evenby the sameartist; the patronymic or
ethnic may be omitted, the same artist may use 6noi,qoe on one work of art
and noqoeon another, and the position of the verb may change'
More than five hundred engraved signatures have been collected, from
139. Seethe listings for graffrti in this chapter's supplementary bibliography'
"The
140. See George M. A. Hanfmann, crucified Donkey Man: Achaios and Iesus," in
Studiesin ClassicalArt anil Archaeologt:A Tribute to PeterHeinich von Blnnckenhagen,ed. Gnter
Kopcke and Mary B. Moore (LocustValley,NY: ). f . Augustin, 1979),205-7 (p1.55.1-2); Horsley
rnNewDocs 4.137. Cf. a metrical graffito describing the saving power of Pan: see E. Bernard, le
Paneion d'El-Kanais: Lesinscriptionsgrecques(Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1972), no.8 (late III n.c.?); cf'
Horsley, NewDocs4.113.
l4l. see the listing on artists' signatures in this chapter's supplementary bibliography.
1 4 2 . E . g . , I B i l d a u e rn, o s . l 1 - 1 2 , 1 6 , 3 2 9 , 3 3 3 .
I43. 8.g., IBildauer,nos. 33' 37, 65' 91.
144. ..g.,IBildauer,nos. 5-6, l8' 25.
145. E.g.,IBildauer,nos. 329, 333.
146. 8.g., lBildauer, nos. 292-93, 331.
'l'he
Classilic:ution
of Greeklnscriptions I ZOS
artists of many nationalities, many of whom are otherwise unknown. In
Attica, the artist's name frequently appearswithout patronymic, ethnic, or
demotic, making it impossibleto determine whether the artist is local or a
foreigner. Outside Attica, it is much less common to find an unqualified
name. If no ethnic is given, the presumption is that the artist was probably
local. Sometimesthe teacherof the artist is also mentioned, especiallyif the
teacherhad a well-known reputation, as in Xr6Qovog flaow6l,ouE t"ro0qrilE
noi,er[Stephanos,student of Pasiteles,made this].r47
In the Graeco-Romanperiod, it is not uncommon to find two names,
indicating that the work was made in collaboration (see,e.g., IBildauer, no.
243).Bronzeworks sometimesrecord not only the name of the artist ( eCvcr
dnolqoe) but alsothe name of the craftsmanwho preparedthe bronze ( eCva
1ol.xogylot).148If a sculpture has been restored,the restorer'sname may
also be given,as in'Aqloro,vgoE )x6nc flagr,og neoxea,oev[Aristandros,
son ofSkopas, from Paros,restored [this]] (IBildauer,no.287;'Delos).
The interpretation of artists' signatures is sometimes complicated by the
fact that statueswere copied, along with the original inscription and artist's
signature.lae There are also many instancesin which statuebaseswere reused
for the erection of new statues,with the original artist's signatureremaining
on the base.rs0 A casein point is the statuebasefor the goddessRoma found
in one of the shrinesof the Establishmentof the Poseidoniastaion Delos.The
base bears the incomplete name of the sculptor, [MvavqoE] M6].ovog
'A0qva0og
[[Menandros] son of Melas the Athenian made [this statue]]
(IDelos1778),now restoredon the basisof other inscriptions.lslAccording to
Hugo Meyer, the name Menandros refers to the original use of the block for a
147. IBildauer,no.374;cf.no.375(thecorrespondingsignatureofastudentofStephanos).
According to Gnter Klaffenbach, ifan artist names his father, he would also have been his teacher.
Many persons named as fathers of artists are known to have been artists themselves;artists often
handed down their craft to their sons. Klaffenbach might be correct in the majority of cases,but it
must also be born in mind that students had an almost filial respectfor their teachers,such that a
teacher's name might occasionally follow in the genitive without qualification.
"Tituli
148. SeeMario Segre, Camirenses,"Annuario 27-29 (1949-51): 14l-276, esp.228,
no.92.
i49. SeelBildauer, pp.310-14.
150. E.g., IG II2 4144. Sometimes the reversesituation is found, with new inscriptions being
put under old statues:e.g.,inscriptionsat Epidauros(IGIV,ll,306) and Tegea(IGY12,77).Dio
Ohrysostomos (Orat. 31) sharply criticized the Rhodians' reuse of old sculpture in this way. In
Lindos, old statues (vqlweg) were put on sale by the state during a period offinancial crisis;
however, in this instance, only uninscribed (veniygoQor) statueswere put on sale (ILindos 419,
t . L .3 0 - 3 4 l n . o . 2 2 l ) .
l5 I . Cf. IDelos YIl, 2342, LL. 5-6, which preservesthe name of the sculptor intact; IDelos
vll.2325.L.2.
 'l'hc
Classilicationol'Greek Insliptions | 2l I
210 | An lntroductionto GreckEpigraphy

while Philippe Bruneau arguesthat the Kaibel, G. EpigrammataGraecaex LapidibusConlecta.Berolini: G. Reimer, 1878.Pp.
statueother than the Roma statue,rs2
447-60,nos. 1033-41.
signaturepertains to the Roma Thus, the interpretation of artists'
statue.ls3 "Divination
Morgan, Catherine. and Society at Delphi and Didyma." Hermathena 147
signaturescan be quite comPlex. (1989):17-42. (Cf. SEG39.1843.)
"Sdkleinasiatische
Noll6, I. Losorakel in der rmischen Kaiserzeit." W 18, no. 3
(1987):4l-49. (Cf. SEG 37.1829;dice oracles.)
SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY Parke, H. W. The Oraclesof Apollo in Asia Minor. London, Sydney,and Dover: Croom
Helm, 1985.(Cf. SEG35.1821.)
Milestones "Oracoli
Ritti, T. alfabeticia Hierapolis di Frigia." MGR 14 (1989): 245-86. (Cf. SEG
39.1377bis.)
French, David. Roman Roadsand Milestonesof Asia Minor. VoI' 1, The Pilgrim's Road. "Documents
Robert, Louis. d'Asie Mineure V-XUI." BCH 102 (1978):395-543. Esp.
BIAAM 3: BAR International series 105. oxford: British Archaeological Reports,
pp. 460-77.
r981. (Cf. SEG31.18ee.)
Robert, Louis. Hellenica:Recueild'pigraphie,de numismatique et d'antiquitsgrecques.
French, Daid. Roman Roadsanil Milestonesof Asia Minor. Vol. 2' An Interim Catalogue
Vol. 5. Paris, 1948.Pp. 16-27.
of Milestones.BIAAM 9; BAR International Series392 (i-ii). Oxford: British Ar-
Robinson, Thomas L. TheologicalOraclesand the Sanctuariesof Clarus and Didyma.
chaeologicalReports, 1988.(Cf. SEG38.1987.)
Harvard TheologicalReviewMonograph Series.N.P. 1981.
Gounaropoulou, L., and M. HatzoPoulos. Les milliaires de la Voie Egnatienne entre
Hracle des Lyncesteset Thessalonitlue.Meletmata 1. Athens: Centre de re-
Hymns and Aretalogies
cherchesde I'antiquit grecqueet romaine, 1985.
Isaac,8., and L Roll. Roman Roadsin ludaea. YoI. l, The Legio-scythopolisRoad. BAP.
International series l4l. oxford: British ArchaeologicalReports,1982. B6lis,A. Leshymnesd Apollon.IDelph III. Paris:E. de Boccard,7992.
"Horaz
Henrichs, Albert. als Aretaloge des Dionysos: CreditePosteri."HSCP 82 ( 1978):
Oracles 203-ll. (The main characteristicsof aretalogies.)
"Forma
Poccetti, P. e tradizioni dell' inno magico nel mondo classico."A/ON (filol) 13
Broek, R. van den. Apollo in Asia:De orakelsvan clarus en Didyma in de tweedeen (1991): 179-204. (Magical hymns.)
"Un
derdeeeuwna Chr. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1981.(Cf. SEG31'1687') Roussel,P. nouvel hymne Isis." REG 42 (1929):136-68.
"Inscription d'ormelle de Phrygie (Astragalomancie)." BCH 8
cousin, Georges. Wagman, Robert S. Inni di Epidauro. Bibliotheca di Studi Antichi 75. Pisa: Giardini,
(1884):496-508. (Oraclesrelativeto astragalomancy') 1995.
Fontenrose,Joseph.The Detphic oracle: In Responses and operations. Berkeley:univer- Zakbar, Louis V. Hymns to Isis in Her Temple at Philae. Hanover: University of New
sity of CaliforniaPress,1978.(Ct. SEG28.470.) . England Press, 1988. (Cf. SEG 38.2014.)
Fontenrose,foseph. Didyma: Apollo's oracle, cult, and companions. Berkeley: univer-
sity of California Press' 1988. Healing Narratives
"An
Graf, Fritz. Oracle against Pestilencefrom a Western Anatolian Town." ZPE 92
,1992):267-79.(Cf- SEG41.981.)
Cohn-Haft, Louis. The Public Physiciansof Ancient Greece.Smith College Studies in
Guarducci, M. Epigrafia greca.Yol. 4, Epigrafi sacrepaganee cristiane.Rome, 1978.Pp.
History 42. Northampton, MA: Department of History of Smith College, 1956.Pp.
74-122.
"Ein 26-31.
Kaibel,G. Wrfelorakel." Hermesl0 (1875): 193-202' "The
Dillon, M. J. P. Didactic Nature of the Epidaurian lamata." ZPE l0l (1994):
"Zur in Delos," AM 103 (1988): 239-60.
152. H. Meyer, Chronologie des Poseidoniastenhauses
203-20, esp. 207-8. Meyer attempted to date the original usage of the block (IDelos 1778) by Edelstein, E. J., and L. Edelstein. Asclepius:A Collection and Interpretation of the
cross-.ef.ren.". to the sculptor's name on lDelos 2342. This latter inscription can be dated Testimonia. Baltimore: |ohns Hopkins Press,1945.
"Fouilles
preciselyto 110/109 s.c.; cf. charles Picard, de Dlos (1910): observations sur la Fors6n, B. GriechischeGlieilerweihungen:Eine Untersuchungzu ihrer Typologieund ihrer
soci6t6 des Poseidoniastesde Brytos et sur son histoire," BCH 44 (1920):276' Bedeutung.Papersand Monographs of the Fin-
religions- und sozialgeschichtlichen
153. philippeBruneau,"Deliaca(IX):6T.EncorelesanctuaireetlescultesdesPoseidoniastes nish Institute at Athens 4. Helsinki: Suomen Ateenan-instituutin saatio, 1996.
"The Place of cult in
de B6rJtos," BCH ll5 (1991): 379-86, esp. 384-85; cf. B. H. Mclean, Guarducci, M. Epigrafa greca.Yol. 4, Epigraf sacrepaganee cristiane.Rome, 1978.Pp.
Voluntary Associationsand Christian Churches on Delos," in Voluntary in the Graeco-
Associations
(London York: Routledge'
143-66.
Roman world, ed. Iohn S. Kloppenborg and Steven wilson and New
Lang, Mabel. Cure and Cult in Ancient Corinth. Princeton, Nf: American School of
1996),186-225.Bruneau'scasehas been strengthenedby Iean Marcad6'sdating ofMenandros's
(ISculp/2.67-68). ClassicalStudiesat Athens, 1977.
signatureon the Roma baseto mid-II u.t:. on the basisof paleography
 An Introduction to GreekEpigraphy
212 |
Lidonnici, Lyn nR. The Epidaurian Miracle lns1iptions: Text, Translation,and Commen-
tary.Texts and Translations36. Atlanta: Scholars'1995'
Michei C., ed. Recueil d'inscriptions grecques.Brussels, 1900. Reprint, Hildesheim'
1976.Nos. 1336-38. (Cf. IG XIV 966 : SIG3966.)
"Il
Stramaglia, A. leone, il tesoro e l'indovinello: IG IV2 l, 123, 8-21 e Giamblico,
Storie babilonesi 3 e 21 Habt." ZPE 9I (L992): 53-59'
Curses
Audollent, Auguste. Defxionum Tabellae.Paris: A. Fontemoing' 1904'
Gager, John c., ed. curse Tabletsand Binding speltsfrom the Ancient woild. oxford:
oxford university Press,1992. (cf. B. c. Dietrich, cR a3 119931:313-14;sEG
42.1817.)
Grai Fritz. Magic in the Ancient World. Trans. F. Philip. Revealing Antiquity 10.
Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1997'Pp' I l8-74'
"Las
|imeno, A. Lpez. cartasde maldici6n." Minerva 4 (1990): I3l-43'
'A
Survey of Greek Defixiones Not Included in the Special Corpora."
Iordan, D. R.
GRBS26 (1985): l5l-97. (checklist ofGreek defxionesnot in Audollent.)
"Beyond cursing: The Appeal to Justice in Iudicial Prayers." ln Magika
versnel, H. s.
Hiera: Ancient Greek Magic and Religion, ed. Christopher A. Faraone and Dirk
obbink, 60-106. New York oxford university Press,1991. (cf. sEG 38.2010.)
"In
Versnel, H. S. het grensgebiedvan magie en religie: Het gebed on recht." Lampas
19 (1986): 68-96. (Cf. SEG36-1577.)
Gems
"studien ber die Gemmen mit Knstlerinschriften." /dI 3 (1888):
Furtwngler, A.
10s-39.
"studien
Furtwngler, A. ber die Gemmen mit Knstlerinschriften (Schluss)." /dI 4
(1889):46-s7. (Cf. SEG42.933.)
Henig, Martin. classical Gems: Ancient and Modern Intaglios and cameos in the
Fitzwilliam Museum, cambridge. cambridge: cambridge university Press' 1994.
Sliwa, Joachim. Egltptian Scarabsand Magical Gemsfrom the Collection of Constantine
Schmidt-Ciaiynskl. Warsaw: Panstowowe Wyd. Nauk, 1989. (Cf. SEG 40.1659.)
Zwierlein-Diehl,E. Die antiken GemmendeskunsthistorischenMuseumsin Wien'YoL 3'
Munich: Prestel,1991.(Cf. SEG41.1767.)
Lamps
Bailey, Donald M. A Catalogueof Lamps in the British Museum.4 vols. London: British
Museum Publications, 1975-96. (Cf. SEG 38.1978')
Bovon, A. Lampesd'Argos'Etudesp6loponn6siennes 5' Paris:J' Vrin' 1966'
Broneer, O. Terracotta Lamps. Corinth IV/2. Cambridge: Harvard University Press'
1930.
"Lampescorinthiennes." Parts I and2. BCH95 (1971):437-501;
Bruneau,Philippe.
l0l (1977):249-95.
1'heClassilicationof Greeklnscriptions | 213
Deonna, Waldemar. Leslampesantiquestrouves Dlos.Paris' 1908.
Hellmann, Marie-Christine. Lampesantiquesde ln BibliothqueNationale.2 vols. Paris:
La BibliothqueNationale, 1985-87. (Cf. SEG37.1526.)
Howland, Richard H. GreekLamps and Their Suryivals.American School of Classical
Studies at Athens; Athenian Agora 4. Princeton: Princeton University Press' 1958.
Hbinger, IJ. Die antiken Lampen des AkademischenKunstmuseumsder Universitt
Bonn. Berlin: DeutschesArchologischesInstitut, 1993. (Cf. SEG 43'1234')
Oziol, Thrse. Les lampes du Muse de Chypre. Salamine de Chypre 7. Paris: E' de
Boccard, 1977.
Perlzweig, l. Lamps of the Roman Period. American School of Classical Studies at
Athens; Athenian AgoraT. Princeton:Princeton University Press,1961.
Vases
"Le
iscrizioni corinzie su vasi." Memorie Lincei 365 (1968): 57-142-
Arena, Renato.
"Progress
Cromey, R. in the ProsopographiaVasorumAtticorum." AIA 9l (1987): 30a.
"Per
Gulletta, M. L un lessico dei vasi: Storia degli studi e dei contributi dal 1829 al
1937."ASNR 3d ser., 18, no. 4 (1988): 1427-39. (Cf. SEG38.2027;vasenames.)
Gulletta, M. I., and P. Radici Colace. Lexicon lasorum graecorumL Vol. 1, Apxtov-
'Arorov.
Pisa: Scuola normale superiore, 1992. (Cf. SEG42.1854;M. Sve,BE
ll993l:lal.)
Johnston, A. W . Trademarkson Greek Vases.Warminster: Aris and Philips' 1979.
"A
Immerwahr, Henry R. Projected Corpus of Attic Vase Inscriptions." ln CongrEpigr
v,53-60.
Klein, W. Die griechischenVasenmit Meistersignaturen.2ded. Leipzig: Veit and Comp'
1898.
Kretschmer, P. GriechischenVaseninschriftenihrer Sprachenach Unstersuchr.Gtersloh:
c. Bertelsmann,1894.Reprint, Chicago:Ares, 1980.
Lorber, Fritz. Inschriften auf korinthischen Vasen.Deutsches Archologisches Institut
ArchologischeForschungen6. Berlin: Mann, 1979.(Cf' SEG 29.331,30.347')
"Nuove
Manni Piraino, Maria Teresa. iscrizioni dall' acropoli di Gela" in Miscellanea
di studi classiciin onore di Eugenio Manni, 5:1765-832. Rome: G. Bretschneider'
1980.(cf. sEG 29.833-920.)
"La
Rapin, C. tr6soreriehellnistiqued'Ai Khanoum." RA (1987): 4l-70. (Cf. SEG
37.1404;inscribedstoragevasesfrom Bactria.)
"Attic
Rotroff, S. L West SlopeVase Painting." Hesperia60 (1991): 59-102. (Cf. SEG
41.240.)
Graffiti
Baillet, J. Inscriptionsgrecqueset latines destombeauxdesrois ou syringes.2vols. MIFAO
42. Cairo Institut frangais d'arch6ologie orientale dt Caire, 1926.
"Graffito II (griechisch)."RAC 12 (1983): 667-89.
Bernard,A.
Devauchelle, D., with Guy Wagner. Les grffites du Gebel Teir: Textesdmotiqueset
214 | An Introduction to Greakl)pigraphy

grecs.Cairo: Institut frangais d'arch6ologieorientale du Caire, l9tt4. (Cf. SEG

34.1562.)
"Kleinasiatische 'Alt-Smyrna."'
Gusmani, R. Graffiti aus Kadmos 14 (1975): 149*53.
"Zwei
Gusmani, R. graffrti aus Sardis und Umgebung." Kadmos 2l (1982): 125-29.
Masson, Olivier.
"Remarques
sur les graffiti caiensd'Abou Simbel." ln Hommages la Decrees
mmoirede SergeSauneron,1927-1976,2:35-59.BdE 81-82. Cairo: Institut fran-
gaised'arch6ologieorientale du Caire, 1979.
"Etude
Perrat, C. pal6ographique." ln TablettesAlbertini: Actesprits de l'epoquevan-
dale, ed.Christian Courtois, l:15-62. Paris:Arts et m6tiersgraphiques,1952.
Solin, Heikki. L'interpretazione delle istizioni parietali: Note e discussioni'Epigrafia e
antichit 2.Faenza,Italy: Fratelli, 1970.
Tolstoi, l. l. GrecheskieGrffiti drewikh gorodov SetternogoPrichernomoreya.Graffiti
Gosudarstvennogo Ermitazha. Moscow: Akademii nauk SSSR, 1953. (Cf. SEG
28.629.)
Tolstoi, Nikolai N. Greek Grffiti. Chicago: Ares, 1987.

Artists' Signatures The minutes (&vcyqaQt) of the of6cial proceedingsof the council and the
"Les assembly, including the passageof decrees, were recorded on papyrus or
Bruneau, Ph. mosaistesantiques avaient-ils des cahiers de modles?"RA (198a):
241-72. (Cf. SEG 34.1746;signatures of painters and mosaic workers in III a.o.) wooden tabletsand depositedin the city archives(seeS 0.07).The contentsof
"Observations some of these minutes were publicized by engraving them on stelae and
Donnay, G. sur quelques d6dicaces de I'acropole avec signatures de
sculptures." In CongrEpigrY, 6l -62. erectingthem in public places.
Etienne, Robert, G. Fabre,P. Lvque,and M. L6vque.Epigraphieet sculpture.Fouilles It was not unusual to have severalcopies of the same document engraved
de Conimbriga 2. Paris, 1976.Pp. 13-232.
"Rhodian and erectedin different locations.rIndeed, many decreesspecifythe precise
Goodlett, Virginia C. SculptureWorkshops." AIA 95 (1991): 669-81. (Cf.
number of inscriptions to be made and their placesof exhibition. A decreefrom
sEG4r.64r.)
"Les Stratonikeia stipulatesthat it should be engravedon the wall of the pronaos of
Hellmann, Marie-Christine. signatures d'architectes en langue grecque: Essaide
mise au point;' ZPE 104 (1994): 151-78. the Sarapieionand on a stele for the exedra of the bouleuterion (council
Hitzl, Konrad. Die kaiserzeitlicheStatuenausstattungdesMetroon. Olympische Forsch- chamber) and, finally, that an excerptbe engravedin the temple of Hekate (CIG
ungen 19. Berlin: W. de Grulter, 1991.Pp. 40, 44, 83-85. (Artists' signatureson 2715). Sanctuariesand the walls and antaeof templeswere popular locations
imperial portraits in the Metroon.)
becausethis was seenas a way of placing the decisionsunder the protection of
Loewy, Emanuel. Inschriften griechischerBildauer. Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1885. Re-
print, Chicago:Ares, 1976.(-- IBildauer.) the gods.2The Athenian acropolis was coveredwith such stelae,its surfacestill
Marcad6, Jean,ed. Recueilde signaturesdessculpteursgrecs.2 vols. Paris: E. de Boccard, preserving traces of some of the recessedfittings that held them in place.
1953-57. (: ISculPt.) Important treaties between states were set up not only in the relevant
"ProsopographikaRhodiaka." BSA 8l (1986): 233-50. (Cf. SEG 36.1590;
Rice, E. E. cities but also in the foremost sanctuaries,such as Olympia, Delphi, Isthmia,
Rhodian sculptors.)
and Nemea. Other public buildings and spaceswere also used, such as the
Siedentopf, Heinrich B. Das hellenistischeReiterdenkmal.Waldsassen:Siftland, 1968.
theater, odeum, prytaneion (town hall), bouleuterion, and agora. For ex-
Viviers, Didiers. Recherches sur les ateliers de sculpteurset la cit d'Athnes d l'poque
archaique: Endoios, Philergos, Aristokls.Mmoires de la classe des beaux-arts' ample, the wall of the portico of the agora in Magnesia on the Maeander was
Brussels:AcadmieRoyalede Belgique,1992.
LL For a document on the acropolis and in Myrina seeCIG 2155; for one in three locations,
clc 118.
2. 8.g., for Delphi see CIG 2339,2331,2332; for Megara, CIG 1052; for Olympia, IOlympia,
p. lff.; for Priene, CIG 2905; for Ephesos,IBM III, 447; for walls and antae, CIG 2350,2353, 2357,
2 6 7 t , 2 7 1 5 , 3 0 4 83,0 6 3 .

2t5
216 to GreekEpigraphy
An Intro,luct;on Decrees | 217
|
the council and sometimesthe principal magisterialboard of the state.TIn
coveredwith decreesfrom Greekcitiesfrom around the world acknowledging
Athens, no decree could be enacted by the assemblywithout first being
the feast of Artemis Leukophryene.3
brought before the council for consideration. Though this arrangement lim-
Severalcategoriesof decreesappear for the first time in the Hellenistic
ited the sovereignty of the assemblyin theory, in actual practice, the assembly
period, such as asylia decrees,decreeshonoring foreign judges, treaties (see5
could request that the council deliberate on particular issues.s
8.12), and consolation decrees(see$ 9.02). Asylia decreeswere used to de-
"inviolable" (oul,oE). Various cities took this Only councillors (Boul.eurc,i),principal magistrates,and boardsof magis-
clare a temple or city to be
"raids will" (oftrcrl) trates had the right to bring forward proposals for discussion in the council.
action to make themselvesimmune from war and from at
them to hold athletic gamesduring times of military Private citizens, envoys, messengers,and magistrates not otherwise empow-
and sometimes to permit
were a means of declaring political ered could not addressthe council by right; those who wished to do so were
conflict. In other words, asylia decrees
in the Hellenistic required to make a formal application for the right of approach to the council
neutrality in wartime. Theseinscriptions were very common
(ruqoooEngg rilv Bou),lv).
period from 260 B.c. to .D. 22-23, endingwhen the Roman Peacemade such
Before a formal motion could be put, a sequence of events had to be
exemptions unnecessary.4
followed. First, someone had to introduce the proposal for general discus-
Widespread in the Hellenistic period are decreeshonoring delegations of
sion, following which, another person moved that the proposal be put to a
foreign judges to a city and describing the hospitality they were to receive
vote. If the vote carried, the proposal was put to a vote (ruLrpqQi[er,v) as a
during their stay.sHellenistic cities, especiallythose on islands' would often
"sent-for judges" (lxaotcri formal motion. In the Hellenisticperiod, only a councillor, principal magis-
requestanothercity to dispatch U,srftpxtrot)or
(fevr,xv lxc,orilglov), usually numbering three to five trate, or board of magistrates could move the formal motion, regardlessof
a foreign tribunal
judges,depending on the case.These judges would attemPt to settlethe dispute who made the original proposal.eThus, the formal mover of the motion was
often not the person who originally introduced the proposal before the
out of court and, failing conciliation (ol,l,uorg),would passa judgment'
council.
8.01 The Passageof Decrees As time passed,there was an increasing tendency for motions to be moved
by boards of magistratesrather than by councillors. For example,in perga-
A decree(UitQlopcr)was a legal enactmentof the state.6In the systemof state mon, the strategoiinvariably moved the motions, except in the very earliest of
government, most decreeswere enactedby the assembly,in coordination with decrees.A. H. M. lones remarksthat "in somecitiesthis practiceis so uniform
that it has been conjecturedthat only thesebodieshad the right ofproposing
3. IMagnMai, p. rccx.
4. For bibliography on the subject ofthe language and legal forrns in asylia decreesseeK. J'
mtions."'. Thus, the role of councillorssometimesbecamelimited to that of
Rigsby,Asylia Territorial lnviolability in the Hellenistic World (Berkeley: University of California introducing discussionof a motion (eiorlynrtE) and proposing that a motion
, 9 9 6 ) ,1 J - 1 4 , J 0 - 3 9 .
P r e s s1 be put to a vote (mrlrqQlorfE).
"Les
5. See Ph. Gauthier, rois hell6nistiques et les juges etrangers: propos de decrets de
"Les juges
Kimlos et de Laodic6e de Lykos," JSav(1994):165-95; L. Robert, etrangers dans Ia
7. On the role ofthese bodies seeS 13.02,13.04,13.08.In IV Athens, only that which had
cit6 grecque," tn Xenion: Festschriftfr Pan. l. Zepos, ed. E. von caemmeret (Athens: ch.
"Iasos been enacted by thesebodies, as opposed to a special legislative commission, was termed a decree
Katsilaus, 1973),vol. 2;765-82; CharlesCrowther, in the SecondCentury s.c.," Part 3,
"Foreign of (seeP. f. Rhodes,TheAthenianBoule lOxford: Clarendon, t972),49).
Ju<lgesfrom Priene," Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies of the University
8. SeeRhodes,Athenian Boule,52-53.
London40 (1995\:91-137l' L. Robert, Hellenica,VII' 171-88.
9. In Boiotia and neighboring cities, the introducer of a proposal also formally put the
6. See L. L. Sorge in Symposion 1974: Vortlge zur griechischen und hellenistischen
motion, as in ArlpfrqrcE Mvoot).l,ou e?nev nqoBeBoul,eupvoveivor cdrdlr nqg ri[v
Rechtsgeschichte (cologne: Bohlaw, l97g), 307-26. Mason (Greek Terms, 100, 126-31) discusses Bou],i]
(oyp"a xcf rv flpov (Michel 206; cf. 170-71, 204, 2t4-215, 222, 346). An example from Syros is
Greek terms used as technical terms for Roman legal legislation: e.g., seflatusconsultum
(tyqSwltcl), restiptum (&wtypcrQ{ or the less olev rrll Botr),flrnoi 16r 1ptr*, @expr,roE@eongiror, NolitqE Qoov &nolprcqpevog ni
ou^yxtrftou), decretum decurionum/plebiscitum
rr1p Boul"fv einev' neri1. . . [resolvedby the council and people, Theocritos, son ofrheocrrtos
precise&Jr}tprpc,dnrorol,rl), mandatum (vro),I or the less precisenporaypra. nporcrlr,E),
of Naksites, having made a wdtten application to the council, moved: whereas. . . ] (IG XII/5,
)dictum (1raraypo or the less precise etrtoyqQ1po, r,clqoppc, rcypcQ{, 1pcr, tgepo,
652; cf.653).
nirc1pc, nopcyyel.po, ngolpcQf, nplqoppa), decretum (rlrprpo or the less precise
10. A. H. M. Jones, The Greek Ciy from Alexander to lustinian (Oxford: Clarendon, 1940),
r,arcfrg, xpiltct), constitutio (r,ta[lg or the less precise oinovoplpo' notoolE' tfiQoE)'
168. The notable exceptions to this rule are the free cities ofAthens and Delphi.
sententia(aQcrorgor the less precise Botrqpto,xpipo).
2L8 to GreekEpigraphy
An lntroduction DecreesI zts
|
enactmentformula, citation formula, and instructionsfor engravingand pub-
Onceaformalmotionhadbeenpassedbythecouncil'itbecamea
Iic exhibition.
preliminaryresolution(ruqopo}'eupa)llandwasformallyenteredonthe
ug.rrdu(nqygcrptpcr/nqoyqaQi) of the next regular meetingof the assembly'
without the 8.03 Invocation: @EOI
In most cases,the council did not have the power to enact decrees
ratificationof the assembly(see5 8.07)'
Though the practice is by no means universal, many decreesbegin with the
InAthens,eachassemblymeetingbeganwithsacrificeandprayer'follow-
B'c'' thereafter word Oeoi (or 0eg) as a heading, often inscribed in well-spacedletters,
ing which the presiding officers (prytaneis before 378177
the prelimi- sometimes on the stele's molding.ra This cryptic dedicatory formula may
pedroi)would tring forward the published agenda'which listed
read out by the indicate that the prescribed religious observancesand prayers preceded the
nary resolutions (fiQopou),epcrrc)of the council. Thesewere
(ngolelgotoviu') was taken to decide whether decision.rsHowever, the later formula &yo0flu r1r11(for good fortune) may
herald (xtSuE), and a vote
provide a clue to its meaning,suggestingthe translation "(May the) gods (be
eachpreliminaryresolutionshouldbeputtoavoteimmediatelyordiscussed
with us)!" Whatever the truth of the matter, it is of no significance with
further and perhaPsamended.l2
both the regard to the interpretation ofthe decreeitself.
Only after a preliminary resolution had received the approval of
the council did it become a decree
people (through the assembly) and
is communicated in the enactment 8.04 The Dating of the Decree
i$tr,oUtcr). This two-tiered act of passage
formula ole tf xoi rQ f1ptp (resolved by the council and the
Boul"11
was The date of a decree was customarily specified by citing the name of the
people [i.e., the assembly]).The secretary(ygappcrteg)of the assembly
which included the details of the eponymous magistrate in the usual formula ni to0 eivog followed by the
iesponsible for recording the minutes,
instructions concerning the designationof offrce (in the genitivecase)(seeS 6.01).In Athens,the name of
purrug. of the decree, its final wording, and
were used as the prytanizing tribe, the ordinal sequenceofthe prytany,16and the day ofthe
a.porit of these minutes in the public archives. These minutes
month (in the genitivecase)might also be specified(seeS 6.01,6.03).
exemplarsfor the engraver(seeS 0.07)'
In many decrees,the names of other officers were cited, including the
secretaryof the council (yqappcreS ttg Bou),flE),l7 also known as the secre-
8.02 The Structure of Decrees tary of the prytany ( yqopprcreE xara ngutcrveicv). The name of the
secretarygave official sanction to public documents and became a means of
formu-
Most decreesshare a similar, though variable, structure and standard identifring and dating decrees,in the same way as we might assign a docu-
the following
lae.r3 This structure normally exhibits some combination of ment an identification number for easyreference(see5 6.01).OutsideAthens,
formula, name of formal mover' preamble'
sevenfeatures:invocation' dating decreeswere dated with the names of other eponymous magistrates.

assembly (closed probouleuma) 14. For examples of the singular see SIG3 817; Michel 265,267, 444. For examples of the
11. A nqopoutreupc is either a definite motion of council to
in assembly' plural see IGII2 337 (L.l),646 (L.1), 1327 (L.t); Michel, 269-70; Benjamin D. Meritt, "Greek
or an introduction of a matter for debate
is Heinrich Swoboda' Die Inscriptions,"HesperiaT (1938):77-160, esp. 100,no. l8 (284183n.c.).
12. The standard work on procedures for passing decrees
(Hildesheim: H' A' Gerstenberg, 1890); 15. The formula was originally an imprecatory and apotropaic formula: seeR. L. Pounder, in
griechischenvolLabeschli:sse: Eplgraphisrne(Jntersuchungen
(1905) 2163-200' StudiesPresentedto Sterling Dow on His Eightieth Birthday, ed. Alan L. Boegehold et al. GRBM l0
cf. C. G. Brandis,'Etztrloicr, RE 5
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University, t984), 243-50. Cf. A. c. Woodhead, The Study of Greek
13.SeeAIanS.Henry,'fhePrescrip*ofAthenianDecrees'MnemosyneBibliothecaClassica
Boule,64-68; Albert Billheimer' Inscriptions,2d ed. (New York Cambridge University Press,l98l), 39; Sterling Dow, "New Kinds
Batava(Lugduni Batavorum:E.l.will,:Ig77)iRhodes, Athenian
..Amendments in Athenian Decrees,"AJA 42 (1938):456-85; wilhelm Lafield, Giechche Epi- of Evidence for Dating Polyeuktos," /A 40 ( 1936): 57-70, esp. 63.
Salomon Reinach' Trait 16. E.g., 3ni tflg AileioE nqqE nqurcveiog [during the prytany of the tribe of Aigeis, the
graphik,3d ed', HbA 1'5 (Munich: C' H' Beck' 1914)' S 206-47;
336-58; Guarducci' EG' 2'5-57; Adolf Wilhelm' first prytany ofthe yearl (IG II, 337,L.3); cf. irti rflE Oiv1ioE ppngnpurcrvelcrEgGIIr 646).
i'iplgraphU grecque (Pais: E. Leroux, 1885),
"Xifl l il, ;3 u;d rG II2 6," in Attkche IJrkunden, V, Vol. 5 SBWien 200'5 (Vienna and Leipzig: 17. E.g., fir. @eg,oE @eotou Alogv6uE dyqcppcreuev {in which Theophilos, son of
Theodotos, from Archarnai, was secretaryl (Meritt, "Greek Inscriptions," Hesperia 7 [1938]: 77-
Hlder-Pichler-Tempsky,|942),3_86;JohannesKirchner,..SermoPublicusDecretorum
1 6 0 ,e s p .1 0 0 ) .
Proprius," in IG IIl4, 36-67.
 I)ecrees I zzl
220 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy
the details concerning the passageof the motion. In honorific decrees,the
8.05 Formal Mover of the Motion
statement of motives is frequently formulaic and exceedinglyverbose (see $
in conjunction 9.01). A full motivation clause falls into two halves: the first begins with
The name of the mover of the formal motion is often specified
and sometimes l,efer8(e.g., neq (whereas/inasmuchas) or xrt(since);26 the secondbeginswith the
with a verb of proposing, usually etnev/e?nov
son of Eumaridos' of hortatory formula n<rlgv (ov) (in order that [therefore]), sometimes
Extf porvEriptcglouXtergng e?nev' ' ' [Euktemon'
next, grammatically forming part of the formal citation. An example follows:
the deme of Steireusmoved . . . ]).te The decree,cited
dependson this verb ofProPosing'
had power equal Extfipov Epogi.ou)rpeLgrcgeinev' neril'Egpaiog'Eqpoyvou
Magisterialboards (..g.' oi ngpouhot, oi orga'tqyoi)
A motion by the former is flar,oviqg, ro,irio,EysvpevoEnl,eiol tr1. ..
to or greater than councillors to move motions'
usually termed a yvtirpr1.2oFor example, the phrase Yvpq nqutveolv indi-
of prytaneis in the nors y Qapr"l,)"ovu? (: fi) zai. roiE ).olnoiE roCg BouLopr6vor.g
cates ihat the original motion was moved by the board
council (see$ 13.07).2rIn Eretria, some motions are
put by the prytaneisand Qrl,orr,peio0aleitcrEtr lcrglrcrg &fiog xopr,ovtcrtiv v
by magisterial euegletqotrlow rv xolvv t6v qyetrlvov. . '
strategoi together.22Other examples of such motions Passed
trQoororv (Kalym-
bou. i.,.tuae Yvpn nQoQov (Lindos), Yvpn
nos),23yv6pq xrQurveov/xrQlrqvi,orv(in many cities of
Asia)'24and yvtirprl [Euktemos, son of Eumaridos, of the Steirian deme, moved: whereas
Hermaios, son of Hermogenes,of the Paionidaiandeme, having been
orQCtrqYov.2s
(of magistrates)' treasurer for many years . . .
Under the Principate, the fullest formulae is yvdpq
dntqlnsroopvouto0
eiorlyqocprvourot eivoE (introducedby so-and-so)'
However' parts of in order that there might also be a rivalry among the rest who aspire to
eivog (secondedby so-and-so) (e'g', IGXIIIT'239-40)'
thisformulaareoftenomitted.Inthecaseofprobouleumaticdecrees(seeS honor, knowing that they will receivethanks befitting the benefits they
8.07), a motion might be passeddown from the council
to the assembly' confer on the associationof the members.'. ] (IG IP 1327,LL.3-5,
are sometimes
where a new motion was substitutedin its place;such motions 20-23)
L' I I ) '
designatedYvttlpn{pou (e.g',LSAM 32, L' L0; 33A'
Private citizens and certain magistrateswere required to apply for permis-
8.06 Preamble sion to introduce a proposal to the council. In the final text of the resulting
decree, the individual and the nature of his application to the ^council are
"in
often recorded employing such formulae as regard to (neqi v) so-and-
Thepreamble,ormotivationclause,usuallyincludesanexPlanationofthe
for the stated motion and so's written application to the council (nqoeyqoporo eiE rlv Boul'fv)" or
backiround to the decree,setting forth the reasons
"whereas( (ncqcyevpevoi/nel,OovrE) the
nerf ) so-and-soapproached
18. E.g.,Michel 170-71. council/council chamber (Boul.fiv/Boul"eutfg1ov)and discussedin the coun-
1 3 2 8 A 'L L ' 3 - 4 ; 1 3 2 8 8 , L ' 2 ' C f ' a l s o
tg. IGIt2lj\7,L.2. Cf. IGII2 337,LL.6-7;646,L. 8; poul'1) . . . " The sameformulae can be used for
cil (&y1l,ouor./r.el"104oav
rsAM33A,L.1l.
4.146; 6Ypc Borlflg [IGRR III' the motions of magisterialboards.27
20. Sometimes termed a 1pc (cf. Horsley in NewDocs
10561 ) or rp0eotg ( A e o l i cc i t i e s ) ' Other frequently occurring verbs are iooYYtrletv (to announce)'
See Georg von Busolt' Griechche
21. Or in certaln cases' directly to the assembly'
3d ed.,2 vols. HbA 4.1 iMunich: C. H. Beck, 1963-72), l:312 n' 2' Cf'' in Iasos'
Staatskunde, 26.E.g, inu (since), negi. tirv (in regard to what), nq drv (in regard to what); for a
:rpurcvetuvyvpq (Michel 464, 468-70)' discussion of the variety of peculiarities of preambles see H. Swoboda, Die griechischen
22. lG xlllg, 205-6,208-9' 212, 2r7 ' Volksbeschlsse, 222ff.
23. E.g., IBM 11,232-33,235-36, 238, 249-50' 279-80' (Mi- 27.E.g., ng ctv oi gloweE nqoe"Tqgovro... (Paros; SIG3562,LL 2-3); negi tiv oi
24. SeeBusolt, GiechischeStaats;lcunde, l:312n.2. The Asian cities include Astlpalaia rdrv
Samos' orprcrlor nporioeror (Mitylene; IG XII12,15, L. 13); eioc"lyettrcpv<rrvleio4yloopvtov
Iasos'and
chel 414), Bargylia,Kalynda,Erythrai, Halikarnassos' orgcrqlv (Ephesos;IG XII13, 171).
25. E.g.,ole rr i1po'rr'yvpr1 otpcrtqyGtv(lPriene 14)'

222 | An lntroductiottro GreekEpigraphy
eioqyeio0t (to introduce), nqolqQeooct (to make written application),
The preamblemay alsosPecirythe particular
and ngotl0er.vor(to propose).2s
meeting at which the preliminary resolution came before the assembly. In
Athens, many decreeswere passedat the xugi,a xx|loicr, which seemsto
refer to a regularly scheduled meeting in a prytany (e.g., /G ll2 1292' 1327,
1328B).
8.07 Enactment Formulae
The enactment formula comes at the very beginning of many decrees,while it
follows the dating formula in others. There are several types of enactment
formulae, suggestingthe use ofdifferent procedures.A decreethat recordsits
ratification by both the council and assemblyis called a probouleumaticdecree.
This information is succinctly contained in the common formula o[ev
r11Bou),1 xoi tCpqptq." This formula specifiesthat a proposal, having been
introduced, formally moved, and then carried by the council, became a pre-
liminary resolution that was then passed on to the assembly (literally, 6
tpog), where it was ratified'
The assembly sometimes commissioned the council for a preliminary
resolution on a given matter. When the council Produced the requested
resolution, it would not mention the assembly(oEevrf Boul"l)' since it
would be nonsensicalto propose a preliminary resolution to the assemblythat
had originally recommended it in the first place.3o
Strictly speaking, the council had the power to pass honorific decrees
unilaterally, but in actual practice, they used this power only to honor such
men as the council's own functionaries. The council could also unilaterally
passdecreespertaining to matters delegatedto it by the assembly,such as the
discipline of magistratesand the regulation of taxes.3lThese decreessimilarly
record only the ratification ofthe council (oEevrfr poul11)'
Many decreesrecord only the ratification by the assembly,with the formula
28. SeeJones,Greek City, 164,336 n' 19.
29. The sameformula is standard in Athens for all decreesfrom the mid-V s 'c. to late V s 'c ';
this suggeststhat the more selective use of this formula in IV s'c. is a sign of decrees
the dating implications
proboJlumatic in a special sense. For
.laus", the name of the spokesman,and the motion formula in Athenian stoichedon inscriPtions
seeWilliam B. Dinsmoor, The Athenian Archon List in the Light of RecentDiscoveries
Columbia University Press,1939)' 14-17.
30. SeeRhodes,Athenian Boule, 67-68.
3 l . S e e l o n e s ,G r e e k c i t y , 1 7 7 . E . g . , o l e r v ' I e q c r n o t r e [ t i r v B o u ] , 1 1
L. 3).
I)ecrees | 223
ofev r,? npq . . . (it was resolvedby the people that ' . ' ).32This so-called
nonprobouleumaticdecreerepresentsa different Procedure.For example,af-
ter a discussionof the council'spreliminary resolution,the assemblymay reject
the original motion and-rather than amending the original motion-
substitute a new motion. Such new motions do not contain any indication of
the motion's previous history as considered by the council and are therefore
nonprobouleumatic.33
In the Roman period, many cities adopted the practice of ratifring all
proposals by the principal board of state magistratesbefore passing it on to
the council and assembly.3a In such cases,the title of the magistratesapPears
in the enactment formulae, usually in combination with the assembly (e.g.,
ofe ro0g x6opor.Exoi rfp qpq . . . [it was resolvedby the kosmoland the
people...]).3s Though the council usuallygoesunmentionedin such cases'
passageby the council is implied. The exceptionsto this rule are found in the
Metropoleis of Egypt where-there being no council-magistrates alone ful-
filled this function.36
8.08 Citation of Formal Motion
Coming after the preamble and enactment formulae is the exactwording of the
preliminary resolution voted on by the council and assembly.In actualpractice,
many decreesomit either the enactment formula or the citation of the motion
formula (e.g., IGII2 1327has no enactment formula). The formal motion often
begins with a wish that all would go well for the body that passedthe decree
once it is passed(&ycr00dxn), followed by e610ct/rpfiQr,o0crr. [be it re-
(e.g., e[vcr).
solvedthatl and an infinitive construction ncrlvoot rv
If the decreehas a probouleumaticenactmentformula, the motion will be
likewise probouleumatic, mentioning the council and assembly: (&yo0fr
32. Cf. yvo dpog in Michel 357, L.l.
33. The structure of decrees of many voluntary associations and professional guilds (e.g.,
$icroor, qcvol, notvol) are modeled on the nonprobouleumatic decree,namely, ofev * name
'I<ovi,cgxoi
of association: e.g., olev rdl xotvdrr rv negi rv Ar,vuoov relvltv rdrv d
.E)"i"qonvrou, xai tv neqi rv zc0qyep6vc rvuoov
[it was resolved by the Ionian-
being Hellespont guild of Dionysiac artists dedicated to Dionysos Kathegemonl (Michel 1015, L. 5);
"The
of various forms of the o[ev o[ev toCg qyeotv (IG II' 13288); decreesof an eranos (SEG 3 1.122). Cf. B. H' Mclean,
Agrippinilla Inscription: Religious Associations and Early Church Formation," in Oigins and
(New York: Method-Towards a New Understandingof ludaism and Christianity: Essaysin Honour of lohn C.
Hur4 ISNT Suppl 86 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993)' 239-70.
34.8.g., the citiesof Boiotia (by II r.c.), Amorgos (Minoa), and Aigiale (seee.g.,SEG2'184).
(Hierapolis;oGI527, 35' see Michel 52-53' 55-60' 62-66' 440-42' 447-48 (crete); cf' TAM rr' 262'
36. Seelones, GreekCity, 178,340 n. 43.
224 | An lrtru,luctiotrto GreekEpigruphy Decrees I zzs

([For good for- official (e.g.,veurnorog/qE)or body responsiblefor paying (o0vqr) the in-
rXn.) e10cr/{rf$r.ogor.t11 poui'11xai t<irt qpq " '
. .
tune.l Be it resolvedby the council and assembly. ). Similarly, if the decree curred expense(&vci'ropcr)is named (seeS 0.10).3eExamplesfollow:
will
has a nonprobouleumatic enactment formula, the original formal motion
also be nonprobouleumatic. r &va)"orpar eig rllv or{1},Iy xai rilv voygcrQilv ro0r ro0
rlrqQiopotog nrlgerqorot dx rdrv ieqtny lqqparorv vecrlnolqg
8.09 Amendments flapp6vqg

resolu-
Members of the assemblyhad the right to speakagainst a preliminary [the cost ofthe steleand the engravingofthis decreeshallbe paid for out of
is indicated by a
tion and to propose amendments. In Attica, an amendment the sacred monies by the neopoiosPammenes] (IPriene 17, LL. 48-49)
secondverb of saying(i.e., elvc einev) followed by ra pv l.trcrxa0crueg
r11pou),1 or ?4creqrrsQ ecvcrand a construction containing an infinitive
The eiE tlv vcrlqoQ4v tr1g ortl.qE o0vcu.tv rui rei lor,xfoel r
verb that specifiesthe additions or amendments (see,e'g', SIG3 1109)'
Attica ftom275 vl.orpa
practiceof recordingthe full amendmentwas discontinued in
to
B.c. Amendments outside Attica are less common, the city preferring
modiff the motion itself without any notation' [the cost of inscribing of the stele is to be paid by the department of
financel (IG II' 646, LL. 55-57)

8.10 Directions concerning Engraving

8.1I Abbreviated Decrees
and the
Next follow instructions that concern the deposition of the minutes
charged with
engraving and erection of the decree and that name the official Few decreesexhibit all features of this formal structure. In so-called abbrevi-
payrng for and discharging these responsibilities. Typically, this was the duty ated decrees,there is no dating formula, preamble, or mention of formal
of the respectivesecretariesof the council and the assemblyor of a specially movers. All that is recorded is the legislative body that passedthe decree and
the
appointedcommissioner(see$ 0.07). They were usually directed to have the decision itself.ao
d..... trunr.ribed (vcllpo,t|or) onto a stone stele (ei5 otfl"qv fu'Oi'vqv)37
(otfloat Bv 16l
and to set it up in a designatedplace' such as a sanctuary 8.12 Treaties
(seeIG
ieqr,).38 A stelemight alsobe set up v &xqon6l,et (in the acropolis)
toig eivoE (beside each of the
II2 646,LL.52-57) or nag rcriE eixor,
The banal word There are more treaties (onovu,i, qxol, ouv0qxor) from the Hellenistic
paintings/bustsof so-and-so)(see,e.g.,Michel 1015,L' 36)'
and period than from any other period, before or after the death ofAlexander the
otrll,q is sometimes replaced by other terms: in towns of the Propontis
l.i,oou a stele of white Great. Isopolity (ioorolrreia) treatiesgranted reciprocity of civil rights be-
Pontus Euxinus, decreesread eig tel.crpvcr l,euxo0 [on
the tween two states.4rSimilarly, sympolity (oupnotrwela) treaties granted the
stone]; in Thessaly,eiE xlovo f,r.Oivr1v[on a stone column]' Finally'
thick' slightly "Provisions
37. A ori1tr1 is a slab of stone usually 1-2 meters high and l0-14 centimeters 39. SeeAIan S. Henry for the Payment ofAthenian Decrees:A Study in Formu-
"plaque" (ni.vaE); cf. vc^ygcrQilvcrL v laic Language,"ZPE78 (1989):247-95 (SEG 39.308).
tapered to the top; there is sometimes reference to a
(s/G3 694). G. Reger ("Some 40. Consider the following example from Knidos, which lays down some regulations concern-
rcrcEorttra6 rlorxE r wiygcQov ro0e ro0 rfrlgiopotoE "Resolved
Democracy,"Klio72 [199O]:
Remarkson'IG XII]L,26Zcompl6t6'and the Restorationof Thasian ing the sanctuary of Dionysos: by the people of Knidos. Motion of the college of
in decreesfiom Thasos
3g6-40l,esp. 400 nn. 25-26) comments on the customary formulae used magistrates concerning those whom the Bacchants took legal action against, in order that the
and other islands. temple of Dionysos Bacchus may be kept pure. It is not lar d.rl for anyone to lodge in the temple
"6tudes
Louis Robert,
3g. E.g., in Larissa, e'rEt iepv too An),lovog too Keptou. See precincts of the Bacchants, neither male nor female; and if someone does lodge . . ." (ISM 55;
(|936): |13_70, esp. 130-31. Cf. 'tG IKnidos 160).
d'epigraphiegrecque:XL' Inscriptionsd,Herak]eia,,,RPhil |o
II, 1328A, L. t7; t3288. 41. E.g., GD/ 5040; OGI 265.
 An Introductionto ()reekEpigraphy I)ecrees | 227
226 |
of states. Delimi-
interchange of civil rights between cities in a confederacy
S U P P I , I ] ME N T A R Y I i I B L I O G R A P H Y

between two
nation t..ati.s specified the agreed on tefritorial boundaries Meyer, Marion. Die griechischenUrkundenreliefs.AM 13. Berlin: Mann, 1989. (Cf. SEG
city-states.42 39.324.)
,.friendship and alliance" are also well attested.a3Their purpose
Treatiesof Mller, H. Milesische Volksbeschlsse.Gttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1976.
wastocreateamilitaryalliancebetweentwostatesagainstthemilitarythreat Osborne, Michael l. Naturalization in Athens. Verhandelingen van de Koninklijke
Rome and the Greek
of a third Party' Many examplesof such treatiesbetween Academie voor Wetenschappen, Letteren en Schone Kunsten van Belgi: Klasse
treaties were der Letteren 43, no. 98. 4 vols. Brussels:AWLSK, 1981-82. Esp. vol. l: decrees
states survive from the second and first centuries n.c. These
to request such awarding Athenian citizenship. (Cf. SEG 31.27l; 3 l. 1700.)
initiated by the Greeks'who would send an embassyto Rome Rhodes, P.J. The Decreesofthe GreekStates.Oxford: Clarendon, 1997.
future security against hostile
an alliance. These alliances helped to ensure Robert, Louis, and feanne Robert. ClarosI: Dcretshellnistiques.Yol. l. Paris: Editions
neighbors, as well as more influence at the center of power'aa Recherchessur les Civilisations,1988.
according
That the texts of these alliance treaties with Rome were written Schwenk, Cynthia l. Athens in the Age of Alexander. Chicago: Ares, 1985. (Cf. SEG
little or no actual
to a standardizedform indicates that they were precededby
35.239;dated decreesofAttica.)

negotiation'Eachtreatybeganwithadeclarationofthepermanent..friend-
Rome and the
ship and alliance" (Qlliq xai ouppcrli) that existed between
"on land and sea," adding that there shall be no war between
Greek state
allow the passageof
them. Next, there was a pledge that neither party would
assistsuch enemies with weapons'
the enemiesof the other through its land or
pledged to come to
money, ships,or (sometimes)grain' Moreover' each side
"as
the assistanceof the other aPpropriate" (xcrt t exoqov) if a third
Partyshouldinitiateawar.Anadditionalclauseprovidedfortheamendment
of.h..,"u.ywiththeagreementofbothparties.Finally,thedetailsofthe
sent to Rome
publication of the treaty were specified, with one copy being
others being set up in local places.a5
iusually for the temple of |upiter) and

no' 30'
42. Cf. the commerciai treaty: seeRoberts-Gardener 77'
43.See,e.g.,JeanPouilloux'Choixd'inscriptionsgrecques:Textes,tfaductionsetnotes(P^tjs:t
.,Les Belles Lettres," 1960), 96-107. See Stanley M' Burstein, ed', The Hellenistic Age from the
(Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University
Baxle of Ipsosto the Death of Kleopatra VI1
36' no'
pre.s, t"SS!), 29, no. 22 (illion 4r;L|i.,no' 77 (Sherk' TDGR' 30)' SeeRoberts-Gardener'
12; 37, no. 13;77 , no' 30; 82, no. 32'
The Development of the Roman
44. See Robert M. Kallet-Marx, Hegemony to Empire:
62 r.c. (Berkeley: University of California Press, |995),
lmperium in the Eastfrom 148to '|92_96.
symbolic in nature, visible signs
The allianceswere probably not merely (as some have suggested)
communities (cf. E. S. Gruen' The
of Rome,s satisfaction with the beha.\,io. of various Greek
world anit the coming of Rome, 2 voIs. [Berkeley: university of california Press' 19841'
Hellenistic
1.13-53, 2.731-44).
45.See,e.g.,Sherk,RDGE,45-46(sIG3694)'Foradetailedanalysisoftheformoftreaties
destmischen Reichs'
seeEugen Taul er,Imperium Romanum: studien zur Entswicklungsgeschichte
"L'Erma" di Bretscheider, 1964), summarized by D' W' Baronowski in
Studiistorica 2 (Rome:
,,Treatiesof Military Alliance in the Last Three centuries s.c." (Ph.D. diss. university of Toronto'
1 9 8 2 ) ,1 0 9 - 2 r .
 ProxenyDerees,Honorilicltrscriptions I
Htnrorilit'l)ecrees, ZZS

appointment, such as senator and proconsul, by means of ostentatiousdis-

plays of public generosity.3Many women are also conspicuousin the role of
patroness.4
Many kinds of inscription canbe eithertreatedassubsetsof the classof hon-
Honorific Decrees, orific inscriptions or grouped separately.Among theseare the recordsof the
victors of the athletic,dramatic, and musical contests(tituli agonistici).s
ProxenyDecrees,and
Honorific lnscriPtions 9.0f The General Structure of Honorific Decrees

There is no need here to repeat my general remarks concerning the structure

of decrees(seechap.8) exceptto summarizethe generalstructureof honorific
decreesand to outline the following unique features.6
A. Opening.The decreemay open with one or a combination of any of the
following: Invocation formula (Oeo[/Oeg), dating formula (ni, ro0 eivog),7
sanction formula (oEevtfrr Boul,fll xai, tt. qpor,), naming of mover of
motion (e.g., eiva to0 beivog tinw;.
B. Motives. The preamble begins with a conjunction, such as 6neLf1
personswho actedas
A greatbulk of inscriptionsrecord honors bestowedon (whereas/inasmuchas), dnei,(since),or neql riv (concerningwhat). Its pur-
some kind of ex-
benefactors(eueqytcrl,vgeE Qr'l'tr'pol)or performed posewas to declarethe motives that gaverise to the conferral of the particular
be divided into three
emplary service.r Such honorific inscriptions can honor in question. This may take the form of a general statement, such as
up in honor of his
g.o.rprt private inscriptions, such as a client would set nerf/re [ eiva vlg &^7c0gotlv neql tv flprov/tfivntrr,v(inasmuch
up by cities; and semiprivate inscriptions set uP
iutrot; public inscriptions set "Elite
imply a preceding honor-
ty g.orrpr. Both public and semiprivate inscriptions 3. On class mobility see K. Hopkins, Mobility in the Roman Empire," in Studies in
itself' Ancient Sociery,ed. Moses L Finley (London: Routledge; Boston: Kegan Paul, 1974), 103-2O.
ific decree,though many simply report the decision 4. On the role of wealthy women see Rogers,
"Gift
and Society," 188-99. On contributions
group within a city
Acts of g..r..ority shown toward a city or a particular by women, with or without xgroE,see SEG 43.526.Cf. supra 5 7.12, n. 67.
(Qtl'otr,pla)'2 Wealthy
exemplify the aristocratic ideal of rivalry for honor 5. See,e.g.,Robert,Hellenica,II, 5-14; VI, 43-49;YII,105-13;K-XII, 350-68. For inscrip-
tions pertaining to the musical contests in the Panathenaic games see Haritini Kotsidu, Die
membersofsocietywouldcomPetewithoneanotherinmunificence;inso musischenAgone der Panathenenin archaischerund klassischerZeit, Quellen und Forschungen
but by personal ambi-
doing, they were motivated not necessarilyby altruism zur Antiken Welt 8 (Munich: Tuduv, l99l); Deborah Schafter,
"Musical
Victories in Early
be an end in itseli but it "Moral
tion.\ot only was the acquisition of honor seento ClassicalVase Painting," AJA95 (1991):333-34; S. H. Allen, and Divine Performances:
for example, the local New Evidence at the Breakers," AIA 97 (1993): 329-30; SEG 42.458. Cf. Stephen Mitchell,
could also lead to social mobility. In the Roman period, "Festivals,
of gaining an imperial Games, and Civic Life in Roman Asia Minor," /RS 80 (1990): 183-95.
aristocracyknew that they could improve their chances 6. See Jean Pouilloux, Choix d'inscriptions grecques:Textes,traductions et notes (Paris:
"Les
"Vom
BellesLettres," 1960), l7-50, esp. l7-18; M. Wrrle, tugendsamenIngling zum <ges-
bibliography; Gnter Klaffenbach'
l. Seethe general listings in this chapter's supplementary treten> Euergeten:berlegungen zum Brgerbild hellenistischerEhrendekrete," in Stadtbildund
Epigraphik,2d ed. (G,otting: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1966), 62'65' 77-83; Brgerbild im Hellenismus:Kolloquium, Mnchen, 24. b 26. Juni 1993 (Vestigia 47), ed. Michael
Griechische
(Paris: E' Leroux' 1885)' 358-73; Gnter Gerlach' Wrrle and Paul Zanker (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1995),241-50.
Salomon Reinach, Traite d'pigraphi' {""1u'
Ehreninschrifien (H"alle:Mit Niemeyer, 1908); Arthur R. Hands, charities and social 7. E.g., 6lri EOiou q1ovroE, 6ni xcpovtioE rqirrlE nqutcvelcg. ti Ncuoqr6vlg
Griechische
(London: Thames and Hudson' 1968)' Ncoolxtrou Xol,crpyegyqoppcteuev, Bor,qpopr.vogoyoel ni 6x4, vrel zci exctet
"--- -r. Greeceand Rome
Aid in "competitive outlay and
whitehead,
i. orr""tiporg, QrtrtrpoE, Qrlotrptrr. See David rilE npurcveiaE xtl,4ooic xugia... [when Euthios was archon, when the tribe ofAkamantis
ClMed 3a (1983): 54-74' On giving in the
Communiry prolit: <Drtrorrpi.ainbemocratic Ath ens," governed in the third prytany, in which Nausimenes, son of Nausikydes from Cholargos, was
of euergetism(e'g'' philotimia model
ancient world see Hands, Charities,26-61' On models "The secretary,the eighteenth day of Boedromion, which was the nineteenth day of the prltany, at the
model) see Guy Rogers' Gift and Society in Roman Asia: regularlyscheduledmeeting. . . I (/G II2 657;287 s.c.).
superiority model, civil service
Oithodoxies and Heresies,"SCI l2 (1993): 188-99'

228
 l)ccrrcs,
Hon<trilic Proxeny Honttrificlnscriptions |
l)ecrees, 231
230 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy

people/city) or nerfi (pepvr;o0ar.)of benefactionswith continuing gratefulness(zu1<rqtoroEv

as so_and_so is a generousman with respectto the
{1ptor(or negi' tv flpov) (inas- r,cretreiv).The hortatory intention is introduced with such phrasesas
eiva evoug/nq0upogv r'atel'el tr
to the people)' The term
much as so-and-so continues to be generous ruog v eiorv no,vteg tl
as &vi1q yoOgand more often
vpcrycr0ic often expressesthe samequality
implies generositythan bravery in war'8 (in order that all may know that)
with other general statements'
Such statementswere often supplemented
t oupQgovr xd)l fporl (or
such as xoi ),ytrlvxcri nqttt'lv lotelei norg xci oi l,l,or Qltrotlpdrwcl yolvi,leoOcteiteE tl
deedshe continues to benefit the
neql rv qpov) (and byiis words and
xoi suoFdrgtel'eoev (he/she
people) and pelcr?',oQqntgxai' euyevedrE (in order that others may strive earnestly after honor in the knowledge
nobly' and piously) (e'g'' SEG
performed lhis/her a,riie,] magnanimously'
that)
24.1Lr2,LL. 18-19)'
titles' One who is loyal to
The benefactor was often praised with laudatory
rerms frequently associ- norg v oiv Qcptl"),ovfir.ndol ei6or,/eitcEtr
the emperor is lauded with the title Q,oo6Bcorog.e
include i0uixr1E (giving right
ated with governors in the late Roman Empire (in order that it may be a matter of emulation to all in the knowledge
(t".tt)'t The title ncrrilq tfrE rul'eorg
justice), xo0oQg (integrit/), and p61og
was bestowed in the later Roman and that).
or to0 fpou (father oithe cltylpeople)
the titles of laudatory rank for
Byzantine eras.rr In imperial inscriptions'
(i.e., lcpnq6ranoElclarissimus, E\oy.'r'crrosl Alternatively, a group of parallel formulations employ either the adjective
Roman senators ana knights
r,ooqp6trcElperfectissimus,xpurwroglegregius)
are not al- Qaveqg(personallyor impersonally)or the verb Qal,veo0crl:
eminentissimu.s,
finds in Latin inscriptions'l2
ways applied with the precision that one
accomplishments of the norg v o8v Qaveqv e? 1: fi; naorn tt {1poE6ni,otcrrqrlcqrtcrg
The preambt. ,,,uy also recount the specific
could be quite concise' How- &nolovar,roCg eeqytcrtg
honorand. In the Iate Republic' this information
were often exceedinglyverbose
ever, in the imperial pttiod, such narrations (in order that it may be evident to all that the people know how to repay
that one can easily lose sight of the
and formulai. ir.., ..g., IG Il2 1263)' so '
of the decree is not kept in mind' favors to benefactors)
principal idea if the overarching structure
on benefactorsto encour-
C, Hortatory intention' Honors were bestowed
to potential benefactorsthat nog v ov fi Boulq xai flpog Qalvolwcrl rrlrd)vreg
age future benefaction' It was a visible reminder
thepeoplewouldrespondwithfittinggratitude,literally..repayingfavors',
(in order that the council and the people may be clearlyseento honor).13
conferring honor (trpd'v)' and being mindful
anor'6vcrr'),
ira*rran"",
"Competitive Outlay and Community Profrt'" 55-74 (SEG-31'16)'
8. SeeWhitehead, D. Resolutionformula. Following the preamble is the citation of the formal
other QtI- prefixed words ($[}'cvpoE, $tlte-
9. SeeRobert, Hellenica, YI]',21|_|2; on motion, usually incorporating an infinitive construction (e.g.,(&ya0r1lr11r.)
nvov) seeXIll,227-28'
e10or,/ole(v)(tflt poul.flr,xcri.tdrt fpor) dncrrv6ooratov [[for good
l 0 . S e e C ' F o s s i n O k e a n o s : E s s a y s P r e s e n t e d t o l h o r S e v i e n k o o n H i s S i xStudies
t i e t h B i7r t h daybyH
(Cam-
u"d O'.|:i:sak' Harvard Ukrainian fortunel; be it resolved[by the council and the people] to praisehiml). The
Colleaguesand Students,J Cytif M"ngo
196-219 (SEG 36'1031)'
bridgel Harvard University Press' lg84)' council would often enacthonorific decreesfor the council'sown functionaries
un D'F eissel''Inscriptions de Cilicie (Paris' 1987)' 215ff'
11. SeeC. uugron the
equestrran officials in imperial service acquired
12' From the latter part of II A'D'' 13. A. S. Henry ("The Hortatory Intention ofAthenian StateDecrees,"ZPI) I l2 [ 1996]: 105-
followingregularappellationsaccordingtotheirrank:yireminentissimusforpraetorianprefects, remainder' See 19) divides these formulae into subcategories and analyzes them according to working and
iigher procurators ' and vir egregiusfor the "Greek
vir perfutsimusfor other prefects and Romanum"' chiron 1l chronologicaldistribution. Cf. Michael Walbank, Inscriptionsfrom the Athcnian Agora,"
..Die des Imperium
G. AlfOldy, stettung d:'r-R-iti". i" a*"rutt-ngsschicht I l t s p e r i a4 9 ( 1 9 8 0 ) : 2 5 1 - 5 7 ,e s p . 2 5 . 1t t . 1 4 .
: 6 7 - 2 1 5e, s p '1 9 0 - 9 t ' 1 9 3 - 9 4
( 1 9 8 1 )1 ( S E G3 l ' 1 7 0 1 ) '
 Honorilir'
!)ecrtt's,
Proxeny
l)ecrees,
Honoriliclnscriptions I Ztl
232 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy

decrees eminent citizens soon after their death. They were particularly common in
without the ratification of the assembly.laHowever, most honorific
Caria (especiallyAphrodisias)and on the islandAmorgos.rTTheir form is the
were passedby both bodies.
infinitive same as that of a civic decree; typically, they command a public funeral for
E. Decision.The approved course of action is expressedby an
which depends on e610o/ole(v)' Included the deceased,offer condolences to the bereaved in eloquent rhetoric, and
verb, usually ncrw6ocrr,,
(see rehearsethe honors given to the deceasedin his or her lifetime, as well as
here is a statementof the honors awarded.Thesemay include crowning
public dinners' and various other providing other biographicalinformation.rs
S 9.05),the erectionofa statue(seeS 9'06),
privileges, such as &)"ertouqyfitouE vrclE naorlg l'ettougyicE (exemption There are also inscriptions in which a private person enumerateson a stele
include a for posterity all the honors given to himself throughout his own lifetime.
iro- *.ry liturgy/public service)(see5 13'09)' Such decreesoften
inscribed on the monument itself' These are known as indirect honorary inscriptions. For example, the states-
citation of the exact wording to be
who would man Cassanderof Alexandria Troas had a stele set up in a temple of his
F. Conclusion The decreemay end with a curse againstanyone
fine, in the case
as hometown listing the many honors conferred on him, including eighteen
dare to alter its provisions, followed by the stipulation of a
golden crowns (SIG3653A). He subsequentlyexpandedthis list with a second
of the following Delian decree.
list chiseledinto the northern wall of one of the treasuriesin Delphi.re
.'.anditisunlalvfulforanyone,whetheraprivatememberoranofficial,
the honors
to propose, either in speech or writing, that an1'thing in 9.03 Proxeny Decrees
or invalidated contrary to this
gru.tr.a should be changed, withdrawn,
either in writing or
decree;otherwise, may he who Proposessuch a thing' The institution of the ngolevi,cr grew out of assistancethat private citizens
as a motion
sPeech,or proposessuch as a motion or brings such forward sometimes offered to visiting foreigners. Such visitors, whether merchants or
perish, both himself and his children' and may those
for a vote utterly official ambassadors,often required hospitality,support, and protection, not
enjoyment of life and of goods' and
who observe these provisions have to mention assistance in dealingwith the local stateadministration.
whoever acts contrary to
may they be safeboth by land and by sea' And Proxeny decreeslooked forward rather than backward: when a citizen was
Poseidon,
theseprovisions shall pay six thousand crowned drachmaelsto about to offer hospitality and assistance,the foreign state to which the visitor
and he shall be liable to legal action by him who is wronged'r6 belongedwould expressits gratitude by conferring the title ngdlevoE (public
friend) on this citizen by meansof a proxeny decree.20
9.02 Consolation Decrees and Indirect Honorary Inscriptions
17. SeeRobert, Hellenica,XIII,229-31; LBW 1604,(cf. l60l); SIG3889 (Amorgos).
memoriales) "Ehrendekrete,
So-calledconsolationdecrees(rplQioparcr ncrqapuoqtr,xu|tituli 18. See K. Rosen, Biographie und Geschichtsschreibung,"Chiron 17 (1987):
277-92.
aPpearforthefirsttimeintheimperialperiod.Thesedecreespayhonorto
19. SIG36538. A second fragment ofthis list has been pubished by Pierre Amandry and Jean
Bousquet ("Inscriptions de Delphes, ll," BCH 64 ll940l:76-127; cf. SIG3654A). Likewise, some
14.InAtticprobouleurnaticdecrees,thementionofthecouncilandthedemosisfollowed
eiE tv r1pov(those chosen by lot inscriptions record the honorific decreesreceived by one person fiom different towns (e.g., two
by the formula rog nQopougoi v tr1orolv npoegeew
the people]). In Asia, the conventusof Roman stelai erectedby Eudemos ofSeleuceia in Cilicia [SIG3644-45]; three stelai erectedby Nikomedes
to be presiding officers in " a.."-bly [literally,
(yeqouoio), and the young men's association (vot) often acted in in Kos [II(osPH 32-36, nos. 17-19]).
citizens, the elders' association
20. Regarding the civil rights and proxeny decrees in general see Christian Marek, Die
conjunctionwiththecouncilandtheassemblyinproposing,honorary-decrees(seeVictor
f'mile Bouillon' 1904], 216-19)' Proxenie,Europaische Hochschulschriften III, Geschichteund ihre Hilfswissenschaft213 (Frank-
Chapot, la provinceromatne proconsulairedAsie [Paris: Librairie "Proxenos,"
on the obverse side' furt and NY: P. Lang, 1984) (SEG34.1691);Frizt Gschnitzer, RE 13 (1973):629-730;
15. I.e., drachmae bearing a wreath "Proxenos," "Ein
ptt[e 1]qVctt g ei tov F. Gschnitzer, RESuppl. 13 (1973):1-131; C. Marek, kretischer Offizier im
16. p1Oevi d!ot<or,,pil-i ia,-t1t 1'rilte plovtt' pipe eineiv
ruq[vr]L norioct ncrpc toe 16 qi$lopo' ii Bundesgenossenbieg," ZPE 48 (1982): 112-16; I. d'Andr6, La proxenie (Toulouse: A. Mont-
eopvcovtlp6v petn0elvcl ii qeieiv'ii
npoOeig lauzer, 1911); Andr6 Gerolymatos, Espionageand Treason:A Study of the Proxenia in Political and
,s".l,"rii e i n o E i & v o w o E [ i i ] n q o o e i E f i B n t l e r p o r o v i l o d g f i YaUoEii
toig to0ta nn1qo0ot e14 xcrl Blotr xcl rxvtov Military IntelligenceGathering in ClassicalGreece(Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben, 1936) (SEG 36.1523);
;i;il;tin [o]tig xoi. t t[nv]o oro0, "Athens
ttutoiE ot(eoOcrt xai' ncrt[ y]t1v xci xat.OIcrrtcv' xci Gary Reger, and Tenos in the Early Hellenistic Age," CQ 42 (1992):365-83, esp. 381-82;
noi'irnoqlvrtov vqor.E, roi .irl "iipigraphie
lcrxr'o1rl'icE iepE to0 flooe- Philippe Gauthier, et institutions grecques," Annuaire de I'EPHE 108 (1975-76):
,rop "ot-o nor,ilocE notrvrtrr pc1p5 oteQavlQqoug "Les
(lDelos 1520' LL' 58-66)' 337-43; JeanPouilloux, inscriptionsde Labraunda,"AntCl 42 (1973):544-51, esp. 546-47i
rdrvoq xoi nlxoE oto tr, &rxoupvrrrt
 Proxenyl)ecrees,HonorificInrripriurs
Honorilit'I)ccrces, I ZfS
234 | An Int oductionto GreekEpigraphy

increasingly honorary and Iand let there be a specialdinner for them eachyear on the eighteenthday Iof
By the Hellenistic period, the title became the monthl of Mechierl (lDelosVI, 1521). The privilege of having seatsof
frequentlyinvolvednodutywhatsoever.Relatedtoproxeniaistheinstitution honor could be awarded as a standing, or even hereditary, honor.2a
assist the visiting envoys
of theorodokia, in which private citizens would Some public friends were granted ngoooE nqg tilv poul.lv xai, tv
(oeolgol)Senttoannounce.variousfestivals.Thesecitizenswereawardedthe flpov (entry to the council and assembly), sometimes with the stipulation
title Oetrrpoxogby foreign states'2r nqdtor per t leqa (first [in order] after the sacredrites), meaningthat the
(benefactor)' might also be
Other honorific titlesl especially eueqy6tqg 'Hy61"o1ovtv public friend was granted entry immediately after the transaction of sacred
tf Boull'
conferred in a proxeny d"...., u, ir, oguu businessand the completion of the sacredrites.
by council that He-
Tagavt0vov nglevov eivot %i' zueqy6qv [resolved Various additional rights also extended to public friends include
friend and benefactorl (IG
gelochosfrom Tarentum be ldeclared] a public nollreiav orQr xai xyvor,g(the hereditary right of citizenship to him and
Xlll9,187; GDI llll2, 5308)' his descendants)and eioayoryil xai foyoryf (or elonl.oug xal xnl.oug)
honors' especially public
These public friends were accorded various (the right to import and export freely), as well as more specializedprivileges,
(vaxfigulr'E) of the said honor by
praise(ruclvoE)'that is the proclamation such as nr,vopi,cr(the right of pasture), nr.fiul,io (the right of cutting tim-
festivals.A crown might also
the herald in the state sanctuariesand at public ber), yflg xal oixlcE yxrrlolg (the right to purchase land and a house),
(see$ 9'06)'
be awarded(seeS 9'05) or a statueerected ngorxla, (priority in judicial proceedings),and npopuvreicr (priority in
Normally, various privileges were also conferred (eo0al) on public
consulting the oracle). A public friend might also be given oirrlolv eivar xai
friendsintheeventoftheirtemporaryorpermanentresidenceintheforeign crQ noi ficrroiv, tov nlqp6olor,v(public maintenancewheneverhe and
v rolg ydlolv xoi ngoeqlcr
state:for example,many were given ngoegia his children reside[in the city]) (see,e.g.,S1G3105,L.5; Eretria,4ll n.c.).
vrr,Oetgolr(therightoffrontseatsatpublicgamesandtheater)'They Public friends were sometimes granted &l"elrouqyqoia (exemption from
0uoicrv (the religious festivals
were also granted a seat;f honor at r ieq xqi public liturgies),2s $gurv $eor.g (exemption from [any] payments/levies),
atbv 6ni' einvov eig tr
and public sacrifices).Sometimesdecreesxcrl'ocrt &rl.ercr(exemption from public burdens), veloQoqia (exemption from
(call [the honorand] to a seatof honor
nqutcneion, fi olrlolE v ngutcrveirp taxation),26 or at least ioot6l,er,c (equality in taxes) with the citizens or,
a special banquet held-in his
at a dinner held in thl prytaneion)zzor even to similarly, the benefit of paying economic taxes under the same favorable
i1pg'v tilv tr1'to6 Melelq
honor,23as in yeoga, j ou"o,n xcd vlautv conditions as citizens (6wl,era). They might also be guaranteed&oQl,er.a
4'1 (Munich: C' H' Beck' 192O-26)' l:224tr' zq,i &,oul.io27(safety and inviolability of person) from ol,q nol6pou xai
G. Busolt and H. Swoboda' GriechischeStsatskunde'
( c i v i l r i g h t s ) , 2 : l 2 4 6 f t . 1 p r o x e n y ) ; K l a f f e n b a c h ' G r i e c h c h e E p i g r a p h i k ' 7 7 - 8 3 ; R e i n a c h 'an
Trait' eigfivqE, xo,i,xqt yfrv zai xo,to Ol.oooq,v,xol atr xol 1q{poorv (forc-
12' In the classical period' a proxenoswas
isa-osi luli.t .t 219, 345; IMagnMai 2-7 , 9-10' distinguished ible seizure, in war and peace, on land and sea, to both them and their
of a foreign state.Proxenoi should be
ambassador who represented ti-re interests
fromthosecivilservantsalsoreferredtoasnp|evolwhosometimeshostedofficialvisitorsfrom
o u t o f s t a t e ( e . g . ,f r o m S p a r t aI H d t ' 6 ' 5 7 ] ) ' "Inscriptions de Delphes: La Liste des grecques,CEFR 157 (Rome: iicole frangaisede Rome, 1992) (SEG 42.1746;cf.31.1645); Christoph
Plassart,
21. on the theorodokolSir ir J.rpii see A. Brker, Festbankett und griechischeArchitektur, Xenia, Konstanzer althistorische Vortrge und
Th6orodoques,,,BcH45\lg:zl)t l-85.iorfragmentsseeLouisRobert'"villesdecarieetd'Ionie "Listes de Forschungen 4 (Konstanz: Universittsverlag, 1983) (SEG 33.1561); Robert, Hellenica, XIll,
(lg4qt to6-23; Georges Daux'
dans la liste Delphes," BCH 70 -Drlphiques 224-25.
T h 6 o r o d o q u e s , , , n n c e z Q , n s ) . 1 _ 3 0 , e s p . 1 3 _ 1 6 . o n l i s t s i n E p i d a u r o s s e e I G I V 2 / 1 9 4 _ 9 5"Le .Fora 24. An example is the honor extended to the poet Philippides: xci eivcr crtirr oirqorv v
Argive Heraia see Pierre cabanes
;;;;i;. of theorodoxoi of trr. N.r.r.u., games and the npurcveiol xci Bxl6vcuv ei t6lr npeoButror (IG II' 657).
Acarnanie, f,torie," in La Botie antique: Lyon'
poo.rol, to.ut au sein des ftats fd6raux:1pire, 25. See Hugh J. Mason, Greek Termsfor Roman Institutions: A Lexicon and Analysis, Ameri-
du Centre national de la recherche
Saint-Etienne, 16-20 mai 1983' Colloques internationaux can Studies in Papyrology l3 (Toronto: Hakkert, 1974), lO3-4.
"Les Belles Lettres," 1985)' 346-47 '
scientifique (Paris: 26. The public friend would still be required to pay t.rxesrelating to his economic activities,
2 2 . C f . t h e p h r a s . o r - n o , E c u i e p o O l t e i t p ( b e i n g p r o v i d e d f o o d a t t h e p l a c e o f s(at
a c rthe
ifice )(e.9.'
state such as import and export; seeA. Chaniotis,"Enteleia: Zu Inhalt und Begriffeines Vorrechtes,"
phrase ni tilv norvilv ot'rav
lBMlr, r34), sometimes witt the ldditiorr'of the ZPE 64 (1986): 159-62 (SEG36.1600;BE [1988]: 375).
hearth). 27. On this term see Kent f. Rigsby, Asylia: Tetitorial Inriolability in the Hellenistic World
with banquets, banquet-halls, food, and
23. For discussion of the terminology associated (Berkelev: University of California Press, 1996).
pantel, cit au banquet: Histoire des repas publics dans les cits
drinks see pauline schmitt ra
236 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy

property).28Many proxeny decreesconcludewith the generalinjunction that

the public friend be extended rcr l,l,o nqvrq,, ocr xcrl roCg ltrotg
ngo!vo6 xol zuepyrarglcgler/iorcrr (all other courtesiesthat are
accordedto other public friends and benefactors),occasionallywith the addi-
tion of xot tv vpov (accordingto the law), indicating that theseprivileges
were laid down in civic law. In times of national distress, cities were some-
times embarrassedby the few honors that they were able to confer Bni toO
ncrgvtog (at the present time) and accordingly made pledges that more
fitting honors and benefits would be bestowed when better times returned.
Lists of public friends were carved on stelaeand put on public display in
the hometowns of the honorands, not only to publicize these honors, but
equally to motivate others to host other visitors from the same statesin the
future.2e

9.04 Honorific Inscriptions

Honorific inscriptions (tituli honorarll) commend personswho have acted as

public benefactorsor performed notable public service.30 Honorific inscrip-
tions of this type lack the formal structure of a decreebut nonethelessimply a
"the
precedingofficial decision.In other words, the formula city honors so-
and-so" implies the previouspassageof a civic decree.Theseinscriptionswere
usually engraved on columns, stelae,and buildings and especially on statue
bases(seefigs. 15 and 16), either on the frontal facesor on bronze plaques
affixed to the bases.
It is not possibleto make an absolutedistinction betweenhonorific inscrip-
tions and dedications. Some inscriptions serveboth to honor individuals and
to dedicate something to the gods, as does r1pog6 Xlorv Oqo0vov
)xuOivou A0qvfu llol,r,crr,xcl OeolEndol [the people of Chios [honored]
Phesinos, son of Skythinos, [and dedicated this] to Athena Polias and to all
the godsl (IGII' 2802).
In a typical honorific inscription, the name of the honorand and the
group bestowingthe honor (..g., flpoE, fi poulfi, o[ qu].6rcru)are cited in

28. On the phrases eiE Qul,axd1vrlg 1qog or eiE o<orlglcv r1E nIeorE and variations see
F. Gschnitzer in Symposion1979: Vortrgezur griechischenund hellenistischenRechtsgeschichte,
ed.
Hans fulius Wolff et al., Akten der Gesellschaft ftir griechische und hellenistische
Rechtsgeschichte IV (Cologne:Bohlau, 1983), 143-64.
29. E.g.,there are lists ofstate friends on the polygonal wall ofDelphi (SIG3585).
30. See, e.g., IG ll2 3222-4255; Frederick W. Danker, Benefactor:Epigraphic Study of a
Graeco-Roman and New TestamentSemanticField (St. Louis, MO: Clalton, 1982) (SEG 33.1570).
 Honorifc lnscriptions I
ProxenyDecrees,
Honorifc Decrees, Zll
238 | Anlntroductionto GreekEpigraphy
(i'e'' The nature of the honor being conferred might be either describedin
respectively,often without a,verb
the accusativeand nominative cases, generai terms (e.g., tciE nqrcr,g tr,pa,iE, taCE nqtcr6 xai peylotaq
xepaolt{v pnrQo I xotqov'l fi
rv eivq eiva), as in'Ioul'i<rv alpvov the tepciE [fitting
rr,pcr0g,rolE xd',l,iorcrg xcri peyl,otor,Etlpcrig, toCE Ei,crr,E
Domna Augusta' mother of the camps'
oul"tr *oi | tptog lto Julia honorsl) or itemized (e.g.,
nqoegig v yor, [front at
seats public games],a
it]l (IKibyra-Olbasa' no' 156)' Sometimes only
boule and demos ldedicated golden crown [seeS 9.05], the erection ofa statue [see$ 9.06]).
When the honorand appearsin the
the honorand is named (i'e" tbv eino;'
of such a term as eixva' qov' or
genitive case,it presupPosesan ellipsis
&vOr1pn. A variety of l"'b' can also be employed (e'g" votqoev' 9.05 Crowns
xcrOgoroenai &votqoev)'
a"Cenr*, tlpqoev, otr1oev,Or1xev'
group bestowing the honor is in- In many honorific inscriptions, the instruction is given to crown the hon-
In some inscriptions, the name of the
orand (oteQq,vocrr oritv).3a Inexpensive crowns were woven from young
scribedinthecenterofacrownsculptedinrelief.3llfthehonorsareawardedby
crowns asthere are cities (see'e'9" branches (Ocrl.l.o0 otQa,vog), ivy (xr.tro orOovoE), laurel (Qvr15
severalcities,there will be as many sculpted
ofan honor is often stated in a or$cvos), and flowers (v0lvog or6QcvoE). There are also references
SEG 42.1i88). The reasonfor the conferral
the honorand was rv ntqolva xai' to painted crowns (oreQov<rxygcrnt6r.)3sand fillets (tclvicr, rcrtvitov,
summary formula, explaining that (a respect-
or opvbv xai peyal'$qova l.qpvioxoE).
zuegyrqv (a patron u Ut"ttor) xni
honor was given &gerflg xcrl euvoi,og The most prized crowns were made of gold (1quot oreQvtrlt),some-
able and generousman) or that the
excellence'goodwill' and benefac- times unbroken (r,qvexfiE).They were decorated with golden branches and
zueqleoi,cEvexa (on account of his/her
ripcroe'Al.xrpovra'Al'xr- with golden leaves made of thinly beaten sheetsof gold, so as to resemble
, ", ii r xorvv ".nqpoio"dv arv
get&g vexev xai euvoicrgxci erueg1e- their natural counterpart. The exact value of these crowns is sometimesspeci-
otgtou'Yyoofl lquoott oteQvolr"
of Hermaistai honored Alkimedon fied (e.g.,1quoo0gotQavoEn pl'iorv qo1p6lv).
oicrg r&g eig t xolvdv [the association
with a golden crown' on account of Some inscriptions specifr that the crown should meet the specifications
himself, son of Alkistratos' native of Hygas'
stipulatedby law (rQ oreQcrvrpx too vpou/xar tbv vpov). For example,a
theexcellence'goodwill,andbenefaction[hehasshown]totheassociation]'32
given' typically arranged.in a seriesof benefactor in Rhodes was voted XQUo(l)roteQcvorr,rdrr, 6x too vpou
Specific commendations might be
for distinguished service in various peyiotrrrr,[the largestgolden crown [allowed/prescribed]by lawl (S/G31012C'
participles. If the honors are bestowed
L. 15). The crowns might be purchasedoutright or donated,or the money to
offices(e.g.,orqcrtqy{oavrt,ieQxsocvrr'YUl'lvq'orrrglfocrvrl)'-theseser-
of engraved crowns' Under the purchasethe crown could be given to the honorand.(see,e.g.,IG Xllls,653).
vices might be inscribed within a number
The public proclamation of this crowning (ot6QcvoE xr;quxr6E, vel-
influenceofRomancustom,someinscriptionslistthefullcursushonorumof
beginning with the highest function neiv/vcryoqe0oa,/&voyye0l,ar rv ot6Qcvov) was scheduledfor a particular
political officials, often in inverse order'
lowest' place and occasion,frequently in the theater in conjunction with the dramatic
and concluding with the earliest and to
The persons bestowing a given honor.might also use the occasion competitions or at religious festivals and sacrifices.Some inscriptions stipu-
as in T(irov) <Dl'('ou'ov) Mclpov late that this crowning be repeated annually (e.g., oteQavdrocrt cnltv
publicize their own titt., o", disiinctions,
Kalocqelng xcrt'vr,aurv lquor, oteQcrvor, v raiE ouwel'oupvclE ouoialg tdrl
X6l'euxog xougtap nirok-ovxol'(orv'lag)
Q.oo$ov Ocrqtog of Caesarea'
of ships of the colony ffooelvl &qetfrE vexev [crown him yearly with a wreath of gold during
tv ngoottqv [Varius Seleukos'curator
Flavius Maximus' the philosopher]'33 the sacrificesthat are offered to Poseidon on account ofhis exceptional merit]
[horro], hirl putton, Titus
"Neue Inschriftenfunde aus llDelosVI, 1519,LL.32-341).36
and diadems seeM' Wrrle'
3l' For inscriptrons within wreaths
AizanoiI,"Chiron22(1922):J37-76'esp'352-53'no'4;C'Veligianni'Hellenika4aO989):239- 34. Seethe listings for crowns in this chapter's supplementary bibliography'
tt tltiJl;'rtlll (Pari. 35. See,e.g., Foucart, Des associationsreligieuses,23Tno. 64.
chezlesgrecs:Thiases,ranes,orgons
Foo.u.t, Des associationsrerigieuses 16. Other examplesare ore$ovooo0ot atv nai, ei5 rv Lomv lqovov xao' zcrotov rog
(Tralles)'
Klincksieck,1873),236,no' 59 from Caesarea iv roiq ArovuoiorElquoQ oreQvq (sIG3762, L. 46 fDionysopolis]) and &vcryopeeoo<rL tv
71; seeB' Burrell"'Two InscribedColumns
33. CaesareaMatitim"";;";^';' xat' vloutv in r AlovorcrtdrL yvr,rv tqcrytor,<iv(IG XII/5, 599 [Iulis]),
rrri.<brrvov
e s p '2 9 1 '
M a r i t i m a , "Z P E 9 9 ( 1 9 9 3 ) : Z s 7 - 9 5 '
 HonorilicInscriptionsI
!)cuecs,ProxenyDecrees,
Honorilit' Zll
242 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy
by the names of the representatives of the group that made the petition and
9.06 The Erection of Statues paid the cost of the statue.For example,in the following inscription, a guild
of leatherworkers honor one of their benefactorswith a statueafter a success-
direct that a statue be
Honorific decrees and honorific inscriptions often ful petition to the council and assembly:zata t [,cvra tp pou]'11x<rl tCp
the precisewording to be
erectedfor the honorand. Some decreeseven record tpq rts ),opnportqE Kcnoog6olv KtBugotv nl.eolE fi oepvototrl
officials and intellectuals
inscribed on the statue base.37Statuesof celebrated ouveeyo,ol rv oxuroBuqtov Tr,BqlovK].crov flol6ptrlvo [in accor-
weresometimescrowned,anointed,carriedinprocessions'andevenbelieved dance with the decree of the council and assemblyof the illustrious [city of ]
to have the caPacitYto heal.38 CaesareaKibyra, the most august guild of leather workers [honored with a
association)
If a group within a city (e.8., Parents' friends' voluntary statuel Tiberius ClaudiusPolemonl (IGRR IV, 907;r.o.80-90).
up a statue in a public place' the
wished to honor an individual by setting If the state was responsiblefor the erection of the statue, an administrator
normally petition the
permission of the city was required'3eThe group would was appointed to overseeits installation (ltpel.q0woE rflg &vcotoeorE).42
stateforpermissionand,ofcourse'Paytheincurredexpenses.40Incertain The appointed administrator was often chosen from among the colleagues,
statue (e.g.,Boulopevog
circumstances,the honorand assumedthe cost of the friends, or parents of the honorand. Alternatively, an entire town, tribe, or
r, tlv nglouocrv negi t& xorv orvo1t'lgi'av lcrgl(eoOnu xai v
t eig tv eventhe honorand might be assignedwith this responsibility(e.g.,leivcr,
t &vl"orpc
,o"org 11r, ll'el vcr61ercrl x tv iitlv arl xcri eixvc orflocl 6curo0 1al.xfrv 6$' innou [and it is permitted for
vgtcwcr[wishing,onaccountofthepresentfinancialdistressofthestate him to also erect a bronze bust of himself [portrayed riding] on horseback]
matters, he will pay from
treasury, to also give graciously to the city in these
339))' That permis- [IGrP 4so]).
his own resourcesthe cost incurred for the statue] IOGI The most frequently used terms for the erection of a statue are &,votqoe
may be explicitly stated in
sion to erect a statue was sought and received and vaotoerrrE,though there are others (e.g., va06oeolg, Bnr,06oetoE),
fllg poul'rlE
honorific decreeswith such statements as rfqQr,ocpvqg/pvou sometimespairedwith terms for the fabricationof the statue(e.g.,xatooxeufrE
xcri
(or ro0 fpou) or rp1$ioputr' Boul'flE or Kor t rpfQrop<r Bor-rl'flE xcrl &vqoraoetrrg,JrotqoecoE The term eixtv specifiesan
xo,l &vcrotcoerrrg).
erection of statues for
{pou, sometimes abbreviated as VB or VBA' The honorific likenessof a mortal, such asa living emperor or a local of6cial.a3It is a
required that ambas-
distinguished persons' such as governors and emperors'
sadorsbe sent abroad to receive Permission'4l 42. Seediscussion of commissioners and awarding of statuesby Histria Maria Alexandrescu-
"La
Vianu, sculpture en pierre Istros (II) (III"-I"' sicles),"RESE25 (1987): 135-38 (SEG
Ininscriptionsconcerningstatueerection,thecouncilandassemblyare
37.626). Cf. nqetr4ocrp6vor-r,Smpelrlteoovrog, rr (ti1v) npletcv rot eivoE, ngovo-
namedfirst,followedbythenameandtitlesofthehonorand'followedinturn rlocpvou tlg vcrorcoecoE to0 e0voE,r' dnrpeleicg toO eCvoE,ngovolg to eCvog,Eto
rqel,qto0 ro0 eivog, t' ntpetrei.cE;the verb nryetr106vtoEapplies to any person commis-
rive' rtpog 6 Aq)'iov'Apqtov
37. E.g., ttri nr.ygorlrarni rlv eixva tlv m'lqcQi1v sioned to set up a statue, whereas nrpelqreor"rog has the same value as :tqel,4toO tflg nl'eorE
xoi euoeBelcg rflg nepi t iepv xoi euvoi'o5 tfrg eiq tv
Bxpou Moxevc qe4g vexev (i.e., a public official; seeRobert, BE 11946-47\:164). An inscription from Aphrodisias mentions
1pov rv A4litov (IG XI/4' 665). two administrators, one charged with having the statue made, and a second charged with putting
38.SeeT.Pekry..StatueninKleinasiatischenlnschriften,',inStudienzurReligionundKultur it in place (LBW 16024).
Sencer$ahin' Elmar Schwerth_eim,^and lorg
Keinasiens:FestschriftFriedich K. Dmer zum6i ed. 43. SeeGilles Sauron, Qais Deum? L'expressionplastique desideologiespolitiques et religieusesd
Wagner,2vols.,EPRO66(Leiden:E'l'Brill,1978)'2t727-44'esp'735-36(cf'SEG28'1656)' Rome la fin de la Rpublique et au dtbut du principat, BEFAR 285 (Rome: Ecoles frangaise de
to erect statues and other gifts of
39. Regarding applications (aittoerg) for permission Rome, 1944). W. H. Buckler and D. M. Robinson ("Greek Inscriptions from SardesII," / 17
n, rro-rr. See the Rhodian inscriptions inlLindos 419'LL.
consecration see Robert, Helleniia, 119131:29-52, esp. 36-37) argued that Hepding's distinction between plpct as a cult statue
4 3 - 4 5 . O n p r o h i b i t i o n s t o e r e c t s t a t u e s i n c e r t a i n p l a c e s s e e R o b e r t ' H e l b n i c"Archaeology
a ' I I I ' 2 9 1 ' O n tin
he and eixv as a portrait statue is not viable. On the meaning ofeixv, eixv vonl'og, and eixv
See also T. W. French, "Statuen
relocation of statues see Robert, Hellenica,vll,24l-43. ygcrnt! see T. Pekry, in Kleinasiatischen Inschriften," tn Studien zur Religion und
(1945):101-4' esp' 102; cf' Robert' BE (1948):172' "Die
the Dodecanese,1939-1946," IHS 65 Kultur Kleinasiens2.735-36; cf. Hugo Hepding, Arbeiten zu Pergamon 1904-1905: II. Die
x rv iiov' nqooelap6vor/
40. Indicated by such expressions as ancrvfiocvtog Inschriften,",4M 32 (1907):241-414, esp.250-51; Robert,BE (1958): 16 (cf. [1955],210); Pierre
r &vl'topo, and oinoOev to0 eivoE' "La
n<rqcoldwog Guillon, stle d'Agam6dds," RPhil l0 (1936): 209-35; L. Robert, tjtudes anatoliennes: Re-
tv eivov' r nr'ple-
41. E.g., t& rpeopeuro0 to0 elvoE, r npeoBelrdrv/ngopetov cherchessur les inscriptionsgrecquesile I'Asie Mineur,EO 5 (Paris: E. de Boccard, 1937), l7l; Adolf
xoi npeopeurdrv' Cf' the erection of
trqto0, r. nr,petrr1tvnai nqeopeltv, r qyentototv Wilhelm,
"Die
Beschlsse der Chier zu Ehren des Leukios Nassios,"WS 59 (1941): 89-109, esp.
Athens for Emperor Hadrian (e'g" /G ll' 3290)' See Anton von
the statues by various cities in I04.
Premerstein,..Griechiche-RmischesausArkadien,''Ih|5(|9|z)||97_z|8,esp.215_18.
244 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy Honorilic l)eoees, ProxenyDeuees,Honorifc lnscriptions | 245

refers to a
general term that can bear a variety of meanings.44It often
bronze bust, a stone statue' or even a
painting, though it can also refer to a
such as rsl'eio and General
statuette. This term can also be modified by other terms,
(bronze)' ygcmt]
)roopcrog (life-size),asxol,oootxil (colossal), Xcr)''xfl Gauthier, Philippe. Les citsgrecqueset leurs bienfaiteurs.BCH Suppl 12. Paris: E. de
(painted), Q irnou/Qurnog (on horseback),nelrx{ (on foot)' or vol}'og Boccard,1985.
(Learing a shield).6 The term &vgtE specifieseither a statue of a mortal Henry, Alan S. Honours and Privilegesin Athenian Decrees.Subsidia Epigraphica 10.
more often Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1983. (Formulae in Athenian honorific decrees.)
or a cult statue.aTThe term yal.po refers to a life-size statue,
emPeror Pouilloux, lean. Choix il'insriptions grecques:Textes,traductionset notes.Bibliothque
referring to a statue dedicated to a deity, an immortal, or a deified de la Facult6 des lettres de Lyon 4. Paris:
"Les
BellesLettres," 1960.Pp. 17-80.
occasion-
than to one dedicated to an honorand.asNonetheless, ycll"pr'ais (Hellenistichonorific decrees. )
Ayl'para were placed in the "Bemerkungen 'Honoratiorenherrschaf
ally employed of statues of private citizens'ae Qua, Friedemann. zur in den griechischen
of agoras. The
cellae of temples, as well as in the most conspicuous Part Stdten der hellenistischen Zeit." Gymnasium 99 (1992): 422-34. (Cf. SEG
refers
normal term for a bust is ngoornov or ngotop{1' The term ofiLeCa 42.r796.)
rulers' Qua, Friedemann. Die Honoratiorenschicht in den Stdten des griechischenOstens:
to imagines clipeatae, that is, portraits of gods and' sometimes'
Untersuchungenzur politischen und sozialen Entwicklung in hellenistischerund
painted on shields. rmischerZeit. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1993.
may be
The material with which the statue should be made or finished Schallmayer,E., K. Eibl, J. Ott, G. Preuss,and E. Wittkopf. Der rmischeWeihebezirkvon
(marble)'
specified, with such terms as l,tgivq (stone)' paqpaglvq lcrl'xfl OsterburkenI: Corpus der griechischenund lateinischenBenefciarier-Inschriftendes
(Lronze),1ol,xfl rilguoog (gold-plated bronze),s0 and yqarutf (painted)'51 rmischen Reiches,Forschungen und Berichte zur Vor- und Frhgeschichte in
Baden-Wrttemberg 40. Stuttgart: LandesdenkmalamtBaden-Wrttemberg, 1990.
(Cf. SEG40.1638;benefciariiin the Roman army.)
Touloumakos, I."Zrtm RmischenGemeindepatronatim GriechischenOsten." Her-
mes 716 (1988): 304-24. (Cf. SEG 38.1976;on the term nctqorveg.)
44.SeeL.Robert,"Inscriptionsd'Athnes,"RE(1964):316-24(OMS2'832-40)'
esp'
45. Francis Piejko ("Antiochus EpiphanesSavior ofAsia"'RivFil 114 [1986]:425-36, Crowns
36.15g7;cf. 42.1g33]) aigues that the term vqnE in this sensewas eclipsed by
430_31 [sEG
e-c. and thereafter does not occur
eixv in inscriptions sometime between ca.300 and 350 Baus, Karl. Der Kranz in Antike und Christentum, eine religionsgeschichtliche Unter-
iro- eirn. This term often modifies eixolv (in the context of contracting,
irrdependerrtly
eixvog ro0 vptcwog means
. suchung mit besondererBerucksichtigungTertullians. Theophaneia, Beitrge zur
fabrication, setttng up' supervision, and costs), so that the phrase
"Deux Religions-und Kirchengeschichtedes Altertums 2. Bonn: P. Hanstein, 1940.
"his iikeness/image as represented by that figure" (see Suzanne Said'
something like own Blech, Michael. Studien zum Kranz bei den Griechen. Berlin and New York: W. de
noms de li-og. .r, grec ancien: Idole et icne," CRr "Notes [19s7]: 309-35, esp.323-24); for the use
"statue" seeDenis Feissel, d'epigraphie chretienne vll"' BCH Gruyter, 1982.(Cf. SEG32.1703.)
of orilirl and tinoE to mean "Die
5 5 2 n ' 3 8 ' Deubner, Ludwig. Bedeutung des Kranzesim klassichenAltertum." ArchARW 30
1 0 S( 1 9 8 4 ) :5 4 5 - 7 9 ,e s p . 5 4 7n n . l 1 a n d 1 3 '
(1933):70-104.
46. See,e'g., lGXIll7,240. "Corona."
(1937): 14-25; Robert,BE (1938): Egger,Emile, and E. Fournier. ln DarSag1.1520-37.
47. SeeA. Salatch,..Imagoclipeata einv vontroE,"R 9 "Corona."
(1958): 16 (p. 180), (I961)i 419, (1962):20J; dolf Wilhelm, Beitrgezur griechischen Fiebiger. RE 4 (1901): 1636-43. (Roman.)
233,
Institutes in wien 7 (vi- "Kranz."
lnschiftenkunde, Sonderschriften des sterreichischen Archologischen Granszyniec. RE 11 (1921): 1588-1607.(Greek.)
enna:. Holder, 1909)' 141' Larfeld, Wihelm. Handbuch der griechischenEpigraphik.2 vols. Leipzig: O. R. Reisland,
"Epigrafia e statua ritratto: Alcuni problemi," AAPat 9T (1984-
4g. see Maria L. Lazzarini, 1902-7.Esp.Vol.2, pp. 809-11,836-40.
85):83-103. Limentani, I. Calabi. Studi di Antichitd in memoria di Clementina Gatti. Quaderni di
"ArAAMA and EIKQN," AIP l}g (1988): 108-10; cf'Lazzarini'
4g. see Kirsten Koonce, Acme 9 (1987): 29-36. (Cf. SEG 37.231.)
..Epigrafia e statua ritratto." S. R. F. Price (Rituak and Power [cambridge: cambridge university "Ehrendekrete,
and eixv in terms of Rosen, K. Biographie und Geschichtsschreibung:Zum Wandel der
Press, 1984], 178) was incorrect in his distinction between ycrtrpo
griechischenPolis im fruhen Hellenismus." Chiron l7 (1987): 277-92. (SEG
location.
37.1780.)
50. Or 1qr-rofl,which is a shortened expression for the same'
sometimesfollowed by v Schneider,Carl. Kulturgeschichte desHellenismus.2vols. Munich: C. H. Beck, 1967-69.
sr. n.g;rira;o yqcrt4v (lDelosyr 15t9,L.37;1520, LL. 20ff.),
(i.e', painted on a [gold-plated] shield)' Esp.vol. 2, p. 1045.
nl.rp (or iv n}"rp Bnrlqoqr)
 and Ex-votos I
Dedications Z+Z

Nr.xicrgrcrpi,crEMatgi 0e6v lNikias, the treasurer, [dedicatedthis] to the

mother ofthe godsl (IGII' 2950-51).
Many dedications have a laconic character, omitting key words that are to

\Oeatcations
10 be understood by the reader, especiallythe verb. Of those inscriptions that do
employ a verb, the most common is &vO4xev'though there are many others
I (e.g., Qr,gtooev,xo0rqoloev, iqooro, vsXelQtov[+ y1er,gi,[trr],
I andEx-votos tleoev).
The formulae v60qxev xai, ilglcoato reflects Latin influence, being the
equivalent of fecit et dedicavit (e.g., Ouixtoq zu[[]lpevoE v6l0r1xevx
fiqlyaoero rtQ AIr.i,] | Aol.rlqvr! lVictor, in fulfilling a vow, had this made and
dedicatedit to Zeus Dolichenosl).4
Many dedications specifr the means by which the object was paid for. This
can be indicated with such phrasesas x r6v iltovs or, in the caseof a public
monument, x tdlv 4pooitrlv lqqpcrrotv neozeuoOq.

10.02 The Dedicator

dedicate offerings to the gods as acts
lt was common practice in antiquity to
and thanksgivings'l Inscriptions
of piety and in conjunction with petitions Normally, the name of the dedicator appearsin the nominative caseand near
inscriptions' They can easilybe
that record such acts are known as edicatory the end of the sentence(e.g.,Ar['Htrtoro],eir1 Kaqp{}.q I f(og) Io}.(r.og)
the.verb &v0r1xe(or equivalent)' or
recognized if they name a god' contain EriruldE.l K}.(orv) Kor,oogeg[Gaius Iulius Eutyches [dedicatedthis statue]
(thank offering)'
contains a dedicatory termlsuch as lcrqlotfqr,ov to HeliopolitanZeus of Mount Carmel. Colonist of Caesarea])'6 In fact, some
Someinscriptionsstraddletheconventionalclassificationdivisionsbe- dedications consist solely of the dedicator's name in the nominative case,as in
A dedication to a god may
tween dedications and other types of inscriptions' oi v Afl.or. tgonefitar, [the bankersof Delos [dedicatedthis]l (lDelosVI'
community or to the emPeror or
at the same time be a gift to a particular 1715); similarly, some dedicationsrecord only the dedicator'sname in the
For example' an inscription re-
fulfill some other comilementary function' objective genitive (to0 eivoE), presupposing the ellipsis of such terms as
Zeus in Sardis also publicized the
cording the dedicatio" of u statue to &vcO4pa or tiqov/trlgec.
an inscription with a dedication
promulgation of new sacredlaws'2Similarly' "I If the dedication was made by a group of persons,the namesof all members
by the goddessherself' with many
to lsis concludeswith a lengthy aretalogy might be listed (see,e.g.,IDelosVI, 1730).In dedicationsmade by cities,the
am" statements.3 terms fl n6h,g and rlpog are often left unexpressed.Some dedications were
offered on behalf of a third party, (i.e.,ng to0 eivog), which is to saythat
"in "for
10.01The Form the gift is made the name of someone" or someone."This purPosecan
be expressed with rq, as in oi tdlv tetgoytovov Bqycr[pevor,| ruqto0
the name of the god in the dative case
The typical form of a dedication states fpou ro0'Ptrrpaiorv I xai. to0 fpou ro0'A0qvcri.ov I noi ng outv zai
( as in
the dedicatorin the nominative eCvo)'
O ari"O u"a tne name of t<irvpnqorvll
'en)'),olvr,xci'Eqpei
[the merchantsof the tetragonalagora
Griechische
in this chapter; Gnter Klaffenbach'
1. See the supplementary bibliography Salomon Reinach' "Notes
1966)' 56-62; 4. See Baruch Lifshitz, d'6pigraphie Palestirienne," RBibl 73 (1966): 248-57' esp.
Epigraphit<,zd ed. (Gottiniri' vu"iJ"nottt-T1,*:3.tt'nt EG' 2'128-88' 3'l-89'
Leroux' 1885)' 373-87; Guarducci' 255.
Trait d'pigraphiegrecque?n"'i't U'
5. Cf. dx tv iitov, dn tdrv ilov npooov, roiE ii,orEvo],praor,, 6x t6v ii<rrvr6gov.
n'tu';.Y;rlouis "Mount
"Une nouvelle inscription grecque de Sardes:Rglemtnt de I'autorit. 6. A small votive from Mount Carmel, II-III a'o'; see M' Avi-Yonah, Carrnel and
Robert,
(1975): 306-30; Horsley inNewDocs l'21' the (lod of Baalbek," IEI 2 (1952): ll8-24, esp' 118.
p"r.. ,"i"tif e un culte de Zeus," CRAI
3 . l K Y m e 4 1 ; N e w D o c sl ' 1 8 - ' 1 9 '

246
 248 | A, ht oductionto GreekEpigraphy

[dedicatedthis] to Apollo and Hermes in the name of the Roman people and
the Athenian people,for themselves,and for the merchants)(IDelosyI, 1709).
The same purpose can be expressedwithout rg by means of the simple
dative, as in Aya0fi d1g. f. Kcoor,oE)6[rog &qlfoux].oE Oee Arovorp
xci ro0g ouvporc,r.g (: oupporcrug)x t6v ilrov t pycgov (: p6yaqov)
noiqoev [For good fortune. Gaius CassiusSextus, chief cowherd, had this
grotto made from his own resourcesfor Dionysos and for his fellow mystai).7
Similarly' a circular votive altar with a frieze of female figures reads,Ztbnugog
Zornqou tv oixov | 'Eotiat zal rr opolr, [Zopyros, son of Zopyros,
Idedicated]this houseto Hestia,and for the peoplel (IBM IV, ll54).

10.03 The Deity

The name of the god is normally cited in the dative case.In some dedications,
only the name of the god is given,as in'Eqpflt xai,'Hgcxl.e0 [[Dedicated] to
Hermes and Herakles].8The name of the deity is sometimesfollowed by an
epithet (e.g., An6l.l,orv fI 0rog, ZeE'Ol.pnroE).e
The objective genitive form of the god's name might be used instead, with
or without such terms as &vcOr1poor qov. This form statesthat the object
is now the property of the god: for example,AQqolrqEr0 means"[property]
of Aphrodite"; rg )orrflgoE QKibyra-Olbasa,no. 121)," [property] of Zeus
Soter." In numerous more ancient dedications, the object itself speaks,pro-
claiming, leqg eipr ro0 eivoE (I am the sacredproperry of [the god] so-
and-so). Dedications were also made to deified emperors and the imperial
family (e.g.,OeoiE)eBcrotoig [to the deified Augusti])(e.g.,fig. 18).n
Some dedications state that the initiative for the gift came directly from
the god. According to Tertullian, the gods frequently communicated with

7. See|ean Bousquet,"Inscription d'Abdre," BCH 62 (1938): 5l-54.

8. See C. Dunant and |. Thomopoulos, BCH 78 (1954):331, no. 6; SEG 14.536(Keos, I
a.p.).
9. For Zeus Megistos see sEG 36.981;cf. 35.697. For Zeus Kasios see sEG 36.15g2. on the
epithets Almg and "ooroE see Glen w. Bowersock, Hellenism in Late Antiquity (cambridge and
New York: cambridge university Press, 1990), 16-17. For epithets of Apollo and Artemrs see
SEG 31.1684; for epithets of Demeter, SEG 30.1174, 36.t578, 39.499, 39.1726, 40.I7t3; for
epithets of 'Ppq, sEG 31.1694. on divine epithets from Moesia Inferior and rhrace see M.
Taeva-Hitova in CongrEpigrYIl, 475-76 (SEG 29.686).
10. SEG 13.424 (Delos, II-I a.c.). Names of deities do not have a definite article unless they
are referred to in the context of a cult or are used emphatically: e.g., t tr]E A0qvdE oE (the
sanctuaryofAthena); vi1tv Aia (by Zeus!).
11. see E. Mary smallwood, Documents lllustrating the principates of Gaius, claudius and
Nero (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1967), no. 135; Robert, Hellenica, VI, 71.
250 | An lntroduction to GreekEpigraphy

mortals by dreams, explicitly stated by the phrase xc0' gcrpc (through a

dream), sometimes with priests serving as intermediaries.l2 Similarly, some
dedications could also be made at the god's command, this fact being indi-
cated by such expressions as xat' dnlrcryqv, F 6nr.raypctog, or ?(Gr
ngoroypcr (accordingto [his/her] command). In an inscription found near
Leukopetra (Macedonia), the most high god commands that a dedication be
made: A[q]r.cyvq{v}, Mry[qg Oev] | ieq6ou],og, xcrt' dm,tolylv @eo0
'Y[r1ri]otou, per
I uio0 lloqapllvou tlv nr.t[cy]flv | &n6toxevtQ OeQ
[Ariagne, temple slave of the mother of the gods, according to the command
of the most high god, dedicated what was commanded to the god, with her
son Paramonos].13
Some dedicants received their divine instructions through oracles (xnrd,
Xaqopg, xor po,vreiav),raby direct inspiration (xcd niruvorqv),or by a
vision (xot' voq), as indicated in the inscriptions xcd ninvor,ov AtbE
Kr,l"ll.crpevqvo0g1el"ou I xpq MqvE tezo0oo,v I xci, Mflvav Tqcvvov
xcOrll6gorcv roug op( prt(vg) | Ilavrlpou [in accordancewith the inspira-
tion of Zeus Killamenenos, the village of Archelaos dedicated [this statue ofl
the mother of Men and Men Tyrannos in the year 246, in the month of
Panemosl and OeQMqvei Xa(qopQ) 1q(qpcrtrc0eiE)'YIag eull[qv] [dedi-
catedl to the god Men, having been warned by an oracle, Hylas [fulfilled his]
vow].ls

10.04 The Object of Dedication

The object of dedication is named in the accusativecase,often using generic

terms, such as laqr.orfqrov (thank offering), eulcrqr.or{qrov/r,o(thank offer-
ing), noq1r1 (firstfruits), or exnrrl (tithe). In many cases,the object is not
mentioned in the inscription, it being obvious to the onlooker either because
"it
12. Tertullian (De anima 47.2) wites, is to dreams that the majority of humanity owe
their knowledge of God"; cf. Ramsay MacMullen, Paganism in the Roman Empire (New Haven:
Yale University Press,1981),60-61.
13. Horsley in NewDoa 5.136; cf. Eiorg Arotqou dx Aopnq<ov Mrppi 0edrv xcr'
nr,tcryilv. novtc Oevoepvvopev (SlCt 1153). On the syncretism of @eg'Yrplotog with other
deitiesseeSEG43.1308.
14. E.g., the oracular shrines of Claros and Didyma. Robin Lane Fox, Pagansand Christians
(New York: Random House, 1986), 768-261; H. W. Parke, The Oraclesof Apollo in Asia Minor
(London: Croom Helm, 1985),l7I-202t foseph E. Fontenrose, DidTma: Apollo's Oracle, Cult, and
Companions (Berkeley:University of California Press, 1988).
15. CMRDM, no. 2.A8 (Kula, Lydia [?l [a.p. 161/2]; Horsley in NewDocs 3.29; IKibyra-
"Une
Olbasa, no. 110. Cf. Paul Veyne, 6volution du paganisme Gr6co-Romain," Latomus 45
(1986): 259-83 (SEG36.1588).On Zeus in Asia Minor seeSEG43.131l.
252 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy

the inscription is engravedon the object (as is often the case)or becauseit is
displayed in closeproximity to it. Unfortunately, some dedicatory inscriptions
have long since become separated from the object into which they were
incorporated or the object has become so damaged or fragmented that its
identity is impossible to determine.
Almost anything could be dedicatedto a god, the choice depending on the
occasion, the dictates of law and custom, and, of course, the financial means
of the offerers. Among the dedicated objects were small symbolic objects,
altars, statues,l6works of art, precious offerings of gold and silver,r7 equip-
ment,l8 and even hymnste and scientific works.20A famous temple inscription
records Alexander the Great's dedication of a temple in Priene to Athena
Polias during the first part of his journey through Asia Minor: Baor.l.eE
}.[crvgog | v60r1xerv vqv lA0qvcril flo],rar [King Alexanderdedi-
cated this temple to Athena Poliasl (IBM lll,399-400; seefig. 20).
There are examplesof slavesbeing dedicatedto a god. Such is the casein the
gift of a slaveto the mother of the gods (e.o. 179180):Ayc011 r{rXn. I Mqrql
Oev crr1Oovr.I Mcrgor,lo Mcrpcrgis euEolbi6vqlcproapr;v xogaorv ll
vopcrl Tulrxqv ov toCg | nryevvolpvorgnqgeto0loov rfr OeQxai rrlv
louoicv l1ooqErflE 0eo0 vBgr,orc, | toug crr,dXeBaoro0 ll ro0 [xd
IFor good fortune. IDedicated]to the native mother of the gods: I, Marsidia
Mamaris, according to my vow, have given a woman, Tychike by name, with
any offspring that have been born to her, to [serve] the goddess,and the god-
dessshall have the power over her that is not to be violated. In the year 2II of
Augustus,which is also327 [of the Macedonianprovincial era : A.D. l8O11.zt

16. The terms yol.pc and vqr,dg refer to life-size statues,with yo),pa commonly imply-
ing a dedication to a deity, rather than an honorary statue; see Lazzarini, "Epigrafia e statua
ritratto." on portable divine statues and the terms pcrorcrlo (carry, bear) and yol"pc nopor,xv
(statuefor solemn procession)seeL. Robert, CRAI (1981): 513-35.
17. SeeT. Linders in Gifts to the Gods:Proceedingsof the tJppsalaSymposium,t985 ed. Tullia
Linders and Gullog Nordquist, Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, Boreas 15 (Uppsala: Academia
Ubsaliensis,1987),II5-22 (SEG37.1843).
18. E.g.,a bronze discus (SEG37.362).
19. E.g., hymns of Isyllos in Epidauros (IG lVzll, 128); hymns of Aristonoos in Delphi (FD
III/2, l9l); two hymns on the wall of the treasury of the Athenians in Delphi (FDlIIl2, t37-38).
20. E.g., the astronomic inscription in Rhodos describedas a "gift ofgratitude" (lcqrorilqlov)
(lGXII/1,913); the inscribedchronicleon Paros(IGXII15,444);cf. AngelosChaniotis,Historieund
Histoiker in den griechischen Inschiften: Epigraphische Beitrge zur griechischen Htoriographie,
Heidelberger althistorische Beitrge und epigraphischeStudien 4 (Stuttgart and Wiesbaden: Franz
Steiner,1988),278-79, 282-83.
21. Ph. M. Petsas,M. B. Hatzopoulos, L. Gounaropoulos, and P. Paschidis, Inscriptions du
saflctuaire de la Mre desDieux Autochthone de Leukopetra (Macdoine),Meletmata 28 (Athens,
2000), 91, no. 14; cf. SIG 24.498A;Robert, B-E(1977):268; SEG26.729,34.656-59.
 and Ex-votos I
Dedications ZSS
254 | An lntroductionto GreekF'pigraphy

a choragusdedicated prayers":AnIl,ovL nqxq Mdpxog | )l.ouiog Aouloxog [Marcus Salvius

to0 eCvogv0qrcv (ee,Q)).For example,in Athens'
the tribe that were Douiscusfdedicatedthisl to Apollo who hearsprayers](lBMlV,1034; seefig.
his prize, a tripod on a base, in the name of the choirs of
2l). Similarly, a lengthy metrical graffrto praising the saving power of Pan
victoriousinthecompetition(IG|I23042).23Similarly,publicofficialswho
dedicated begins with the words llcrvl te eucrlqe xoi nqxolt g r,6oolwev
were honored with cfowns for good administration sometimes
Tgaryoutv pe x yflg, nol.l. ncr06wa nvorE r.oooiE[[I dedicated]this
them to a god.
to Pan of the successfulhunt, who listens to prayers, who brought me safe
from the land of the Trogodytai when I suffered greatly with double pains].26
10.05 Ex-votos
As in the caseof the inscription just cited, dedicantssometimesfurnish the
of a vow' A specific reasons for making the dedication, such as ool0eiE x peyl,tov
In the strict sense,ex-votos are dedications made in fulfillment
deliver the quid pro xlvvcov (having been rescued from great dangers) and %rvuvocrg xcri
dedicator having made a request in the past promised to raool0eiE v rQretQ tnrp (having been endangeredand then savedat this
statedwith a
quo as soon asthe requestwas granted' This fact is often explicitly
(as he had promised) and spot) (seelKibyra-Olbasa 150).Among the most common of thesecausesfor
formulaic expression,such as xa0E no1eto
zcrOrporoe' dedication is protection or rescuefrom the dangersposed by seatravel, as in
especiallyzuiiu aueetlxE\, NcLl zuxtlu, u' 21qv, zu[pevoE
u'Xtln' zulapevog @eo0zul.oyla'l @eu6oroEAogi.arvoEI'Iouciog otoOeigt nel].<dy>ouE
eivq eulopevog, zu1{v &vO1x'evOsQ, nolqoev
gavial zu[opvq v60q- [praise be to God; Theodotos, son of Dorion, a Jew who was savedfrom the
v0qnev(e.g.,'AQroroxi<rt<rtr,gAQqoi'rq h O
dedicated lthis altar] to sea, [dedicatedthis]].27In the following inscription, dedication is made to
xev [Aristoklea of Kitium, in fulfillment of a vow, 'Enuxqctoug
as..having Aphrodite, who assisted the suppliant as a midwife: nl
Aphrodite ourania] |IG||,4636]). The term eufpevoE,translated
of elopcrr' q1ovtoE, Meylotq | qlr,tipou )Qrltiou 0uyrqq Mqtgi | Oernveuovrf
rnadea vow,,,is,of course,nothing other than the aorist ParticiPle ictglvl AQqoi,t11| &v60ryev (during the archonship of Epikrates, Megiste'
Christians
(I pray). fewish inscriptions prefer the phrase fiq s'u1llE'while
daughter of Architimos, of the deme of Sphettios, dedicated this to the
favor 21i1 ro0 eivoE. mother of the gods, Aphrodite, the midwife who comes to help).28There are
Kol'r'xl'rlg I Aet
The verb is often omitted when the term zu1fi follows, as in
also casesin which the danger was imposed by the god himself: a number of
atrlfv[Kalikles[dedicatedthis]toZeus[infulfillmentoflavow].(IKibyra-
(e'g','Eplxtqtog | nqoelv ex-votos from Eumeneia state that they were given under the compulsion of
OlbasaIII,Sg).However,this is not alwaysthe case 'EnrtvllovoE xol.al-
this for the most high god divine chastisement(e.g.,'Arl"l"orlvt flgolnul,ciq |
(: noiloev) oeQr| rpiorrpI *xnn lEpictetus made
fpevoE | &v60qxev [to Apollo Propylaios, Epitynchanos, under chastisement,
[in fulfillment ofl a vow]).24 dedicated[this]l).2e
Thetermex-votoisalsoappliedtodedicationsofferedinthanksgiving,
gr<r( [given as] Perhapsthe most frequently attested theme in dedications is that of heal-
typically indicated by such terms aslaqr'ot{1gtov or eulogr'orf ing. The gods Asklepios and Hygeia in particular were noted for their ability
is sometimes made
u tftunt offering). The occasion for this thanksgiving
to cure diseasesand other physical complaints. Asklepios was the patron of
explicit,butmorefrequently,thededicantsimplystatesthatthegodhad
"listened to" (and answered) his or her prayer, employing the epithet medical centers in Epidauros, Pergamon, Kos, Delos, and elsewhere.3o Simi-
A marble relief of a larly, the formula rupotorqqiog is frequently found on buildings, especially
nfixooE (who listensto prayer), as in Oeoi nfixoot"2s "Apollo
who hears
ho.r"-* f.u-.d within a shrine records a thanksgiving to 26. A. Bernand, Le Paneion d'El-Kanais: Les insciptions grecques(Leiden: E. I. Brill, 1972),
no. 8 (late III s.c.?); cf. Horsley in NewDocs4.113-14.
23.Cf.IGvtz,lls,thededicationofatragicactorincommemorationofhisvictoriesinthe 27. OGI 74; Guarducci, EG, 3.205-6:' Horsley in NewDocs4.113.
various dramatic contests (ca.276-218 s'c')' 28. IG ll2 4714 (Piraios, Augustan era); cf. zucwilttp icrtgeivg er.r1{v on an ex-voto to a
"Local Cults in Graeco-Roman Phrygia"' GRBS 17 (1976):247-68'
24. See T. Drew-tsear, helpful midwife (Paul Foucart, Des associaions religieuseschez les grecs: Thiases, ranes, orgons
and
esp. 247-49, no. I (engraved on a small altar from Yenice Ky near Akmonia [Phrygia]
pulleyn Prayer in GreekReligion (oxford: clarendon, IParis:Klincksieck,1873], 199,no. 14).
dating from the imperiai period); cf. Simon ,
29. T. Drew-Bear,
"Local
Cults," 260-61, no. 15 (cf.262-66, no. l7); Horsley inNewDocs
1997),40-41. I.JL.
25.SeeOttoWeinreich,"OEOIEnHKOOl'"AM37(l'gl2)tl-68;zu{noogisanalterna- 30. Seethe listings for healing narratives in the supplementary bibliography in chap. 7.
tive to 6nfxooE.
 Dedicationsand Ex-votos | 257

of Jewish and Christian provenance. The following inscription was engraved

on a marble column in a synagoguein CaesareaMaritima: flgo(oQog)
@etrrgo<u> | uio6'Ol,pnou | ng oortegicrEI Morgvag ll Ouyatqg
[the gift of Theodoros, son of Olympos, for the health of his daughter,
Matronal.3t Gifts of gratitude given in thanksgiving for healing can be made
with more explicit expressions,such as ng rrlg gaoeoE (for the healing of
eyesight). Some of these depict the particular human body parts affected by
illness or accident.32Thanksgivingsmay employ the term 1o,gr,ot{1grov/r,cr and
recite the nature of the healing. One such inscription includes a relief of a
lower left leg and foot offered as an ex-voto in thanksgiving for the healing of
the lower leg: Aoxl.qlnrQ I xcri,'Yyei,g(:'Yyiercr) | TXtl I eulaqr.oltfiqrov
[Tyche [dedicated this] to Asklepios and Hygieia as a thank offering [for
granting her petitionll (IBM II, 365).
Not all depictionsofbody parts representphysicalcures.The representa-
tion of human ears on an altar represents either a plea to be heard or
gratitude for having been heard.33The depiction of human hair, a symbol of
vitality, indicatesnot a cure ofbaldnessbut the act ofputting oneselfunder a
god's protection.3a Similarly, the picture of soles of feet sculpted in relief
followed by names (in the nominative or genitive) implies not the healing of
feet but the dedicationsof pilgrims.3s

SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aleshire, Sara B. Asklepiosat Athens: Epigraphical Essayson Athenian Healing Cults.

Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben, 1991.
Aleshire, Sara B. The Athenian Asklepieion: The People, Their Dedications, and the
Inventories.Amsterdam: I. C. Gieben, 1989.

"The
31. IJudDonateurs 52, no. 67. Cf. Eleazar L. Sukenik, Mosaic Inscriptions in the Syna-
gogue at Apamea on the Orontes," HUCA 23, no. Z (1951-52), 541-51, esp. 544, no.2; CIJ 8O4-
"Chronique:
11,964-65,1438. For a Christian inscription seeF.-M. Abel, II. Epigraphiedu sud
Palestinien.1. Inscriptions d'el-'Aoudjeh," RBibl 29 (I92O): 113-26, esp. 113,no. l, 114-15, no.
2 : 11 6 .n o . 3 .
"Gifts
32. See F. T. van Straten, for the Gods," in Faith, Hope, and Worship: AsPectsof
ReligiousMentality in the Ancient World, ed. H. S. Versnel, Studies in Greek and Roman Religion 2
( L e i d e n :E . J . B r i l l , l 9 8 l ) , 6 3 - 1 5 1 , e s p . 1 0 5 - 8 1 .
"@EOI
33. SeeOtto Weinreich, EIIHKOOI," AM 37 (1912): l-68, esp.46-48.
34. E.g., a relief of two plaits of hair is dedicated to Poseidon (IG IWz, 146). Cf. Ludwig
Sommer, Das Haar in Religion und Aberglauben der Griechen(Mnster, l9l2); Paulus Schredel-
seker, De superstitionibusGraecorumquae ad Cines pertinent (Heidelberg: R. Noske, l9l3).
35. See Hans Oppermann, Zeus Panamaros, Religionsgeschichtliche Versuche und Vor-
"Le
arbeiten 19, no. 3 (Giessen:Alfred Topelmann, 1924),68ff.;Margherita Guarducci, impronte
tfel Quo Varlis e monumcnti aflini, figurati ed epigrafici,"RendPontAcc19 (1942-43):303-44.
 d,n tnt oductionto Greek Epigraphy l)edicationsand Ex-votos I ZSS
258 |
"La "Gaven
Alexandrescu-Vianu, Maria. sculpture en pierre Istros: II and IIl." RESE 25 Straten, F. T. van. voor de goden." Lampas 12 (1979): 50-94. (Cf. SEG
(|987):135-49.(Hellenisticpe,ioa,includingdiscussionofcommissionersand 29.1772.)
"Kulte
Valkov, V., and V. Gerassimova-Tomova. und Religionen in Thrakien und
awarding of statues.)
Untermoesien."ANRW II, 18.2 (1989): 1317-61. (Cf. SEG 39.1832.)
charneaux,Pierre."Duct6dechezHta."BCHlll(1987):207-23'(cf'sEG
37.|787;meaningoflogofollowingbynameofgodindative/accusative.)
"Divinits de Phrygie." NRW II' 18'3
Drew-Bear, Thomas, and christian Naour.
(r9g}), 1907-2044 and Pl. III-XIV'
"Die (1990), 1729-864'
Frei. P. Gtterkulte Lykiens in der Kaiserzeit'" NRWII, lS'3
(cf. sEG 40.1266.)
"Iconographie et cultes Failaka'
Gachet, |acqueline, and |ean-Frangois Salles'
Koweit." Mesopotamia25 (1990): 193-215' (Cf. SEG40.1383;Babylonia,Ikaros')
"Weihinschriften mit thrakischen Namen aus dem Heilig-
Gerassimova-Tomova' V.
(1974):43-s4. (Cf. SEG
tum des Asklepios Keilaidenos'" LingBalk 17, no. 2
30.716-.83;Thracian horseman')
..Dieux et cultes non heliopolitains de la B6qa" de l'Hermon et de I'Abilne
Hajjar, Y.
l'poqueromaine." NRWII, 18'4 (1990): 2509-604'
in Turkey. New England,
Horsley, . H. n. The Rider God stelesat Burdur Museum
Australia: University of New England, 1999'
"The unknown God (Acts 17:23)." In Knowledgeof God in the
Horst, P. W. van der.
and J. Mansfeld, 19-42'
Graeco-Romanworld, ed. R. van der Broek' T. Baarda,
ll2. Leiden: E. I' Brill, 1988. (Cf' SEG 38'2019;0e5 pcootoEi0eoi
EPRO
yvororor..)
Lane,'EugeneN..,Men:ANeglectedCultofRomanAsiaMinor.''NRWII'18'3
( 1990):2 l6 I -74. (SEG40'r7t9') "The Epigraphic and sculptural
"A
Lane, EugeneN. Restudy of the God Men." Part 1,
Evidence."Berytus15 (1964): 5-58 and pl' I-VII'
Levinskaja,l.A.lnAntinajaBalkanistika,ta'f'e'Gindin'67-73'Moscow'1987'(Cf'
SEG37.651;survey of the cult of Theos Hlpsistos')
Malay,H."TheSanctuaryofMeterPhileisnearPhiladelphia"'EpigAnat6(1985):
rrl-26. (Cf.sEG35.rr74-23r.)
Mitford,T.B...TheCultsofRomanClprus.''NRWII'18.3(|990):2176-211.(Cf.
sEG 40.1319.)
"The (1990): 2l3L-60'
Mitford, T. B. cults of Roman Rough cilicia." ANRWII, l8'3
(cf. sEG 40.1292.)
panev, A., and M. Ricl. "Nouvelles inscriptions votives de Macdoine orientale'" ZPE
101 (1994):139-59. "Les
et notes' Paris:
Pouilloux, lean' Choix d'insciptions grecques:Textes' traductions
BellesLettres," 1960.Pp. 154-59'
et d'antiquitsgrecque'Yoy
Robert, L. Hellenica:necueii d'apigraphie,de numismatique
9. Paris, 1950.
Robert,Louis...Documentsd'AsieMineure,XXII-XXVIII.,,BCH|07(|983):497-
599. Esp. 553-79. (Cf. SEG33'1168;the cult ofthe Dioskouroi')
et d'antiquitsgrecquers'
Robert, Loiis. Hellenica: Recueild'pigraphie,de numismatique
Vol. 10. Paris, 1955. PP. l-227'
university Press,1863.
Rouse,w. H.D. Greekvoiive offerings. cambridge: cambridge
 Funerarylnsuiptions I ZOt

classesis often blurred; for example,commemorativeinscriptions (tituli me-

moriales) that pay honor to benefactors after their death bear similarities to

111
I
both funerary and honorary inscriptions. An example is fi Bou)"{ xcri frpog
reipr;oev XeuoQ oteQvrp M0q(xov) Aq(tl.rov) flgeioxov flqeloxou
xoopir'lE Br,oawcr [the council and assemblyhave honored with the golden
I FunerarylnscriPtions crown Marcus Aurelius Priscus, son of Priscus,who has lived a well-ordered
hfe] (fG XII/5, 314; Paros). The motivation for bestowing these posthumous
honors may be expressedin such words as &qerqEvexev(on account ofhis
virtue), otoQgvtoEBloooav (having lived prudently), glorc pr,toovto
(having lived best), [{ocvrc rugbg netypo &eetqE (having lived as a
model of virtue), or ngopolqtog Br,tocwn (having lived, he died an untimely
death).
Crowns or wreaths bestowed on the deceasedduring their lifetime were
often depicted on commemorative inscriptions, with or without the names of
ate more common than inscriptions the groups who gavethe crowns or wreaths. For example, an inscription from
Funerary inscriptions (tituli sepuluales)
thesewere engravedon stelae'sarcophagi' Smyrna commemorates two men, father and son (both having the name
of any other class.rThe majority of they
are notoriously difficult to date' D emokles), who had been awarded honorary crowns by the assembly( rlpog) ;
tombs, and altars. Since most epitaphs alphabeti-
i" totpot" but usually catalogued representations of these crowns are carved in relief at the top of the stele.
are not arranged .tt,ottotogitu[i
the name of the deceased' Within each crown is inscribed the word flpoE, and the names of the two
."ftf ".."ratig to tht first letter of with
of a single name' could be inscribed men are engravedbelow the crowns in the accusativecase,as if the inscription
Brief epitaphr, ,l'uJty t"sisting or on
urns containing cremated remains were an honorary one:2
a sharp point or painted on cinerary deposited
alternative)' If the urn was
amphorae (employed as an inexpensive
plaques were affixed to the wall or r1poE[in crown] r1pog [in crown]
in a wall or corumbarium, inscribed and the
m"'king the burial plots of slaves Aqpox)'frv Aqpoxi,.flv
beneath eachloculus' Sul_clppi surviving 'ApQr"i'1ou
be inscribed' There are many qpoxl.fouE
poorer classesit c,."tt *igii ul'o
(Potters' Quarter) on the west side of
examples of these in the Kerameikos
served as the city's chief cemeteqr' The distinction between funerary inscriptions and dedications can also be
Athens, outside the city wall' which
most funerary inscriptions were difficult to determine, such as when a man dedicateshis possessionsto a god
In contrast ,o *o"ornt"tal inscriptions' same
by artisanswho often lacked the after his death. In the following epitaph, a soldier named Ares dedicated his
produced in the peripheral workshops inscrip-
the artisans responsible for public weapons and military service to Ares, the god of war, at his retirement and
degree of skill and education as
from drafts that were either composed subsequentlydied: flcuopvoE oreou.OEqr;g'Agtp tcg6oxev nl.a I
tions. It is supposedt* tt'ty worked
in some cases,they might have composed xcri orpcna,v'xarcrlh.poE rcr0ra eiE teqov xopov xoopov | &'ne),fl.u0e,
or dictated by customers and that, (see
details supplied by customers nou ov ncq1r, ei g,i1povov oxoti,q. I x0 lhis military servicecom-
the draft themselvesbased on biographical or.inelegant
might easily result in flawed pleted, Ares dedicated his weapons and his period of serviceto [the god] Ares
S 0.07). Any of these alternatives as Asia
u"J *oltitoltural contexts' such
drafts, especially in -t'ltitit'goul 2. Beneath the inscription is a relief of Demokles shaking hands with his seatedfather and
Minor and Palestine' eight lines of verse (IBMIV,1024); cf. such cognate expressionsas 6 rlpog tiploe rv eiva
inscriptions and inscriptions of other
The distinction between funerary eixvr, 1o).ng zci oreQcvql rqvexei, oueQv<ooexoi 0cQe qpooig (the assembly has
honored so-and-so with a bronze bust and with an unbroken crown, [and] crowned [his funeral
and Ruprecht' monumentl and honored him with funeral rites at public expense).
Epigraphik (Gottingen: vandenhoeck
1. SeeGnther Klaffenbach, Griechche (Paris: E' Leroux' 1885)' 423-33'
Trait d'pigraphie gr'ecque
1957), s4-5SiSalomon ;i'

260
262 An Introductionto Greekb)pigruphy FuneraryInscriptions I Zel
|
order' where n6l.rcris restrictedto Phrygiaand Lycaonia,where it designatesa platform on
and, having left thesethings, has gone to another world without
which the sarcophaguswas set; it correspondsto the term npoo6 and
nothing but darknessexists.[Died at an ageofl twenty-nine years']3
perhaps to noner,gov.6Other substructuresmentioned in Phrygian epi-
11.01 Formulae Used in Funerary Inscriptions taphs include oyxgouorov, orQC)[rq,, 06pc, Bc0glxv, and zqqnig.
The region of Isauria provides one of the most distinctive of all the types
usually in of gravestone,the rectangularbox-shapedl,cqva[ (ooro0tnq). Alarnax is a
In its most laconic form, an epitaph will consist of a single name,
and
the nominative case (e.g.' Auxcrolv UG II' Il979D, though the genitive sarcophagus with a small cavity for the remains of a body. The cover is
caseoccurs frequently in the areas of separate,often in the shapeof a crouching lion.7 Both elementsare the subject
dative casesare also attested.The dative
Boiotia,phokis,andLycia,especiallyintheformulani,tfpeivr,([epitaph] of a great variety of treatments. The box form lent itself to the representation
deceased in relief of the family that purchasedit.8 Lions are frequently found surmount-
for so-and-so).occasionally, the accusativecaseis used, as if the
case ing altars and larnaxes,or forming a separatepart of the funerary decoration.e
were being named in an honorary inscription. The use of the accusative
of Phrygia and central Anatolia (e.g.' The phrase xor,pqrflgr.ov(coemeterium)ro e0voE ([a single] tomb
for the dative is common in the region "sleeping
noiqocrv chamber"] of so-and-so)is especiallycommon in Chris-
ToterE Mouoaiou i pt"tlS xcrl'Egpaiog &el'QsMouocriov [iterally,
his brother' made this for tian inscriptions of Attica (seeS tt.Oll.ro There are of course other formu-
[Tates, mother of Mousaios, and Hermaios,
case is lae, such as oflpc to' orl ro0 eivoE (this is the grave-marker/tombof so-
Mousaiosl).a In this inscription, as in many others' the accusative
expect the dative' and an image of the and-so). Tomb ownership can also be expressedusing the term laQgov in
employed where one would normally
instances this should the formula pwlpogr,ovr,cQqovro8 e0vog/rQeivl (tomb belonging to
deceasedis carved on the monument itself. In most
probablybeinterpretedasadifferenceinattitudetowardthemonument so-and-so).lr
"so-and-so set up
itself, meaning [this image ofl so-and-so" (e'g'' IKbyra- The term rnog (private burial plot) is often combined with a term for
Olbasa,no.80;IKonya,nos.99-102,104'130-31,139-40'I5l-52'17I'173' tomb or sarcophagusto describethe ownership of the plot of land on which a
188.189).However'insomeinscriptions'thenumberofimagesofthede- tomb is constructed (..g., il oogE orlv xcri neqi ar rnog xcri, r
'Egpeia
named in the nyercv M. Avttovlou [this sarcophagusand the plot of land
ceaseddoes not correspond exactly to the number of persons
the
inscription and in other instances,no image of the deceasedaccompanies
Thesecan be interpreted as variations on lcpooogrov. See J. Kubihska, Les monuments funraires dans les inscriptions grecquesde l'Asie
inscription (IKibyra-olbusa, no.4). Mineure, Travaux du Centre d'arch6ologie m6diterran6enne de l'Acad6mie polonaise des sciences
case.The use of the genitive,
the previously mentioned usageof the accusative 5 (Warsaw: ildition Scientifique de Pologne, 1968) (cf. BE 11969l: I l8); G. Petzl, "Ein Zeugnis fr
asintooelvoE([grave]ofso-and-so),isnotcommonuntilthethirdcentury ein Grab-Triclintm," EpigAnat25 (1995): 106;Robert,-6rEpPhil,119-21,223; Robert,BE (1943):
as 0{xr1'
e.r. This formula can be slightly expandedby adding such terms
f02, p. 165.Seealso Robert, Hellenica,I, 63; II, 147;X,173, 176:XIll, 192-94.
"Inscriptions
6. SeeW. M. Calder, d'Iconium," RPhll36 (1912): 48-77, nos.6,11,27,42,43.
pvrllrsiov' itS,t,on,
pvflpo, pvr1p,oqrcv, oflpcr,ooqE,]'qvg' or ot{trq' "Asia
7. SeeW. H. Buckler, W. M. Calder, and C. W. M. Cox, Minor, 1924," JRS14 (1924):
graves'
There are many regional differenceswith regard to the naming of
"First
24-84, esp. 70-71, no. 102; H. S. Cronin, Report of a Journey in Pisidia, Lycaonia, and
of the term
tombs, sarcophagi,and related structures's For example' the use
Pamphylia," JHS22 (1902):94-125,339-76, esp. 346, no. 80; SterrettW4 no.234.
"Isaurian
8. SeeA. M. Ramsay, and East Phrygian Art in the Third and Fourth Centuries
"Examples
after Christ," in SERP 5-92; A. M. Ramsan of Isaurian Art: The Screen in Isaurian
3.IBMIv'1113(,1.o.160_80)ithefirstlineisahexameter,buttheremainderseemstohave
Monuments," in Anatolian StudiesPresentedto Sir William Mitchell Ramsay, ed. W. M. Buckler
no metrical scheme.
and W. M. Calder (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1923), 323-38.
4.IKib.na-Otbasa,rlo.4;cf.nos'6,9,80'SeeClaudeBrixhe'Essaisurlegrecanatolienau "Inscriptions
1987)' 96' 9. SeeCalder, d'Iconium," nos. 18,21,24.
dbut de notre 6re,2d ed' (Nancy: PressesUniversitaires de Nanry'
(Thrace)' ooqrov' ilpQov' 10. See fohn Creaghan and A. E. Raubitschek, "Early Christian Epitaphs from Athens,"
5. E.g., &y1elov, eioo"q, BxBcoptoot'5'wqq, vtopiE
georE, xoqa, xcrpqtov, xcriotpc, xolplorE, xor'prp{qtov' }"otpr'ov (Perinthos)' waS4' Hesperia 16 (19a7): l-54, esp. 6-11; on the evolution of the meaning of aemeteium see SEG
*oioqrou, I<,rv,iqvE (central Anatolia)' pnp<r' pvqpeiov' pvqgopr'ov' pvrlgoouvov' 43.1324.
oqr;g,
(Teos' Kolophon' I l. E.g., p1pqlov r.oQeqovElqopeiou (ISardBR 169); fiqrirov r.oSgov'Iocvrq (Henri
nggli oixt{qtov, ooroeiptn, nopaotatrxv, n}'trrcrE, rqpv1pc' nuqi'c
Kayster valley), oxoQf, ooqg, pcxqc, otr,pcrS(west caria), ororfSdg, otopcroolxq' Grdgroire, Recueildes inscriptionsgrecques-chrtiennes d'Asie Mineure [Paris: E. Leroux,1922],29,
nprr.ror,
inoogrov' notq' no. 98 quater); pvrlpa r,cr$qovAvcorcol<p (ISardBR 173).
"Oog, "oq6, "rro9 &norromE, one0oE, tppoE, rirpv1pc'
 FuneruryInstiptions | 265
264 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy
a proseepitaph, a custom that came to exerciseinfluenceover the epitaphsof
arounditandthesubterraneanvaultbelongtoM.AntoniusHermeias]).12
declaresthat the resident aliens as well.rTEpitaphs were more concernedwith inserting the
Th. phru.. tv t6nov u1g poul'ng eig tcrQlv rlrrlQr'oapvqE
(tnos) for a burial place (eiE raQfp); deceasedinto the generations of his or her family, especially through the
council hasvoted " giu.r pi.." of land
p(ublico) d(ato) d(ecreto) lineage ofthe father, than in establishingan absolute chronology. In contrast,
it is comparable to the Latin formula l(oco)
that public land has funerary epigrams frequently record the age quite precisely. Commenting on
d(ecurionum) (used in a funerary context)' signifring
this phenomenon, Marcus Tod suggeststhat the mention of the age added
been given by a decreeofthe council'
with vOe (or vOcr' pathos in the caseof those who died in childhoodr8or was reservedfor those
,q.iother frequently employed formula begins
as vone (xcrra)xectat on the threshold of manhood or womanhood.le In such contexts,such an
vra00c, wo0cr) and includessuch expressions
eiva as in the following adjective as Ir,yo1qvtoE (short-lived) might be used. Alternatively, the age
eivcr (here lies so-and-so) or simply vOe
oxgocrgoixov6pov might be stated to call attention to a remarkably long life span.20
elegiaccouplet: vOeYqQocrvdttci'bv xcrr60mfre
place' Chrestos buried aged Italos' The practice of specifring the age in prose epitaphs increased in the
,rrbn Xgqotog noqOipevov [in this
This formula' modeled on Roman period, usually accomplishedwith the formula r6lv * cardinal num-
weeping for his faithful ,t.*utd when he diedl'i3
of the fourth century or ber, as in tdrv w' (aged fifteen years). A popular variant in Asia Minor is
the iatin hic jacet, is typical of Christian inscriptions
(here lives so-and-so). ({oaE/lrloev/Biorocrg rq * cardinal number, as in lfocrwc rq v( (who
later. A common chrisiian variant is 6v0e xorot?(el
lived fifty-seven years).2rSometimesthe number of months is also stated,as in
Thenameofthedeceasedmayincludethepatronymic'ethnic'ordemotic
father's name or toug oV pn(vS) ro r' nu(oo11)@r,}.rcr,qov A.'OxrcrBiou flcol.),iarvoE
(see $ 4.17). An epitaph of a woman usually records the
of the husband (e.g.,EQqcrv- i1 ovoog tdrv textdvtrrv reipqoev (floavro Errl xy prl(vag) g . loCge [in
sometimes,if the woman is married, the name
wife of Diogenes'farewell the year 250, on the tenth day of the secondhalf of Dios, the associationof
tig, pv Aroy6veuE,lpqot lcrige [Euphrantis'
carpentershonored Philetairos, Ia slave] of Lucius Octavius Pollio, who lived
good woman])'14
of humans but also of their twenty-threeyears,nine months. Farewell!j.22In the post-Constantinianpe-
Grave inscriptions attest to the deathsnot only
prime example is the epigram riod, wa00o ?r[ro,r eivo re].eurrlocrE(or relerqoe) tv * cardinal
favorite animals, especiallydogs and horses' A
number came into common use. Epitaphs of children often give the age very
fromLesbosforthefemaledogParthenope(IGx|||2,459).15
accurately, in terms of not only years and months but also days and even
IntheHellenisticperiod,theprofessionofthedeceasedwasnotusually
the Roman period'16 For hours.
stated, though this pctice increased throughout
Other forms of dating are also used. In Kyrene, the year of death is often
example,ur.r*.yofinscriptionsfromsardisincludesmentionofalawyer'a
(lSardBR 148' 150' 159' statedaccordingto the reign of the emperor (seeS 6.01). Similarly, in Egypt,
teacher,a dealer in swine, and a mounted gladiator
not only the year of death but sometimesthe date of birth (yewrl0rl) is given
162).
according to regnal years.
SpecificationoftheageofthedeceasedisalsorareinHellenisticinscrrp-
of the ageof the deceasedin Some stelaedisplay the image of two hands lifted in the air, palms turned
tions. It was a custom in Attica to omit the record
up in a gestureof prayer. In its early usage,this image was employed to invoke
sarcophagusand the land on which it
12.IEph 2212; cf'ft oopg xoi a autlv tno6 [the 17. See James H. Oliver,
"Greek
Inscriptions," Hesperia ll (1942):29-90, esp. 90 (fG IP
alsoIHierapP' no' 23 (cf' nos' 25' 45)'
standsl(IHierapL no.227); cf' 12s95, LL. 3-4).
in NewDocs3'39'
tf . ff;rlsafrin III, 12 (Necropolis of Nikaia); Horsley 18. See,e.9., IGll2 12629 (six months), 10699A (fifteen months), 12960 (five years).
14. SEG 14.701(Caria, Roman period)' 19. See,e.9., IG Il2 13132 (sixteen years), 130094 (nineteen years).
(SEG 37'1207) and a pig (Gerhatd Pfohl,'^Griechkche
15. Cf. the epitaphs of a mouse 20. SeeMarcus N. Tod, "The Alphabetic Numeral Systemin Attic," BS 45 (1950): 126-39,
I n s c h r i f t e n a l s Z e u g n i s s e d e s p i v a t e n u n i l f f i n t l i c h e n l e b e n s [ M u n i c h : H e i m e r a n , 1 9 6 6 l ' 3des
5-36 e s p .1 3 0 .
26' 627; D' Woysch-M6autis' La rePreleltltion
ISEG 25.7111).Cf. Kaibel 32g,332,625, la du Iw 21. See Serap Bakir-Barthel and Helmut Mller, "lnschriften der Umgebung von Saittai
grecsde l'poquearchalque fn
animaux et des|tresfabuleux sur lesmonumentsfun,raires (lI)," ZPE 36 (1979): 163-94, esp. 165-66, no.25.
Cahiers d'A.chologie Romande 21 (Lausanne: Bibliothque historique vaudoise'
sicle av.,J.-C., 22. Bakir-Barthel and Mttller, "Inschriften," 167-71, no.28; cf. rouE q),F, Frl(vg) o' erl
l e 8 2 ) ( s E G3 3 . 1 5 s 6 ) . ( Robert, Hellenica, IX, 28).
|6.SeeM1|MAlllforanindexlistanddescriptionsofoccupations.
 r;unerary
Inscriptions | 267
266 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy
iirq v( [in the year 232 [:.r.o. l47l8l, on the third day of Audnaios, the
It later becamea symbol
the gods,especiallyHelios' to avengea violent death' associationof leather workers honored Primus, son of Mousaios,who lived
evil spirits.23This image
of the call for divine help against grave vandals and 6fty-sevenyears]).28
who died young' especiallynameless
is also found on the tomlstones of those In the Greek cities of Asia Minor, it was customary for wealthier citizens
day on which newborns
infants who died before the tenth day, that is, the to have a tomb chamber made for themselvesand their family during their
the inscription ncrig
were named; the epitaphs of these children simply carry own lifetime. It was customarily a rectangular chamber, sometimes with a
(little
(rur,l,l,ogin Boiotia),2aoften abbreviated to ft/flA' or nqc/xqr'l'l'cr
small forecourt and arched recesseswithin, in which were set sarcophagi. In
girl). such cases,the word efiEor,v (he is living/they are living), the participle
and [v/loo (while living), or !weg Qqovo0vreg (while living and being of
r1.02 The Preparation of Epitaphs, Sarcophagi' Tombs' sound mind) are analogous to the Latin phrase v(ivus) f(ecit) or v(iva). ThIs
Funerary Altars formula was especiallypopular in the imperial period, perhapsused to pre-
vent the new tomb from becoming a bad omen.2eAlternatively, this danger
was borne by a relative'
In many regions, the cost of erecting the monument might be dispelled by beginning the funerary inscription with the words
case)with the simple
The name of this donor is expressed(in the nominative yc0p r1p (for good fortune). By the late third century e,.o.,this formula
this made] for so-and-
formula eiva (ni,/nq)"tp tiut (so-and-so[had was sometimesexpanded to eCvcr[v pvqpeiov xo,reoxeaoevcrutQ
'Aqtepeilorog l'xq xrol0rvntovop' I
so), as in reule dppov i"oiiton (so-and-sohad this tomb made for himself while living), followed by nq
Agtepelolg[Artemeisioshadthistombmadeforhisbelovedwifenamed pvqp15 x &varo,oetoE(for his memory and for his repose).
etc') is often under-
Artemeisial (lSardBR 144). The verb (nolqoe' teule' The intended occupants of such a tomb were usually specified.Tlpically,
this made] for her
stood,as in'Ooovoa ni tQr ficrQi'AQrepfr lOsonoa [had a tomb would have room for a man and his wife (yuvcr,zi), his children
had been undertaken
father, Artemesl.25Some epitaphsspecifr that the task (rxvo6), and-in the caseof larger tombs-his descendants(xyvolE),as
(xo0g eivcr veteitrnto
according to instructio., of- the deceased in the caseof the Me),iratvogxo,i dxyvow [tomb of Meliton and his descen-
llKibyra-Olbasa,no' 381). dantsl.30Those who could legally be interred therein might include members
Suchstatementsmaybeaccompaniedbyanexplicitdeclarationthatthe ofthe extendedfamily, such as an yyovog(grandson),yyvq (granddaugh-
be declared with such
cost was borne at the onor's expense,which may ter), vpQq (daughter-in-law), &verlrr,og(cousin), e),Qr.6og(nephew),
6aurflg tl'eotv, x rv
formulae as x tv iir,lv nqooov, toiS rc,nnog (grandfather),prpprrl(grandmother),and nev0eg6g(father-in-law).
xeivou,ii,cl5cncvatg,Eii'tovxapto)v'or[ii'trlvxnolv'Insuch There were also household gravesfor family members that extended beyond
might be involved in
places as Rhodes and Kos, a large number of relatives kinship groups, including 0genroi/ol ("foster sons" and "foster daughters"
the.construc-
n*"t for the tomb.26The entire community might sponsor
tQ eivl xaneaxeuaoe2T r Isee5 4.17]), and freedmen,both of whom could occupy a trusted position
tion, as expressed in the formula r1pog within the extended family. The formula ro0ro r pvqpeiov zl"qgovpoq
instances in which
pvqpeCov (or equivalent) x tv ii't'rv' There are also oux ,xo),ou0{oel (this tomb will not be passedon as an inheritanceto any
professional or.religious
the tomb or grave monument was paid for by the heirs) (seeCIG 3870)is a Latinism correspondingtohocmonumentumheredes
belonged (e'g'' rouE ol'B pn(vE) Ai-
associationto which the deceased non sequetur.Funerary altars (polpol) frequently accompanied grave sites and
tfrE ozutxflE lfiocrvlta
vcllou y llgeipov Mouooilou teiprloevi1 ovoloE were inscribed with epitaphs.3l Romans used four-sided altars, while the
2 3 . S e e ,e . g . ,M A M A Y , 2 2 5 n '
Ilcrtl,l6<rg, flolli"i<rE, floi}'}iet) see
24. on names derived fiom nciltroE (e.g.' IlaitrIoE, 28. Bakir-Bartheland Mller, "Inschriften," 165-66, no. 25 (SEG29.1183).
sEG 37.409. 29. On !n, lrnv, ldroc, etc. see Robert in OMS 6.3 n. 5. For examples see ISardBR 150;
25.seechristianNaour,"InscriptionsdeLycie,"ZPE2aQ,TT):265-90'esp'276-79'no'6 IHierapP, no. 25. Cf. [riolv [they are living] (ISardBR I57).
(Arsada, Lycia). 30. lSardBR 149:cf. 155.
26.SeeP.M.Fraser,RhodianFuneraryMonuTnents(Oxford:Clarendon'1977)'52-58i 31. SeeD. Boschung, Antike Grabahre aus den Nikropolen Roms, Acta Bernensia l0 (Bern:
Horsley in NewDocs2.48. Stampfli, 1987) (SEG 37.804); D. E. E. Kleiner, Roman Imperial Funerary Altars with Portraits,
27. or noir1ot,v60r1xev, v6or1oe, Qxoop1oe, [i1guoe, oqxe' i1ypcroe'
 FunerarylnscriPtions I ZOS

268 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy

( to the
fiqnolv,3scorrespondingto the Latin formul a d() M(anibas) [sacred]
on a square stone
The altar itself was erected
Greek-style altar was circular' altars was to spirits).
the primary functions of funerary
base called a socle' Ont of loosely translate
Manyepitaphsconcludewithawishthatallwouldgowellforthede-
the deceased'Hence' one could ceased, such as lalqe (farewell), or with equivalent expressions'
such as
support busts or images of that informs
"funerary to*""''" This explains the altar inscription ettXe/eite (good luck) or eurp1e/eite (farewell)' accompanied
by the
FoU,oSas tfr Ouptqi ffl xoi tQ
tog &vEqdvrcrE name of the deceased,an expressioncomparable to the English expression
the reader that someonl Juo"no'n Ge' and his son'
tht i*ug;' of his daughter' ..rest in peace.,,Thesewishes are sometimes accomPaniedby the name of the
ui,ei (:uiQ) Mfivr'. ;;
terms' as
Menisl (IKibyra-olbas)-'no'gl;cf'l)'Manyofthesealtarscarrybas-reliefsof deceased(in the vocative or nominative) or paired with eulogizing
addition to' such busts' in the formulae lgqot xoi l,une lcCqe (farewell,O good and
carefreeone)'
ifr. a...ur.iinstead oi or in
(farewell' pious one)'
naooQrliE lcrige (farewell' beloved)' eruoeBlElcrige
is a
of Endearment o, 1oiq, xcri yicrrve (farewell and be well)' The term 1gr1ot/1gr1orfi
11.03 Motive and Expressions deceasedin
g.n.ral term used to praise the good qualities shown forth by the
the monument
the motive of the donor(s) of life.36
From Hellenistic times onward, deceased.
stock phrasesas pvilpqE ltrqtv' llvtloE
1ptv' or These farewellswere sometimes answeredon the epitaph by the
is often expressedwith such on tombs located by
a meiorial)'' The Phraseis
normally preceded Epitaphs that addresspassersbywere especiallycommon
pvrll-trlgvexa (in *t*"<lt L' xai o
whom a tomb is erected' but the genitive is also the sidesof the roads leading out of the city. Typical replies are 1c,iqe
by the dative or *re per# for especiallyhigh (farewell to you also), xal o, xcri o ^ye,laiqe tig aod ei' 1ai'qto xci
Theseexpressionsoccur with
attested(see,e.g', SEG3l'1705)' I6yol 1n[ger.v
thesebeing equivalent to the
Latin expression cnirg, lcriqe naqoira (farewell,O passerby),and xcri n&or.
frequency in tnt no*u" feriod' Similarly' whenever
no,golrcruE(and I say farewell to all you who passby)'
m(emoriae) c(ausa)'33 singleperson,it is spokenby the deceased
ssio":
d expre lcrlgete appearson a tombstoneof a
K:::' ^::" ?;: shghtlvmoreenende
*,li'li,Xilffi j::*:::::i'Hl*il',:*il:
;'"i:1,;::Yi -:1T:^t:".'i"':3" :: ni.nr.f (e.g.,lcriqete navteE [farewelleveryone];laigere nagoeitcrt
'Eqpi,nnou to0 neQil.qpvou [farewell, passersby,from Hermippos' the well
nog

ffi);";:;:,;';-;;"J'1ri1'0,'r'i'J::l:::-uT:,:"t:i::t?"1:T;
J#;,;;il u'*?Fl::ilT:::::ffi:
fTi5l
iT;".n.'i"ii""J:*:i:1ll*:i::,T':T:*.1T,'J;.T,::
beloved]|IKibyra-olbasa,no.4l]).Perhapsthefearofbeingforgottenindeath
gives rise to this greeting to the living'
:::ffi
?;::;l:;,il::il#"d';'ltrormurae':J'1?:i1::i:"T:"J,::: The name of the deceasedoften occurs in combination with a
term of

H.;:::fi;:;i';;;t (cripoo')'and' ressrrequent\'oeotg praise,especiallyxQlor6/XQrlotg (good/worthy)' as in'AQgotola lgqotil

with
be employed in conjunction
igood apt.odisial.t This adjective can
and
Bretschneider,r9s7)
(sEG 32803). SeeRobert,Hellenica'Y\'87-88; oiher adjectives,as in 1gr1otxai l,une (O good and carefree[fellow])38
Archaeologica62 (Rome:G. blameless'
sEG26'',;Z'i';;i7i'1:i"!::'^Yi:^\fl;,Y;#i;l{,';l,l,'i'-i)'' no,r.iovxa}"bv lqqot pepnre 1<r[ge (beautiful child' good and
x,247-56.See
'* ,'il::,i'i'".?!;i'i);"'17^ii7;':;;;;,;ii:,::':2::j:"1"2,3''J,T],1;li;)1"'"
l;-', 3
I'inguAnglica'Francogallica'
Germanica conscriPta' farewell). In the caseof public funerary honors, the title trorilQ tflE nl.eorg/
37.731.SeeM.P' Nilsson'ue*i"i'"" (Lun: C' w' K' Gleerup'1951-60)'
i nit"n s0' no' 2
vols.,Skrifterutgivnaav stt"s?;l;ti*;"t sut la signifcation et la destinationdes (CII 678, |537-38 |oGI74'73]).
gti'n-'-ni^tl: Recher.chu 35. oeoi^gcripoor,is occasionallyalso usedby |ews
1:211n. 124; Ferdinand dera Grce(palri' E. d. Bo..".d,
1939)'260ff'; (sEG 43.1330);on lqqotff see Robert'
drrr r,;;r;ir;;;;, rrigieuse 36. See I.-C. Decourt, kPhit 67 (1993):237-50
monunents circuraires Bt'gt''
(Fte-ib.,'g' 1986)(sEG36'1568);A' (1976):799'
Hellenisti"'"';:;;;;;'- fr":inwiens il,tAnat, 369-7O; cf. rdor neQr'Iqpvogin Robert' BE
Dietrich Berges, is used_not with
"On the Meamng"it *tr<t @YMEAH'" IHS32 $912):213-38' 37.1G ll2 10920 (columea, Athens, I s.c.). The adjective 1q1orE
S. F. Gow, 153(pveicElcrqw)' On the use of to praise the deceased's
29' 32-33^;,rsardBR Athenian citizens but only with foreigners. 1qlotf{
32.E.g', IGatatNu,""'^it-'i' 1aq,u'lciqr' ropoetta
(sEG
Robert,
"Les Inscriptions de
x tdrv ii<ovlv-qei<rE qualities during life see L. Roberi, EtAnat, 369-7U L.
33.8.g.,Ktrecyoqosorur;{-uia 12'328lBeroia])' 'ihessalonique (Review: Inscriptiones Graecae, X, pars II' fasc' I)"' RPhil 48 (1974): 180-246'
12.444lCarial);To"q'*ng -'lqiir'"t' r'uiptrs1d9'i llEG almostalwavs
;;;i: rn Li" r'n"-' the term Qr^l'oorosvlo c s' p .2 2 4 ( O M S 5 . 2 6 7 - 3 3 4 e
, s P .3 l l ) '
34.SeeRobert,Hellenici'fii' or wife; in Egypt,the patternrs "Iuqnupu (B' Lifschitz' BIES
by or toward a mother :s. E'g., T(ite) tDl'(our'u; 1q1ot ncri l'une loiqe' tdrv xp'
occursin connection*,h ;;;;;;d on Dionysiac motives in epitaphs seesEG
22 | 19581:62-73, esp.66-68 [Hebrew])'
lessconsistent(r.. Ho.rt"y i'n-"rrrr.r'r.tor).
43.r29r.
270 | An htroductionto GreekEpigraphy
ro0 {pou (father of the city/people)was often bestowedin later Roman and
Byzantine times.3e
(beloved
Other terms of endearment are also found, such as nqoo$tl,i15
one) and especiallyytruxrcroE (sweetest/dearest) (e'g','El'nLqQqog xci
'Ovfior,poE'El.nr,ixqvyluxuttqv, pvelcrElagr'v IElpidephorosand onesi-
(also'
mos Iset this up for] sweetestElpidike, in memory]).a0The term riqrrrg
ilQtig, ilqoivq) is used in funerary inscriptions, with reference not only to
the heroized dead but also to the deceasedgenerally as the recipient of
funerary rites.al This term can be combined with other terms of endearment
in such expressionsas fiqolElqqor laige (o good departedone, farewell)42
or &yu05 riQr,lg.n,The verb (qoe can also be employed in conjunction with
epithets of praise, such as nr,or6g (faithful), pepnroE (blameless)' and
&,nqoxontog(without offense).
I 1.04 Encouragement and Consolation
In addition to bidding farewell to the deceased,epitaphs sometimesoffer some
form ofencouragementor consolation,such as @oqoet (be ofgood courage)
and the familiar consolationoueig @vctoE (no one is immortal). An ex-
'Io0ote, oueiE@vcrtog
ample is @goel, [be of good courage'Justus'no
oneisimmortal].aaExpressionsofthiskindarefoundonlewish,Christian'and
pagan memorials. There are instancesof expanded forms of this consolation,
ior-."u-pI., ouig &0ovaroE ei pil povov ig (:eis) OegotE' nvrorv
39. SeelKilikiaDF, PP. 215ff'
"Laudatory Epithets in Greek Epitaphs," BSA a6 (1951):
40. ISardBR 156; cf. M. N. Tod,
182-90.
is that the
41. Strictly speaking,figog implies a recipient of some cultic acts. The implication
inscriptions, it might
spirits ofthe d.u.u' exert influe;ce for good or ill on the living. In some
judge. see Emily Kearns, The
be used more loosely, but in actual practice, this is often difficult to
Classical Studies'
Heroes of Anica, BICS Suppl 57 (London: University of London' Institute of
1989) (sEG 39.319).
42.See,e.g.,MAMAVI,1s0'II;IGRRI\t,796'Cf'BE(1977):258'289'44O'469'489(p'
" H e r o s , "R E S ( 1 9 1 3 ) :1 l 1 t - 4 5 , e s p ' 1 1 3 8 '
4 1 9 ) ;S . E i t r e m ,
43. SeeFraser,RhodianFunemry Monuments,73-74' 76-81'
44. IBethShe,arimgT,no.|27,L. 8 (cf. no. 22), Cf' CIJ 1005, 1009-10, 1025,|o39,1050-52;
"@goer. oeiE 6'vcrtog: 6tud" de vocabulaire religieux," RHR 113 (1936):
Marcel Simon,
type (see
lgg-206. In the region ofSalboura, Syria, several epitaphs are ofthe oueig ocvotoE
en Haute-Syrie
R. Mouterde and A. Poidebard, Le Limes de chalcis: organisation de la stEpe
38 [Paris:
romaine, Documents anenset epigraphiques, Bibliothque archeologique et historique
P. Geuthner: 19451,nos. 2,4-5): e.g.,Eopr',Zaatnanpt', ouiE"Sic &ovctog (no' 5)' For reflec-
Erimus cuncti. ' ' : The
tions on death in Greek inscriptions see K. M. D. Dunbabin,
Skeletonin Graeco-RomanArt'ldl 10r (1986): 185-255 (SEG 36'1576)'
Funerury
lnscriptions | 271
yr,vttqg rt nd<n rtr nvro pegi.(<rrvIno one can live forever exceptonly the one
God himsell who is father of all and givesall things to all].as
Some epitaphs expressphilosophical ideas about the brevity and vanity of
life, the most familiar being B),re l3ioEtc0rcr (look, this is life), sometimes
shortenedto simply ro,rq.a6There are also longer statementsexpressingthe
samesentiment in both prose and verse (e.g.,oov v nogiol Biov, qil,e,
eig rr r 16)"ogpdrvro0 Blou ra0rc [so long asyour life may last,O loved
one, [passby] knowing that this is the end of your lifel [IHierapl no.227A.]).
Epitaphs may even include literary references,as in the following hexame-
ter verse, which is only intelligible if one knows that Hylas was a beautiful
youth whereasThersiteswas an ugly old man: eieCvrig varo,r, oxflvog
l.r,noagxov0q{oag, etneq'Y},aE ii @eqoeirqgfiv, ncrgoeiro [looking
on a corpse, who can say, passerby,whether it was Hylas or Thersites?] (IG
XIV, 2131;IBM lV, lll4).
11.05 Curses on Tomb Violators
Tomb inscriptions often display a concern for security. Unauthorized corpses
were often laid to rest in tombs constructed by others, presumably by those
who could not afford to build tombs of their own. Moreover. vandalism and
looting (ruppogulic) was a persistentproblem.aTHence, tomb inscriptions
alwaysstate the ownership of the tomb, followed by a declaration of who may
J
Iegally be interred within.
One customary way of protecting graveswas to inscribe them with curses
on all would-be intruders and vandals.a8Many tombs conclude with curses
drawn from a pool of formula phrases:
"Epitaphs
45. See A. Petrie, in Phrygian Greek," in Studies in the Htory and Art of the
Eastern Proyinces of the Roman Empire, ed. W. M. Ramsay (London: Hodder and Stoughton,
1906), 119-34, esp. 129, no. 1l; cf. CIG 3827R:flaioov, rqQ4oov, liioov, &noOcveiv oe ei.
"Hellenica:
46. See L. Robert, XX. D6crets de Prine," RPhil (I94a):5-56, esp. 53-56; L.
Robert, EtAnat,390 with bibliography; J. Robert and L. Robert, BE ( 1950): 207, no. 204.
"Tomb
47. SeeA. D. Nock, Violations and PontificalLaw," Essayson Religion and the Ancient
World, 2 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1972), 2:527-33; Stephen Mitchell, Anatolia: Land, Men, and
Gods in Asia Minor.2 vols. (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 2:127-28,
"Maldictions
148. Cf. Andr Parrot, et violations de tombes," /BI 60 (1941): 88-95. For Anato-
lian grave monuments see Kubiriska, Les monuments fun4raires, 9*49; Stylianos P, Dantes,
'Aner),1rrxoi
dnQqoer,Eeig rg ).l"qvrxcE 6artupBtouE ncl.orclqrotnvlxE nrypcQE (Ath-
ens, 1983) (cf. SEG 36.1575i D. Feissel,BE ll987l: a00).
48. The reader should consult Louis Robert's extensive study of funerary imprecations:
"Maldictions
fun6rairesgrecques,"CRAI (1978):241-89 (OMS 5.697-746:,cf. S-EG28.1609);
Robert, Hellenica, VI, 13-15. Cf. F. d'Oria, "E>TQ ANA@EMA," in Atti del XVil Congresso
 FuneraryInsciptions I ZZI
272 | An lntroduction to GreekEpigraphy

(if anyone shall damage [this tomb], he shall be answerableto the

rv Oevoor vcryvoEPl txfor;E
gods)sa

(by God, having read [this], do not abuse[this tomb!])ae

The god Mn of the underworld (Mi1v xarc10vroE)ss and the other
chthonic gods were often chargedwith tomb oversight and the punishment of
pl tgrue[cv i].cpv 00to
trespassers, as is indicated in the formula noqciolpr.toiE xatcrl0ovi,olE t
ip,?on Qulooerv (I hand over to the [gods] of the underworld the guarding
( [may he who breaksinto this tomb] not be able to make a joyful sacrifice)so
of this tomb). The so-called&pagrorl,gclause,common inLycia, was em-
ployed to curse all who unlawfully inter a cofpse, with the words &pcrgrol,E
pet to0 y6voug nl.or.to orcl Oeoig nd,or,xcrrcrl0ovlolg (let them be accounted sinners by all the
gods of the underworld).s6
([may he who breaks into this tomb] perish with his family)st The well-known curse otar, orQ ngE rv Oev(he shall have to reckon
with the justice of God) is known as the Eumeneian formula.sTIt is attestedon
drot l.yov OeQ epitaphs in Eumeneia and the Plain of Kirbasan in Phrygia in the third
century e.o., with most exemplarsdating from e.o. 246-73.s8An important
(lhe who breaksinto this tomb] shall render an accountto god)'s2 stylistic variant of the Eumeneian formula employs the verb 1coinstead of
eipl: 1e/[er,/11arQ nqE rv Oev (he shall have to deal with God).se
let navtog roE @eogxelol'top6voug
54. SeelKibyra-Olbasa, no.79. On xoloBor see C. Naour, Tyriaion en Cabalide (Zutphen,
1980),63,74.
( [he who breaks into this tomb] shall have to reckon with all the gods who 55. SeeCMRDM 1.145-47, 149-51 (Iconion), 154 (Lystra);2.179 (Perra).
"Inscriptions
56. See,e.g., Naour, de Lycie," 283-85, no. ll (Arsada, Roman period). This
will be provoked to anger)s3 "if
same type of clause is used in curses against those who do not offer the prescribed sacrifices:
they do not do sacrifice, let them be accounted sinners against god and the dead" (Horsley in
v tr,Enol"oBdlor,vo1oEOeoCg NewDocs2.100). Regarding the use of 0eoi xarc10vrot, and Oeoi,oqvr.or,in Phrygian impreca-
"Phrygiaka
tion formulae seeAlfred Heubeck, l-Ill," ZVS 100 (1987):75-76.
"Notes
lo studio dei papiri 57. See Robert, Hellenica, XI-XII, 401-4, 414-39; Denis Feissel, d'6pigraphie Chr6-
Internazionale di Papirologia,3 vols. (Naples: centro internazionale per (IV): (1980):
(1983):248-74 (Asia Minor); B. H. tienne XI. Mal6dictions fun6rairesen Attique," BCH lO4 459-75, esp. 463; W. M.
ercolanesi,l9s4), 3.995-1006;I. H. M. Strubbe, Lampas 16 "The
"An Calder, Eumeneian Formula," in Anatolian StudiesPresentedto William Hepburn Buckler,
Mclean, Attic christian Epitaph: The curse of Iudas Iscariot," ocP 58 (1993): 241-44;H'
"Inscriptions de Chypre," BCH 5I (1927): 138-54, esp' 148-51' no' C; W' M' Calder' ed. W. M. Calder, Josef Keil. Publications of the University of Manchester 265 (Manchester:
Selnig,
,.p"rt cttrirtiu" Epitaphs from Phrygia," Anatst 5 (1955): 25-38, esp.25-27; IKibyra-olbasa' ManchesterUniversity Press, 1939), 15-26. SeeMAMA I, 16l; VI, 2n-33, 235; VII, 96. See
Robert, BE (1972): 547; Thomas Drew-Bear, Nouvelles inseiptions de Phrygie, 4 vols, Studia
no. 31.
201-4; SEG Amstelodamensia ad epigraphicum, ius antiquum et papyrologicum 16 (Zutphen: Terra, 1978),
49.SeeIPhrygChr 76_84, nos.28_29 (cf. Stephen Mitchell, IThS 31 [1980]: "Early-Christian
4:106, nos. 44-46,48-49; W. M. Calder, Epitaphs from Phrygia," Anatst 5
2 8 .r 0 7 8 ) . ( 1 9 5 5 ) :2 5 - 3 8 .
H' S' Versnel'
50. Referring perhaps to the preparation or offering of a iep tg*e(c; see
,..May He N"t S" Aut" to sacrifice. . .': concerning a curious Formula in Greek and Latin 58. Elsa P. Gibson ("A Unique Christian Epitaph from the Upper Tembris Valley," B,ASP12
"Inscriptions d'Amorgos: Lames de 11975): l5l-57) published an early IV r.o. example from the Upper Tembris Valley inscribed
curses,,' ZPE 58 (1955):247-69; cf. Th6ophile Homolle, "Early-Christian
with a cross. Cf. Calder, Epitaphs," 36, no. 5.
plomb portant des imprcations,"BCH 25 (1901):412-56' esp' 412-30'
"Notes ( 59. See Robert, Hellenica, XI-XII, 401-4; I. H. M. Strubbe, pci nlrppr.or":Impreeations
st. SeeG. E. Bean, and Inscriptions from the cibyratis and caralitis," BS 51 1956):
against Desecratorsof the Grave in the Greek Epitaphs of Asia Minor-a Catalogue,IK 52 (Bonn:
136-56,esp.147,no.39;IKibyra-Olbasa,no.66'Cf''icltd)Sre&nol'oocratogxaiy6vog(and "Inscriptions
verb otrl,eo (I Rudolph Habelt,1997);1. H. M. Strubbe, indites de la rgion du mont Dindymos en
may they and their offspring perish terribly); Bean (148, no. 42) comments on the "Early-Christian
Galatie," Mnemosyne34 (1981): 107-26, esp. ll5-16 n. 50; Calder, Epitaphs
damage) with respect to tombs. "Laodiceia combusta and Sinethandos''' fiom Phrygia," 25-28. SeeMAMAIII, 196,347; VII, xno(:vii,xlii. SeeSEG 31.1691;Drew-Bear,
5-2.Popular in northwest Phrygia: see,e.g., Ramsay,
Nouvellesinscriptionsde Phrygie,4:106-9, nos. 44, 46, 48. SeeW. H. Buckler, W. M. Calder, and C.
, 4 M 1 3 ( 1 8 8 8 ) :2 3 3 - 7 2 , e s P . 2 4 l ,n o . 1 8 . "Monuments
W. M. Cox, from Iconium, Lycaonia,and Isauria,",fRS14 (1924):24-84, esp.37, no.
53. Meaning the violator will not be able to justifr himself before God'
 F'unerary
lnscriptions | 275
274 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy

Lycaonia but more this formula was adaptedfrom paganepigraphysimultaneouslyby both fews
This variant is attested not only in Eastern Phrygia and and Christians in the third century 4.o.66For this reason,it is often exceed-
Korinth'60 The name
widely in Pontus, Cilicia' Cyprus' Jerusalem'Athens' and ingly difhcult to distinguish between Jewish and Christian inscriptions that
Godinthisformulaisoftenexpandedwithsuchexpressionsastbvoevtv employ this formula.
(living God)'6rand t pyo
rrcrvroxQroga(almighty Godj, tv ldrvtc 0e6v
by the name of
vopcr to0 0eo0 (the great name of God)c or substituted 11.06 Fines for Tomb Violators
or by reference to the
Christ in monogram fJrm (otat crt(r nqbg rv X)
Trinity (ti1v rglcrc).63
In Thrace, Macedonia, and Asia Minor, epitaphs often include threats of
ScholarshavedisputedastowhethertheEumeneianformulaisofChris-
the view that the prosecution and heavy fines against the unlawful use of tombs.67This can be
tian or fewish provenance.64A. R' R' Sheppard put forward
over from Akmonian often expressedby the formula dtpq ouevi [,6otor.x1euOfrvcr(it is
Eumeneian formula is essentiallyJewishbut was taken
not by Phrygian Montanists'65 not lawful for anyone else to be interred [in this tomb]),68 followed by a
|ews by Christians living north of Eumeneia, statement concerning the amount of the fine the transgressorshall pay, stating
demonstrated that
Louis Robert, M. Waelkens, and A' T' Kraabel have since
that if this is not (ei frtl) obeyed, the offender shall pay a fine of such-and-
"studies in Early christian EpigraphyII: A'An Early
19; 85-88, nos. 1, 2,4-5. Seew. M. Calder, "A
such. For example,in the region Konya, the customaryformula is v 6 tl5
G' C' Anderson' Summer in Phrygia II:
r[,o-Ct rir,iun Formu]a," JRS14 Ogza): s5-92;J' r(e)r,(o)Blcoqrcrr.(nrdrpc) noxetoetar./noot rrir Qionrp * cardinal
18 (1893): 81-128' esp' 113' no' 53 bis; f' G' C' Anderson'
The Phrygo-LydianFrontrer"'/HS number (and if anyone should inter [an unauthorized] body, he will be liable
..r*plorun i., Gulatia cis Haiym: part II. X. The west Side of Lake Tatta (continued)'" /Hs 19
(1899): 280-31S, esp. 302, no. 233' Extant examples prove "Some the survival of the formula into the for x drachmaeto the fisc [imperial treasury]).
Recently Acquired Byzantine
ny""*in. period. See Cyril A. Mango and Ihor S*ft1gt The incurred fine could be paid to any one of a number of groups,
Archeolgical Museum," DoP 32 (1978): l-28' esp' 12-13' no' 15
iri..rip,tio", at the Istantul "SfC according to the wishes of the deceased,whether it was paid to the treasury of
(unknown provenance'ca' \rLI'o'; zA'tsaz)' []1n nqE tv Oev;K' Bittel and A' M'
..Archologischefunde aus der Trkei, |942," JdI 58 (|943):200_56, esp. 252_53: yl the council or assemblyof the city, or put into the treasury of the local deity,
Schneider,
"Catalogue des monuments grecs' romains et byzantins du
nqE tv O(e)v; Gustave Mendel, or paid to the gerousia (council of elders),6eor, in Lycia and Phrygia, to trade
de Brousse," BCH 33 (1909): 245-435' esp' 342-48' no' 102'
V).r.e. f-pirlut Ottoman "Inscriptions de associations.The simple fact that the fines could provide a source of income
(seventeenexamples);L. Robert'
60. SeeRobert, Hellenica,xl-xll,40l-7
(1966):733-77' esp' 768' See Robert' BE should they apprehend a tomb violator must have been an incentive for
l'antiquit et du Bas-Empire Corinthe," REG79
096aj: v7; (1965): 162. Cf. MAMA
VIII' 255; [r'196'347' greatervigilance. Longer epitaphs sometimesrequire that a copy of the inscrip-
61.SeeRamsay,c,P,7.378,353,356,362,364(cf.355'374);Drew-Bear' Nouvellesinsffip- tion (probably written out on wood or papyrus) should be depositedin the
tions de Phrygie' 4:48.
will have to reckon with the great
az.n.g.itorotcrutrir npE r pycrvopc rot 0eo0 [he "R'E'C'A'M' Notes 66. Waelkens (in CongrEpigr VII, 124-27) gives examples of the pagan use of otot crtQr
:gz, 398-407; A' R' R' sheppard'
name of G"odl (Robert, Helleiica,it-xu, rgg rv Oev(early III a.n.) and tv Oevoot'pi1 &rxi1o1E.Basedon closeparallelsbetween
392' 394' 457)'
and StudiesNo. 6''' 173; cf. Ramsay, CBP' 2'369' 388' the Eumeneian formula and indisputably |ewish epitaphs of III a.o. in Nicomedia, Louis Robert
63.SeeRamsay'CiP,2.527;'W'M'Ru.,,'uy"'EarlyChristianMonumentsinPhrygia:A (Hellenia XI-XII, 407-39) has argued that there was Jewish influence on the Christian use of
StudyintheEarlyHistoryoftheChurch,''Expos,3dser.,8(1888):24|_67,40|.27,esp.424'no. the formula in Eumeneia. Cf. A. T. Kraabel, Judaism in WesternAsia Minor under the Roman
'I(qoo0v) X(q[otv) (Ramsay, CBP, 2.371); npE tv @(ev) x<ri
24. Cf. also npE tv Empire with a Preliminary Study of the Jewish Community at Sard, Lydia (Cambridge: Harvard
'Iq(oo)f (v) X(qrot)v (MAMA VII' 96)'
University Press, 1968), 67, 109-14. M. Waelkens ("Ateliers lapidaires en Phrygie," in
6 4 . S e e W . M ' R a m s a y ' . . T h e C i t i e s a n d B i s h o p r i c s o f P..Inscriptions
hrygia,',/Hs4(r883):3.70_436,esp. CongrEpigr VII, 105-23) has argued that some are ofpagan Provenance. Cf. SEG 29.1376 (cf.
..Early d,Asie Mjneure,'' REG
400; Ramsay, Christian Monuments''; w. M' Ramsay' r778).
nos' 455-57' W' M' Calder ("Philadelphia "Penalties
2 (1839): 17-37, esp.23-26; Ramsay,CBP' 562-64' 67. SeeW. Arkwright, in Lycian Epitaphs of Hellenistic and Roman Times," /HS
andMontanism,-BJRU7llg22-231:309-54'esp'309-17;W'M'Calder"'TheEumeneian 3l (19ll): 269-75i on fines in Christian epitaphsseeSEG 39.1785.
"Early-Christian Epitaphs from Phrygia"' 25-27; Calder' MAMAVII' 'EqplE
Formula," 15-26; Calder, 68. E.g., IHierapl, nos. 133, 227; CU 777. Cf. [r] pvr;petov xcteot[6uc]oov xcri
xlvii) explained Jewish use as an imitation of the Christian formula' @orrq Anol"l.oqou pl dl6oto repov teOflv<rrpqvo, ei pil . . . lHermes and Thoidote
*R.E.C'A.M Notes and Studies No' 6: Jews' Christians' and Heretics in
65. Sheppard, "Notes [daughter] ofApollodoros set up the memorial. It is not allowed for anyone else to be buried
(cf' sEG 29'1400)' cf' Feissel'
Acmonia and Eumeneia," AnatSt 29 (1979):169-80 except...I (IBMIV, 918).
W' Schepelern (Der Montanismus und die
d'6pigraphie Chrtienne (IV)," 463' Conversely' 69. E.g., totou toO pvqpeiou i1 ^yepouolcrxfietor [the gerousia has charge of this tomb]
pn)i;rrirrKrlre [Tbingen,'i.c.B'Mohr' 1929]' 86-s7) thinks that certain variants of this (SlG3 1244 [Kos, II/IIL+.o.], 1228 fEphesos,IILI.o.]).
iortu are pagan adaptations of Iewish inscriptions'
 Funerarylnscriptions | 277
276 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy

about the expended on these rites. The rite was sometimes carried out by trade assocra-
public archives (r g1eio), thus ensuring that there was no doubt
testator,swishes.7oThis precaution assuredthat, in the event of the removal tions servingas burial societies(e.g.,oxev Q rf xot tog [oioorolv rip
in the archives oupBlov pou Agq)'icrv' v pi1 06l.oror,v[oioor, xat toE orcr
or defacement of the tomb inscription, a permanent copy
croCgagE tilv mcrtoovr1v ro0 0eo0 [he gave [this bequest]on condition
could be consulted. "my"]
that they deck the grave of his [iterally wife, Aurelia, with flowers
every year; and if they do not deck this tomb with flowers every year, they
11.07 Annual Commemorative Rites
shall have to reckon with the justice of Godl).77If the group defaultedon the
terms of the trust, the principal often reverted to another grouP or body.78
on the death
The performance of the customary observances(r vopt[peva) It was also a widespread custom to crown not only the living but their
obligations
of a iamily member was deemed to be one of the most profound gravesafter their death.TeOne of the customary commemorative rites was the
for the deceased
of life in ancient Mediterranean culture. In many cases,rites annual offering of golden crowns or wreaths woven from branches of myrtle,
continued even after the completion of the official period of mourning.Tr
olive, oak, or flowers (especiallyroses) to crown the funerary altar and adorn
the dead were customary
Annual commemorations (6vrnolc) in honor of the grave. In Lydia and Phrygia, a trust known as a orOovrrlrtxv was
on the anniversary of the death. sometimes set up for this purpose, the accrued annual interest being used for
SoimportantwasitfeltthatSuchritesbeobservedthatamanwithno the purchase of the requisite crown or wreath.80This practice is illustrated in
heir might even adopt a son to ensuretheir observance.72 Thesecommemora-
the following example from Hierapolis: ei pq, &toteioel rolg rnE
and flowers on the funerary
tions included the offering of libations, incense,T3 Bqycroiogrv gr,onl,rovroiE llexXo0orvrdlv npe].1pr,6vorv * d u r
epitaph often
altar of the deceased.A reference to an nlpel'qt{5 in an itrroOcnatulE ni vpctt to0 u(l)o0 aro0 Tatrcrvo0 oreQavorruxbv
..executor" of the will, especiallywhen it is used in conjunction
specifiesthe pya ni tf yeve0l,iq crto0 [and if [this is] not [obeyed],he shall pay a fine
will of).
with such a phrase as xor r.aofixqv (in accordancewith the of three hundred denarii to the epimeletaiof the association of fullers, to be
The rosaliaisa well-known funeral commemorative rite that originated in
used as a gift in honor of the name of her son Tatianus, for a large bequestfor
little change'74
northern Italy and spread throughout the Greek East with the crowning of his sarcophagus on [the anniversary ofl his birthday]
the grave or
Torches were lit, and flowers-especially roses-were strewn on (IHierapP, no. 45). In Malona (Rhodes),the associationof the Dionysiastai
nature of life'7s
tomb. In the ancient mind, flowers representedthe transitory shared in the purchaseof a gold crown and the perpetual proclamation of
banquet'76 A trust was often
This ritual was followed by a sacrificeand solemn honors with two other associations,one dedicated to Athena, the other to
from which was
set up or a plot of land set aside, a portion of the income the gods Zeus Euphranoreionand Athena of Knidos: tv eiva terya0vrc
n to0 rorvo0 ro0 Aovuotcor0v (-&v, Doric for -v), A0cvaiaor0v
T0.TheJewsinHierapolishadtheirownarchivesinwhichsuchdocumentsweredeposited
(cf. IHieraPL no. 133; CII 775).
42 (1993):308-25 (sEG 77. Ramsay, CBP, 2.562-64, nos. 456-57.
71. o; the fate of widows in society see L.-M. Gnther, Historia
78. In an inscription from Akmonia (,t,o. 95), a trust is set up in order that the archons of
4 3 . 1 3 3 )1.
the city and the secretary might provide twelve denarii worth of roses each year for the tomb of
T2.OnfosterageSeeMAMAIX,pp.lxiv_trvi;cf.Isaeus()ntheEstateofApollodorusT'30.
(Phrygia)' Praxias, followed by a banquet (Bernhard Law, Stiftungen in der giechischen und rmischen
73. SeelHierapl no.22T: nnoE (incense); cf' SEG6'272
Antike: Ein Beitrag zur antiken Kulturgeschichte,2vols. [Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, l9l4], l:87; vol. 2,
T 4 . S e e R o b e r t , H e l l e n i c a , V I l l , g Z ; L ' R o b e r t " ' N o n n o s e t l e s m o n n a i e s d ' A k m'The
oniade
Hoey' and W' F' Snyder' Feriale n o . 2 0 2 : S E G3 1 . 1 6 7 9 ) .
Phrygia," JSav(1975):153-92, esp' 158; R' O' Fink, A' S'
ycs 7 (1940): t_.zzi, rrp. 119; Nilsson, opuscula selecta' L:12!; Paul collart, Phi- 79. SeeP. M. Marshall, Rhodian Funerary Monumen fs (Oxford: Clarendon, 1977),68.
Duranum,,,
Macdoine, depuis seioigines jusqu'd la-fin de I'tpoque tomaine, Ecole franqaise 80. An inscription on a funerary bomos in Thessalonika bequeaths a vineyard, the income
lippes: Ville de
58' from which was to be given over to a thiasosof Dionysiac mystai on the condition that they offer
d;thnes, Travaux et m6moires 5 (Paris: E' de Boccard' 1937)' "A
..Inscriptions de Philippes: Les Rosalies,'' BCH 24 (|900):299_323. crowns of roses on the funerary bomosof the deceasedQG n2,260; Herbert C. Youtie, Note
75' See Paul Perdrizet' "Cults
(Thrace); Richard Lattimore' on Edson's Macedonica III," HTS 42 ll9a9l: 277-78; Charles Edson, of Thessalonica,"
76. See Robert, Hellenica, vlil, 92 (cf. 134); SEG 3l'1679
HThR 4I [ 1948]: 153-204, esp.167-68; Collart, Philippes,387,388 n. 3). Cf. CharlesAvezou and
T h e m e s i n G r e e k a n d L a t i n E p i t a p h s , I l l i n o i s s t u d i e s i n L a n g u "Rosalia,"
a g e a n d L i t e r a t u r e 2 3 , n o- s . l - 2 "Inscriptions
RE ( 1920): I I I I CharlesPicard, de Mac6doine et de Thrace," BCH 37 (1913): 84-154, esp. 38-62;
(urbana: university of Illinois Press, 1942), 137-41; M. P. Nilsson,
('.<>llart,Phili ppes, 474- 85.
15, esp. 1I 11; Collaft, Philippes' 58'
 F'unerarylnscriptions I ZZS
278 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy
yeqouodqlqg,'Pcrppie0), or tlpically fewish phrases
(e.g.,&glrouv<rytrlyg,8e
ov'A0rlvnirp Kvr'itp lquo<p
AloocrtcrBugrqorav EQgcvoqi'olv rd)v and formulaeermight be Jewish,but this must be argued on a case-by-case
has been
otescrvrpxcri valoqeoJo'n 'is "bu ei 1gvov [[the deceased] basis. The term pqpgr,ov is thought to be particularly indicative of |ewish
the Athanaiasts' landl the
honored by the association of the Dionysiasts' provenance,though Jews also used many other terms, such as pvqpelov,
AtaburiastsslofZeusEuphranoreions2withAthenaofCnide,withagolden 0r1xq,and pvtpa.e2
timel (IGXlIll'937)'
crown and public proclamation for all Jewish inscriptions that do not bear such explicit traits are much more
diffrcult to identify. Personsbearing Jewishor biblical names are often Jewish
11.08 Jewish EPitaPhs (seeS 4.14), but Christianssometimesalso took biblical names,especiallyin
the post-Constantinian period; as Christianity became resPectable,Christians
funerary inscriptions83 beganto adopt from Scripture Hebrew and Aramaic names,such as Iohannes,
In many cases,it is not possible to distinguish fewish
are written partly in Hebrew' that Maria, and Thomas. Nonetheless, indices of attested Jewish names are a
from those of gentiles.silnscriptions that
as a menorah' a shofar (ram's-horn helpful point of referencein this regard (see5 4.14 n. 96)'
are adorned with Jewish 'y-bol'-"'ch an
an etrog (citron)-or that.include
trumpet), a loulab (palm branch)' or
('IouotoE/'Iouaio)8s can easily be classi-
explicit Jewishself-identification 11.09 Christian Epitaphs
fied as Iewish.86
epithets'87referencesto a syna- No identifiably Christian tombstone has been found dating prior to the late
Inscriptions that employ typically Jewish
gogue (e.g., ouvoYttlYtlnqoot'xt)'it titles applied to Jewish functionaries second century a.o. Though there is no reason to doubt that many early

Rhodes' "Archisynagogoi:office, Title, and Social status in the

Mount Ataburon' the highest peak in 89. See Tessa Rajak and David Noy,
81. I.e., those who worshiped Zeus on
Greco-Jewish Synagogue,"/RS 33 (1993): 75-93 (SEG 43.1297);I. Juster, Lesjuifs dans I'Empire
82. The cult was founded by Euphranorien'
in this chapter's supplementary biblioSraPhl' romain: Leur condition juidique, conomiqueet sociale (Paris: Paul Geuthner, I9l4), 406 n.2;
83. Seethe listings on l"*i'lft tpig'upt'y
Epinphs: An lntroductory Surtey of a Millennium Bernadette I. Brooten, Woman Leadersin the Ancient Synagogue:Inscriptional Evidenceand Back-
84. Seep. w. van der n"-rr, e"rri t*ish
(300 a'c'-a'o' 700) (Kampen' The Netherlands: Kok Pharos' 1991)' ground lssues,Brown Judaic Studies 36 (Chico, CA: Scholars, 1982), 15-33; Shaye f' D' Cohen'
oflewkh Funerary Epigraphy "|ewish Funerary Inscrip- ,.women
41-42 (onpositive indicators see SEG
41'1839); P' W' van der Horst' in the Synagoguesof Antiquity," conseryativeludaism 34, no.2 (1980): 23-28. How-
tions:MostAreGreek,"BARrs-irgszl'
46-57;IIudEg(cf'sEG42'1501;43'1097'lll3);Laurence ever, the matter is frequently ambiguous; for example, the term is used not only of f ewish leaders
705
"lewish Inscriptto"' i"'Ct"tk and Latin"'in NRWII' 20'2 (1986): 671-713' esp' but also of leaders of religious associations dedicated to other gods, such as Herakles (IG Xl2'
H. Kant,
"on 288-89i cIG 2007F) and Zeus (e.g., lApamBith 35; for six examples of the non-Jewish use of
tt'"*ilT; the
inscriptions see R. S. K11.i._" archisynagogoisee f. M. R. Cormack in Mlangeshellniquesffirts h GeorgesDaux lParis: E. de
use of rhese terms in Greek and Latin
MeaningoftheTerm'lew'inGraeco-Romanlnscriptions"'HThR82(1989):35-53(SEG Boccard,19741,511-55), and in connectionwith other qpes of associations(e.9.,Waltzing 3.75-
39.1839). 76, no.208;IG XIV, 1890, 2304). Similarly, the term :rqeoBregogis used of both Jewish and
8 6 . T w o o f t h e f o u r p l a n t s w a v e d d u r i n g t h e F e a s t o f T a b e r n a c l e s w e r e t h e l o ufrom
l a b , tSecond
akenin Christian elders; for its use in Jewish inscriptions see CU I, lxxvi-vii; CU I' 581,59O' 597' 692;
"Inscriptions grecquesde Sid6en Pamphylie,"RPhil32 (1958): 15-53' esp.4l-42;
; . r. rrri, tradition was well established Louis Robert,
the right hand, and ,h. ,r;';;;" appears in sixty-
at Beth She'arim' the menorah Horsley in NewDocs 3.138.
Temple times. t.t ttte catacob at Monttt"'dt (IBethShe'aim 158-59)' 'Pogptt, 'PaBr, 'Pr.Bpr, 'PoB, BlqeBt, and 'P as an abbreviation: see Shaye J' D'
six' and the shofar in vo
two inscriptions' th. .t'og i" 'l ,-ti' to'ulobin 12 (1962): 140-42;
90. Also
"Epigraphical
rnt"t orutt as Symbol of ludaism"' IEI Cohen, Rabbis,"/QR 72 (1981-82): r-17.
On the menorah ,". w. wirg";,;itt.
Kant,
"Jewish Inscriptions," 702-3' 91. E.g., vooe rcitcr., v eipilvl i1 noipqor,Scrutoo/alttS, oagor, oueig oovcrtoE,
the
87. lewish epithets inc;;;
q')'vopoE' Qtl"vtoloE' Qt)'6)'cos; :nttn:tt ^lnhl4ting zu},oyi<rndorv, and 6l.aE, though these phrases are not exclusively Iewish.
po0r1ti1E (seeP. w' van der Horst'
study of the Torah are nopopJolq, uopo,oro)"og,
ooQv 92. Many other terms are also attested: seevan der Horst, Ancient lewish Epitaphs,4l-42.ln
zeit"' Bz 36
,.Das Neue Testa-.rrt ,rrrd all-tische' Gr"bins.hriften aus hellenistisch-rmischer Beth She'arim, the most important ]ewish necropolis in Palestine,the terms pvfpo and pvlptov
are both used of an entire burial tomb or hall (IBethshe'arim ll lcu II, 10231, 106; cf. 200);
tttil.ifl-J:];nskaya of rIPolEYXH,"
(.,AJewishor Gentileprayer_House?
rhe Meaning Mvlpiov can also designate a single arcosolium (IBethShe'arim 51). Mvqppr.ov designates a
"place
concluded
has thattheuseofnpooeulrl
no.I Lrsr],i!a-5, tsEG42.13491)
Bulletin4l,
Tyndale burial tomb/halI (lBethShe'arim 61). The term t6nog is used frequently to mean of burial"
"house of See also SEG 41'1841; Martin
t t*tlu'it'ely Iewish' or
..grave"(IBethshe'aim 12lcIJ Il,l025l; cf. 30
lul \ 10401,135.The term tnog can refer to
to mean nturt';-t'n'urogt'"j in der "tomb
,.proseuch und sy.Igi,-i"al.che Gemeinde, Gotteshaus und Gottesdienst an entire chamber: ltnoE] ofTheodosia, also [called] Sarah, from Tyre"
(IBethShe'aim
Hengel,
in"e in
Synagogue Late Antiquity' ed' Lee I' Levine' (Philadelphia: I s4).
Diaspora und in Palstina""
ASOR, 1987)'27-s4'
 hunerarylnscriptions I ZAf
280 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy
tions bearing the formula 1g(rorrcvoi) 1g(rotr,avo0E)(Christiansfor Chris-
signs of Christian Profession
Christians did have epitaphs,e3these lack any tians).e8This 19.-19. formula only appearsin inscriptions from the Upper
..crypto-christian." As a result, many first- and
and so might be termei Tembris Valley. It indicates that the Christians named in the inscription
today's museums but cannot
,".o.rd-g.rr.ration Christian epitaphs survive in constructed the tomb for their deceasedbrethren. The suggestionthat these
be diffeientiated from the mass of pagan inscriptions'ea monuments might be Montanist in nature was first made by William Ramsay
of a tomb for
Christian inscriptions that document the construction and was taken up subsequentlyby W. M. Calder and most recently by William
and can often be dated to
specified persons are modeled on pagan epitaphs Tabbernee.eeIn a related group of Phrygian inscriptions, only the deceased,
inscriptions that specify
* .u.li., p.riod, usually before ^'o' :sO' Similarly' not the family, is identified as Christian (e.9., XeLorravol, Xglorro,vo0g,
bloodrelationships(ur."u,typicalinpaganinscriptions)aregenerallyearlier lgr,otxrvg, lqerorlcrvdg, lqqorravg).10oG. H. R. Horsley arguesthat it is
to his/her membership
than those that describe the deceasedwith respect important to distinguish inscriptions that are only prepared to reveal the
intheChurchorinrelationtoGod/ChristorthatemployformalChristian "1qr,orlcvoi,
Christian profession of the deceased,which he terms inscrip-
titles. tions," from those that declare the adherenceof the dedicators as well (i.e.,
IthasbeensupposedforsometimethattheearliestidentifiablyChristian Xa.-XQ.inscriptions). He thinks that the Xa.-Xa. inscriptions probably date
bishop Aberkios from Hier-
epitaph is the famous metrical epitaph of the from the late fourth century a.p. (i.e., post-Constantinian) and have no
likely that this pride of
opolis, Phrygia (ca. e.o' 200; seeS 16'01)' It seems Montanist connection, while most lgtotr,crvol inscriptions date from the
placehasbeenusurpedbyaninscriptionthatpredatestheAberkiosinscrip- middle to late part of the third century e.o.ror
the text of the earlier
tion by about twenty y.u" (o'o' l79lS0)' Though In Attica, Thessaly, and Korinthia, many Christian epitaphs begin with
inscriptionisneutral*ithresp.cttoChristianProfession'itscarvedrelief the term xor,prlrqqlov followed by the names of the deceased(in the geni-
port,aysthedeceasedholdinginhisrighthandaroundedobject(sacramental tive case).This same term is also attested in Christian Phrygian inscriptions
side, a bunch of grapes is
tread?) marked with a c.osr, und on his left in the senseof
"family
grave."r02The term xorprlrqqr.ov-literally,
"sleeping
suspendedbyitsstemfromahorizontalbar.g5Thehorizontalbarandgrape
stemtogetherformataucross,oneoftheearliestChristiansymbols.96 98. IPhrygChr; Robert, BE (1979): 522. SeeS.EG28.1078 for a tabulation of these inscrip-
Tembris Valley (north-
Self-datedChristian inscriptions from the Upper tions. Cf. A. Strobel, Das heilige Land der Montanisten, ReligionsgeschichtlicheVersuche und
known instanceof the Chi-
ern Phrygia) date from o.o.i+e-zZ'e7 The first
Vorarbeiten 37 (Berlin: W. de Gruyter, 1980), 110-15.
a .o .) also comesfrom this same 99. For a complete treatment of this subject seeWilliam Tabbernee,Montanist Insciptions
-areamgram (typical of the fourth century
nho and Testimonia:EpigraphicSourcesIllustrating the History of Montanis m, North American Patristic
inscrip-
(Iphschr +i. Erru Gibson has published numerous Phrygian Society, Patristic Monograph Series 16 (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1997). Cf.
IPhrygChr 125-44; Strobel, Das heiligeLand der Montanisten, 104-12, I 17. On Montanist clerical
this chapter's supplementary bibliography'
93. Seethe listings on Christian epigraphy in leadership and hierarchy see W. Tabbernee, Journal ofEarly Christian Studies I (1993): 249-80
people of the Greek cities and semi-Greek
94. On the Christianization of tire ordinary ( s E G4 t . r 3 0 3 ) .
post-Constantinian period see SEG 39'423' 43'1289'
hinterlands in the r00. IPhrygChr l-3, 8, 10-ll, 14, 18, 20-24, 27-29, 33-36,42. On lqqotnvE for
" 2tliruE'Otrnr'crvg | [
95. The text reads, fEtouEl o! pq(vE) flcvfpot [ ] l [II]n]'6 xptorrcvg and Xg4mog or XqrorE seeSEG 43.1264.
x ei",lixtl;tl ;"t'is "i 1'oveiE <rultot x AwintrrqoE eIl$E outo0
olvtqoQog arlto0 101. Horsley in NewDocs3.130-33; cf. Mitchell, Anatolia,2:104.This theory gainsstrength
was found in Qeltikci near Gediz: seeW' M' "Christians
Et14 li"rxul[tcrtol pt1ffi liqrv' The inscription fiom Horsley's redating ofthe only self-dated for Christians" epitaph. Though Ram-
Epitaphs from Phrygia"' 33-34' no' 2)' say and Anderson restored the date as [t]].y' (333 Sullan era : A.D. 248149),Horsley has argued
cla"r,";nuay-hriJan
which display a pair of fish'-while each of the
96. Cf. four inscriptioirs from Amoriumlwo of that the restoration [u]Iy' (i.e., 433 Sullan era : A.D. 348/49) accords equally well with the
remainingtwodisplayedafishsuspendedfromahorizontalbar,formingara:u(MAMAY|I'277, physical evidence on the stone: [u]fy' | Xperotrovoi. I Xqerotrcvo[lE]. Ag. ppelc I ov trir
279,297-98). yppa[Q] | crurv Z<rrtrlr(r rd ov toC[E] | ^yvorE(: dryvoq) our6[v] | 1.].elcrvpeig I xd
no'.200; Horsley in
gT. See Calder, "studies in Early Christian Epigraphy ll"' 73-74' Tetreoggqr I n All,elvpq I ouvBiq (: ouppi<p) noi,qlocrv[in the year [4]33. Christians for
NewDocs2.lTl-72,no.101)'PlaincrossesoccurinPhrygiainthepre-Constantiniangravestones Christians. Aurelia Ammeia, with their son-in-law, Zotikos, and with their grandchildren, Alexan-
( s e e C a l d e r , " P h i l a d e l p h i a * d M o " t " " i ' - ' ' ' 1 0 ) ' S e e M ' S u l z b e r g e r " ' L e s y m b o -448;
ledelacroixetles dreia, Telesphoros, and Alexandros, constructed [this tomb] for her husband] (Horsley in
chrtiens"' Byzantion 2 (1925): 337 Graydon F'
monogrammes de |6sus tl"' l"' ptt-itts NewDocs3.131).
period (Ante Pacem: At.chaeological
Snyder,swork on christian .y-tot, in the pre-constaniinian 102. SeeMAMAIV,353-55; cf. such typical Christian expressionsas v ovdpctl Kugiou
GA: Mercer university Press,19851' 128)' This
Evidenceof church Lrfe u$re' ionstantine livlacon, ( i n n o m i n eD o m i n i ) .
(see CIl 661)'
symbol is occasionally used by Iews
 Funerary Inscriptions I ZSf
282 | An ht oductionto GreekEpigraphy
"Les
is' it describesthe Pouilloux, lean. Choix d'inscriptions grecques:Textes,traductions et notes.Paris:
place"-suggests the notion of future resurrection;that
"fallen asleep" in the expectation of the resurrec- BellesLettres," 1960.Pp. 160-64.
ead in Chiist who have Schmidt, Stefan. HellenistischeGrabreliefs:Typologischeund chronologischeBeobacht-
sleepsArtemidora
tion (cf., vOaexotprdrcr'Aqtepitrlgo v eigi1v11[here ungen.Cologne:Bohlau, 1991.(Cf. SEG41.1767.)
in peace]).103 This can be contrastedwith such a term as iqQon (tomb)' Strubbe, ]. H. M.
"Cursed
Be He That Moves My Bones." ln Magika Hiera: Ancient
examples of Christian
which describesa place of interment'lo4 The clearest GreekMagic and Religion, ed. Christopher A. Faraoneand D. Obbink, 33-59. New
example' the lota-Chi York: Oxford University Press,1991.(Cf. SEG41.1831.)
profession come from later inscriptions' For "A
(XqrorE) monograms belong to the Vestergaard,Torgen, L. Bjertrup, M. H. Hansen, T. H. Nielsen, and L. Rubinstein.
i:'fqooOg Xqr,or6g) and Chi-Rho Typology of the Women Recorded on Gravestonesfrom Attica." AIAH l0 (1985)
The titles nioxoruog
third and fourth centuries, respectively, and beyond' [1993], 178-90.
(elder)'
(bishop/overseer),lolqenloxonog (country bishop)' ruqeoBrlteqog
in later Christian
and lxovog (deacon) appear with increasing frequency
century and following' Epitaphs from fewish Epigraphy
inscriptions, especially in the fourth
the terms g1'eqeug and
eastern Phrygia and Lycaonia regularly employ
and nqeoBteQoE respec-
iegeg(from ca. e.o. 350) to designaterloxonog Applebaum, Shimon. Jews and Greeksin Ancient Cyrene. Studies in Iudaism in Late
"here lies the slave of God" ( o0l'og toO
tivety.ios The popular formula Antiquity 28. Leiden:E. J. Brill, 1979.Esp. 144-60. (Cf. SEG29.1674.)
"Differing
0eo0)followedbythenameofthedeceasedisnotattesteduntilthefifth Bonz, M. Palmer. Approaches to Religious Benefaction: The Late Third-
and later. CenturyAcquisition of the SardisSynagogw." HThR 86 (1993): 139-54.
century
Brooten, Bernadette. Women Leadersin the Ancient Synagogue:Inscriptional Evidence
and Background Issues.Brown Judaic Series 36. Chico, CA: Scholars, 1982. (Cf.
B I B L I O G R A P H Y sEG 33.1602.)
SUPPLEMENTARY "Crossing
Cohen, Shaye). D. the Boundary and Becoming aJew." HThR 82 (1989):
13-33. (Cf. SEG3e.1840.)
General
Feldman, LortisH. Jew and Gentile in the Ancient World: Attitudes and Interactionsfrom
"Sur quelques stles funraires d'Abydos et de Coptos'" ChrEg 69 (1994): Alexander to lustinian. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993. (Cf. SEG
Bingen, ].
i lJ-zL.
43.1296.)
Grabstelen im nordwestlichen Kleinasien' Frey, Iean-Baptiste, ed. Corpus inscriptionum iudaicarum: Recueildesinscriptionsjuives
cremer, Marielouise. Hellenistisch-rmische
4'2' Bonn: Rudolph Habelt' 1992' (Cf' SEG qui wnt du IIIe sicleavant J.-C.2 vols. Sussidiallo Studio delle Antichit Cristiane
Yol.2, Bithvnien. AstaMinor Studien
42.rr09.) pub. percura del Pontificio Istituto di Archeologia Cristiana I and 3. Rome:
Pontificio Istituto di Archeologia Cristiana, 1936-52.
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occidentale.Rome: Universit Gregoriana' l92O' 228-39;vols. 1l-12, PP.414-39.
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't. gica' Yol' 4' Epigrafi sacrepagane e cristiane' Rome' 1978'
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Pp. 301-556. InscriptionsIncluding Textsfrom the Excavationsat AphrodisiasConductedby Kenan
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12
"Epigrafia." ln Archeologia cristiana,l:327-43. Rome: Desclee,1958'
Testini,Pasquale.
Waelkens, Marc. Die ileinasiatischenTttrsteine:Typologischeund epigraphischeUnter-
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wessel, Karl. Inscriptionesgraecae chistianae veteres occideftris.Grafenhainichen: Manumission lnscriptions
Schultze,1936.

Slaveswere bought and sold in antiquity as commodities like any other goods.
Many slaveswere once prisoners of war, though there were other sources,
such as victims of kidnapping by pirates and brigands.r Men sometimes sold
themselvesinto slavery to pay off personal debts. Children were often born
into slavery,becoming domestically raised slaves(Ogplcrrc),2or were some-
times sold into slaveryby their parents. Others were abandoned as infants and
becamethe property of those who raisedthem.
In the Roman world, slaves who had little acquaintance with Greco-
Roman culture were consigned to manual work, the most barbarian among
them being sent to work in the mines, in industry, or on one of the many large
landed estatesof the Romans. Slavesof this kind were rarely manumitted. In
contrast, hellenized slavestended to be placed in households and even given
positions of importance, such as teacher, nurse (rgoQE), administrator
(oixovproE),or businessmanager(nqcrypcreur{E). Such slaveshad a much
greater chance of attaining freedom.3 Their epitaphs indicate that they were

l. In Roman society, the supply of slaveswas at its height during the expansionist military
campaigns of II-I s.c. Though the wars of conquest gradually declined in the imperial period, the
supply of slaveswas maintained at a high level, though somewhat less than in the previous two
centuries; at the same time, the number of manumissions increased.In contrast, the Greeks had
few expansionist wars and consequently did not have as many slavesas did the Romans in the
west. SeeMarijana Rjil, Istoritki Glasnik (1986),37-49.
2. Le., their mothers were slaves,and they became the property of their mothers' masters.
"OqenrE
See L. Robert, BE (1939):35; A. Cameron, and Related Terms in Inscriptions of Asia
Minor," in Anatolian StudiesPresentedn William Hepburn Buckler, ed. W. M. Calder, losef Keil.
Publications of the University of Manchester 265 (Manchester: Manchester University Press,
1939),27-62. Cf. supra chap.4, n. 145.
3. See Susan Treggiari, Roman Freedmen during the Late Republic (Odord: Clarendon,
1 9 6 9 ) .r 0 .

289
2g0 A, lrtroductionto GreekEpigraphy Inscriptions I
Matruntission Zef
|
qualitiesand
treatedhumanely by their mastersand were attributed the same engagein trade and businesswithout intervention. However, they did not
of urban and rural slavesdid have any political rights, much less legal equality with Greek citizens.
values as freemen.aIn contrast, the vast majority
humane treatment. There were two principal kinds of manumission in the Hellenistic world,
not receivea headstone,nor were they accordedthe same
to slaves
According to H. w. Pleket, most mastersdespisedor were indifferent informal and formal. Informal manumission is comparable to the Roman
them to
a, u ,ociul group and only acted in a paternalistic manner toward manumissiointer amicos.In this case,a master simply declaredthat he had
boost productivitY.s emancipateda particular slave(Qiqo/gflxe 6l.e0egov,illeuO6gtooev).It
IntheHellenisticworld,mostdomesticslaveswhoperformedtheirduties was important to have this declaration made publicly to ensurethat there were
freedom after
meritoriously could reasonablyexpect to win or purchase their legal witnesses.loTo this end, such manumissions were publicly proclaimed by
the owner's the herald (r,cx{quxoE), either in a law court (v r,xcorqgiq), or before an
ten to twenty yearsof service(sees 12.04).6Manumission served
slaves who anticipated this reward assemblyin a theater (v Oecrgrp),or near an altar (ni Bolp6v).tt
self-interest in a number of ways. First,
the release of an Cities, as well as private citizens, owned and manumitted slavesby infor-
tended to work more efficiently and contentedly'7 Second'
other slaves,
industrious slave in a large household became an incentive to mal manumission. For example, an inscription from the civil government of
Third, by allowing slaves to purchase their Larissa (Thessaly) records the civil manumissions of slavesover a six-month
helping to maintain high morale.8
funds for the acquisition of new' period (I r.c.).r2 In the repeating formula, each slave declareshimself or
own freedom, mastersreceivedthe necessary
means of
usually younger slaves.eFourth, manumission was a convenient herself to have been freed from his or her respectivemaster, followed by the
dischargingtheeconomicburdenofslaveswhohadgrownelderlyorinfirm. price of publication (in staters),as in the following examples.13
for mastersto
Lastly, manumission sometimes opened up new opportunities
the new freedom of their slavesby [Eq]prv4 )ippou, ft xc],oupv4 xai )tiorg, | [fi Q]crp6w1
exploit to their own economic advantage ',
setting them up in a profit-producing business' nq)"eu0epdro0ar&n | Xi,ppou ro0 | A[r]Qi],ou otarflqa,g * tE'
Kul"l.mnoE Aptol[p]frou QpevoEnq],euOegdro0crr | &ru
Al[p]<rrprtrou ro0 Or.].ofeviouxcrl @eovo0[E]ll ["t]S Nr,xon].r,og
12.01 Manumission in the Hellenistic World
orarflgcrS ' 16"
institutions in
Manumission was one of the most important social and legal
Greece.In contrast to the practice of formal manumission in Rome, Greek [Hermione [slave] of Simmos, also called Sosis,has declaredherself to
same level of have been freed from [her master] Simmos,son of Diphilos, for fifteen
manumission did not confer civil rights. Freedmen were at the
in the city' staters. Kallippos [slave] of Amometos has declared himself to have
society as resident aliens (prorxor). They had the right to reside
their property, and the right to been freed from [his master] Amometos, son of Philoxenides,and from
the right of protection for themselves and
Theano, daughter of Nikopolis, for fifteen staters.]
4. Hermann Raffeiner (sklaven und Freigelassene: Ein soziologischestudie auf der Grundlage
2 and Commentationes Aenipontanae 10. See Herbert Rdle, Untersuchungenzum griechsichenFreilassungswesen (Munich, 1969),
desgiechischenGrabepigramms,Philologie und Epigraphik
W"gner, 19771) has collected fifty-six metrical epitaphs for 168.
23 ilnnsbruck: Universittsverlag
ll. See Ludwig Mitteis, Reichsrechtund Volksrechtin den stlichenProvinzen des rmischen
slavesand freedmen.
describesthis behavior as Kaiserreichs(Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1963), 376.
5. Pleket (..Review:H. Raffeiner, Sklaven,,' CR29 ||979): |75_76) "NEA
"cynical" or "selfish" paternalism. 12. See K. L Gallis, EIII|PAOIKA EYPHMATA AIIO TH ^API:A," AAA 13
and the Interpfetation of 1 (1980): 246-62, with an English summary, "New Inscriptions from Larissa," at 261-62; cf.
6. SeeS. Scott Bartchy, MAA^ON XPH2AI: First century slavery "Nouveaux
n' 308' G.-1.-M.-1. Te Riele, af&anchissements Larissa," ZPE 49 (1982): 16l-76; SEG
CorinthiansT:21,SBLDS1l (Missoula:Scholars,f973)' 83
7.A.M.Dlff(FreedmenintheEarlyRomanEmpire[oxford:Clarendon,lg2s]'13)remarks, 31.135-38; Horsley in NewDocs6.76-78. Manumissions were effected according to the legislation
"Actes
..efficient service was best secured by holding out liberty to them lslaves] as the final reward'" of the Thessalian federation: see Bruno Helly, d'affranchissement thessaliens,"BCH 99
(1975): ll9-44; "Lois sur les affranchissementsdans les inscriptions thessaliennes,"Phoenix 30
8. SeeTreggiari, Roman Freedmen,18'
g.K.Hopkins(Conquerorsandslaves[Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress'1978]'133_ (1976\:143-56.
"was that it enabled masters to recapitalise 13. ESR 4.330. The Thessalian league used the stater as its standard currency, with 15
7l) notes th"i o.r. of the functions of manumission
s t a t e r se q u i v a l e n t o 2 2 . 5d e n a r i i .
the vaiue ofolder slavesand to replace them with younger ones"'
 Manumission
lnstiptions I ZIZ
292 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy
this act of dedication,the god not only witnessedthe transactionbut servedas
There were also many types of formal manumission' including manumis-
its guarantor: any violation of the slave'snew freedom was a violation of the
sion by last will and testament,manumission by dedication to a god, manumis-
rights of the god himself and constituted an act of sacrilege.
sion by fictive sale to a third party, and sacralmanumission'

12.02 Manumission by Last Will and Testament 12.04 Manumission by Fictive Sale to a Third Party

Some masters made provision in their wills for the manumission of a slave Many manumissions were based on the exchangeof money, that is, a "ran-
following their own death, a Practice analogous to Roman manumissiotesta- som,"l8 between the slave and the master. The money was provided by the
mento. In some cases,the validity of such legal provisions required the con- slave from the slave'sown savings.reHowever, since slavesdid not have the
sent of the heirs.la Manumission by such means was often conditional on the legal right to enter into contracts,2othis payment had to be transacted
slave demonstrating exemplary behavior in the intervening period and per- through an intermediary who was entrusted by the slave with the required
haps upon the slave agreeing to arrange for his or her master's funeral and ransom. This intermediary would then purchase the slave from the master.2r
annual commemorative rites. The slavemay also have been required to pay a This was a fictive sale,since the slave actually became fpss-n6f the property
specifiedsum to the heir. of the intermediary-as a consequenceof the sale.This "sale on the condition
of freedom" is expressedby the formula e[vc (the master) ruoro re
12.03 Manumission by Dedication to a God eivr (an intermediary) n l,euOegicrr.Generally speaking,the ransom was
equivalent to the price the slavewould fetch on the open market.22
Formal manumission could take on a sacral character when the releasetook
place in the presenceof a god (vcwia/vrlrov ro0 eivog 0eo0)' in other 18. On lrtqov/},rpa in manumission records see Anne Bielman, "tgc, prisonniers et
affranchis,"MH 46 (1989):25-41 {.SEG39.1363).
*o.dr, in the god's sanctuary' This might take the form of a dedication
19. Many slaveswere given pocket money (tnLatin, peculium) that they might spend or save
(&vori0nor./v0qxev) of a slave to a deity.15 For example, slaves were toward the purchase of their freedom. Technically speaking, this money was the property of
manumitted at susa (Susina) by dedicating them to the oriental goddess the master, since a slave did not have the legal right to own property. However, this right could
be granted at the discretion of the master. Moreover, Roman slaveswere often set up il business
Nanaia.r6
by their masters such that both benefited financially; in such circumstances,a slavemight retain a
In some cases,the slave actually became a sacred slave (ieQoul,oE)as a significant portion of the income or garner perquisites or bribes. Slavesowned by public bodies
result of this dedication. However, in most cases'the dedication was simply a also could amass a large peculium over a relatively short period of time. However, slavesin the
way of stating that the master no longer had any claim on the slave' often Hellenistic world rarely had the same opportunity to acquire large sums of money. SeeWm. L.
"for Through Westermann, The Slave Systemsof Greek and Roman Antiquity (Philadelphia: American philo-
explicitly expressedby the phrase freedom" (rC leu0eqlcrr,).17
sophical Society, 1955), 122; Rafa Taubenschlag, The Law ofGreco-RomanEgypt in the Light ofthe
Papyri (332 B.c.-A.D.640), rev. ed. (Warsaw: PanstwoweWydawnictwo Naukowe, 1955), 87-39.
14. SeeMitteis, Reichsrechtund Vollcsrecht,3T2-73.
Cf. W. W. Buckland, The Roman Law of Slavery: The Condition of the Slave in Pivate Law from
15. cf. rqlcuo6gooev irn toE oeog (e.g., IG IX/I' 82C); manumission by consecration Augustus to Justinian (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1908), lB7-238.
For
to a god/goddess: in Edessa, SEG 28.543; in Leukopetra, sEG 28.545, 33.532, 42.609-14- 20. See Rdle, Untersuchungen,65;R. Dareste, B. Hausoullier, and Th. Reinach, Recueildes
"Art6mis Blaganitis en Mac6doine"'BCH lrl (1987):
A.g.". ,.. Miltos B. Hatzopoulos, Digaia
inscriptions juridiques grecques: Textes, taduction, commentaire (Paris: Leroux, 189l-1904),
3gg-4r2, esp.399-401 (SEG37.5a0);SEG 31.634' 2:233-318.
"Sur
16. SeeSEG 7.15-26 (II n.c.); Louis Robert, les affranchissementsde suse," RPhil 62
(.e-o'179l 2l.In Egypt, bankers often acted as intermediaries (see Rdle, IJntersuchungen,66). In a
(1936): t37-52.Cf. supra $ 10.04,n. 21, on the gift ofa slaveto the mother ofthe gods
-7 -29' remarkable manumission fiom Beroia (Macedonia, 239-29 s.c.), several slavesact as indepen-
180) (Leukopetra, Macedonia). Cf. Robert, Hellenica, I, 70 7; Vll, 27
vpsCov dent partners in negotiating and transacting the price of their manumission with their master
17. E.g.;&von}(cv Kcr?thxgatqE Kcr)'),rvou,flpcr[ Ktreop6veoE'Eprvaior opo without the involvement ofan intermediary (SEG t2.314l' cf. f. Robert and L. Robert, BE [1951]:
'Ani"l"ovr. 16)l fluoi<or d treuoeqior (GDl lll2,2172); cf. v60ryte
r vopc;AvrioloE rr, 171-73).
To0 re notqE crtdg xarvoE xai tdg pctpg
Ayrloliotrc @uoxig, ouveloxedw<rrv
22. SeeK. Hopkins and P. J. Roscoe,Conquerorsand Slaves(Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
npoEunoq, tr Anl.Iovt tdrr. fll0itrll opc ylvcrxeiov &r' vopc Mvco' ote ieqv eipev
sity Press,1978), 158-60; Duff, Freedmen,17.
xai, vcntov xci d),euOpav Mvcroo (GDI lll2,2097)'
 to GreekEpigruphy Manumission
lnstiptions I ZSS
294 | An lntroduction
'l'he
Delphic manumissionrecords are very formulaic.2TThey begin with
12.05 Sacral Manumission
the date, citing the name of the eponymousarchon of Delphi and the month
is the sacral (qxovrog ro0 eivoE, prlvg toO eivoE).28The namesof town councillors
A variation on the type of manumission involving fictive sale
in office at the time, the secretary, or the treasurer might also be added.2eIf
manumissionpracticedbythepriestsofApolloinDelphiandelsewhere.
have survived the slave'smaster was not from Delphi, the inscription was also dated accord-
More than one thousand Delphic manumission inscriptions
are engraved on the ing to the eponymous official of the master's hometown. The text continues
dating from 200 s.c. to A.D. 74. These inscriptions
leading up to the temple with the verb &,noro/novtointroduced by nl ro0oe (accordingto the
polygonal stonesin the retaining wall along the road
following conditions), followed by the name of the master (in the nominative
of Apollo.23
through a case),3o a referenceto the god (tdrr.0et, tr AnIl,owl rdrufluOitor), and an
In this case,the slave transacted his or her manumission not
Apollo' who con- identification of the slave in terms of his or her sex, age, name, and ethnic
human intermediary but through a divine one, namely'
of his priests.2a As in the background.3l
tracted the sale of the slave through the mediation
of the Next follows the price (tr,pr1)of the slave.The averageprice of a manumis-
previous case,the money was provided by the slave' On completion
of speaking' sion betweenthe years80 and 30 s.c. wasabout four silverminas (four hundred
sale,the freedman became the property of the god in a manner
of this sale is made explicit drachmae).32The formula employed in this section can be illustrated as fol-
though he was in fact free.25The fictive character
(the tdrl oer, tv vv (just lows: ni" ro0oe ru6oro e0va (the master) r(r An6l"i.trrvl tQ flu0irp
by th"eformula xooE nioreuoe eivcr slave)
opa &vqeiov r$ vopa eivog (the slave),t y6vog (ethnic) rr,pdE&qy-
as the slaveentrusts the god with the purchase price)'26
the manumit- uglou pvd,vreooqolv (so-and-sogaveup to Plthian Apollo a maleslavebythe
Sacral manumission provided a safeguardto the liberty of Followingthe price is a
the transaction with a nameof so-and-soby racefor the price of four minas).33
ted slaveby giving it a public forum and by investing
(ieqdS) as a result
sacredsecurity, since the slavein effect becameconsecrated 27. SeeGnther Klaffenbach, GriechcheEpigraplrik (Gtrttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht,
who might Epigraphik,3d ed., HbA 1.5. (Munich: C. H. Beck,
of the sale to Apollo. Moreover, unlike a human intermediary 1957), 83-88; Wilhelm Larfeld, Griechische
l9l4), 83-88. Cf. Bmer, Untersuchungen,2:101-6,134-37,140; IGJuidII,253. The questionof
attempttoviolatetheagreementandasserthisrightsofownershipfollowing the function of manumission inscriptions is still a matter of debate.A. Krnzlein ("Bemerkungen zu
the sale,there was no chance of Apollo exploiting the situation' Form und Inhalt der delphischenFreilassungen,"NDA27 [1980]: 8l-91) rejectsthe suggestion
that their function was to legalize manumission or to announce manumission.
"When
28. so-and-sowas archon in the month of . . ." (cf. S 6.01).
23.MostofthesetextsareavailableinGDl|684-2342;G.Colin,..Notesdechronologie
29. 8.g., poutreuvtov rv nptrcrv 6lpqvov to0 etvoE, ro eivoE, ypoppcrteowoE toO
delphique,"BCH22(lS9S):l-200,esp'9-140;FDlllll-3'6;D'Mulliez'CahiersduCentre
full discussion of the inscriptions see eivog (Michel l4l4; cf. l4l5-17); tcrpreriovroE rv nqtov lprlvov to0 eCvoE(Michel
GustaveGlotz 3 (t992):3I-a4; Michel I 397-1417. For a
depuis
siZcle de
I'abaissement t'Etuliejusqu' d la paix romaine, 191-31 1422).
G.Daux, Delphesau lPne et I
30. Sometimes two owners are listed, usually a married couple. In a famous manumission
av.l.C.,BEFAR140(Paris:ts.deBoccard,1936),46-209;SEG33'424-40'42'442'K'Hopkins(in
these inscriptions into fifty-year inscription (2001199r.c.) published by Adolf Deissmann (Light from the Ancient East, rev. ed.,
conquerors and slayes,1.]33-7I lsEG zg.l744 bisl) divides
between the date, sex, age.(adult, trans. L. R. M. Strachan[London: HodderandStoughton, 1927],323icf.152,166,331,335), itis
p..id, fro- 201 through I n... "nd analyzesthe relationship
(conditional, unconditional)' not the vendor who is mentioned in the nominative casebut the purchaser, Apollo, who buys a
ifrita), Ui.,n status (home-born, alien-born), type of manumission "Pythian
slave'sfreedom: Apollo bought IdnQi,ato] ftom Sosibiosof Amphissa, on the condition
and purchase price'
HThR 47 [1954]: 173-81' of freedom [d 6],eu0eqigl a woman by the name of Nicaia, of Roman descent,for the price of
z+. r. Soiolo*rki ("The Real Meaning of Sacral Manumission,"
3/z silver minas."
esp.178)tracedtheoriginofDelphicmanumissiontothefunctionofsanctuariesasasylumsfor
on the fate of such slaves; Franz 31. Using the formulae opo vpeCovrir vopcr eivog (or odrpctyuvcrlxelov [noqotov]
,','u*uy slaves and the necessity that sacral officials decide
und Rom,5 vols' fwiesba- &r vopo i1 eivog), t 16voE f ethnic (e.g., t .1vogKnptov, r y6voE X{rqcrv, t yvog
Bmer ((Jntersuchungenber die Religion der sklaven in Giechenland
19;0-901, 2:10-11; cf' Rdle' lJntersuchungen' 5-6) has since Icrl.ctav [Michel 1408-9]), or t yvoEoixolevdE (born in the house) (Michel 1415) or the
den and Stuttgart: Franz Sterner,
terms oorroporov, norgtov, xopi.r,ov, and dvoyevqg (cf. Klaffenbach, Griechche Epi'
refuted Sokolowski's thesis.
graphik,86).
25. SeeBmer, (Jntersuchungen,Ii32'
of rtemis Eileithyia in chaeronea 32. SeeESR 1.385.
26. cf. sacral manumission inscriptions from the temple "Quatre
33. See,e.g., |ean-FrangoisBommelaer, notes delphiques,"BCH 105 (1981): 461-
(Boeotia)(IateIII_earIyIIo.c')(PaulRoeschandJohnM.Fossey,..Neufactesd'affranchissement
81, esp.461-63; cf. Horsley in NewDocs6.72-73 (I s.c.).
deCh6ron6e,',zPE29||g7sl:|23_37;I.RobertandL.Robert,BE||978]1226;9EG28.444_52).
296 | An Introiluctionto GreekEpigraphy Manutnission
Insoiptions I ZSZ

nam- The original document,written on papyrusor a wooden tablet (nrvcrxlov,

statementconfirming that the master had receivedthe ransom in full and
(n)1er, nu[,ilov), was depositedin the temple archives,and copieswere given to a
ing the slaveand the god ashis intermediary in the sale:xoi, tv tr,pv
(and he hasthe citizen of Delphi or to a citizen from the slave'shometown, his name being
ndoov xo0E nloteuoe eivcr (the slave)tlv vi1v tQ OeQ
the sale to the god)' cited on the document ( v ncq tv eivc). A copy of this document
entire price, just as so-and-so [the slave] entrusted
legal status:34 Q' {rte was engraved on the polygonal wall of the sanctuary.
Next follows a statement concerning the slave'snew
(on the condi-
l,eOegogetpev x<ri vQantog nb nvtolv tv nvt* Bi,ov
for the 12.06 Conditional and Unconditional Manumission
tion that [the slavel be free and not liable to be seized by anyone
duration of his life).
The guarantor(s) (Bep<rr,<ot{g/peBcrtrlttgeE) of the Purchase are then The granting of full manumissionwas often a two-stageprocess.Many slaves
named. In Lokris and Aitolia, the guarantor is known as the tlQocarotqE.35 were permitted to purchase their freedom on the condition that they re-
when the master was not from Delphi, there were normally two guarantors' mained bound to their master by a special contract with a condition
of (nagcrpovq) attached to it, whereby they remained under obligation to work
the first was a native of Delphi, and the second was from the hometown
the slave. In other for the master for a prescribed period of time.37Though the master retained
the master. The guarantor was liable for the freedom of
to
words, he had an obligation to Protect the slaveagainst anyone attempting the right to punish the slave,he could not sell the slave,since the slavewas no
ro0 longer his property (xgrog oto xo)'cr(ov d,r.xa 06),qr rqnurr n),v pi1
take away the slave'sfreedom. The formula is ei 6 tr'g (Q)ntorro
ttclQsxw(') tdrr oe<it rv rorlqotrrr).
eivog (the slave) ni xctcrouLr,opr',B6Bcrr'ov
(guarantor, so-and-so; if anyone In most cases,this contract remained in effect until the death of the
vv te nopevog xcri Beporoltilq
let the seller rnaster, as is indicated in the formula known as the paramone clause:
should seizeso-and-so [the slave] with a view to enslavement,
the contract of sale to the god) ncqo,pervcrtor eivcr (slave) nagc tv eivo (master) algxc lqt
[i.e., ex-master]and the guarantor confirm
(e.g.,Michel 1408). eiva, fiord)v t norLru,oopevovnd,v r uvcrrv vevxl,{1rrog(so-and-so
vio-
Normally, an inscription will cite the penalties against anyone who [the slave]shall remain with so-and-so[the master] as long as so-and-so[the
(they are to be liable masterl shall live, and he or she shall perform every task blamelessly) (e.g.,
lates the agreementwith the formula fiQxrrl"tol' vtolv
Further information may follow including a formal GDI Illl, 1854).Other conditions could alsobe connectedwith theparamone
to a financial penalty).
(usually the primary heirs) who had a clause, such as responsibility for arranging the master's funeral and annual
waiver by relatives of the master
financial interest in the contract.36At this point may follow the instruction commemorativerites.38
poi.<,rE xai, oi nagcrtuylvoweg xgtor wolv oul'ovteEg l'e-
(like- 37. For problems surrounding the exact definition of paramone seeM. L Finley, "The Servile
oeqov wa lcpr,ot vteg xai, vunr'xot noE ixcg xoi [crpi'cg StatusesofAncient Greece,"Revueinternationaledesdroits de I'Antiquit,3d ser.,7 (1960): 165-
are en- "The
wise all who are present [when anyone lays hands on the ex-slave] 89; Alan E. Samuel, Role of Paramone Clauses in Ancient Documents," JJurP 15 (1965):
a freedman' to face no 221-311, esp. 294-95; W. L. Westermann, "The Paramone as General ServiceContract," JJurP 2
titled, if they rescue him on the grounds that he is ( 1948): 9-50. On the difference between naqcpovq and the Roman operaelibertorum in manu-
penalty and are not liable to any lawsuit or punishment)' mission inscriptions see W. Waldstein in Festschriftfr Arnold Ktnzlein: Beitrge zur antiken
with the
Witnesses (pcQtugeg) in varying number are listed' beginning Rechtsgeschichte (Graz: Leykam, 1986), 143-47. See, e.g., GDI llll 1723. Cf. Trcggiari, Roman
Anl'l'ovoE, eivq toO eCvog' Freedmen,16; SEG 28.1619,36.1539.Conditional manumissionsincreasedin I s.c. in Delphi at
two priests of Apollo (oi ieQeig toO "full"
and by private the sametime as unconditional or manumissions were decreasing.Unconditional manumis-
eiva ro0 eivog), sometimes followed by the gloweg sions had been the norm in II s.c. The price paid for conditional manumission remained
if he was not
citizens (ir,6tal), including members of the slave'shometown' relatively constant in I s.c., while the price for unconditional manumission increasedduring the
a residentof DelPhi. same period. These facts suggestthat there was a shortage ofslaves in and around Delphi at this
tlme.
38. For example, in one such inscription (Steiris, Phokis), a master makes provision in his
34. Introduced by Q' tq, Q rir, or $ Qte'
"Aetolian Inscriptions,"/HS 13 (1892): 338-55' esp' 343' will that two of his slaves-a woman and her son-are to be freed on two conditions: that they
35. SeeW. J. Woodhouse,
e'g.' ouveuo- continue in his service until both he and his wife die and that they attend to the obligations of
36. Terms used include or.rveuoxecv,or-rvelcrpeoteiv, and ouvsrorveiv:
burial and commemorativerites (IG lxl12 42, LL. 5-13; Horsley in NetvDocs4.103-4).
xsdvtov ncl uitiv (GDI II/1, 1816).
 Manunissittn Inxriptiotrs | 299
298 | A, htroductionto GreekEpigraphy
(iuarducci, M. Epigralfugrccrr.Vol. 3, Epigraf di carattereprivato. Rome, 1974. Pp.
was pos-
The premature release(rul,uoq) from this paramone clause 263-94.
of a second
sible, either at the discretion of the master or by the payment "A
llrrrsley, G. H. R., and R. A. Kearsley. ParamoneText on a Family Flnerary Bomos
agreed on in the original
ransom, the amount of which was sometimes at Burdur Museum." Anatst 47 (1997):51-55.
in the original "Die
manumission contract. If this amount had not been specified Keramopoullos, A. D. eigenhndigen Unterschriften in den delphischen Freilas-
could be sungsurkunden."KIio 4 (1904): l8-31.
contract, a second contract that supersededthe previous agreement Krnzlein, A.
"Bemerkungen
formula eCvc zu Form und Inhalt der delphischen Freilassungen."
drawn up (see,e.g.' GDI IIl2,2143)' lt incorporated the RIDA 27 (1980):81-91. (Cf. SEG30.1862.)
the addition of the clause ]'oBv
&nl.uoe rAE fioQo,lrovagtv eivcr, with Krnzlein,A. Wissenschaften Jahrbuchder
'Panteios'(1981),239-47.
(Delphic manu-
a second ransom was
noeo ro0 eivog (the slave) U,vAE+ numeral when mission.)
required.3e l.ejeune, Michel. Obseryationssur la langue des actes d'ffianchissement delphiques.
cancel the
In the following example, a second contract is drawn up to
Collection linguistique47.Paris: C. Klincksieck,1940.
that the slave should Marinovi, L. P., E. S. Golubcova, I. S. Sifman, and A. I. Pavlovskaja.Die Sklavereiin
requirement of a first contract which had stipulated
den stlichenProvinzen des rmischenReichesim 1.-3. Jahrundert. bersetzungen
va yevopvcr
remain with his master until he dies: & ngoteqaoia auslndischenArbeiten zur antiken Sklaverei5. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1992.(Cf.
xcri ta v
)6oou tr, Ar6l.l"trrvl ni. qlovroE v Ael'Qoig @g[a]oux]'6og sEG 42.1837.)
"Le
rdr, vfu trortYsYQopp6vcr ote fioQq'ps0vorXtiloov nog T6lorva xol Morricone, L. iscrizionidel dizoma."PP 41 (1986) [1987],314-50. (Cf. SEG
sale of Sososto
Kl.rp &E xa fdvtr, &tel'fg xcri, gpva otor [the previous 38.504-17; Illyria.)
"Notes
Mulliez, Dominique. d'6pigraphiedelphique II et III." BCH 108 (1984): 355-
Apollo,whichtookplaceinthearchonshipofThrasyklesatDelphi,andthe (cf.
Telon and Kleto 8e. sEG 34.388-404.)
provisions of the sale,namely, that Sososshould remain with Petsas,Ph. M., M. B. Hatzopoulos, L. Gounaropoulos, and P. Paschidis.Insciptions du
for as long as they live, shall be null and void]'4o sanctuaire de Ia Mre des Dieux Autochthone de Leukopetra (Macdoine).Melet-
mata 28. Athens,2000.
Pouilloux, lean. Choix d'inscriptions grecques:Textes,traductions et notes.Paris: "Les
SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY BellesLettres," 1960.Pp. 146-53.
Tucker, Wayne. "Women in the Manumission Inscriptions at Delphi." TAPA Il2
Botier, Phoker, Dorier'
Albrecht, Karl-Dieter. Rechtsproblemein den Freilassungender (1982):22s-36. (Cf. SEG 32.514.)
(Cf' SEG28'1619')
st-unilWestlokrer'Paderborn:Schningh,1978' Zachou-Kontoyianni,M. I. Egnatia.Thessalonike: Epistemonike1 (1989): 209-17. (Cf.
der delphischen Freilassungsinschriften'
Bloch, Moricz . Die Freilassungsbeilingungen sEG 39.493-96.)
Strasbourg:J. Singer' 1914.
(see
Busolt,GeorglGriechische staatskunde.3ded. HbA 4.1. Munich: c. H. Beck, 1920.
pP.2S8-92,$ aa.)
in Grecia' Milan: Ulrico
catie.ini, Aristide. La manomissionee la condizionedei liberti
Hoepli, 1908.
patron-affranchi it la fn de Ia
Fabre, Georges. Libertus: Recherchessur les rapports
50. Rome: Ecole
rpubliqie romaine. Collection de I'tcole frangaise de Rome
frangaisede Rome, PalaisFarnse,1981'
BosporusKingdom. Texts
Gibson, b. f.igtr. The Iewish Manumission Inscriptions of the
andStudiesinAncient]udaism75.Tbingen:MohrSiebeck'1999.

nos' 43' 354'

39. SeeKlaffenb ach,GriechischeEpigraphih 87; e'g- FD III/3'
40.GDI|I|22|43(Delphi).AmanumissioninscriptionfoomChersonesosintheCrimea
(a.o.8l)placesaconditiononthemanumission,requiringtheslavetobecomeafaithfulmember
IBosp 73 ICII I' 68aD; cf' lewish (or
of the local fewish synagogue(IBosp 70 lcll I,6831; cf'
texts from orgippia incorporating oaths by the pagan deities Zeus' Ge'
fudaizing) manumission
voi' I' Sigres et Fonctions'ed' Raymond Verdier
"nd H.li"o, (Nicole Belayche, ln Le t,'i',
159-68 (sEG 42.703).
(p"rir, fditiorr. du centre national de la recherchescientifique, l99l),
Part 3

SeleoedTopics
 13
Magistrates,Other Functionaries,
and the Covemment of the
Hellenistic City

Inscriptions recording decreesand other state documents prove difficult to

read if the epigraphist is not familiar with the nature of the government of the
Hellenistic city. This chapter provides an overview of the organization of
government and surveys the names and functions of its chief committees,
boards, and officials.
Prior to the second century n.c., the two poles of government in the
ancient world were oligarchy and democracy, with every kind of gradation
between them. In the Hellenistic period, oligarchies and tyrannies tended to
evolve into more democratic stylesof government. For example, following his
victory over the Persians,Alexander liberated the cities of Asia Minor and
granted them self-governing status on the condition that all tyrants and
oligarchies be replacedwith democratic governments. Even island states,such
as Chios, Lesbos,and Kos, which had not lost their independentstatusunder
the Persians,were commandedto adopt democraticgovernments.
Not only did individual cities and villages adopt democratic institutions,
but in Greece, groups of cities also organized themselvesinto larger demo-
cratic alliancesknown as leagues(xolva, ouppcllal),r many of which had
their own representativeassembliesand councils. From the time of the Per-
sian war onward, such leagueswere continually being dissolvedand reformed.
In 146 n.c., all anti-Roman leagueswere disbandedby the Romans, some

l. Panheilenic League, Amphictyonic League, Aegean League of Islands, Achaean League.

303
304 An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy
|
being restored shortly thereafter,while loyal leaguesseem to have been left
undisturbed.2
13.01 The Assembly
The basisof Greek democracy was the principle that the people had the right
to participate in government by electing those who would govern them, by
participating as individuals in governing, and by serving on the boards and in
the offices of government. The two primary bodies of the democratic city-
statewere the assembly(xxl"qola) and the council (Boul.f), with ultimate
authority being vested in the assembly.
The assemblyrepresentedthe people (tpog) and constitutedthe funda-
mental body of democratic government.3Its membership consistedof the full
citizen body, that is, all adult male citizens.Women and noncitizens who were
permanent residents-regardless of their wealth-were excluded from its
membership.a
The powers of the assembly were far reaching: it dealt with political,
administrative, legislative, financial, and, in certain cases,judicial matters. It
also electedand dismissedmagistrates(i.e., those not chosenby lot).s How-
ever, the assemblydid not have the power to contravene the establishedlaws
(vpol) of the state.Eachregular meetingof the assemblyseemsto havebeen
known as a xugia xx1l1qala.6 In addition to regular meetings, extraordinary
meetings might also be called.
2. SeeJ. A. O. Larsen,
"Roman
Greece,"in ESAR4.261-498, esp.309.
3. The Doric equivalent was termed &trio, &n),}.c (e.g., in Sparta), or &),toi.cr(seewilliam
A. MacDonald, The Political Meeting Placesof the Gteeks,lohns Hopkins University Studies in
Archaeology34 [Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press,1943],2). On political institutions of Roman
"IG
sparta, and for a discussion of ouvcqlio and ypoweE, see Nigel Kennell, V I, 16 and the
Cerousia ofRoman Sparta," Hesperia61 (1992): 193-202. The term otvoog is a general term for
a meeting of officials (seel. A. O. Larson, REresentative Governmentin Greekand Roman Society
IBerkeley: University of California Press, 1955]' 77-78).
4. In an oligarchy, membership might be limited to those who attained a certain standard
of wealth or a particular birth qualification. On the assembly see Heinrich Swoboda, Lehrbuch
rev. ed., vol. 3 (Freiburg, I.C.B.Mohr, 1913), l14-15; Georg
der giechichenStaatsaltertmeL
staatskunde,3d ed,2 vols., HbA 4.1 (Munich: c. H. Beck, 1963-72),
von Busolt, Griechische
l:442-43.
5. A vote was taken on the conduct of each of its magistrates ( aqsr,gotovicr); in the event
the magistrate in question was suspended and put on
of an unfavorable vote (roleporovic),
trial.
6. There is disagreement among scholars about whether the assembly in Athens (after 360
n.c.) met three times per month or four times in each prytany. There is also disagreement as to
whether the meeting of the assembly was determined by the festival calendar (Harris) or the
The(]overnment
of theHellenistic
City | 305
Many villages (r1poE,x6pq, xorotxi,o) modeled their organization on
the democratic governmentof cities by setting up an assemblyand by giving
to officials the same titles as their counterparts in the cities.TThough villages
had no political sovereignty,they did have limited powers to legislateon some
social,religious,and administrativematters.
13.02 The Council
The council (Fou),t) was subordinateto the assembly,though the assembly
delegatedto the council extensive deliberative, executive, and administrative
powers.s The council was charged with supervising the magisterial boards,
state finances, religious festivals, and maintenance of public buildings and
with executing measurespassedby the assembly.Moreover, no preliminary
resolution could be discussedor put to a vote in the assemblyuntil it had been
consideredin the council (see5 7.01).
The best known of all the councils was the Athenian council establishedby
Kleisthenesin 50817n.c. This council met daily in the council chamber
(Boul"eurfiqlov) except on days that were festal or considered to be unlucky.
It originally consisted of five hundred councillors (Bouleutcrl), fifty from
"How
prytany calendar (Hansen). Cf. E. M. Harris, Often Did the Athenian Assembly Meet?
"How
Some New Evidence," AIP 112 (199I): 325-41; E. M. Harris, Often Did the Athenian
"Was
Assembly Meet?" CQ 36 (1936): 363-77; M. H. Hansen, the Athenian Ekklesia Convened
according to the Festival Calendar or the Bouleutic Calendar?" AJP ll4 (1993): 99-113 (SEG
"When
36.303,37.230,42.227); M. H. Hansen, Did the Athenian EcclesiaMeet?"GRBS23 (1982):
3 3l - s 0 .
7. See Frank Abbott and Allan Johnson, Municipal Administration in the Roman Empire
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1926), 2l-25.
"Bemerkungen
8. SeeH. Mller, zu Funktion und Bedeutung des Rats in den hellenistischen
Stdten," in Michael Wrrle, Paul Zanker, eds.,Stadtbild und Brgerbild im Hellenismzs(Munich:
Beck, 1995), 4l-54; Swoboda, Lehrbuch, 127-37; P. l. Rhodes, The Athenian Boule (Oxford:
Clarendon, 1972); Daniel |. Geagan, The Athenian Constitution after Sulla, Hesperia Suppl 12
(Princeton, NJ: American School of ClassicalStudies at Athens, 1967), 62-91; Blsolt, Griechische
Staatskunde, 1:456-81; A. H. M. Iones, The Greek City from Alexander to Justinian (Oxford:
Clarendon,l94O),162-65,168, 170,176,18r,183,241,336n.19,337n.20,338n.29,340n.41,343
n. 64). On the function and composition of the Delphian council see F. Salviat in Hommages
Lucien Lerot, ed. H6lne Walter, 2 vols., Annales litteraires de l'Universit6 de Besancon 294;
"Les
Centre de recherches d'histoire ancienne, 55 (Paris: Belles Lettres," 1984),743-49 (SEG
34.373). The Spartan Council, termed the gerousia or synarchia, consisted of twenty-four coun-
cillors, who were appointed for life, together with Sparta's two dynastic kings (cf. A. S. Bradford,
"The
Synarchiaof Rornan Sparta," Chiron lO [1980]: 413-25). The Boeotian confederarywas
governed by four poutrcl that acted collectively. On the terms Bou].q, oryd.qtog, yeqouolo, and
ouvprov as applied to Roman institutions seeHugh I. Mason, GreekTermsfor Roman Insitutions:
A Lexicon and Analysis, American Studies in Papyrology 13 (Toronto: Hakkert, 1974), l2l-24.
 'l'he
306 An lntoduction to GreekEpigraphy Governmentof the Hellenistic City | 307
|

each of ten tribes (Qul,cri).eThe expansionof the number of tribes to twelve
in 30716s .c. increasedthe council's membershipto six hundred.
Councillors were elected normally by popular vote but sometimes by lot
(e.g., at Erythrai). Most held offrce for one year, some for periods of six
months (in Rhodesand Stratonikeia)or less.roIn Athens,the councillorstook
office at the same time as the chief archon, that is, on the first day of
Hekatombaion(seeS 6.01).tt
The Athenian council was too large a body to deal with the day-to-day
administration of state. Hence, it was subdivided into executive committees,
each committee being known as the nqutvetg (prytanels).Each tribe was
representedby its own prFtaneis, its membership being exclusively selected
from its own tribe. The year was divided into a corresponding number of
equal periods, each period being known as one prytany (nqutavei,c), with
each body of prytaneis taking turn as the executive committee of council for
the period of one prfi.any.\2 For example, when there were only ten tribes in
Athens, the first four groups of prytaneis served for 36 days each, and the
remaining six served for 35 days each, making a total of 354 days.
The sequenceof prytanies for a given year was always determined by lot
(not by the official tribal order), this being termed a sortition cycle. This
arrangement varied over the centuries as new tribes were added and existing
tribes abolished.In any case,this processensured that each tribe had an equal
share in the government of state. The primary responsibility of the prytaneis
was to prepare a written agenda(ngygcppa/ngoyqoQt) for the assembly
and to convene the council and the assembly.
Athens was not the only city to divide its council into monthly executive
committees. As the following list demonstrates, these executive committees
were known by a variety of names:13
9. Kleisthenesis well known for having enrolled the citizens of Athens in demes (fpor), or
townships, which were grouped into tgr.trrieE (sg. tqrttng). The tqrtreE were organized into ten
new tribes (Qulci), with each tribe being composed of three tgrrrueE. Tribes and demes had
their own officers and were self-administered. The head of each tribe was called the 6*rpetrr1ti1E
rrlg Sulrlg and was elected annually.
10. See Rhodes, Athenian Boule, l-30; Geagan, Athenian Constitution, 62-91; Busolt,
Gie chischeStaatskunde,| :456ff.
11. The phrase qlovta 1evpevov might be used to describe an ex-archon (see Iohn S.
"The
Traill, Athenian Archon Pleistainos,"ZPE 103 [199a]: 109-114, esp. 1ll [pl. Xil]).
"Observa-
12. For the prftany in the cities ofEgypt in the imperial period see P. Schubert,
tions sur la prytanie en Eg;pte romaine," ZPE 79 (1989): 235-41 (SEG 8.797, 39.1676).
13. SeeJones,Greek City, 165-66,337 n. 2l; David Magie, Roman Rule in Asia Minor to the
End of the Third Century after Christ, 2 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press,1950), 2:834-
35 n. 18.
aioupvflrcrr Chalcedon,Megara
nlpqvwovreg Mylasa
rr,pi1vr,ol Ilium, Kius, Kolophon, Nesos,Lampsakos,Smyrna
xcrcl.oyot Epidauros
nql3outrol Delphi, Karystos, Termessos
npegot Ephesos,Magnesiaad Maeandrum
fiQoor(lr(I[ Kalymnos
xlQurvsrE Aigiale,Astypalaia,Athens,Kyzicos,Halikarnassos,
Miletos, Phokaia, Samos
The title of the president of the executivecommittee also varied from city
to city (e.g., &g1mg6BoutroE,laBotrog1og,tsttottqgr6). In Athens, the
president of the prytaneis was known as the nuotrnE rv xrQurvecDv. He
was chosenby lot from the members of the prytaneis at the beginning of each
daily meeting.lTThis president held office for the whole day inthe prytaneion
or tholos,l8togetherwith one-third of the prytaneis(chosenby him).
In Athens, prior to the fourth century 8.c., it was also the responsibility
of the president of the prytaneis to chair the meetings of the council and the
assembly. However, in the fourth century 8.c., this responsibility was reas-
"presiding
signed to newly created officials, the officers" (nqegot), who
had their own president (nuorctqE tv nqogolv). Before each meeting
of the council and the assembly,the president of the prytaneis would choose
by lot one member from each of the nonprytanizing tribes to serve as
presiding offrcers (nqepor,),one of whom served as their president.leIt
was this president's task to chair the meetings of the council and the as-
sembly. The remaining presiding officers were' resPonsible for bringing
14. Karystos, Termessos,Sagallassos.In Termessos,he served as both council president and
epon)rynousmagistrate (seeMagie, Roman Rule, l:264,2:1506 n.32).
15. Akmonia, Aizani, Aphrodisias, Colossai, Ephesos,Erythrai, Eumeneia, Hierapolis, Hiero-
caesareia,Hypaipa, Mastaura, Miletos, Mirylene, Nysa, Philadelphia, Priene, Sml'rna, Thyateira,
Tralles. See Heinrich Swoboda, Die griechischenVolksbeschlsse: EpigraphischeUntersuchungen
(Hildesheim: H. A. Gerstenberg, 1890), 198-99; Victor Chapot, La province romaineproconsulaire
"L'Erma"
d'Asie depuis sesoigines jusqu'd la fn du Haut-Empire (Rome: di Bretschneider' 1904)'
202; lones, Greek City, 179, 341; Magie, Roman Rule, l:642, 2:1506 n. 32.
16. Athens, Magnesia-on-Maeander. See Jones, Greek City, 165; cf. Pierre Jortguet, La vie
municipaledans I'Egypt romaine (Paris: Fontemoing, 1911),259 (reprint, BEFAR, Paris: E. de
Boccard, l96s). On the nr.orarot ofthe Antigonids seeSEG 40.1662.
17. SeeBusolt, Giechche Staatskunde,I.476-77;Jones, Greek City,165-66.
18. 0olog: a circular building adjacent to the council chamber on the southwest corner of
the agora (Rhodes, rlrenian Boule, 16).
19. SeeRhodes, Athenian Boule,25-28;Jones, Greek City, 165 (Magnesia).
308 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy
forward the business of the council and the assembly, maintaining order,
and counting votes.
In Athens, one secretary was assignedto the council (yqcrppcrteStflS
poul,flE),and another to the assembly(ygopportE rnE xxl"qoiag).20There
was also a secretaryof the prytany (yqoppateStflS xreurovelcrs).2lThese
secretarieswere administrative experts in the day-to-day running of the gov-
ernment. They recorded the minutes of the meetings and published decrees,
treatises,and other state documents (see 5 0.07, 8.01). The name of the
recording secretarywas often employed as a means of identifring and dating
thesedocuments(seeS 6.01).
On account of the specializedknowledge that their offices required, sec-
retariestended to hold office for extendedperiods of time and become influen-
tial in state affairs. In Athens, the secretarywas always accompanied by an
undersecretary,though the latter office is not named in inscriptions. In impe-
rial times, the secretarywas often charged with matters of civic administra-
tion; he also worked with magistrates in drafting resolutions and presenting
them to the assembly and was responsible for setting up public honorific
inscriptions.
Treasurers(tapicl) were also appointedto the assemblyand council.22In
some cities, they served as single ofhcers, while in others, they functioned
jointly on a board offinance. The position oftreasurer probably had to do less
with the recording of figures and more with auditing the accounts; they also
made payments as directed by the council and the assembly.In such cities as
Ephesos,Kolophon, Nikaia, and Magnesia on the Maeander, an appointed
financial manager, or controller (oixovpoE), was vested with authority to
overseethe expenditure of public funds.23
The power of the assemblybecame progressivelynominal in the Roman
period as the authority of the council increased.Rome promoted oligarchic
and timocratic government in the Greek states,at the expenseof the demo-
20. SeeOtto Schulthess,lpcppor,eig, KE 7 (1912): 1707-80, esp. I 763-64; Busolt, Griechische
Staatskunde,| :478-7 9.
21. SeeS. Alessandri,ASNP l2 (1982):7-10 (SEG32.346).
22. For ttrpi,ol and other financial officials see Busolt, GriechischeStaatskunde, 1:483-84;
Magie, Roman Rule, 850 n. 34; Jones, Greek City, 175,241, 354 n. 57. Cf. the ieqorcpiaE, the
sacredtreasurer elected to manage temple revenue (see lones, Greek City,228).
"Die
23. SeeP. Spahn, Anftinge der antiken konomik," Chiron 14 (1984): 304-6; C. Ampolo,
Oikonomia: Tre osservazionisui rapporti tra la finanza e I'economia greca, Archeologia e Storia
Antica, Istituto Universitario Orientale, Napoli, Annali del seminario di studi sul mondo classicoI
(1979),119-30 (9EG29.1796;cf.24.496);PeterLandvogt,.EpigraphischeUnteruschungeniiberden
OixovproE: Ein Beitrag zum hellenistischenBeamtenwesen(Strasbourg: M. Dumont Schauberg,
1908),16, 23-24;Jones, GreekCity,241; Horsley in NewDocs4.160-61, no. 69.
of theHellenistic
TheGovernment City I fOf
cratic ideal of a sovereignassembly.24 The council came to have virtual con-
trol over the election of all magistrates,since the council determined the slate
of candidates.Consequently,from the first century A.D.' membershipof the
council became increasingly oligarchic, self-perpetuating, and timocratic, of-
ten being limited to those who had served as magistrates.2sThe assembly
becamelittle more than a confirmatory body for the resolutions of the council
and chief magistrates.26
13.03 Eponymous Magistrates
The highest of6ceholder in a city, in rank though not in power, was the
eponymous magistrate,who was electedannually. The title of this office varied
from city to city (seeS 6.01).27
Public documentsand decreeswere datedby his
name. In democratic constitutions, this magistratehad few actual powers. His
responsibilitiesseemto have been threefold: ( I ) to offer certain statesacrifices;
(2) to walk at the head of civic processions;(3) to entertain on a lavish scale
throughout the year.28Given the expense attached to this office, only the
wealthiest of citizens could afford to hold it. In times of financial stringency,
the city deity was often made the eponymous magistrateand the expenseswere
paid out of the temple treasury.2e
24. Anthony Marco ("The Cities of Asia Minor under the Roman Imperium," in /NRW II,
"The
7.2 ll98}]1:658-98, esp. 662) remarks: traditional Greek Council (Fottft) was a committee
of the ssembly (xn),Ioi,a) endowed with probouleutic function and a membership that
changed regularly and often. Therefore, it was free of honor, irresponsible, incongruous and ever
likely to be an instrument of change. Naturally the Romans found such an institution difficult to
countenance in so far as it necessarilylacked auctoritas,it was inconsistent with the Roman ideals
of gravitas and dignitas, and, more practically, incompatible with aristocratic tenancy of local
government. And so the Romans systematically modified the Greek Council wherever it had
survived the Hellenistic Age in untrammelled condition by introducing property qualifications
for membership and by tending to grant that membership life-tenure. In this way the Greek
Council rvon honor and the local aristocracieswere assuredpredominance."
25. SeeJoseph Declareuil, Quelquesprobllmes d'histoire des institutions municipalesau temps
de I'Empire romain (Paris: L. Larose and L. Tenin, l9l1), 269-74.
26. SeeWilhelm Liebenam, Stdteverwahungim rmischenKaiserreiche(Leipzig: Dunker and
Humblot, L900), 247-52: Jakob A. O. Larsen, RePresentativeGovernment in Greek and Roman
History (Berkeley:University of California Press, 1976), 120;C. P. Jones,The Roman World of Dio
Chrysostom(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978), 4,95-99.
27. There were also regional headsoffederations ofcities, such as the head ofthe federation of
Lycian citiesknown as the hxlcqlqE; cf. Br0uvlcq1r1g,xtl'rcqp16. ncpQul'r.p1qg.nowp1q5;
seeSEG34.601.
on ;"roxeovr.oqlqE
28. SeeJones,Greek City, 163.
"Stephanephoros,"
29. See Gebhard, RE 3A (1929): 2349; Robert, Hellenica, ll, 5l-52;
"stephanephoros,"
Gebhard, RE 3 (1929): 2347-50; Iones, GreekCity, 167-68,234-35. When
 'I'lreGovernment City
of the Hellenistic fff
I
310 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy
'l'he
archons(qxowes). name of the principal magisterialboard varied from
13.04 Magistracies and Magisterial Boards
city to city, as the following list illustrates:

In Greek cities, all public responsibilities were classified under one of two
gloweg Athens (seeS 13.05),Aphrodisias33
categories,either magistracies(&QXOi,)or liturgies (l.er.touqylcrusee5 13.9).
qplougyoi. Aigina, Salamis,most of the Peloponnesos3a
Some magistrates(e.g., clerk of the market) served individually' while others
Qoqot Lakonia
served on boards. Magistracies that provided a source of income to the
xopot. Crete3s
incumbent (e.g.,civic priesthoods)were customarily sold or leasedto derive
ruotrlrq1cl Thessalonika,Beroia36
additional revenue for the city.3OHowever, thesewere a minority'
xtQooT0T(rt Cos37
In the Roman period, when many magistrates were expected to expend
rleurvslE Amorgos, Astypalaia' Knidos, Nisyros, Rhodes, Samos,
large sums of their own money for such purposes as banquets, prizes for the
cities of the Peloponnesos'Pamphylia,and Cilicia
games,and stabilizing grain prices, the principal criterion for eligibility was
orQorrlYoi Bargylia, Kalymnos, Chios, Gambreium, Herakleia ad
not so much administrative competenceas Personalwealth. Hence, magistra-
Latmum, Hierapolis, Iasos,Magnesiaon the Maeander
cies once again came to be dominated by the aristocracy under the Roman
(by mid-III n.c.), Miletos (cioupvfltcrl tv pol'ndrv in
imperium.
early times), Minoa on Amorgos (in the Roman
In many cities, the council delegatedmost of its administrative and finan-
period)' Leros, Mylasa' Myndos, Nysa (in the Roman
cial responsibilities to various magisterial boards.3l Typically' they were re-
period), Phokaia, Priene, Sardis, Smyrna, Stratonikeia'
sponsiblefor the administration of the city' for drawing up resolutions for the
and generally throughout the Greek cities of Caria,
assembly, and sometimes for the management of public finances (e.g., at
Lydia, Phrygia' and ThessalY
Keramos). In Athens, most magistrateswere appointed to boards of ten
rcrYoi ThessalY
members each,with one magistrate being chosen from each tribe'
rrtlo0xot Sinope38
Magistrateswere elected to boards by the assemblyfrom a slate of nomi-
neesdrawn up by the council. Each member would take his turn in rotation
acting as chairman (netav1g) of the board. Normally, magistrateswere 13.05 Archons
appointed to a board for a term of one year, though terms of four to six
months are known in some cities,32with reappointment to the same board First in importance among the administrative boards in Athens was the board
being forbidden. other offrcers,such asraplar, (treasurers),YQolipr[E(sec- of archons (gloweg), whose responsibilities were principally judicial and
retaries),and xteuxsE (heralds)were also attachedto most boards'
In each city, one magisterial board was ranked first in importance above 33. The Aphrodisian formula for the production of a proposal for a decree in I s.c.-L{.o.
all other boards. In Athens, members of this executiveboard were known as and probably in II a.p. is yvpq q1vtov xc:\ (gratnffiateus) xo;i (strategos)dni 1gcg, with
many variations; however, it is clear that the strategoi are not the chief board of magistrates.I am
in grateful to f. M. Reynolds for this observation.
no citizen volunteered to carry the financial burden of the eponymous ofrfrceof stephanephoros 34. With the exception of Sparta, Tegea, Orchomenus, Mantinea, and Elis. In cities of thc
Miletos, Anl']"trrv AtE was named stephanephoros. Achaean league, the demiourgoi directed civil matters, while the strategoi were responsible for
"Partnership in the Lease of Cults in
30. On the leasing of priesthoods see F. Sokolowski, military matters.
Greek Antiquity," HThs 5o (1957):133-44. "Quelques 35. Seelohann Oehler'
"Kosmoi,"
RE l1 (1922):1495-98' esp' 1495'
31. on monetary magistrates from IV to III B.c. see o. Masson, noms de ma-
36. In Macedonia, a single supreme board called nol,rtoplct dealt with civic and military
gistrats mon6taires grecs: V. Les mon6taires de Kym6 d'Eolide," RN 23 (1986): 51-64' with
matters.
alphabetic catalogue (56-63); Robert, Hellenica, III, 38-39. 37. SeeMagie, Roman Rule,2:842-43 n. 28; lones, Greek city, 166; cf. Horsley rn Nev'tDocs
32. Six-month term: Rhodes, Knidus, Stratonikeia, Tarsos, Tenos; four-month term: Ery-
"Etudes 4.242-44, no. I22.
thrai, chalcedon (lones, Greekcity,335 n. l4). cf. Isidore L6vy, sur la vie municipale de
38. SeeMagie, Roman Rule, 2:842 n. 27.
I'Asie Mineure sous les Antonins: Seconde srie, Les offices publics," REG 12 (1899): 255-89.
312 An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy
|
religious. This board consistedof three principal archons3eand six junior
archons known as lawgivers (0eopo06tcrr,).a0 Together, including a secretary,
they formed a board of ten persons.ar The chief archon ( p1orv) was elected
from this group as the eponymous archon of the city. He ranked as the
highest state offrcial and formal head of state.
Though archonsare also attestedin other cities (e.g.,Delos, Thasos),42 it
should be added that the term archonsis also employed generically in inscrip-
tions to refer to governing boards of strategoiand prytaneis, for this term was
used as a conventional term of addressfor city magistratesin letters addressed
to cities by emperors and other Roman of6cials.a3
13.06 Strategoi
Most cities had a board of strategoi,though it was not always the principal
governing board. In those cities that had a oteQcvfQogog as eponymous
'O
p1tov (the chief archon) was the president of the board and the eponymous magis-
39.
trate of state; the p1<rrvpaor,l,egwas the religious head of state and was responsible for the
Eleusinian mysteries, the Lenaea, and the torch race; the g1<rlv no)"pcrqxogwas in charge of
state sacrificesto the gods ofwar and public funerals for those who fell in war, and he presided at
lawsuits in which ptotxor (resident aliens) were involved. At the end of their terms, they became
members of the council of the Areopagus.
40. They oversaw the law courts, revised the laws, presided at many trials, and collectively
appointed the magistratesby lot.
41. Since the number of tribes in any given year always exceededthe number of archons
(nine), one to four tribes (depending on the year) always went unrepresented in the board of
archons. The selection of archons was determined by lot in such a way that there was no
duplication oftribes (i.e., by a sortition cycle). The classicbook on this subject is W. S. Ferguson,
Athenian Tibal Cycles in the Hellentic Age, Hamard Historical Monographs 1 (Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1932); see esp. 50-54. Except in wartime, no archon is known to have
"Notes
served as archon twice or to have held another one ofthe nine offices (seeS. V. Tracy, and
Discussions: TO MH AI> APXEIN," CP 86 [1991]: 201-4).
42. See,e.g., Jean Pouilloux, Recherchessur I'histoire et les cultesde Thasos(Paris, 1954), nos.
28-33; cf.236-38 (ct. SEG34.874).
43. The attested duties of the strategoi include the collection of money (as demanded by
[Knidosl, or for inscribing statutesand honorary decrees
foreigners [e.g., Erythrae], for a Oe<oqdE
[Halicarnassus,Priene, Erythrae]). Some had management of the sacredfunds of Asklepios (e.g.,
Lampsakos) or the control (with other officials) over public funds (Temnos). They might have
responsibility for announcilg the bestowal of honors and commissioning statues and providing
wreaths for benefactors (Priene, Methymna, Samos,Chalcedon). They also participated in public
funerals (Priene), sacrifices (Ilium), and ceremonies (Magnesia). They negotiated with people
seeking citizenship (Smyrna), made contracts with builders for the construction ofpublic build-
ings (Kyzicos), and conducted some trials (Knidus). SeeMagie, Roman Rule, 2:845-46 n. 29' For
Erfihrai seeSEG3410, 442; for Kyzicos, /GRR IV, 134; for Ephesos,SEG3363. In Kyme, a strategos
"Inscriptions
was the presiding officer at the assembly (see D6mosthnesBaltazzi, de I'Eolide,"
"Rhetores
BCH 12 [1388]: 358-76, esp.360, no.4;362-63, no. 6). For Athens, seeM. H. Hansen,
and Strategoiin Fourth-Century Athens," GRBS 24 (1983): l5l-80 (cf. SEG 33.253).
Thc()overnmentol'rheHellenistic
City I f tf
nragistrate,the executiveboard was usually the strategoi.aa New cities in Asia
often preferred to appoint a five- (rather than ten-) member board of
strategoias the executiveboard.
The term otqotq^yg was originally a military title meaning general or
commander.asAs time passed,the strategoiin Athens, Asia Minor, and else-
where became increasingly concerned with civil matters, such that their re-
sponsibilities were virtually identical with those of the civil board of prytaneis
in other cities. In most cities, the strategoi fulfilled a wide variety of municipal
functions, with no military responsibilities, except perhaps in time of war.a6
For example, Rhodes-which had no army (except for a few mercenaries)-
still had a board ofstrategoi.aT
13.07 Prytaneis
In cities with a demiourgosas eponymousmagistrate(see5 6.01), the execu-
tive board was often the prytaneis-not to be confused with the executive
44. In Rhodes, its functions were unclear, since the prytaneis had charge of directing civic
poliry (see Hendrik E. van Gelder, Geschichteder ahen Rhodier lHaag: M. Nijhoff, 19001,253;
Iones, Greek City, 164-65). Richard M. Berthold (Rhodesin the Hellenistic Age [Ithaca: Cornell
"general
University Press, 19841,46 n. 29) arguesthat orqctoyg x nwov does not mean over
all" but probably refers to a specialform of election that drew on all citizens rather than selection
by division (e.g.,tribe).
"Etudes,"
45. For g1<ov and ovpcrql6E used synonymously see L6vy, 268; nq6toE q1ov
: nqtog otqotrlydg (seeMagie, Roman RuIe,2:1509n.37).
46. See Jones, Greek City,46-47. This arrangement began in Miletus and Priene and soon
spread to the Ionian colonies, including Smlrna, and then to Caria, Lydia, and Phrygia. Their
term of service varied, usually consisting one year, but sometimes as short as four months (e.g.,
Erythrae and Chalcedon) (see Jones, GreekCity, 162). In Pergai.non,theywere appointed bythe
king. On the strategoi of the Thessalian League see Herwig Kramolisch, Demetias II: Die
Strategendesthessalischen Bundesvom Jahr 196v. Chr. bis zum Ausgangder rmischenRepublils ed.
V. Milojcic and D. Theocharis, Die Deutschen archologischen Forschungen in Thessalien
Beitrge zur ur- und fruhgeschichtlichen Archologie des Mittelmeer-Kulturraumes 12 (Bonn:
Habelt, 1978) (SEG28.s05).
47. Cf. the role of strategoi in Athens, for example, where they were originally elected
officials who served on a board of ten orqcrrq^yoland were charged with the military command of
the ten tribal regiments. They oversaw military and naval administration and could be called on
to organize an army, to raise the resources to equip and fund an army, and to oversee the
provisioning of the city in time of war (seeMagie, Roman Rule, l:6O, 2:844 n. 29). In the cities of
the Achaean League, there were two boards: the strategoi oversaw the armed forces, while the
qprougyoi, (not to be confused with the eponymous magistrate of the same name) dealt with
civic administration. The balance of power between thesetwo boards varied from city to city (see
Iones, Greek City, 163)i the commander in chief of the strategoi was sometimes known as the
ngdrrog orqotqyg or otqarqyE 6ni r n)"c (e.g.,Smpna); under the influence ofthe Romans,
the orqotqyE ni t rl"a often took on the powers ofthe entire board ofgenerals (seeMagie,
R o m a nR u l e , 2 : 1 5 1 0n . 3 9 ) .
314 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy
committee of the Athenian council known by the same name. An ar-
chiprytanis served as its chairman. It functioned much as the strategoi func-
tioned in their nonmilitary capacity in other cities.48In Rhodes,the prytaneis
fulfilled a double function asboth the executiveboard of civil magistratesand
as the proedrol for the council and assembly.In cities that had boards of both
prytaneis and strategoi (e.g., Erythrai), it can be assumedthat the division of
responsibility was civil and military, respectively.
13.08 Other Magisterial Boards, Offices, and Titles
A number of the remaining civic magisterial boards are frequently mentioned
in inscriptions.Boards of sacredoverseers(leqono1oi) or curators of temple
usually consisting of ten members each,were in chargeof
fabric (vetonor,ol),ae
the care of temple buildings, the overseeingof the engraving of public docu-
ments on the walls of temples, the oversight of the temple accounts' and the
administration of all aspectsof the sacredrites and festivalsthat were not the
responsibility of the priests.s0In Athens, for example, boards of sacred over-
seersregulated the Eleusinian mysteries,the Hephaistia, and the sacrificesto
Dionysos and to other gods.sl During the imperial period, their responsibili-
ties widened to include civic functions. On Delos, these offrcials were second
in importance only to the eponymous magistrate.
A board of public grain buyers (or,tdrvcr,)was responsiblefor the purchase
and supply of grain to the city at a reasonableprice.s2Sometimes, a public
fund (orttrlvtxv lqrlg,a) was provided for this Purpose' but this fund was
often inadequate,forcing the grain buyers themselvesto make up the shortfall
from their own personal resources. Similarly, a board of public oil buyers
48. Smpna, Stratonikeia, Myra, Seleucia(Cilicia), Kastabala-Hieropolis' Komana (Cappado-
cia). In Miletos and Priene, it was headed by an p1tnptovtE; at Miletos, by five ouvcrqloweg
(seeMagie, Roman Rule, l:643).
"temple "temple
49. These curators," or builders" (ve<rr:toroi),should be distinguished ftom
"temple
the veoteoE, normally translated as warden."
50. The Curators were also called voonorci, veonoict, or vono0ot. See Busolt, Giechische
Staatskunde,l:5021 Otto Schulthess,Neonotoi RE 16 (1935): 2433-39;Magie, Roman Rule, l:60,
2:847-48 n. 31; Adrian N. Sherwin-White, Roman Societyand Roman Law in the New Testament
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1963), 90-91; Horsley in NewDocs4.127-29, no. 28; Jones, GreekCity,228.
51. SeeRhodes,Athenian Boule, I27-31.
52. SeeL. Migeotte in Hommage d la m'moire de Emest Pascal,Cahiers des Etudes Anciennes
"The
24(1990):2gr-300 (cf. SEG37.7769,38.1948,39.1775,a0J646);IGII2792;M.l. Osborne,
(SEG
Chronology of Athens in the Mid Third Century s.c;' ZPE 78 (1989): 221-22 39.120'
-18'
1775); SEG37.1406, 1769;MagSe,Roman Rule, I:646,2:1512-13 n' 42; Jones,GreekCity' 217
2 4 7 , 3 6 1n . 8 .
The Governmentol thc HellenisticCity I I tS
(6l,al<irv<rl)was charged with the purchase and provision of reasonably
priced oil both for domestic use and for the gymnasiaand baths.s3Special
funds were also set up for this in some cities (e.g., Aphrodisias, Prusias ad
Hypium).54
In addition to the magisterial boards, there were single officers appointed
to specific tasks. Some of these magistracieswere held for the lifetime (
piou) of the individual, as in the caseof hereditaryoffices(r yvoug),such
as the presidencyof the games(yc'lvo0tcr), and civic priesthoods.ss Some
magistracieswere honorary in nature, being conferred in gratitude for finan-
cial donations. For example,the so-calledperpetual (oicrrvlot) magistracies
were bestowed on individuals who had provided an endowment for the of6ce
in question.
The controller of the market (&yogcrvpog)was chargedwith the supervi-
sion of the commerce in the agora, checking the accuracy of the weights and
balances,and generally assuring that commodities were sold at a fair price. In
times of shortage, he was expected to stabilize prices out of his own funds.s6
He was also responsible for the maintenance of the agora buildings and for
the collection ofshop and stall rentals.sT
The office of city warden (&otuvpog) is attested in various cities. This
official was responsible for keeping the buildings, roads, and drains in good
repair.s8He also had the power to fine persons who did not maintain their
property.seThe warden of the peace (eiq4vaglylE/oE)was a high-ranking
official who was charged with maintaining public discipline and morals.60He
had the authority to arrest and interrogate bandits and send them to trial. He
53. For a comprehensive study ofbaths, including terminology, see Fikret Yegil, Baths and
Bathing in ClassicalAntiquity (New York Architectural History Foundation; Cambridge: MIT
Press, 1992) (SEG a2.1757); see, among other terms, l,elnrfqlov, cnoutilqrov, gfBerov,
lourqv, and oq<rrprorilqrov.
54. SeeRobert, EtAnat,3l4tr. (Aphrodisias);IGRR III, 60,68 (Prusiasad Hypium). Cf. SEG
42.478, a list of contributors to the oil for a gyrnnasium (Elatea, Phokis, 160 e.c.).
55. Seelones, Greek Ci, 175, 339 n. 37.
56. See Magie, Roman Rule, 2.1512 n. 4l; E. M. Smallwood, Docurnents Illustrating the
Principates of Nerva, Trajan, and Hadian (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966), 451
(ocr 484,L. 17).
"Agoranomoi,"
57. See J. Oehler, RI I (189a): 883-85; Busolt, GriechrscheStaatskunde,
l:491-92; lones, GreekCity, I88, 215-16,230 (Andania), 339 n. 37,349 n. 10, 361 n. 88.
58. Similar to a city building inspector; he might have been also responsible for the water
supply and drainage (see Magie, Roman Rule, l:646,2:1513 n. 43; Jones,GreekCity, 213-15).
"The
59. SeeJ. H. Oliver, Date of the PergameneAstynomicLaw," HesperiaZ| (1955):88-92.
60. SeeSchulthess,Eipqvnqlar, RE Suppl. 3 (1918):419;Magie, Roman Rule, l:646,2:,1514
n. 46; Jones,GreekCity,212-1,3,360 n. 80.
 City
ol theHellenistic
TheGovernment | 317
316 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy

civic programs, such as the hiring and training of chorusesfor festivals,the

was servedby constablesor mounted police (ltrlypeital)'6r The paraphylax
funding of musical and athletic contests,and maintaining the civic gymnasia.
(ncrqas),al/xeE) was a police offrcial in charge of the rural territory and was
Resident Roman citizens in Greek cities were probably exempt from both
particularly involved in the control of highway robbery'62
liturgies and magistracies.66
Women of means are known to have held some magistracies.In the late
promi- Perhaps the most important of all the liturgies was that of gymnasiarch
Hellenistic and Roman periods, women of local ruling elites played a
civic (yupvcoicrqloE), since the gymnasiawere the principal centersfor athletic
nent role in public life. They acted as benefactors and undertook
exclu- and intellectual training, not to mention socializing.6TThe gymnasiarch was
offrces and liturgies.63Some sacred offices seem to have been held
of the shroud of the image of Artemis expected to bear at his own expensethe considerable costs of maintaining a
sively by women, such as the bearer
gymnasium and its equipment, including the cost of wood for the heating of
(oner,go$gog)and the bearerof the ornaments (xoopoQgog)in the Ephe-
the baths and the heavy expenseof furnishing oil. (Oil was required in large
sian cult of Artemis.6a
quantities, being used both as a cleanser and a lubricant during and after
exerciseand for lighting the rooms after dark.) Though there was sometimes
13.09 Liturgies
public funding for oil, it was apparently never adequate.Such was the finan-
cial burden of this and other magistraciesthat only the wealthy could afford
In addition to servicesrendered by various magistrates' there were services to be appointed over the centuries. As private fortunes dwindled' appoint-
as
called liturgies (1"rrouQyic[), which were performed by wealthy citizens ments were increasingly viewed as a burden to be avoided rather than an
to
acts of public duty.6sThe precise nature of these liturgies varied from city honor to be sought.68
city. rt ey customarily involved defraying the costs associated with various

"6tudes tpigraphiques: Premire S6rie," BCH 52 (1928):407-25' esp.409; 13.10Societies

61. SeeL. Robert,
Mtgie, Roman Rule,I:647, 2:1514n.46; Jones,GreekCity, 212'
62.SeeMagie,RomanRule,l:647,2:1515n'47;lones,GreekCity'212'Cf'themunicipal
27)' The gymnasia served as the meeting place for two important societies,the
police in Hierapolis (seeAbbott and Johnson, Municipal Administration'
63. On women as officeholders in Asia Minor see Riet van Bremen, The Limits of Participa- young men's association(vol) and the elders'association(yeqouoia). As the
Periods, DMAHA 15
tion: women and civic Life in the Greek East in the Hellenistic and Roman name of the former suggests'it was an associationof young men who had
"Les
(Amsterdam: J. c. Gieben, 1996); F. Kirbihler, femmes magistrats et litulges en Asie Mineure
(t994) l19g7l5l_75; RamsayMacMullen,
"women rn completedtraining as ephebes(Qnpor)and desiredto continue their fellow-
iII" av. I._C.-nr" s. ap. I._C.)," Ktma lg
public in the Roman Empire," Historia 29 (1930):208-18. on women in public life see R. A' ship in the gyrnnasium. Though this group was athletic in origin, it also had a
Ross S. Kraemer, I{er
Kearsleyin NewD ocs6.24-27 (cf. sEG 42.1856). On women and religion see strong social dimension, functioning very much like a club.6eAn elder's
Women's Religionsamong Pagans, Iews, and Chistians in the Greco.Roman
Share of the Blessings:
(cf. SEG42.1827)' Cf. Pierre Paris'
World iNew york and Oxford: Oxford University Press, lg92)
imperantibus, axigerint (Paris: E. Thorin' 66. SeeAbbott and Johnson, Municipal Administration, 77.
Quatenrusfeminae rcs publicas in Asia Minore Romanis 67. SeeJones,GreekCity,22l-24 (cf. 167, 184,188);Busolt, Griechische 2:929'
Staatskunde,
"The
1891), 68-69; Mika Kajava, Roman coloniae of the Near East: A Study of cultural Rela-
Heikki Solin and Mika 3 0 ; M a g i e ,R o m a nR u l e , 2 : 1 5 2 1n . 5 5 .
tions," in Roman EasternPolicy and other studiesin Roman History, ed. "'Vountary,
But under Pressure': Voluntarity and Constraint in
68. See Marc Kleijwegt,
Kajava,CHLgl(Helsinki:SocietasScientiarumFennica,lggo)'59-124;KatariinaMustakallio'
.,Some Aspects of the Story of coriolanus and the women Behind the cult of Fortuna Greek Municipal Politics," Mnemosyne47 (1994):64-78; Magie' Roman Rule, l:640-41.
16l-62. O. Braunstein 69. Fifty-five groups of vot are known to have existed in Asia Minor alone. They were
Muliebris," in Roman Eastern Policy, 125-31; chapot, Province romaine,
sometimes organized as a ovooE (Sm1'rna, Pergamon, Nicaia) or a otrvplov (Synnada,
(Die politche wirksamkeit der giechischen Frau: Eine Nachwirkung vorgreichischenMuttefrechtes
Laodikeia, Hierapolis). see Mark Kleijwegt, Ancient Youth: The Ambiguity of Youth and the
to the lists of paris. For women serving as sre-
ir.iprig, A. Hoffrnann, lgll), 47_45) adds Absenceof Adolescencein Greco-RomanSociety,DMAHA 8 (Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben, l99l) (SEG
pha)"phoro; at Sardis, priene, and Miletus (.r.o. 3ll2) seeIScrdBR 106a, 110, Ill; IPriene 208:'
-tu;t 41.1882); Clarence A. Forbes, N6or' Contibution to the Stuily of GreekAssociations,Philological
I' 1260' 126l (II s 'c')'
t tz n. 128, L. 17; for their serviceas apropf iotooc at Aspendos' GDI
Monographs 2 (Middletown, CT: American Philological Association' 1933)' 6-7' 38-39; Jones'
Cf. Magie, Roman Rule,2:1518 n' 50.
"Ephesiaka: Zu Artemidor I 8 und IV 4," in Religio Graeco-Romana: Greek City, 225, 245; Franz Poland, Geschichtedes griechischenVereinswesens[Leipzig: B. G.
64lSee Hans Schwabl,
Teubner, 19091,611-62;Magie,Roman Rule,2;854n. 37). The veovi,oxorthat were organizedin
Festschriftfr Walter Ptscher, ed. Joachim Dalfen, Gerhard Petersmann, and Franz F' Schwarz, "Neoi,"
(cf' SEG 43'744)' some citiesof Asia Minor were a different group (seeForbes,Nor.,6l-62; Franz Poland,
Grazer Beitrge Suppl. V (Graz: Horn, 1993),134-43
339 n' 38' 347 n' 99' RE t6 [19351:2401-9).
65. SeeJones, Greek Ci4', 166-67, 175-76, 182,
 'l'he 319
Governmentof the HellenisticCity |
318 | to GreekEpigraphy
An Introduction

association(yegouoic), which took different forms from place to place, is Titles of Greek Officials
attested in almost every Greek city of the Roman period. It was the most
exclusive aristocratic club of the city. This organization usually had its own yoqcvpoE controller of the market (seeS 13.08),
gymnasium and officers, including President, secretary, and treasurer. Be- public notary (Egfpt)
causeits membership was often drawn from ex-magistratesand councillors, yorvo0qg president of the games
it was highly regardedand had significant influence in public life, often acting oioupvqtqE judge at the gamesTa
concurrently with the council and the assemblyin bestowing honors.70 &n6l.oyoE auditorTs
&q1QqBoE chief ephebe;cf. $tBaqlog
13.11 Greek Magistracies, Titles, and Offices &91qer,cr high priestessT6
'AaLaEzz
&q1wqeE high/chief priest; q1mQsErrlE
The tremendous diversity of titles and offices named in inscriptions can be : &or.aq1qE
"an
quite perplexing. Allan Johnson writes: extraordinary variety of titles may ,qlr,eqtoovq high priesthood
be found in the magistraciesof the Greek cities, and no uniformitywas attained &g1lnqBoul.oE president of an executive committee of
or desired by the imperial government. Many of the offices, however, were the council, epon)rynousmagistrate
modified under Roman rule."7r There are numerous instancesin which Greek (Termessos,Sagalassos)
has adopted loanwords from Latin titles.72It must suffice here to list some of q1ov, -ovrsg magistrate, sometimes eponymous (see S
the Greek magistraciesand titles most frequently attested in Hellenistic and 6.01, 13.05);in plural, board of civil
Roman inscriptions. The following list includes titles of different kinds: of magistrates(see$ 13.04)
electedand appointed magistrates(e.g., kosmogstrategos),of professionals orcqlqE Asiarch (see5 14.08)(: &gpeqeEtfrg
employed by a community (e.g., archiatros,grammatodidaskalos,keryx), of Aoiag)
personswho undertookvariousliturgies(e.g.,lampadarches), and of personsin &,otuvpog magistrate in charge of police, streets,
the serviceof emperors(e,g.,pragmateutes).73 and public buildings (see5 13.08)
poorl.eE title of hereditary kings of the Hellenistic
stedenvan het RomeinseRr.Jk(Leiden: E. f .
70. SeeJ. A. van Rossum, D e Gerousiain de Grielese
monarchy,T8Prince, second of the nine
Brill, 1988), with an English summary at 238-4I (sEG 33.1975); Poland, Geschichte,98-101,
577 -l|;Magie, Roman Rule,2:855-59 n.38. Cf. J. H. Oliver, The sacred Gerou.siaHesperia suppl archons in Athens, magistrate'
"Gerusiae and Augustales,"
6 (Princeton: merican Excavations in the Athenian Agora, 1941); eponymous magistrate in some cities
Historia 7 (1958): 472-96. On social and political dimensions see J. Robert and L. Robert' BE ( s e e5 6 . 0 1 )
(1959):65.
71. Abbott and Johnson, Municipal Administration, 77-78. cf. the indices by cagnat in Bcoih,ooo queen,Tewife of the archon basileus
IGRR; Wilhelm Liebenam, Stdtewrwaltung im RmischenKaiseneiche (Leipzig: Duncker and (Athens)
Humblot, 1900), 539-44; Friedemann Quass, Die Honoratiorenschicht in den Stdten des
griechischenOstens:lJntersuchungenzur politischen und sozialenEnnvieklung in hellenistischerund
74. SeeJones, Greek City, 166.
rmischerZeit (Stuttgart:Franz Steiner,1993).
75. Thasos, Halai. This title has the same meaning as loytotfg (i.e., curator rei publicae),but
72.H4h Mason has discussed and catalogued many aspects of this phenomenon (Greek
David Ma;gie'sDe Romanorum iuis publici sacriquevocabulissollemnibusin its use is confined to the Hellenistic period (see Busolt, GriechischeStaatskunde,l:473 n. l).
Terms, i-l6,l0l-71); "Asiarchen
76. See P. Herz, und Archiereiai: ZumProvinziakult der Proinz Asia," Tyche 7
Graecumsennonernconversis(Leipzig: B. G. Teubner' 1905) continues to be very useful'
(1992):93 -1r5, esp. 103-5; SG 36.1518, 42.1067,42.1856,
73. The preposition ni is often found in ofhcial titles to denote a sphere of authority; cf.
"some 77. SeeSEG42.1031.
ni too xonovoE (Acts 12:20). See William P. Hatch, Illustrations of New Testament
78. See L. Mooren, in Egypt and the Hellenistic Woild: Proceedingsof the International Collo-
usage from Greek Inscriptions of Asia Minor," JBL 27 (1908): 134-46, esp. 140-41. cf. LSJ,
quium Leuven, 24-26 May 1982, ed. E. van't Dack, P. van Dessel, and W' van Gucht, Studia
s.v. 6ni., A, iii, 1; Gustav A. Deissmann, Bibelstudien: Beitrage, zumeist aus den Papyri und
Hellenistica27 (Lorain: Orientaliste,1983),207-40, esp.214-18.
Inschriften, zur Geschichteder Sprache,des Schrifttums und der Religion des hellenistischenJuden-
79. See E. Carney, in Women's History and Ancient History, ed. Sarah B' Pomeroy (Chapel
tums und des IJrchristentulns (Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1895/1977), 174-75 (with English
Hill: University of North Carolina Press,1991), 154-72.
translation at 306-7).
320 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy
Bol.cg1oE presidentof an executivecommittee of
the council
YQ(I[rpcrrrJE secretary(seeS 13.02),royal scribe,head
of the record-keepingdepartment for
the nome in the Ptolemaic
administration
yupv(to[0QXoE/YlE gymnasiarch, superintendent of athletic
training (seeS 13.09) (: nor,ovpog)
YUvq[}(ovpoE supervisor of women at the g}'rnnasium
f1pog1oE chief official of a demos (Athens)
qplouqyg skilled workman, magistrate, eponymous
magistratein some cities (seeS 6.01,
13.03);in plural, board of civil
magistrates(seeS 13.04)
rrzovog attendant/official in temple or religious
association,soespeciallyin a Christian
church
urrypeirrlE constable,mounted policeman (see$
13.0S;ar
ei,qqvcgylg/og warden of the peace,head of municipal
police (seeS 13.08)
xuxoE public advocate/prosecutors2
l.orcngo1og dispenser of oil at the gymnasium83
pnoqtaqlqg supervisor of trade
6ferooto[ board of public auditors8a
nlpel.qrf g curator of the market/gymnasium/
prFtaneion, financial officer (Athens),
eponymous official (Delos, Thyatira),85
chief of tribe, special commissioner
(see5 0.14)86
80. On raxovol in the cult of Ares and Zeus see SEG 43.844.
8 1 .S e eS E G3 3 . 1 5 9 1 .
"Etudes
82. See Magie, Roman Rule, l:648-49,2:1517-18 (cf' 1298); I. L6vy, sur la vie
municipale de I'Asie Mineure (2" srie)," REG 12 (1899): 255-89, esp.275-78; Chapot, Province
romaine, 270-71: OGI 478 n. 40.
83. SeeJones,GreekCity,22l.
84. SeeS. Celato in CongrEpigrYIil, 123-25 (cf. SEG 41.1772);E' Szanto"Elerootci,, R-E6
(1909): f679-80; Swoboda,Lehrbuch,153n. 8; Btsolt, Griechische Staatskunde,l:472-73;lones'
GreekCi,242.
85. During the secondperiod ofAthenian rule (166-88 s.c.).
86. Commissioner who erectedpublic buildings (lones, Greek City,237); also curator of
sacredmatters (shrine/puorqpirrrv),curator of market and inspector of weights and measures,
of theHellenisticCity
TheGovernment I 32r
rntoxox[oE Christian bishop,87overseersof a
voluntary association
8lrloroTTlE president of executive committee of the
council, superintendent/administrator
in chargeof a temple, special
commissioner,overseerss (see5 13.02,
0.14)
nrorctqE rdrv nqogolv president of the presiding officers (see
s 13.02)
nrotcrqg rv nqutcrveorv president of the prytanels (see
s 13.02)
gyenr.orcqg superintendent of work on public
buildings8e
zu0qvrcgllg commissioner of the grain supplye0
QtpcrqloE/sx6QqFoschief ephebeer
Qoqor, board of civil magistrates(seeS 13.04)
!ox6qog temple warden
fiyepv commander, eponymous magistrate
(Chalcis,Euboia)e2
ieqan6l.og chief priest
iegeE/i6qera priest,e3eponymous magistrate in some
cities (seeS 6.01), priestess
iego0qg sacrificing priest, eponymous magistrate
(Agrigentum)
ieqonor,6E overseerof temples and sacredrites,
eponymous magistrate (Erfthrai) (see
s 13.08)
ieqoQowqg hierophant, revealer of the secrets
curator of gymnasium, curator of harbor, financial officer (Athens/Egypt), magistrate (Epi-
dauros). head of a tribe.
87. SeeD. Feisselin CongrEpigrXI,801-28 (cf. SEG39.1837).
"overseer,"
88. In Macedonia, the king's rePresentativein the cities (seeSEG 37.537' 39.560;
M. B. Hatzopoulos,BE [199r]: 375).
89. See]ones, GreekCity,237.
90. SeeIones, Greek City, 2':,1.
91. SeeJones,GreekCity,223.
92. SeeJones,GreekCity, 174,339 n.36.
93. On the relationship between magistrates and priests when performing together in sacred
civic ceremonies see SEG 42.1767.on epigraphic evidence ofpriesthoods ofthe eastern dgrastic
aristocracies (I n.c.-imperial period) see R. D. Sullivan in Studien zur Religion und Kultur
Kleinasiens(Festschift F. K. Drner), ed. S. $ahin, E. Schwertheim, and J. Wagner, 2 vols., EPRO
66 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1978),2:914-39; R. D. Sullivan in Proceedingsof the Xth lnternational
Congressof ClassicalArchaeology,Ankara-Izmire, 23-30 Sept. 1973, ed. Ekrem Akurgal (Ankara:
]'rk Tarih Kurunru, 1978),295-303 (SEG28.1652).
322 | An lntoduction to GreekEpigraphy The Governmentof the HellenisticCity I lZt

rnn0,QXlE commander of the cavalry,ea eponymous rrotrrrQXrls civic magistrate,lo3eponymous magistrate

magistrate in some cities (Kyzikos, (Charadros);in plural, board of
Thyatira) magistrates(Chios,loaThessalonika,
xoopltrlg director of ephebese5 Beroia)
xopoE,-or, chief magistrate(Crete); in plural, board noh,roygcrQog registrarl05
of civil magistrates(seeS 13.04) tlQ(IYpqruflrlE financial manager of private and imperial
Ioylor{1E,-c[ auditor; in plural, board of auditors estatesl06
(Athens)e6 nQsopsurtE ambassadorloT
Frro0(l)rilE farmer general on an estate,tenant nQoBrQoE elder of a Christian church (presbyter),
farmer elder of a Jewish synagogue
povoqloE monarch, eponymous magistrate (Kos) nqopoul.or board of civil magistrates (Delphi,lo8
v(l)lroQoE temple warden Karystos,Termessos)(seeS 13.04)
vs(l)xtol,oE curator of temple fabric (seeS 13.08) npegor, presiding officers (see5 13.02)
vopoyQ0og drafter of lawseT xreorxos major-domo, village overseerloe
voposi,xrrlE legal adviser nQoorrIE ruler, president, presiding offrcer; in
vopoo}"(IE guardian of the law plural, board of magistrates,executive
oixov6poE financial manager/controller of the city committee
(seeS 13.02),private financial manager rlQr0,vrE chairman of a civic board (seeS 13.04),
of private or imperial estate, stewardes epon)'mous magistrate in some cities
fi0rovU,og superintendent of the education of youth (see5 6.01); in plural, board of civil
narorqipqg physical trainer, gymnastic masteree magistrates(seeS 13.04,13.07)
ruclcrorgoQlal superintendent of a wrestling schoolro0 nqotol,oyog q1olv chief magistrate(Aphrodisias,Ikonion)
rrovrlYUQQXqE president of the festivals or,T(l)vqE public buyer of grain (seeS 13.08)
noQ00}.(IE/xeE guard, magistrate in charge of frontier oreQcv{QogoE magistrate who had the right to wear a
guards(see5 13.08)1ot crown in certain cities,rr0eponymous
rr0rQovpoE member of council, eponymous
221; Robert, Hellenica,X,283-91 (Epeiros), 291-92 (Athens); Robert, EtAnat, 108-10; SEG
magistrate(Sparta)
41.1747.
rrrQrnotr0QxqE commander of military patrollo2 103. SeeP. Cabanes,Historia 3T (1988): a80-87 (cf. SEG 38.a62);G. H. R. Horsley,
"The
Politarchs," in The Book of Ac in Its First Century Setting vol.2, The Book of Ac in Its Graeco-
Roman Setting, ed. David W. t. Gill and Conrad Gempf (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans,
94. On the Athenian cavalry see Glen R. Bugh, Horsemenof Athens (Princeton: Princeton 1994), 419-31; Horsley in NewDocs2.34.
University Press,1988) (SEG 38.276). 104. InChios,militarymatterswereentrustedtoaboardofnotrripoglotintheHellenistic
95. See lones, Greek City, 223. Cf. oi ri rflE erxool.ricE tdrv ncq06volv, magistrates in period.
charge offemale education (seeJones, Greek City,222). 105. Seelones, GreekCity,239.
96. SeeJones,GreekCity,242. 106. SeeRobert, Hellenica, XIII, 105-6.
97. SeeJones,GreekCity,239. "Notes
107. SeeG. A. Souris, and Corrections to Imperial Letters,I," Hellenika40 (1939):
98. SeeRobert, iitAnat, 241 n. 2; Robert, Hellenica, X, 83 n. 3. 5 0 - 6 1 , e s p .s 8 - 6 0 ( S E G3 9 . 1 8 6 5 ) .
"Sw
99. Iones,GreekCity,222. 108. See facques Tr6heux, les probouloi en Grce," BCH 113 (1989):241-47 (cf. SEG
100. Jones,GreekCity, 221. 30.490,39.1825).
l0l. Assistantto eipilvcplog (seeSEG 33.1591). 109. SeeRobert, Hellenica,XIII, 105-6; MAMAVIII,385; SEG 2.690,747;IKibyra-Olbasa,
"Recherches
102. Also replnotror,. SeeP. Cabanes, 6pigraphiques en Albanie: P6ripolarques no. 147.
et peripoloi en Grce du Nord-Ouest et en llll'rie la periode hell6nistique," CMI (1991): 197- I 10. For stephanephoroi
in Athens seeS-EG28.491,1625;30.1832.
324 An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy The Govcrnment
of the Hellenistic
City I IZS
|
"Zum
magistratein some cities (seeS 6.01' Quass,F'riedrich. Einflu der rmischen Nobilitat auf das Honoratiorenregime
in den Stdtendes GriechischenOstens."Hermesl12 (1984): 199-215.
i3.03)
Rey-Coquais, I.-P. In Les villes augustennesde Gaule:Actes du Colloque international
orQcrqY6E commander, governor' magistrate, d'Autun 6,7 et 8 juin 1985,l4l-50. Autun: Socit66duennedes lettres,scienceset
eponymous magistrate in some cities arts, 1991. (Cf. SIG 41.1755;Augustan cities in Asia Minor and Syria-Palestine.)
( s e eS 6 . 0 i ) 'Life
Sironen, E. and Administration of Late Roman Athens in the Light of Public
ovr,xoE public advocatein law courtsllr Inscriptions." In Post-Herulian Athens: Aspectsof Life and Culture in Athens, ,t.o.
267-529, ed. Paavo Castrn, 15-62. Papersand Monographs ofthe Finnish Insti-
ouvqoE member of the council (ouvQr,ov)
tute at Athens l. Helsinki: Suomen Ateenan-instituutin saatio. 1994.
r(rYoi board of civil magistrates (Thessaly)
Staveley,E. S, Greek and Roman Voting and Elections.Ed. H. H. Scullard. Aspects of
r0pi05 treasurer(seeS 13.02) Greek and Roman Life. London: Thames and Hudson, 1972.
rrpro0xor, board of civil magistrates(Sinope) Sullivan, Richard D. Near East Royalty and Rome, 100-30 r.c. Phoenix Suppl. 24.
noyupvcrologlog subdirector of the gymnasium Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress, 1990.(Cf.D.Braund,CRa3[1993]:ll0-11.)
"H6lisson
Te Riele, Gerrit J. M. f. entre en sympolitie avec Mantine: Une nouvelle
inscription d'Arcadie." BCH lll (1987): 167-90. Esp. pp. lS7-88. (Cf. SEG
SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY 37.t857.)

Arnold, William T. The Roman Systemof Provincial Administration to the Accessionof

Constantinethe Great.3d ed. Rev. E. S. Shuckburgh.Oxford: Blackwell, 1914.
"Cities
Bowman, Alan K., and Dominic Rathbone. and Administration in Roman
Egfpt." /RS 82 (1992): 107-27.
"Roman
Broughton,T. R. S. Asia." ESR4.499-916-
"The
Bruni, p. A. Romanization of the Local Ruling Classesin the Roman Empire." In
Assimilation et rsistance la culture grco-romainedans le monde ancien: Travaux
ilu W" CongrbsInternational d'EtudesClassiques,ed. D. M. Pippidi' 161-73. Bucha-
"Les
rest and Paris: BellesLettres," 1976.
Carlier, Pierre.La royaut en Grceavant Alexandre. Strasbourg:AECR' 1984. (Cf. SEG
39.1792.)
Dodgeon, Michael H., and Samuel Lieu, eds. The Roman Eastern Frontier and the
Persian Wars, ,t.o. 226-363: A Documentary History- London and New York:
Routledge,1991.(Cf. F. Millar, CR 43 ll993l:116-18.)
Ferguson, William. The Legal and Goyernmental Terms Common to the Macedonian
GreekInscriptions and the New Testament.Chicago: University of Chicago Press'
1913.
Garnsey,P., and R. Saller. The Roman Empire: Economy,Society,and Culture. London:
Duckworth, 1986.
Habicht, Christian. Athensfrom Alexander to Antony. Trans. Deborah Lucas Schneider.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press' 1997.
Meier, C. The GreekDiscoveryof Politics.Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990'
Oliver, Iames H. Greek Constitutions of Eady Roman Emperorsfrom Inscriptions and
Papyri. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Association 178. Philadelphia:
American Philosophical Association, 19S9. (Cf. A. K. Bowman, CR 43 ll993l:
406-8: SEG 39.r776.)

111. SeeMagie, Roman Rule, I:648'


14
Roman Adminisffation
and Functionaries
The administration of the Roman government was basedon the maintenance
of distinct classes,both in Rome, Italy, and in the provinciae(napye0a/-ol).
The higher level of public servantswere recruited from the classlists of the
senatorial(t poul,euruxv) and equestrian(r innlxv tcrypa) orders. For
each,there was a well-definedpromotion ladder (cursushonorum). In both
cases,leadershippositions in the army were integrated into the Roman admin-
istration, thereby providing a training ground for future public officials.
14.01 The Senatorial Cursus Honorum
Under the empire, a young member of the senatorial classbegan his career at
the ageof eighteento twenty, as a vigintivir in one of the minor administrative
positions, held for only one year.r Thesepositions were collectively known as
the vigintitiratus (or XXvirafus). From this office' a young man would enter the
army as a tribunus legionisin one of the provinces, for a period of one to two
years.Six tribunes were assignedto each legion. These posts were administra-
tive in nature, with field or combat duties being delegatedto the centurions.
Following military service, the man would return to public administra-
tion, working his way up through the offrces,beginning with the quaestorship
at the age of twenty-five, at which time he gained formal membership in the
Senate.In the time of the Principate, all except patricians were then required
I. Decemvir stlitibus iudicandis, quattuorvir viarum curandarum, triumvir capital'
monetalis.
326
RomunAdministrtttionantl F'unctionariesI nZ
to become aedilisor tribunusplebis after their quaestorship,before reaching
the praetorship.Aedileswere administrators chargedwith building mainte-
nance, keeping the streetsclean, policing the city, and superintendingthe
markets and games.The tribunes of the plebs, being ten in number at a given
time, were the official representativesof the plebeian class.
Next in the sequencewas the praetorship, open to men thirty years of age
and older. fulius Caesarincreasedthe number from two to ten, then fourteen,
then sixteen.In the empire, the duties of the praetors involved trying legal cases
and conducting legal business.The praetorship was a prerequisitefor the
position of proconsul (governor) in a senatorialprovince.A man having held
the office of praetor was also eligible for appointment by the emperor as a
legionarycommander (legatuslegionislnpeoBeurf E, yolv, pugicQxog, orQc-
rcrgXqg, rcrlicglog) or governor of an imperial province (IegatusAugusti pro
praetoreprovinciaelx,qeopeurrlE,rugeoBeurlgXeBcoto0 &vtrotqoqyoE, ne-
oBeutilg xc,i vrr,orgo,tqyog)eBcoro0).
A senatorwas eligible to become a consul at about the ageof forty to forty-
three.Under the empire,the consulshad few significantduties:theseincluded
the final judging of certain criminal trials and the prestigious task of presiding
over the gamesand festivalsin Rome. Around ^.D. 197,when the number of
praetors was set at six, it was required that all consuls be ex-praetors.
The basic senatorial cursus honorum can be summarized as follows:2
l . vigintivir (e'rlxoor,
[xc].opevor vpeg], x SXt)
2 . tribunus legionis(p),iag1o g, ralic gloE)
3 . quaestor(noucriottrrq.ropios)
i
either aedilis (yogcrvpoE,&oruvpog, criil.qE, n4grqE) or tri-
bunusplebis(l pcqlo g, rreoororqE, rgrBo0voE,Sl,crq1oE)
5 . praetor (orgcrrlyE, orQorrlyE [on6].exuE,xreoi,rtrlQ)
6 . consul (narog, orqorr;yE nc,rog, ncrtoE,xovoo0l.)
Notable senators might conclude their careerswith a second consulship
and the prefecture of the capital (praefectusurbilnupyog 'PpnS). Under
Augustus, the urban prefectshad the responsibility of governing Rome, main-
taining civil order, and deciding legal casesthat fell within the jurisdiction of
the city. The censorship traditionally went to ex-consuls. Censors were
2. Cf. John E. Sandys,Latin Epigraphy:An Introduction to the Study ofLatin Inscriptions,2d
cd., rev. S. G. Campbell (Groningen:Bouma's BoekhuisN. V. Publishers,1969),222-25 (reprint,
Ohicago:Ares, 1974).
 I
328 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy
chargedwith keepingthe citizen lists,maintaining the rolesof membersof the
Senate,and conducting any needed census.
Some priesthoods were open only to the senatorial order. The largest and
the most important of the priestly collegesin Rome was the pontifces, which,
under Caesar,was open to both patricians and plebeians.The president of
this college was known as the pontifex maximus (&g1mgeE p6yr,otoE,
g novtt$i,xtov).
g1r.eqe
14.02 Equestrian Careers
In the imperial period, those of free birth who qualified financially and by
reputation were admitted to the order of the equites.The ordo equesterhad an
estimated twenty thousand members, far more than the membership of the
ordo senatorixrs,the latter being fixed at six hundred by Augustus. Gza
Alfldy writes:
the equestrian order was not hereditary [unlike the senatorial order], in
formal terms at least. Admission followed the elevation of the individual
not the family: the equestrian order was thus not an aristocracy of birth
but an aristocracy of individuals ('Personenadel').Yet it often happened
in practice that the son of an equeswas also admitted to the equestrian
"equestrian families."3
order: hence the phrase
The majority of equitesdid not enter public service,since the number of
posts available were far less than the Pool of potential candidates. For ex-
ample, in the mid-second century, there were only about 550 equestrian
military positions and one hundred procuratorial positions.a Those equites
who did enter public service began their career in a military post as a com-
mander of a body of five hundred infantry $traefectus cohortislnuplog
orrslQlE,ruog1ogXdgtrls). Following this, they servedeither as staffofficers
in one of the legions or as commanders of bodies of one thousand infantry
(tribunus legionis,tribunus cohorrls).Finally, they were appointed ascommand-
ers of bodies of five hundred cavalry (praefectus alaeltnuplog }.1Elil'qE/
ei),rlg). In the second century A.D. and following, the appointment as
praefectusalae might be followed by the command of a body of one thousand
3. G6za Alfldy, The Social Htory of Rome, trans. David Braund and Frank Pollock (Lon-
don: Croom Helm, 1985),120.
4. SeeAlfldy, SocialHtory,123-26.
lomf tUldJdrr,rrtlon wtd Fundionaries I ne
cavalry (tribunus milituml,Elnelog).1 F'rom here, notable equites could
move on to high economic and financial positions or to the governorshipof
one of the smaller provinces(procuratorAugusti).6
In the time of Septimius Severuswere added the offices of the centu-
rionate, the praefectuslegionis(ncglog l,eyl6voE, ncrglog typorog), and,
beyond that, the position offinancial procurator (nirgonog). The procura-
tor, selected from among the eminent members of the equestrian order,
functioned as a private agent of the emperor in the imperial provinces. In the
public provinces, proconsuls and quaestors were responsible for supervising
direct taxation; their role was occasionallyextendedto include other responsi-
bilities in public administration, such as the resolution of boundary disputes
and adjudicating responsibility for imperial servicesamong the villages.TThe
most eminent equites might become praefecti. The praefecti were powerful
officials who held rank in the following ascendingorder:
L. praefectusc/assis(nogloE xl.qoonE, ncqlog ortrou)
2. praefectusvigilum (ncglog vuxto$ul.cxv, naqlog ouryol,orv)8
3. praefectusannonae(rucrq1oE yoqdE, raqloE zuOqviag,rucg1oE
oltov Bnr,oxondrv)e
4. praefectusAegypti(ncrgloEAiywrou)10and, subsequentlyin the mi-
nor provinces, praefectusprovinciae (later procuratores)
5. praefectuspraetorio (naqloE rQg <rul.flg,ncrqlog rv oguQgov,
ncrgloE rrecrrrtoeiou/otpareu pa,rulv/orgcrron6orv).
5. From early II r.o., the praefectura could be substituted with one ofthe tribunates ofthe
army or one of the tribunates in the city (e.9., tibunus cohortisvigilum, tr. urbanae, tr. praetoriae),
6. An inscription honoring one such man (n.o. 260-82) reads, A[p({trrov) M]cpvc
dnirp(onov) | ro0 lep(croro) raovta I r [p]gr1rflE ilyepov(icrg) l: agensvicespraesidis\, I
'A]"6[ovqoE
NO[ . . . ] | [xcrvr]crqlog l? centuiol tv gi],ov [[in honour ofl Aurelius Maro,
procurator Augusri [ofSyria Palaestina],vice agenspraesidis,. . . Alexander, the centurion, to his
friend [dedicated this]l; see M. Christol,'A propos d'inscriptions de C6sar6ede Palestine:
Compl6ments aux fastes de Spie Palestine," ZPE 22 (1976): 169-76, esp. 174. On nltqonog
)eB(coro0) seeH.-G. Pflaum, Ies carribresprocuratoriennesquestressousle Haut-Empire romain,
Vols. l-4, BAH 57 (Paris:P. Geuthner, 1960-61), 1312;H.-G. Pflawm,Lesprocurateursequestres
sous le Haut-Empire romain (Paris: A. Maisonneuve, 1950); Hugh J. Mason, Greek Terms for
Roman Institutions: A Lexicon and Analysis, American Studies in Papyrology 13 (Toronto:
Hakkert, 7974), 142-43.
"Provincial
7. G. B. Burton, Procuratorsand the Public Provinces,"Chiron 23 (1993): 13-
28. Beginning with Hadrian, there were four classesof procuratores,named according to their
salary level: narr'ely, sexagenar (oelollvoqlol), centenarii (xrvrqvaproL), ducenarii
( orz4vgror ), and,trecenarii( tqexlvcgtor ).
8. Commander of the fire service of the city of Rome.
9. Highest official in charge ofthe grain supply ofRome.
10. Viceroy of Egypt.
 RomanAdministration
and b'unitnnries | 331
330 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy

the remaining tribunes (as well as the commandersof the auxiliary troops)
14.03 Offrces Open to Persons below Senatorial and
were drawn from the equestrian order. The legatuswas answerableboth to
Equestrian Rank
Rome and to the governor of the province in which he was stationed.
Roman legions were stationed in the provinces of military importance to
There were many positions available to social elites below senatorial and
ensure the security of the empire. In the time of Augustus, there were twenty-
equestrian rank. In each city, social elites were organized into an order with
eight legionsnumbering around 140,000men, and there were about the same
the title ordo decurionum.Itwas an autonomous civil council or curia' usually
number in auxiliaries(i.e.,local militias), producing a total of approximately
numbering about one hundred decuriones,set apart as an order from the plebs
280,000 for the entire army.ra They were supervised by Augustus himself,
of the city. This order comprised the members of the council and the civic
acting as commander in chief, with the exception of the legions in Illyricum,
magistrates.
Macedonia, and Africa, which were under control of independent proconsuls.
Admissionto the decurio,?es (exouQior,Poul,eurol, exaaq1og/rlg)was
Men of senatorial and equestrian class served in the military for limited
granted to wealthy citizens agedtwenty-five to thirtywho had gained member-
periods of time, but the centuriones(6xcrovtcglar,/xevrugi<rrveE/),o1cyoi)
ship to the council (decurionatus)by having served as a civic magistrate or,
were professional soldiers, drawn from the commoners, who had risen up
from the second century onward, without any public office at all. A decurio
through the ranks and often served lifetime appointments. The centurions
was eligible to become an aedilis (vice head of the community) or one of the
were the principal leaders in battle, with the chief centurion serving on the
two duumviri, the colonial equivalents of consuls, for terms of one year
staff of the legatuslegionis.The second centurion in rank headedthe adminis-
each.rl The duumviri had oversightof the functions of the local council and
trative staff. The rank and file soldiery consisted ofconscripts and volunteers
ensured that Roman law and order were maintained. An outgoing duumvir
who, under Augustus, regularly served for twenty-five or twenty-six years.rs
could repeat his headship, become a quaestor (a sort of deputy to the
Upon their honorable discharge,they were awarded grants of land, monetary
duumvir) or be appointed to one of the municipal priesthoods'
grants,and various privileges(see5 17.04.3-4).

14.04 The Roman ArmY

14.05 Roman Rule in the Provinces

The Roman army was divisible into three parts: first, the troops stationed near
By the conclusion of the First Punic War (241 t.c.), the westernMediterra-
Rome, including the cohortespraetoriae (Praetorian Guard);r2 second' the
nean had been divided between the Roman and Carthaginian sections.At this
auxilia, or local militia; third, the largest part of the army, which consistedof
time, Rome began to establishprovinciae for administrative purposes and as a
the twenty-eight or more legions, amounting to half of the armed forces.
vehicle for the exploitation ofthe newly subjugatedterritories. Each province,
Eachlegio(l.ey1v/ev) consistedof about five thousand foot soldiers and
both an area of operation and a geographically defined region, was the basic
120 cavaIry.A legion was divided into ten cohortes(xoqtcr/onecqal), or
unit of administration. In the years that followed, severalnew Roman prov-
battalions, of six hundred troops each. A cohorswas in turn divided into six
inceswere addedby conquest(e.g.,Spain,Gaul, Britain).
centuliae (xatovragli,u/xevruqia), or comPanies,of one hundred men'
The settlement and division of the provinces was first establishedin 27
Each legion was commanded by a senatorial legatus legionis (i1yepv/
rr.c. At this time, it was decided that the large provinces, namely, Spain,
orQ0rrlyE),l3that is, a military commander, under whom served six military
Gaul, and Syria (and later Eglpt), were to be administered by Augustus
tribunes, and sixty centurions; the first tribune was of senatorial rank, while
through appointed governors.The remaining provinces,the so-calledpublic
11. In many cities, the titles quaxuorvir aedilicia potestate and quattuontir iure dicundo ate
14. On legions and their movements see H. M. D. Parker, The Roman Legions(1928; reptint,
used.
with corrections, New York Barnes and Noble, 1958); Peter Connolln Rome at War (Englewood
12. Established by Augustus in 27 s.c., the Praetorian Guard consisted of a core of nine (lliffi, NJ: Prentice-Hall, l98l); G. R. Watson, The Roman Solilier (Ithaca: Cornell University
cohortesof select soldiers. Each cohorsconsisted of five hundred soldiers' They served as both
I'rcss,1969).
the imperial bodyguard and a military academy; they were ledby two praefectipraetorio.
was appointed' 15. SeeP. A. Brunt, Roman Imperial Themes(Oxford: Clarendon, 1990), 188-214.
13. Exceptin Egypt,where an equestrianpraefectus
332 | An Introduction
to GreekEpigraphy
or senatorial provinces, were governed by proconsuls (v0noroE,
oreqcrrlyS&v0wctog).16ln 23 8.c., Augustus acceptedimperium maius as
part of his settlement with the Senate over the division of the Roman
Empire, giving him greater power than these provincial proconsuls, so that
he now had authority to intervene outside of his own provinces.
The relationship between the cities and the empire is one of the principal
subjectsof the Hellenistic period. One can document the shifting of power in
each city between the king, native dynasties,electedlocal authorities, and the
emperor through his governors. In most cases,native dynastieswere permit-
ted to remain in possessionof their territories, except when such dynasties
died out or were deposed(e.g.,in Cappadocia)or when securitywas threat-
ened. In such cases,these territories were annexed as new provinces. For
example, when Amyntas died in 25 s.c., the vast territories of western and
eastern Galatia were annexed by Rome as a province and given the name
Galatia. Similarly, when Augustus deposedArchelaus, the tetrarch of Iudaea
and Samaria,in e.o. 6, these districts were combined into a single imperial
province known as Iudaea, governed by a praefectu.s(fir7epv) from Caesarea
Maritima.
The provinces were ruled by governors known variously as legati Augusti
pro praetore(i1yepveE), proconsuls(vOnator), and procurators (ni.tgo-
nor). These legati and proconsuls were chosen from the senatorial order,
while the procurators were selectedfrom the equestrian order. Imperial
legati were appointed by the emperor to govern the principal imperial prov-
inces. Each served in his appointed province until he was replaced (usually a
term of about three years from the late first century A.D. onward) . A legatus
was assignedfive lictors (QaBo01oL),regardlessof whether he was an ex-
praetor or ex-consul,and a procurator.
Proconsuls(v0nntor,) governed the public provinces. They were chosen
by lot from senators with appropriate seniority and were appointed by the
Senatefor terms of one year.tTThe number of lictors that were assignedde-
pended on their rank as ex-praetoror ex-consul.l8
The emperor also appointed equestrian officers as governors of the minor
16. These provinces were Africa, Macedonia-Achaia, Asia, Bithynia, Crete and Kyrene (com-
bined into a single province), Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Baetica (southern Spain), and lllyricum.
"The
See F. Millar, Emperor, the Senate,and the Provinces," /RS 56 (1966): 156-66, revised as
"Senatorial
Provinces: An Institutionalised Ghost," AncW 20 (1989): 93ff.
"Government
17. See Graham Burton, and the Provinces," in The Roman World" ed. lohn
Wacher, 2 vols. (London and New York Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1987), l:423-39.
"Government
18. SeeBurton, and the Provinces,"l:425.
Ronrn Admlnlrnationund I'unctionaries | ::f
provinces(e.g.,Thrace,Judaeaafter,r.tr.44); theseprovinceshad no troops
garrisonedin them. In most cases,these equestriangovernorswere termed
(presidial) procurators (nlreonot). In some cases,they were under the au-
thority of a larger neighboring province: for example,after the death of Herod
Agrippa in e.o. 44, aprocurator Iudaeaewas appointed who was put under
the authority of the legatusAugusti of Syria. The presidial procurators should
"fiscal"
not be confused with the procurators who were appointed to oversee
the imperial estatesof the public provinces.
Equestrian governors were also appointed to Eg)?t and Mesopotamia
(following its annexation as a province in e.o. 195). They were known as
praefecti (naq1or,, ngcr'lQextor). Praefectialso ruled provincial territories; for
example,after the death of Herod the Great (4 B.c.), the arearuled by Arche-
laus ( Judaea,Samaria,Idumaea) was made a provincial territory governedby a
praefectus.leHence a Latin dedicatory inscription from Caesareacorrectly
identifies Pontius Pilate as the [pra]efectusluda[ea]e, not procurator.2oLike all
praefecti,he was appointed by the emperor and remained in offrce until dis-
missed.Governors were assistedby a small, mostly nonprofessionalstaff. Many
of thesepromagistrateswere known aspraetors([an6],exug,ngaitog), each
assistedby a quaestor (xouo,lottirQtoE,rqlii.crE),who managedthe imperial
finances of the province.
In each province, jurisdiction was divided between the governor and the
local authorities.2l The governor was responsible for the collection of taxes,
the security of the province, and the enforcement of law in the higher
courts.22He also had discretionary power to intervene in civic affairs when
necessity required. This happened most frequently in matters of financial
management,particularly in casesof misappropriation of funds and weakness
in the tax base.Moreover, local city magistrateswere often inclined to initiate
new monumental projects, such as temples and theaters (to win honor),
without reserving sufEcient funds to maintain and repair infrastructure (e.9.,
19. Not to be confused withthe praefectusurbi (tnapyog rflE nol.eorE)who had command of
the police force in cities.
20. SeeAEpigr ( 1963): 104; (1964): 187; ( 1981): 850; cf. FergusMillar, The Roman Neat East,
3l n.c.-,t.o.337 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993), 44-45.
21. See A. H. M. Jones, The Greek City frotn Alexander to Justinian (Oxford: Clarendon,
"Proconsuls,
1940), l2l-23,134; G. P. Burton, Assizes,and the Administration ofJustice under
the Empire," /RS 65 (1975):92-105.
22. The governor's court dealt with capital cases,meeting in each conventus(totxlolE), or
"division,"
of the province, in the principal city of eachconventus(cf. Robert, Hellenica,VII, 224-
34). The lower courts and the remainder of the administration were in the hands of the local
authorities.
334 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy
roads and sewers),resulting in both urban decayand the perpetual threat of
bankruptcy of the civic treasury. Such eventscould result in the appointment
of special financial commissioners (curatores)to individual cities for limited
terms to overseethe public finances of individual cities. Such appointments
were usually made upon the request from local communities.23
In actual practice, governors tended to devolve many of their responsibili-
ties on the local authorities, such as the collection oftaxes and the execution
ofjustice. Local authorities also had wide-ranging control over internal admin-
istrative affairs, such as the control of grain and food supplies and prices;
public baths and gymnasia; maintenance and repair of streets, sewers,and
public buildings; and the holding of gamesand festivals.
14.06 Provincial Finances
In the republican period, the quaestorsand procurators were responsible for
the collection of taxes on a local level, sometimes with the help of publicani.
Augustus handed the responsibility of the collection of imperial taxes over to
the city councils, who appointed decaproti (exngolrol) for this purpose.
The decaprotiawas technically classifiedas a liturgy.24
On account of the tendency of civic officials to misappropriate funds,
Trajan introduced the practice of appointing correctores (wnvoq0olroi) to
supenise the financesof the cities.25Trajan is also the first emperor known to
have appointed.a curator rei publicae/civitatis().oylorfE), who would examine
the economic condition of a particular city and initiate any changes and
reorganizationsdeemednecessary.This curator was directly answerableto the
governor of the province, with the term of his appointment usually lasting
severalyears.26
23. See G. P. Burton,
"The
Curator Rei Publicae:Towards a Reappraisal," Chiron 9 (1979):
465-88.
"decaprotia,"
24. SeeBrandis, RE4 (1901): 2417;lones,GreekCity,3g;DavidMagie,Roman
Rule in Asia Minor to the End of the Third Century alter Chrt,2 vols. (Princeton: Princeton
University Press,1950), 2: 1516 n. 48.
25. Correctoreswereoften appointed after an irresponsible building project had commenced.
See Wilhelm Liebenam, Stddteverwaltung im Rmischen Kaiserreiche (Leipzig: Duncker and
"Corrector,"
Humblot, 1900),482-84; von Premerstein, RE 4 (1901): 646.
"Curator
26. See W. Liebenam, rei publicae," Philologus 56 (1897): 290ff.; Kornemann,
"Curatores,"
RE a (1901): 1806. Cf. the lists ofcities to which curatoresrei publicae are known to
"Greek
have been sent in M. N. Tod, Inscriptions from Macedonia," JHS 42 (1922): 173ff.,
supplemented by Magie, Roman Rule,2: 1455 n. 13.
Ronnn Administrutioiland Fwrctionaries I 335
14.07 The Colonies, Roman Cities, and Free Cities
By the second century 8.c., colonies were being founded outside ltaly.27
Colonies were createdby transplanting Roman citizens,whereasmunicipia
were created by giving the free citizens of an existing polis Roman citizenship
and full Latin rights. In both cases,the citizenry had the same rights and
privileges as Latins and Italians of Rome and the Italian peninsula and were
subjectto the samelaws.
At first, colonies were civilian foundations intended to bring relief to an
already overcrowded Italy by providing land for commoners. Such colonies
were often set up with little regard for their strategic location, much less the
rights of the local property owners.28
In the imperial period, colonieswere also establishedfor veterans.Time-
expired soldiers were given citizenship and often settled in newly founded
colonies abroad as a way of providing them with land. Though thesecolonies
undoubtedly had economic and military significanceto Rome with respectto
stimulating trade in Roman goods and serving as lines of defense,their pri-
mary purpose was the settlement of veterans.2eColonies were founded in the
west (Gaul, Germany,Britain) and in the east,first in Greece(Korinth), then
in Macedonia (Philippi) and Crete,and finally in Asia Minor.3o
The coloniesand their surrounding territories were considered-at least
notionally-to be part of Rome and therefore were under ius ltalicum. Many
had Roman-style constitutions and were governed by their own magistrates,
not by an imperial governor. Each colony was divided into vici (wards). In the
east,Roman nameswere employedfor most of the colonial magistracies(e.g.,
duumvir, aedilis,quaestor),with Greek namesbeing reservedfor some tradi-
tional appointments, such as yeol"rporeE.3l The highest magistracyin the
colony was that of duumvir. Each year two duumvii were electedto stand at
the head of the colony. Next to the duumviri in terms of authority were two
27. Variously called nolxi,o, rotrovi,a, dnor,xic, xctr,otxia, xitlqoulicr, orvorxlcr.
28. See Barbara M. Levick, Roman Colonies in Southern Asia Minor (Oxford: Clarendon,
1967), r-3.
"Coloniae,"
29. See Kornemann, RE 4 (1901): 535; ESR 4.702ff.;lones, GreekCity,6lff.t
G. W. Bowersock, Augustus and the Greek World (Oxford: Clarendon, 1965),62ff.
"The
30. See Fergus Millar, Roman Coloniae of the Near East: A Study of Cultural Rela-
tions," in Roman EasternPolicy and Other Studiesin Roman History: Proceedingsof a Colloquium at
Tvrminne, 2-3 October 1987, ed. Heikki Solin and Mika Kaiava, CHL 9l (Helsinki: Societas
Scientiarum Fennica, 1990), 7 -58 (SEG 40. 1698).
31. SeeLevick, Roman Colonies,6S-91.
336 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy
aediles, who are sometimes referred to together with the duumviri as the
quattuorviri. The aediles were responsible for the maintenance of the public
placesand buildings, the provision of grain, and the holding of games.
Relationsbefiveen Roman colonies and nearby communities may or may
not have been close. Arrangements varied from rigorous separation to close
integration. In the latter case,the status of Roman citizenship was sometimes
extended to local Greek natives; in such colonies, Latin terminology and
Roman institutions were gradually replaced by Greek terms and institutions.
The administration of Roman colonies was dominated by the landowning
aristocracy and exercisedthrough the decuriones.As a group (normally con-
sisting of approximately one hundred citizens), they constituted the city
council (curia). They had control of the electionof administratorsand autho-
rized the civic laws. They were also responsible for collecting imperial taxes
and were personally liable in the caseof default.
Alongside Roman cities were Greek free cities. In the time of the late
Republic, there had been strong connections between Rome and the wealthy
aristocraciesof some of the more important Greek cities of the provinces.
Some of these,such as Rhodesand Tarsos,were designatedas free allied cities.
They were under the direct control of the emperor, not the local provincial
government. These cities were largely self-governing, including the manage-
ment of their own finances. They had the right to lery their own taxes and
were granted immunity from imperial taxation. They also had the right to
modifr their own constitution by their own legislation. The number of free
cities was relatively small, since emperors were reluctant to make these privi-
legesmore available.32
14.08 The Cult of the Emperor
One of the outcomes of the assassinationof lulius Caesarwas his deification.
Caesarwas adopted as one of the state gods, with an altar and later a temple
being erected for him.33This act constituted the beginning of the cult of the
32. Seelones, GreekCity, 117,131-33; ESAR4.706-8 (with list).
33. SeeStefanWeinstock, Divus Julir.rs(Oxford: Clarendon, l97l),264-410. For a discussion
of the terms Kcrr,ooperov, )epooteiov, Ayooote0ov, tpevog, vcrg, iegv, and lpQov in ("Asiarchen und Archiereis," StClas 16 ll974l: l0l-42, esp. 118-19) concludes that the terms
connection with the emperor cult see Heidi Hnlein-Schfer, Veneratio Augusti: Eine Studie zu
den Tempelndes erstenrmischenKaiser, Archaeologica39 (Rome: G. Bretschneider, 1985), 5- I I
(SEG 35.1812). Cf. Maria D. Campanile, I sacerdotidel Koinon d'Asia (l sec.a.C.-ill sec.d.C.),
Studi ellenistici 7 (Pisa: Giardini editori, D9a); I. R. Fears, Princepsa Ds Electus: The Divine
Election of the Emperor as q Political Concept in Rome, PAAR 26 (Rome: American Academy,
1977); Alastair Small, Subjectand Ruler: The Cult of the Ruling Power in ClassicalAntiquity, IRA
and l:unctionaries I
RomanAdministration lll
emperor that eventuallyspread throughout the empire. It can be viewed as
both an outgrowth of the Roman conceptof the extraordinaryindividual who
manifestedtranscendentpowersand, in the easternempire, as a continuation
of the Hellenistic royal cult, which viewed the ruler as an epiphanyof a god.
The emperor cult soon becamean establishedreligion, on par with the cults
ofthe older stategods.
Julius Caesar'sdeification prompted Marc Antony to identifr himself with
Dionysos and also demand divine worship. Similarly, gratitude felt toward
Augustus gave rise to his worship not only after his death but during his own
lifetime. However, Augustus stopped short of proclaiming himself a god,
"son It was not until
preferring the address of deified ldivi fiIius) Caesar."3a
his death that the Senate declared Augustus to be a god, and new temPles
(2eBcrore0cr, Ayouorelo) were constructed for his cult. The cult of divus
Augustus eventually overshadowed the cult of Roma and Augustus in both
Rome and in the provincial capitals, eventually replacing it.
Augustus establishedprovincial concilia,which were parliaments of depu-
ties, elected by the key cities of each province. These deputies met yearly in
the chief cities of various provinces to choosea high priest of the emperor cult
and to overseethe festival in honor of Roma and Augustus. In Asia, this high
priest, appointed for a term of one year, was known both as the high priest of
Asia (q1.egeEtQg AoioE) and as asiarch (&or,crql1g).These two titles
represent two aspectsof the same office, the first being a religious or cultic
term, while the secondis political in orientation, stressingthe bearer'srole as
presidentof the provincial assembly.3s
Suppl 17 (nn Arbor, MI: Journal of Roman Archaeology, 1996); S. R. F. Price, Rituals and
Power: The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984)
6(SJG3aJ729); L. Ross Taylor, The Divinity of the Roman Emperor (Middletown, CT: American
"Konige
Philological Association, 1931); F. Walbank, als Gtter: berlegungen zum Herrscher-
kult von Alexander bis Augustus," Chiron 17 (1987): J65-82 (SEG 37.18a0); Antonie Wlosok,
RmischerKaiserkult, Wege der Forschung 372 (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft,
r978).
"Gods
34. Cf. supra S 5.13.3; S. R. F. Price, and Emperors: The Greek Languageof the
Roman Imperial Cult," /HS 104 (1984): 79-95.
"Asiarchen
35. See P. Herz, und Archiereiai: Zum Provinzialkult der Prcvinz Asia," Tyche 7
(1992):93-115. Similarly, in her epigraphical and prosographicalstudy, Margarete Rossner
designatethe same function. Rosalinde Kearsleyhas erroneously asserteda distinction of function
between the asiarch and archiereus,arguing that the asiarch was active as a priest in urban
"Asiarchs,
temples, not in league temples: see R. A. Kearsley, Archiereis, and the Archiereiai of
"A
Asia," GRBS 27 (1986): 183-92 (cf. SEG 36.1518); Leading Family of Cibyra and Some
"Asiarchs-Titulature
Asiarchsof the First Century" Anatst 38 (1988):43-51; and Function: A
Reappraisal," StClas 26 [1988]: 57-65. Cf. SEG 38.1973; AEpigr (1990): 973; G. H. R. Horsley,
338 An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy Rotnan andFunctionaries|
Administration 339
|

Notwithstanding attempts to discouragea cult of a living emperor, altars cult, accompaniedby the construction of temples for Domitian, for the Se-
and temples were also set up to Tiberius in the east. During his lifetime, he bastoi (dlvi Augusti, and perhaps for Domitia and Iulia), and for Zeus
"God," "the "benefactor olympios. As a result of the ongoing competition betlveen Greek cities of
was hailed as greatestofgods," and the and saviorof
the whole universe."36 Caligula did not, as some have suggested,impose his Asia, the title ve<oxgoEwas even adopted in the second century e..o.by cities
worship throughout the empire; however, there was a cult of Caligula in that had no imperial temple (e.g.,sardis, Kyzikos,Philadelphia,Laodikeiaon
Miletos and in the province of Asia, as there may also have been in Rome.37 the Lykos, Tralles).
Neither Claudius nor Nero were worshiped as gods during their lifetime; but
after the death of Claudius, Nero had the Senateinstitute the rather short- 14.09 Greek Terms for Roman Officials and Offices
lived cult of divus Claudius in Rome. From Vespasianonward, it was custom-
The many Roman officials and offices named in Greek inscriptions can be
ary to deifr only deceasedemperors, with the notable exception of Domitian,
"lord quite perplexing to the beginner. There are numerous instances in which
who demandedto be addressedas and god.":e
Greek has adopted loanwords from Latin titles. Here follows a list of the
The Leagueof Asia (xorvv AoioE), founded in the first century B.c.,3e
Greek and Latin terms for some of the more frequently attested Roman
was granted supervision of the cult of Augustus and Roma, with Pergamon,
officials.ar
Smyrna, and Miletos each (temporarily) being granted the title vsarxQoE
(temple warden).4oAmong other things, the temple warden was responsible Greek and Latin Terms for Roman Officials anil Offices
for the maintenance of the imperial cult, including the annual festival and
hymn in honor of the emperor's birthday. Under Domitian, an intercity &yopavpoE aedilis
rivalry arose between Pergamon, Smyrna, and Ephesosover titulature, with cii),r1E aedilis
the result that Ephesoswas also granted the title vetuxgoE of the imperial crioupvftqg dictator
v0nctog proconsul
"The wg1ov pro magistratus, also praefectus iure
Asiarchs," in The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting Yol. 2, The Book of Acts in Its
Graeco-RomanSetting, ed. David W. J. Gill and Conrad Gempf (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerd- dicundo
mans, 1994),363-76; Magie, Roman Rule, I:449-50, 2:1298-1301,2:1526;Horsley rn NewDocs &,vrrcrgcrtqyog propraetor, also Praefectusiure
4 . 4 6 - 5 6 ,n o . 1 4 ( c f . 1 . 8 2 ; 3 . 5 34; . 1 9 , 7 1 , 1 2 8 , 2 4 2 ; 5 . 1 4 5 ) .
dicundo
36. See Barbara Levick, Tiberius the Politician (London: Thames and Hudson, 1976),221;
Magie, Roman Rule, 1:502,2:1473. &vrr,rapiaE proquaestor;&vrr,tcrPicg xai
37. See Robert, Hellenica. VII, 206-38. For Rome see Anthony A. Barrett, Caligula: The vtrotgotqy o;i pr oquaestor
Corruption ofPouer (New Haven and London: Yale University Press,1989), 145-53, esp. 152-53. propraetore
38. On the cult of the Flavian imperial family, especially Domitian, see S. J. Friesen, Twice
neokoros:Ephesus,Asia, and the Cuh of the Flavian Imperial Family (Leiden;E. J Brill, 1993) (SEG g1r,egeg pontifex (high priest, Pontiff);
43.764). plreqeE rflg oiag (:
"league"
39. In the classicalperiod, the term xotvv was employed regularly to refer to a or olcg1qE)
"federation"
of Greek city-states (e.g., Panhellenic League, Aegean League of Islands, Achaian
&g1r.egeEp6yr,otog/novtr,Qi,xtov pontifex rnaximus (chief pontiff);
League). On Asiatic xolv see)uergen Deininger, Die Proyinziallandtageder rmischenKaiserzeit,
Vestigia 6 (Munich: l. C. Beck, 1965), 30*83; Magie, Roman Rule, l:447ff. and nn. 55-56. On the g1r,eqeE is replacedbY
"Polis
emperor cult in Asia Minor see I. S. Sventitskaya, and Empire: The Imperial Cult in the &g1r,eqeg pyrotoE in most
Cities of Asia Minor in the First and SecondCenturies" (in Russian),VDI 4 (1981):33-51; in
"The formal documents bY the time of
Aphrodisias, f. M. Reynolds, Origins and Beginning of the Imperial Cult at Aphrodisias,"
PCPS206 (1980):70-84 (SEG30.1244). the Flavians
40. SeeMichael Drger, Die Stdte der Provinz Asia der Flaerzeit zur kleinasiatischenStadt-
und Regionalgeschichte, Europische Hochschulschriften. Reihe III, Geschichte und ihre Hilf- 4l . Cf. Hugh J. Mason, GreekTermsfor Roman Institutions: A Lexiconand Analysit American
swissenschaften576 (Frankfurt: Lang, 1993), 21-105, 107-200 (SEG 43.1220).The title vet'rxgoE Studies in Papl,rology 13 (Toronto: Hakkert, 1974);DavidMagie, De Romanorum iur publici
(temple warden) was previously used by Ephesosunder Nero as an unofflcial local title in connec- sacriquevocabulissollemnibusin Graecum setmonemconversis(Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1905)' 42-
tion with the temple of Artemrs. 154 (reprinted, Darmstadt:ScientiaVerlag Aalen' 1973).
340 An lntoduction to GreekEpigraphy Roman Administrationand Functionaries | :+f
|

&glr,egorovq office of pontifex maximus 6 oirov i.nrcxonCav Praef'

&,g1r,t6xrorv faber annonae;n. Aiyntout. Praef.
q1orv princeps, praefectus,plaeses Aegypti;u n. oigaqlou/rcptel,ou:
provinciae(used esp. in III e.o.) praetor aerarii; n. Iqg: Praef.
&olcg1r;E Asiarch (: g1mgegtflg Aoicg) alae; n. &glltextvtov/
&oruvpoE aedilis r1xr,6v@vl'EEXVt rv/XeQ orXvd)v:
o'youg augur praef. fabrum; n. t\g cul,frE/tv
aroxgroq imperator (: princeps), dictator ogu S golv/xrQ0 trcoQi.ou/
B -vqr,xs Ilvir, duumvir oreqru prov/otgctonolv:
decurio praef. prqetorio: (.n. x\aooqgl
Boul"eutilg
y'-vgog IIIvir, triumvir, triumvir capitalis, orl,ou: praef. classis;n.
triumvir monetalis l.eylvog/ty Vo.lo ; Pr aef.
-vqeE lVviri, quat(t)uorviri, viarum Iegionis;n. vuxto$ul.crxv,
curandarum n. our.1ol.tov: Praef.vigilum; n.
excraq1og/r1E decurio orrsienE/Xde:.r: Praef. cohortis;
excrngorrol decaproti n. {tflEn6l,etoE,Praef. urbis
expour,qog frvir, decemvir nr,pel"r1tf1g curator, curator rei Publicae,
exouqirov decurio curator militum, IIIvir, triumviri
eonrqE dominus rei publicae constituendae;Cfi.
qpaglia tribunatus plebis 660lv:curator viarum
fipcrq1og tribunusplebis nlrponog procurator provinciae Caesaris,
r.xororqE iuridicus procurator Augusti in Provincia
lzrartrrq dictator publica, procurator Praediorum ot
ouxqvaqrcE ducenarius aliarum curzrum
o0l dux extraordinariarumAugusti,praeses
avqeEJTsvrcrTerxoi duumviri quinquennales provinciae,procurator praesidialis
uavqrxg duumvir of a colony QogoE princeps,praeses(title of
eircool(xcl.opevor.vgeg) XXviri, vigintiviri (cf. x -qXt) provincial governors used from
e -xci-u'vqog XVvi r, quindecimvirisacris III e.o.)
princeps,imperator,asdux,
faciund i s, quindecim viri sacrorum ilyepv
6xarovrg1qE centurio praefectus,praesesProvinciae,a6
xr,xog defensorcivitati*2
(NaplAn
xouriotqqE equester 44. See Guidi Bastianini in Atti XVil congressointernazionaledi papirologia,3 vols."Le
p|{frt
Centro Internazionale per 1o studia dei papiri Ercolanesi, 1984), 1335-40; Paul Bureth,
EnfqrrtE haruspex
(30 av.J.C.-297 ap. I.C.): 6tat prsent de la documentation en 1973)'" ANRW Il' l0.l
d'Egypte
ncvog0rrxfg corfector (1988):472-502, with additionsby G' Bastianiniat 503-17 (SEG38'1675)'
(Mason, Grc*
noqlog praefectus;a3 n. &yopaE/eu0qvlcg/ 45. Used as a term for emperor, but gave way to crtongat<opbefore,l.n. 100
Terms, 12,144-45).
42. Also used as a title: eg., n(ixe) rrlE orfg neqrQovo0Eplrgon(ol,ecoE) [defender ofthe 46. Used of governors of all the provinces, not only the small provinces (cf. vounctog: sCC
"Consuls ordinaires dela seconde moiti du troisime sicle," MEFR 97 [19851:
renowned metropolisl (CIG 3467, L. 8; cf. SEG 37.1856). M. Christol,
43. SeeMason, GreekTerms,138-40, esp. 138. 43 1-58, esp.447-49).
 Ronun Administrationand F'unctionaries I flf
342 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy

IegatusAugusti pro praetore rrurxougoE lVvir, quat(t)uorviri, IVvir vtarum

provinciae, legatuslegionis, curandarum
praefectus,magistratusurbani fi0},qorQ(IrrrqE vetefanus
ncrie no,reioE pater patriae
ft1opevoE,ftyepovetlv praesesprovinciae
i -vqeg Xviri, decemviri notr6p(IexoE dux exercitus
r,e'-vqeE XVviri, quindecimviri sacris nol"r,royqaQog censor
x[Q(lYpreur(Il actores
faciundis, quindecimviri sacrorum
iegeg sacerdos nQ0lr(I)Q praetor
ieqonorg nQ(rioslrroE praefectus
@/X/XV viri) sacrisfaciundis
iegoQawqg pontifex (Rome) rrQopurrlE legatus;ttQol3urilE)ePooro0
ipneqrarg vrr,otqcrtqyoE,xlQsol3uri1E xoi
imperator
innoqlqE &vrlorgotqyoE >el3o,oroO i legatus
magister equitu m, p raefectus
equitum Augusti pro praetore
x -&sxt XXviri, vigintiviri nqlvxe{.r princeps
xewqvcgr,oE centenarius xlQi.vxr,xloE princeps/imp erator, Prince7s
xswuQi,(j)v centurio militum
xqepv curator rlQoorcrrrls magistratus, trib unus Plebi s,
xprlE comes patronus, tutor, princeps,Praeses
xoucrlor(l)e quaestor p r ovin ciae, pr aefectus
xou0rrQou[Q IVvir, quat(t)uorviri, viarum fier(IvtE princeps
curandarum Icpo01oE lictor
?rouQ0r(l)Q curator oelayqvoqr,oE sexagenarius
xuwexi,poulg XVvir, quindecimviri sacris orecrrrlyE praetor (or otgotqYog
lcrn6l"exug):otgcrqyg
faciundis, quindecimviri sacrorum
x(l)voo0l. consul v0natog: proconsul otgntqyg
trlxrorg lictor zo,ra nl.rv: praetor urbanus; in
troyr.orqE,
troyloreolv curator the plural, praesesprovinciae,
l.o1cyE centurio legatuslegionisaT
p0YrorQro,vg magister (manager of slaves, ouYrl.ry,rE senator
freedman who gathered revenue oyxlqtoE senatus
from taxpayers,master, teacher, r0p[qg quaestor
leader) taflcrqloE tribunus militum
poYrorQoS magister (cf. pcryrorqrcvE) r(e)rpqtflE censor

t"r,l,o0(l)rtE conductor (estate manager)

vopoygQog l,vir legibusscribundis,decemviri 47. In the second century n.c., orqotlyg is frequently qualified in such formulae as
legibusscribundis otorlyg croxgctorq (commander with plenipotentiary power), otpcrllE lcri'exuE, and
orqcryrllg notoE (supreme commander); the term is also used to describe a provincial gover-
oixovpog actor, dispensator,vilicus, aedilis nor (proconsul) down to the period ofAugustus. In early ILr.o., the term is replaced largely by
"praetor"
coloniae ilyepv. ltgorlyg should be translated only when used as a formal title or a headirrg
ouetepcrv6E/o
erqcrv6E yeteranus of a letter (Mason, GreekTerms,158-60).
344 An Introduction
to GreekEpigraphy Roman Administrutionatrd F'unctionaries I f+S
|
'I'hessaloniki:
rgexrvgtog trecenarius Hainrou, 1983.In Macedonialll,263-69. Institute for Balkan Stud-
tgfo0vog ies, 1983.(Cf. SEG 33.496icf. SEG 29.562;provincialadministrationof Macedonia
tribunusplebis,tribunus militum
under Augustus.)
norog consul,praeses
Shelton, Io-Ann. As the RomansDid: A Sourcebook in Roman SocialHistory. Oxford:
nr;qrqg lictor, aedilis, apparitor Oxford University Press,1988.(Cf. J. F. Gardner, CR [19901:123-24.)
"The
$goupevrcqrcg frumentarius Speidel,Michael P. Roman Army in Asia Minor. Recent Epigraphical Discoveries
$l,aq1oE tribunus plebis and Researches."In Armies and Frontiers in Roman and Byzantine Anatolia: Pro-
tribunus militum ceedingsof a Colloquium HeId at IJniversity College,Swansea,in Apil 1981, ed.
Xrl.[0QXoE
Stephen Mitchelt, l:7-34. BAR International Series156. Oxford: British Archaeo-
logical Reports, 1983.Reprinted in Michael P. Speidel,RomanArmy Studies(Am-
SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY sterdam:l. C. Gieben, 1984), l:273-300. (Cf. SEG 33.1558;Roman army in Asia
Minor.)
"Augustus "The
Alfldy, Gza. und die Inschriften: Tradition und Innovation-die Geburt Speidel,Michael P. Later Roman Field Army and the Guard of the High Empire."
der imperialen Epigraphik." Gymnasium98 (1991): 289-324. (Cf. SEG 41.1812.) Latomus46 (1987): 375-79.
"Legionaries
Arjava, A.
"Zum
Gebrauch der griechischen Rangprdikate des Senatorenstandesin Speidel,M. P. from Asia Minor." ANRW II, 7.2 (1980):730-46. (Cf. SEG
den Papyri und Inschriften;' Tyche6 (1991): 17-35. (Cf. SEG41.1875.) 30.1830.)
"Le
Bastianini, G.
"Lista
dei prefetti d'Egitto dal 30ual 299p:Aggiunte e correzioni." ZPE 38 Triantaphyllopoulos, Iean. droit romain dans le monde grec." IIUrP 2l (1991):75-
(1980):75-89. 8s. (cf. sEG 41.1775.)
D4browa, Edward. L'Asie Mineure sousles Flaviens:Recherches sur la politique provin-
ciale.Warsaw:ZakladNarodowyim. Ossoli'nskich,1980.(Cf. SEG30.1842;provin-
cial administration in Asia Minor.)
Devijver, Hubert. The EquestrianOfficersof the Roman Imperial Army. Mavors Roman
Army Researches 6. Amsterdam:J. C. Gieben, 1989.(Cf. L. Keppie,CR 4l [1991]:
158-59; SEG34.1692.)
Dixon, Karen E., and Pat Southern. The Roman Catalry from the First to the Third
Century;.p. London: Batsford, 1992.(Cf. L. Keppie, CR 43 [1993]: 347-49.)
"Praefatio
Feissel,D. Chartarum Publicarum: L'intitul6 des Actes de la Prfecture du
Pr6toire du IV" au VI' Sicle."T dt MByz ll (1991): 437-64. (Cf. SEG 41.1774.)
Isaac, Benjamin. The Limits of Empire: The Roman Army in the East. Oxford: Claren-
don, 1990.(Cf. A. R. Birley,CR al [1991]:411-13.)
"The
Kajava, Mika. Roman Coloniae of the Near East:A Study of Cultural Relations."
ln Roman EasternPolicy and Other Studiesin Roman History, ed. Heikki Solin and
Mika Kajava, 59-124. CHL 91. Helsinki: SocietasScientiarum Fennica, 1990.
Kallet-Marx, Robert M. Hegemonyto Empire: The Developmentof the Roman Imperium
in the Eastfrom 148to 62 a.c. Berkeley:University of California Press, 1995.
Kennedy, David L., ed. The Roman Army in the East. fRA Suppl 18. Ann Arbor, MI:
lournal of Roman Archaeology, 1996.
Lintott, Andrew. Imperium Romanum: Politics and Administration London and New
York Routledge,1993.(Cf. G. P. Burton, CR 44 [19941:351-52.)
Nicasie, Martijn. Twilight of Empire: The Roman Army from the Reignof Diocletian until
the Battle of Adianople. DMAHA. Amsterdam: l. C. Gieben, 1998.
Richardson,l. Roman ProyincialAdministration,227 s.c.-,!.o. lJ7. Basingstoke,UK:
Macmillan Education, 1976.
Sarakakis,T. C. Archaia Makeilonia III: anakoinoseiskata to Trito Diethnes Symposio,
Thessalonike,21-25 Sept. 1977. Thessalonike: Hidryma Meleton Chersonesou to

15
Orrhography
Even a cursory reading of Hellenistic and Roman inscriptions will reveal that
their orthography often diverges from that of classicalliterature. Therefore,
the reading and restoration of inscriptions requires that the epigraphist also
be familiar with the Greek language in the later stagesof its development.
Orthographicalvariationsare no longer measuredagainstthe standardof
classicalorthography and treated as errors but are viewed as later stagesin the
overall development of the language.l However, since the classical forms
continue to be used as a convenient point of reference, it is necessaryto be
able to convert Koine Greek forms into their corresponding classicalforms
before consulting traditional lexica.
15.01 Language The Development of Koine Greek
Beginning with the reign of Philip II of Macedon, the Attic-Ionic dialect group
grew in status to become the Panhellenic Greek of the emergent Macedonian
empire. This so-calledMacedonian Koine becamethe languageof government,
administration,and well-educatedpersons.Thereafter,asRomeacquiredterri-
tories in Greece,Thrace, Asia Minor, Armenia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine,2
and Eglpt, the cities of these territories likewise adopted the Koine.
"Morphonologie
1. SeeClaude Brixhe, ou morphograph6mie? A propos de quelques varia-
tions graphiques en grec ancien," BSI 84, no. I (1989): 2l-54 (SEG 39.1799). Cf. Ieanne Robert
and Louis Robert, Ie Carie: Histoire et gographiehistoriqueavecle recueildesinscriptionsantiques,
vol. 2, Le Plateau de Tabai et ses environs (Paris: Librairie d'Amerique et d'Orient, Adrien-
Maisonneuve, 1954), l2-l3i Wilhelm Larfeld, Handbuch iler griechischenEpigraphilq 2 vols.
(Leipzig: O.R. Reisland, 1902-7), l:268-74; Salomon Reinach, Trait d'pigraphiegrecque(Paris:
E. Leroux, 1885),325-30.
2. On the use of Greek in Palestinein Lr.o. seeSEG43.1046.
346
orthography I l+Z
'l'he
ancient Doric dialect resistedthe incursion of the Koine more effec-
tively than any other dialect.It survivedin the Peloponnesos, Crete,3Kyrene,a
and Rhodes and finally developedinto a corrupted Doric known as Doric
Koine, which persistedin isolatedareasuntil the first to secondcenturiesA.D.s
A full treatment of local dialectical variations and the Koine is obviously
beyond the scope of this chapter.6For this, the reader should consult the
regional and Koine grammars cited in this chapter's supplementary bibliogra-
phy. However, a preliminary discussion of some of the general characteristics
of Koine Greek is merited.
15.02Diphthongs in -
In inscriptions of the classicalperiod and beyond, the iota of the so-called
improper diphthongs was never written subscript(n, g, q).When written at
all, it was written adscript, that is, after the thematic vowel (-1r, -o, -trrr).7
Throughout the Hellenistic period, thesediphthongs were gradually monoph-
thongized in popular speechand consequently came to be written simply as
-I, -cr, and -trr, without an iota adscript, becausethere was no longer any
qualitative distinction in terms of pronunciation between these vowels and
their correspondingsimple vowels.8
3. OntheCretandialectoftheKoineseeSEG43.601;Y.Duhoux,"Leslmentsgrecsnon-
Doriens du Crtois et la situation dialectale grecque au II'mill6naire," Cretan Studies I (1988):
5 7 - 7 2 ( S E G3 8 . 8 8 9 ) .
"Noyau
4. See C. Dobias-Lalou, grec et l6ments indignes dans le dialecte cy'rtnen," QAL
12 (1987): 85-91 (cf. SEG 37.1658); SEG 43.ll8l-82; FrancescaLonati, Grammaica delle
iscrizioni cirenaiche,Pubblicazioni della facolt di lettere e filosofia dell'Universit di Milano 128.
(Florence: La Nuova Italia Editrice, 1990) (SEG 40.1592; cf. M. Peters, "Review of F. Lonati,
G r a m m a t i c a[ 1 9 9 0 ] , "t n D i e S p r a c h e3 4 [ 1 9 8 8 - 9 0 ] [ 1 9 9 1 1 : 6 9 0 f - 6 9 0 h , e s p . 6 9 0 9 ) .
5. Its characteristic featuresinclude the retention ofthe primitive long crfor long [a], instead
of 1 as in Attic and Ionic; preservation of the original -vrr, third-person plural primary ending
(e.g.,-ovu,, -evTl, -<ov,l) insteadof-or, (e,g.,-orol, -erol, -oror);the third-person plural impera-
tive ending in -vttov (active) and -oOolv (middle/passive); and -pl verbs with the infinitive ending
"El
in -pev instead of -vcn. SeeA. Lopez Eire and |. Mendez Dosuna, problema de los dialectos
"Die
doricos y nordoccidentales," RivLF 48 (1980): 15-30 (SEG 30.1829); M. Slavova, Sprache
der Inschriften und die gesellschaftlicheStruktur der megarischen Apoikien," Index 20 (1992):
"La
169-71 (SEG 42.1772i cf. 41.1778); T. Molinos Tejada, particule modale KA dans la lit-
t6rature dorienne," REG 105 (L992):328-48 (SEG 42.1992:'cf. 41.1779).
6. On the relationship of Koine to Greek dialects, including Attic, see Claude Brixhe, Ia
koin grecqueantique, vol. l, [Jne langue introuvable?Travaux et memoires: Etudes anciennes 10;
Collections 6tudes anciennes 14 (Nancy: PressesUniversitaires de Nancy, 1993).
7. See,e.g.,MAMA lX, 26, 47, 61, 90, 2114.
8. See Francis Thomas Gignac, Grammar of the GreekPapyri of the Roman and Byzantine
Periods,vol.1, Phonology,TDSA LV (Milan: Isituto Editoriale Cisalpino, 1976), 183-86.
348 An Introduction to GreekEpigraphy
|
In Athens,the iota in cru,qr, and trll was no longer being soundedby the
end of the first centuryn.c.eHowever,it continued to be retainedorthographi-
cally long after it ceasedto be heard, becauseit was the specific mark of the
dative.
The spelling of final -or, Tlr.,and -trlt remained unstandardized throughout
the Roman period at leastinto the third century e.o.10Someinscriptionsself-
consciouslyemployed the iota adscript,ll a tendencythat could even lead to
misuse.l2However, one more often observesthe complete avoidance of the
iota adscipt(e.g.,IGll2 1072lr,.o.116117l,1100[ca. 124]),112[ca.l3ll32]).
Leslie Threatte cites the interesting example of a group of dedications to
the emperor Hadrian made in r,.o. 132 of which forty-one employ the
adscript, twenty-five omit the adscript, and thirteen have a mixture of spell-
ing, with and without the adscript.l3 Elsewhere, the practice differed from
place to place. For example, the iota adscript began to disappear in Lesbosas
early as the fourth century B.c., whereasit was never used in Dura Europos.
As a result of the monophthongization of long diphthongs in -1, the Latin
language,which previously transcribed -ror,as oe (e.9., comoedia),began to
transcribe-<rl simply as o (e.9.,melodia).
The iota adscript persistedin some legal documents,such as the Delphic
manumissioncontracts,and in such stock phrasesas &yoOfrr. t1qr,,the latter
continuing through to the third century a.o. This must not be confused with
the phenomenon of the intruded iota, that is, iota erroneously intruding into
words ending in simple vowels (..g., il Boul"qr,).ta Despitethe near complete
disappearanceof the iota of improper diphthongs, most modern editors
continue to add iota subscripts to a text in conformity to the classicalform.
f5.03 Diphthongs in -u
The diphthong o,u was frequently written as o from the classical period
onward. This is especiallycommon in the caseof the intensive and personal
forms of ctE (e.g.,rg, ro, &t/t, &tv; pl. tv; fem. tt, &fflg). 3009), eii<ov for ilov (IKibyra-Olbasa, no. 129), xper,0f for xpt9ilQDuraRep IV, no' 200, L. 3;
Cognate examples of this kind include tflE (for otrlg) and 6atQ (for
9. SeeThreatte,Grammar, 1.359-64, S 22.021-022.
10. Cf. continued use of adscript in IG II2 1078 (ca. t.o. 220).
I l. E.g., IG II' 1099 (e.o. l2I). Cf. IBM II 365 (r.o. 33134,Caunus); lAphrodArchive l, no. 6.
12. Cf. the misspelling of vol, etc., in a letter of Marcus Aurelius (ca. a.o. 175) in Hesperia
Suppl 13 (1970):3fr.
13. E.g., IG lI2 3324-80; Hesperia 32 (1963):6lff. (SEG 21.705-32).
14.MAMA IX 18. The intruded iota is rare in Attic inscriptions (see Threatte, Grammar,
2 1 0 - 1 1 ,S 1 0 . 0 3 ) .
Orthography | 349
i:<rurt|).rsAu is sometimesinterchangedwith al (e.g.,aitov for atov) and
sporadicallywith or ('Al"og for AIoE).16
The same phenomenon can be observed with su, which is also inter-
changedwith e (e.g.,lqgeouo for XqQsouoo).Words that are vulnerable
to au and u reducing to a and e, respectivelf, also display opposite action,
with o,u and eu expanding to crou/cruouand tou/suou (e.g., aoto0/auoto0
for crro0, rcroro/rouo0ta for rcr6ro,,ruoyqaQeoE for nolgceS).
The ou is often interchanged with o/al (e.g.,&oxg for oxog).r7This is
sometimes the result of the confusion of the genitive and dative of the second
declensionr8or the confusion of the indicative and subiunctive in verbs.
15.04 The Convergence of Diphthongs in -t with Simple Vowels
The processknown as itacism, that is, the pronouncing of vowels like [i]'
gradually resulted in the Hellenistic period in the convergenceof the diph-
thongs 1,,1,,o[, and ut with the simple vowels L, , u, and u' respectively,
with a corresponding loss of qualitative distinction between them.re As a
result, one observesthe following interchanges:t e [,20c[[ e (sometimes
c),2ror * u (sometimeso),22and u[ e v.23
15. See,e.g.,IG ll2 1042C,L. 6 (e.o. 60); 1048,L' 5 (n.r. 3O);3442;3504;4163:4122. Cf. also
nroxecrlerv (CIG 1838 [Corcpae]); &vcrncet (IKyme, no. l9).
16. See, e.g., LBW 352i. On o for au seelKibyra-Olbasa, no' 17; SEG32.1025' Cf. Gignac,
Grammar,234.
17. See,e.g.,IDuraRep IV, no. 264; cf. no.2L9.
18. On the disappearance of the dative in later Greek Christian funerary formulae (e.g.,
Zroilv rot xopou loqrooplevog, dnolpt10l v Kuqiou/v Xqiotou/v Blou totou) see B'
Boyaval,'Avo1w1or,g 1 (1981): 201-3 (SEG 31.1652);Boyaval also deals with the confusion of
eiE I accusative and v f dative, hlperpurism in favor of the dative (e.g., &voncrloov rrlv
e[vr,), and use of the incorrect caseafter eis and Bv.
r.1-ru1i1vrQ
19. SeeGignac, Grammar,202.
20. tt- r: iE for eig (MAMAX,275),l'r.toupye0E for l'enouqye[E (MAMA IX' 556)' niorrE
for niorerE QDuraRep IV, nos. 270, 273); t"- er: YuplvdostoQ1iloogfor yupvcrotaglfocE (IG lI'
no. 209, L. 2). SeeF. Blassand A. Debrunner, A GreekGrammar of the New Testamentand Other
Early ChristianLiterature,trans. and rev. R. W. Funk (Chicago' 1961)' 13' S 23.
21. ar,- e: ncgoeite for ncrqoeircrl (IKibyra-Olbasa, no. 128), xL for xaL (MAMAX' 217),
nelov for ncui<ov (MAMA IX,92). See Gignac, Grammar, l92l'Blass and Debrunner, Greek
Grammar, 14, S 25.
22. ot - u: nuvv for xolvdv (IMagnMai 25P.7), ,l.twr'o.to for oixer.otcr,a (IMagnMai
258.6), l.un for tromo (CIG 2524, L. 6), t0E for toig (IKibyra-Olbasa, no' 62); ve[or]nr6rv'
nenrrqpor (CIG 2826, LL. 17, 23); vo[ct, vlft (CIG 1933). SeeClaude Btuhe, Essaisur le grec
anatolien au dbut ile notre re,2d ed. (Nanry: PressesUniversitaires de Nancy' 1987)' 47.
23. tsr- "t: os (MAMA IX, 140).
 An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy
350 |
15.05 The Convergence of Simple Vowels
Itacism also resulted in the convergenceof the simple vowels q, , and t on
the value [i]. Consequently, the following interchanges are very common: r'l
* 1,,24 rf * t2s (q * el before vowels),26and t e p7 (s e et).28The
interchangesof u * r"(and sometimese)2eand coe o,30already present in the
Hellenistic period, became more frequent in the Roman period.
15.06 Stops, Fricatives, and Aspirates
"stops" (or "mutes")
The consonantsknown as are thosethat are produced by
the closing of the orinasal passagesso as to check the breath. The stops of
classicalGreek can be divided into three orders as follows: voiced (F, , Y),
"rough") (,
smooth (n, t, x) and aspirated(or 0, X).3tThe production of
voiced consonants requires the vibration of the vocal cords. In contrast, the
smooth and aspirated consonants are voiceless.
In Koine Greek, B, , and y shifted from voiced stops to voiced fricatives.
In other words, rather than the breath being checked by the closure of the
orinasal passage,the passagewas simply narrowed. Thus, by the first century
a.o., the voiced labial stop F (bat) had become the voiced labial fricative u
(pood). This resulted in the interchanges of o,u oP and su - el3.For the
same reason, B becomes the transliteration equivalent of the Latin letter v
( s e e5 5 . 1 1 ) .
The velar stop y ket) also shifted to the velar fricative [j] (fet) in certain
24. 11- 1; vOrnevfor v60qxev (CIG 6672, Rome); qr,- t $tpt" (IDuraRep IV, no. 256, L.
3), I - t.: pr.vi.for p4vi (MAMA IX, 560); Kuwfl.r.oE for Kr.rvtil,rog (Quintilius) (CIG 2588). See
Blassand Debrunner, GreekGnmmar, 14, S 24.
25. e * I: ftouroO for tcnxofi (MIMA X, 43); cf. q1- I: zq for xaL (MAMA IX, 554), viltov
for vcrlov (MAMA X, 330).
26.11- er: pvelcrgfor pv{aE (MAMA X, 370); st - tl: 1qfag, n}.fovcrE, dnttoqov,
&oapfotov (CIG 2060), Mlvoyrvr1av for Mqvol6ve r,cv (MAMAX,250).
27. e - u 6vrxt(tv) for ivrxr(lv) (MAMA X, 65), Oraeg for OecqEQMagnMai 44).
28. er * e: Efor eiE (lSM 30A).
29. BuBtric (IG lI2 1029, L. 25), BuBkoelxq (IG II' 1043, III, L. 50). Cf. IG ll2 r042D, L. r;
5211. On u for e (e.g., vurplog for verpr,og)seelKibyra-Olba.sa,no. 100; cf. Gignac, Grammar,
274. Seealso J. Martha,
"Comptes
des hi6ropes du temple d'Apollon D6lien," BCH2 (1878): 570-
"Comptes
86, esp. 580 (Delos); Th. Homolle, des hi6ropes du temple d'Apollon Dlien," BCH 6
( 1 8 8 2 ) :r - 1 6 7 , e s p .1 1 4 ( D e l o s ) .
30. to - o: fipoEfor fjptrrs(LBW 917), p1veog for Apl6verog (MAMAX,290).
31. These nine consonants can also be grouped into three classes:labial (0, n, ), dental (,
r, 0), and velar (1, x, 1).
orthography I lsr
words. This resultedin the omissionsof either Y or t when found in combina-
tion (e.g.,rtg/./tg for yrqg). Likewise,in the first century e.o', the dental
stop before prevocalic r.(:tjl) becamea dental fricative [] (rhis), rather
than being pronounced as a stop (dog). From the third century A.D.onward'
was pronounced [] before every r and its orthographic equivalents.As a
result, prevocalic I is sometimes omitted following fricative (e.g., for
r). By the sametoken, the interchanges6 * ( and - 0 sometimesoccur
(e.g.,)ogonllr for )crqnr,r,,o06v, for o6v)'32
As a result of the general transformation of voiced stops into voiced
"voiced"
fricatives, their character diminished, and they began to apProach
the value of their voicelesscounterParts ( * t, n( - x,0 - n)' Conse-
quently, sometimes interchanged with r (e.g.,rlpooitrlv for qpoololv) and
y with x (e.g., p,ol.ox for pol'oy), while B interchanged with n less
frequently.33
Likewise, the aspiratedstops Q, 0, and 1 gradually lost their aspiration and
becameunaspiratedfricatives:Q [pn] - tfl (fu"); 0 [tr] - [0] (think); X [kh]
- [1] (Scottish"loch"). Thus, in the first centuryA.D.,Q becamethe translit-
eration equivalentfor the Latin/(see S 5.11).As a result of deaspiration,the
aspiratesQ, 0, and 1 interchangedwith their correspondingsmooth stops (Q
* n, 0 e r,, X e v)3abut rarely with the fricatives(0' , Y)'" The substitu-
tion of 0 for t after o was especiallycommon.36
Whereasin classicalGreek, final n, r,, andx changeto their aspiratedforms
with a rough breathing
Q, 0, and 1 before a word that etymologically begins
Koine, becauseof its psilotic
[h],37this changefrequently does not occur in the
nature(e.g.,rt' ieq6oEfor Q iegorg[ISardBR116];sees 15.12).The sameis
true for rtr, r, and x in comPosition (e.g., &,nelo1crocfor Qqo1aoa,
.vrloraoQt for &,v$[oraoQr,, xatcrogcrorfor xaQogor).conversely,there are
32. SeeSEG 31.1653.
33. SeeThreatte, Grammar, 1.434-39, S 35.01-04.
34.E.g.,14- 1: xoqcE for 10qag (lMagnMai 105.17).On l for 0 see SEG 3l'1554' Cf'
Threatte, Grammar,1.499-55, S 38.01-12. In the opposite direction, the hardening ofaspirates
suchthatx>n,0>t,andQ>nisawell-knownPhrygianvariation:e.g.,Qitr0crtogforQl].tcrtog
(IKibyra-olbasa,no. 128),'EncnqdE for'EroQp1a$Kibyra-olbasa,no.59). see Brixhe, Essaisur
b grec anatolien, lI0-13.
(e'g"
35. See Gignac,Grammar,63-68. On the substitution of B for Q (e'g'' Bil'oE)' for 0
gentg), and y for 1 (e.g., Mo^yoE) in Macedonian inscriptions see A. Panagiotou in Ancient
Macedonia,vol.4(Thessaloniki,lgs6),413-29;cf.F'Papazoflou,"Lesstdlesph6biquesde
Stuberra,"Chiron 18 (1988): 233-7 0' esp. 250.
36. See Carl H. Kraeling, The Chistian Building. The Excavations at Dura-Europos, Final
Report VIII, Part II, ed. C. Bradford welles (Locust vallen NY: |. |. Augustin, 1967),96' no. 18.
* Q"
37.8.g., pet' * peO',f * Q', xot' * xcrO" f - Q', oux * ouX, n'
352 | ln htroductionto GreekEpigraphy
alsoinstancesoffalse aspirationoffi, r, and x, both when final (xa0' rog) and
in composition ( Soqrcv).38
15.07 Assimilation of Medial and Final u
The letter v is the only letter in classical Greek that is subject to regular
assimilation when final.3eHowever, contrary to the classicalrules of euphony
governing the assimilation of v, a final v in Koine Greek frequently remains
unassimilated.
Similarly, v in composition may either undergo assimilation or remain
unassimilated; for example, v before liquids (1,, q) may undergo complete
assimilation(i.e., 1.1.,eQ) or remain unchanged(e.g., vl,oyeCv).In the Ro-
man period, v in composition tends to assimilate more frequently than final
v.a0It is necessaryto recognizethe presenceof an unassimilatedv and deter-
mine the corresponding assimilatedform before consulting traditional lexica.
15.08 Omission and Addition of Nasals
In Koine Greek, the final v of words is sometimes omitted.4l Conversely, in
words with no final v, v is sometimesadded.a2The medial nasals(p, v) are
often omitted or sometimesinserted,especiallybefore stops.a3
15.09 Use of Movable y
Classical Greek avoided hiatus (i.e., the awkward transition between two
vowels, one ending a word and the second beginning the next word) by the
38. SeeGignac,Grammar,133-38.
"v
39. When final v and in composition" are assimilated, the following pattern is observable:
preceding p and labials (n, 0, 0, and rp), v undergoes partial assimilation, becoming p (trro6p
pot, Bpp6vo, oupporcl, pQcivo, rp B).rrotov, p niorel); before velars (x, y, X, and l), v
becomesy-nasal (e.g.,rilv orql,qy xcri . . . rrirv iep^ylqqprctrrrv llPriene 17.48-491; cf. yxctror,
t1 xqrrorov, 6y ^y6vr,), and it sometimes does so before dentals ( d^y [tS,Allf 30]); v may also
become p improperly before a consonant or vowel in pausa (see Gignac, Grammar, 165-67; cf,
Herbert W. Sm1th, Greek Grammar, rev. Gordon M. Messing [Cambridge: Harvard University
Press,19661,27, S 9l-96).
40. SeeGignac,Grammar,168-71.
41. E.g., rl (for tilv) rrpfv, ti1 Oqc (for rlv 0pcv), o (for ov) toiE, (for dv)
),oBlte, d (for v) pqvi, o (for av) ongpcot, &n 16 (for tv) noq1worv (see Gignac,
G r a m m a r ,1 1 1 - 1 2 ) .
42. E.g., xioo.tiv (for eiocei) oor, eoxeiv (for eroxel) i1 yuvil.
43. E.g., )"oqu for trocvrl, nrov for nvtov, ninrtrr for n6pnr<o (see Gignac, Grammar,
I I 1-19).
Orthography | 353
"euphonic" "ephelkystic"v) the end of
useof paragogicv (alsoknown as or at
words preceding words beginning with a vowel. In Koine Greek, one fre-
quently finds the reverse of this: paragogic v is lacking at the end of words
followed by vowels and is added to words followed by consonants.
15.10 Assimilation of the Preposition rc
Normally, the preposition x precedeswords beginning with a consonant,
while l precedeswords beginning with vowels. During the Roman period,
x is frequently assimilated to y before consonants, both in word junction
and in composition.44
f 5.f 1 Liquids, Sibilants, and Single and Double Consonants
The following changesare observablewith respectto liquids, zeta, single and
double consonants, and final sigma.asThe liquid consonants (1,, g) are fre-
quently assimilatedto each other (e.g., tl.fl,oug for ntrqqoug) or omitted
before or after a consonant(e.g.,&eQEfor &el.Sg).The duplication of a
liquid is also common (e.g.,Tgtoi,l.l.ogfor TgorltroEflKibyra-Olbasa,no.9,
9]).a6Conversely,e is sometimesinserted before or after a consonant.The
double consonant ( gradually reduced to a simple sibilant [z], resulting in
the occasionalinterchange of I and o.a7Single and double consonantsceaseto
be distinguished in speech,resulting in the interchangesof I * xo and q,
wo.a8Single consonants are frequently doubled,aeand contiguous identical
consonants are frequently reduced to a single letter.5oFinal o is often omitted
44.8.g., before y: y lertov<ov; before : dy (fSM 30A), ylxog (MAMA X, 60); beforc
B: y Boqpd, .7p$ooeu before i": dy lyou, ytrr.ne0v;before p: ^y p^ev, petqrlrv.
ypcqtuq{ocr for xpcrqruq6or(ISM 308); before v: 6y vrou. SeeGignac,Qrammar,173-76i
Threatte, Grammar, 1.559-86,S 48.021-0217).
45. SeeGignac, Grammar, 102-10,120-32, 154-65.
46. On omission of liquid consonants seeK. A. Garbrah,
"Notes
on Inscriptions from Chios,"
ZPE 70 (1987): 152-55; cf. Threatte, Grammar, 1.478-83, S 40.013-03; on reduplication of
liquids see Brixhe, Essaisur le grec anatolien,32-33.
47.2ornpoo for Z<o:tpou(CIG 1095), Zpupvo for Xpgvc (CIG 1003, 1590),QfQ(po
(IG lr2 ro29,L. 16).
48. SeeGignac, Grammar, 139-42.
49. E.g., n)"lrv for na'),w (IDuraRep IV, no.219, L. 12), orl,l.cv for otol,ov (MAMAX,
l2), #,xxva for txvc (MAMA X, 190), Exx for Ex (MAMAX, 167). On doubling of sigma see
"Notes
Garbrah, on Inscriptions from Chios."
50. E.g., pcrpn for ppp1 (MAMA X,392, 344), yevffu for 1ew{04 QDuraRep IV, nos'
232,236,238).
354 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy Orthography | :SS

(or sometimesadded),regardlessof whether the following word beginswith a utgifna af K. Humanistiska Vetenskaps-Samfundeti Uppsala XIII 4. Uppsala:
consonant(e.g.,ei [: eig] r;p6or,ov). A l q u i s t ,1 9 1 0 .
'Ihumb,
Albert. Die griechischeSprache im Zeitalter des Hellenismus. Berlin: W. de
Gruyter,1901.
15.12Psilosis "Die
Zgusta, Ladislav. Rolle des Griechischen im rmischen Kaiserreich." ln Die
Sprachenim rmischenReich der Kaiserzeit, ed. Gnter Neumann and |. Unter-
Prior to the formal adoption of the Ionic alphabetin 40312n .c. (though the mann, l2l-45. Beihefteder Bonner Jahrbcher40. Cologne: Rheinland-Verlag,
changestarted sometime earlier and was not complete until some years after- 1980. (Cf. SEG 30.1828;Greek dialectsin Roman imperial times, archaizingten-
ward), Attica and most non-Asiatic Greek cities employed the symbol H to denciesin II .r.o.)

indicate a rough breathing. They used the symbol E for both long and short e.
When the H symbol is used to signifr a rough breathing in Old Attic inscrip- Greek Dialects and Interaction with Indigenous Languages

tions, it is transliterated with the sign h.sl "Di

Arena, Renato. alcuni tratti dialettali delle colonie euboiche d'occidente." Acme
Asiatic Greekhad no needof a symbol to denote rough breathing,because
40, no. I (1988), ls-19. (Cf. SEG38.1983.)
the dialect was psilotic (i.e., it had no sound corresponding to a rough Bile, Monique. Le dialectecrtoisancien:Etude de la languedesinscriptions-Recueil des
breathing). This resulted in such forms as xo,rtrsQ (for xoOneg). The inscriptionspostrieuresaux IC. Ettdes crtoise;Ecole frangaised'Athnes 27. Paris
absenceof a rough breathing freed the symbol H for a new application. The P. Geuthner, 1988.
Ionic alphabet used H to signify long e. With the sPreadof the Ionian alpha- Bechtel,Friedrich. Die griechischen Dialekte.3 vols. Berlin: Weidmann, l92l-24.
Blanco, M. J. Garcia. Gramatica d.elas inscripcioneselees(fonticay morfologia). Saint-
bet in the third century 8.c., H was no longer usedto signify a rough breath-
jacques-de-Compostelle, 198l. (Cf. SEG 38.37l.)
ing, and initial aspiration gradually died out all over the Greek world, except
Bondesson,B. De soniset formis titulorum Milesiorum Didymaeorumque.Lwd: C.W.K.
in a limited number of word combinations (e.g.,ou- etE, pr1'eig). Despite Gleerup, 1936.
the near complete disappearanceof aspiration, modern editors continue to Brixhe, Claude. Le Dialecte grec de Pamphylie: Documents et grammaire. Paris: A.
add the symbol for rough breathing to texts in conformity to the classical Maisonneuve,1976.
"Du
form. Brixhe, C. palio- au n6o-phrygien." CRAI 2 (1993): 323-44. (Cf. SEG 43.929.)
Buck, Carl Darling. GreekDialects, Grammar, SelectedInscriptions, Glossary.Chicago:
University of ChicagoPress,1955.
"Continuit
SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cassio,A. C. e riprese arcaizzanti nell'uso epigrafico dei dialetti greci: II
casodell' eolico d'Asia." AIONAing) 8 (1986): 13l-46. (Cf. SEG36.1530.)
"The
Koine Greek Chadwick, fohn. ThessalianAccent." GlottaT0 (1992):2-14. (Cf. SEG 41.1771.)
Charalambakis,C. Lakonikai Spoudail0 (1990): 463-82.
Bubenik, Yit. Hellenistic and Roman Greeceas a SociolinguisticArea. Amsterdam Stud- Claffen, Edith F. The Syntax of the BoeotianDialect Insciprlons. Baltimore: Lord Balti-
ies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, ser. IV, Current Issues in more Press,1905.
Linguistic Theory 57. Amsterdam: f. Benjamins, 1988. (Cf. SEG 39.1798;Greek Collitz, H., F. Bechtel. Sammlungder griechischenDialekt-Inschriften.4 vols. Gttingen:
dialects and the rise of the Koine.) Vandenhoeckand Ruprecht, 1884-1915.
"Le
Debrunner, Albert, and Anton Scherer. Grundfragen und Grundzge des nachklas- Dubois, L. datif singulieren -l des thmes en S- et en -suE arcadien." RPhil 52
( 1 9 7 8 ) :2 6 6 - 7 1 .
sischenGiechisch. 2d ed. 2 vols. Sammlung Gschen I15. Berlin: W. de Gruyter' "Das
t969. Friedrich, I. Attische im Munde von Auslndern bei Aristophanes." PhilologusT5
(1918\:274-303.
Dieterich, Karl. Untersuchungenzur Geschichteiler giechischen Sprachevon der helle'
nistischenZeit bis zum 10. Jahrhundert n. Chr. Leipzig: B. G. Teubner' 1898. Garbrah, Kweku A. A Grammar of the Ionic Inscriptionsfrom Erythrae: Phonologyand
Reprint, Hildesheim: G. Olms, 1970. Morphologlt. Beitrge zur klassischenPhilologie 60. Meisenheim am Glan: Anton
Nachmanson, Ernst. Beitrge zur Kenntnis der altgriechischenVolkssprache.Skrifter Hain. 1978.
"Proportionale
Garcia-Ram6n, f. L. Analogie im Griechischen: Der Dativ Plural der 3.
51. The aspirate was sometimes indicated by tlvo points over the vowel: e.g', ]fEIA = Deklination in den aiolischen und westgriechischenDialekten." Glotta 68 (1990):
'Yyeig (IBM IL365, L. 4 t33-56.
lMelos]).
356 | An Introduction to Greek Epigraphy Orthogruphy I ISZ

Gondicas, Daphne. Recherchessur la Crlte occidentalede l'poque gomtrique la lnfluence of Latin

conqu\te romaine: Inyentaire des sourcesarchologiqueset textuelles,positions du
problme.Amsterdam: A. M. Hakkert, 1988. (Cf. SEG 38.893;BE [19891, la; lliville, Frd6rique.les empruntsdu Latin au Grec:ApprochePhontique.Yol.l, Intro-
western Crete.) duction et Consonantisrre.Bibliothque d'information Grammaticale 19. Paris and
"Altkleinasiatische Louvain: Peeters,1990.(Cf. I. H. W. Penney,CR a3 ll993l:320-21.)
Haas, Otto. Elemente im Phrygischen." JKF 3, no. I (1955): 129-
37. Eckinger, Theodor. Die Orthographie lateinischer Wrter in griechischenInschriften.
Hodot, Ren. Le dialecte olien d'Asie: La langue des inscriptions, VII" s.a.C.-IV" s.p.C. Munich: Wolf, 1892.
"Trois
Paris:Editions Recherchesur les civilisations,1990.(Cf. SEG40.1108.) F-eissel, D. aspectsde I'influencede Latin sur le Grec tardlf." T (t MByz 8 (1981):
"Das l3s-s0.(cf.sEG3l.l6ss.)
Holl, Karl. Fortleben der Volksprachen in Kleinasien in nachchristlicher Zeit."
Hermes43 (1908): 240-54. Garcia Domingo, Enrique. Latinismos en Ia koin (en los documentosepigrfcosdesdeeI
Katii, Radoslav.Ancient Languagesof the Balkans.2 vols. in l. The Hague: Mouton, 212 a. J.C. hasta eI 14 d. I. C.): Grmatica y lexico griego-latino, latino-griego.
r976. Burgos: Universidad de Valladolid, 1979.
Knitl, E. Die SprachedesionischesKykladen nach den inschrffiichen Quellen. Speyeram Kaimio, lorma. Romans and the Greek Language.Commentationes humanarum lit-
Rhein: Pilger-Druckerei, 1938. terarum 64. Helsinki: SocietasScientiarum Fennica, 1979. (Seeesp. 168-81; pri-
Laminger-Pascher,G. Index Grammaticus zu ilen griechischenInschriften Kilikiens unil vate inscriptions.)
"The
Isauriens.2 vols. SBWien 284.3,298.3.Vienna: sterreichischenAkademie der Leiwo, M. Mixed Languages in Roman Inscriptions." 7n Acta Colloqu Epi-
Wissenschaften,1973-7 4. graphici Latini: Helsingiae 3.-6. sept. 1991habiti, ed. Heikki Solin, Olli Salomies,
Landi, Addolorata. Dialeni e interazione socialein Magna Grecia: Lineamenti di una and U.-M. Liertz.292-301. Helsinki: SocietasScientiarum Fennica, 1995.
storia linguistica attraversola documentazioneepigrafca. Universit di Napoli, Cen- Magie, David. De Romanorum iuris publici sacriquevocabulissollemnibusin Graecum
tro di Studi per la Magna Grecia IV. Napoli: Giannini, 1979. (Cf. SEG 29.1743.) sermonemconversis.Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1905.
Neumann, Gnter. Phrygkch und Griechisch.SbWien 499. Vienna: sterreichischen Mason, Hugh ). Greek Termsfor Roman Institutions: A Lexicon and Analysis.American
Akademie der Wissenschaften,1988. (Cf. SEG 38.1295.) Studies in Papyrology 13. Toronto: Hakkert, 1974.
Mayser, E. Grammatik der griechischenPapyri aus der Ptolemerzeit.2d ed. 2 vols. Solin, Heikki, and Olli Salomies.Repertorium nominum gentilium et cognominum La-
Berlin: W. de Gruyter, 1923-34. tinorum. Hildesheim:G. Olms, 1988.(Cf. SEG38.1993.)
"Was Viereck, Pattl. SermoGraecus,quo senatuspopulusqueRom. magistratusquepopuli Rom.
Miller, D. Gary. Grassmann'sLaw Reordered in Greek?"ZVS 9l (1977): 131-58.
(cf. sEG 28.1617.\ usque ad Tiberii Caesarisaetatem in scriptispublicis usi sunt. Gttingen: Vanden-
Moralejo, Jranl. Gramtica de las inscripcionesdlfcas. Santiago de Compostela, 1973. hoeck and Ruprecht, 1888.
Nachmanson, E. Laute und Formen der magnetischenInschriften. Uppsala: Almquist,
1904.
Scherer, Anton. Zur Laut- und Formenlehre der milesischenInschriften. Munich:
A. Scherer,1934.
Schweizer, Eduard. Grammatik der pergamenischenInschriften. Berlin: Weidmann,
I 898.
Teodorsson, Sven T. The Phonologltof Anic in the Hellenistic Period. Studia Graeca et
Latina Gothburgensia 40. Gteborg: Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis, 1978.
Teodorsson, Sven T. The Phonologyof Ptolemaic Koine. Gteborg: Acta Universitatis
Gothoburgensis,1977-
Threatte, Leslie. The Grammar of Anic Inscriptions.Yol. l, Phonologt.Yol. 2, Morphol-
ogy. Berlin: W. de Gruyter, 1980-96. (ReplacesK. Meisterhans, Grammatik der
attischenlnschriften,3d ed. [Berlin, 1990;reprint, Hildesheim: G. Olms, 1971].)
Thumb, A. Handbuch iler griechischenDialekte. 2d ed. 2 vols. Indogermanische Bib-
liothek l. Heidelberg:C. Winter, 1865-1915.
Yazqtez, Lourdes M. InscripcionesRodias. 3 vols. Coleccion Tesis Doctorales 450/88.
Madrid: Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 1988. (Cf. I. H. W. Penny, CR 4l
ll99ll: 456*57; SEG38.782.)
 16
Epigrams

No discussionof inscriptions would be complete without mention of metrical

inscriptions known as epigrams. Greek epigrams in general were noted for
their tersenessand aptness,often ending with a shrewd observation or a witty
turn of phrase. Funerary epigrams, however, tended to become increasingly
formulaic and colorless and of greater and greater length. Many of these
promise life beyond the grave. So-called gnomic epigrams take the form of a
monologue by the deceasedor a dialogue between the deceasedand the
passerby,in some casesmaking a requestthat the passerbydeliver the news of
the death to relatives in the homeland of the deceased.rThough the majority
of epigrams are funerary in nature, they are not all so: there are also dedica-
tory epigrams, votive epigrams, honorary and building epigrams, and rarer
tlpes (e.g.,hymni, oracula,dirae).2

16.01 The Nature of Greek Meter

Greek epigrams, like all Greek poetry, did not rhyme, nor did they have a
regular tempo or dynamic rhythm; nor, for that matter, was stressof primary
importance in defining the structure of Greek verse.3 Such differences

1. Funerary inscriptions that record two epigrams on the same stone, separatedby the word
}.tro, are termed competitionpoem.s.Such compositions were actually composed by the same poet
and are a product of the Greek afhnity for variation (see Robert, Hellenica, IV, 81-82).
2. Honorary: SEG 26.1475; Robert, Hellenica, VlI, 197-99. Building: SEG 31.1637, 42.931.
Votive and dedicatory: SEG 26.1375, 28.737, 37.280t Robert, Hellenico, XI-XII, 267*76.
Agonistic: SEG26.1379,29.951,33.716,37.712.Choregic: SEG36.242.
3. SeeD. S. Raven,GreekMetre: An lntroduction (London: Faber and Faber, 1962),2l-22;
see Raven's critique ofthe alternative conclusion, namely, that Greek poetry did have tempo, a
view that held currency in the nineteenth century.

358
360 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy
betweenGreekand Englishpoetry posea significantobstacleto our apprecia-
tion of the aestheticsof Greek epigrams.a
This deficiency in our understanding of Greek meter raises the related
problem concerningthe pronunciation of Greekepigrams.The long-standing
convention in English and German scholarship has been to place stresson the
longa and.to pronounce without stressthe brevia and,ancipitia.s I confine this
chapter to the formal characteristic of Greek epigrams, especiallywith respect
to the rules of prosody and the nature of the most popular epigrammic meters.
Greek epigrams are of the "stichic" type of verse.In other words, the lines
of verse (ori1or,) are short, are of uniform length, and repeat themselvesin a
regular fashion (e.g., repeating hexameters,alternating pentameterswith hex-
ameters). Each line consists of an orderly sequenceof syllables, with each
syllable counting long or short for the purpose of meter.
Though epigrams tended to be brief-composed of one to four distichs
(i.e., two coupletsof verse)-in the classicalperiod, they tended to become
increasinglylonger in the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Some consist of an
alternation of two meters within a distich (a, b, a, b, a, b), as in the caseof the
elegiac verse, or the simple repetition of a single meter, such as dactylic
hexametersor iambic trimeters (a, a, a, a, a, a). For example, the Aberkios
Inscription, one of the earliestchristian inscriptions that communicates chris-
tian belief (ca. ,r.o. 200), is composedof twenty-two successive hexameters.6
4. Paul Maas (Greek Metre, trans. Hugh Lloyd-Jones [Oxford: Clarendon, 1962),3-4) re-
".
marks: . , scarcelyany facet ofthe culture ofthe ancient world is so alien to us as its quantitative
metric. . . . we have no means of reading, reciting, or hearing Greek poetry as it actually sounded.
It may be possible to form a mental notion of it; but such a notion is too shadowy to serve as a
basis for scientific investigation ofthe subject."
5. Longum, -a; a vowel deemed to be long according to the rules ofprosody; indicated by the
- followed by two consonantscan remain short if the consonantsare a combina-
symbol over the letter (a). Breve, -ia: a vowel deemed to be short according to the rules of
prosody; indicated by the q'rnbol " over the letter (). Anceps,-cipitia: a doubtful syllable whose
quantity can be either long or short; indicated here by the letter rc.
6. The inscription is from Hieropolis (Phrygia). For the editio princeps see W. M. Ramsay,
"The
Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia, Part 1," /HS 4 ( 1883): 370-436, esp.424-27 (only LL. 7-
l5). Lines 7-15 were originally published as part of the Alexander inscription: see W. M.
"Les
Ramsay, trois villes phrygiennes, Brouzos, Hieropolis et Otrous," BCH 6 (1382): 503-ZO,
esp.518. Cf. W. M. Ramsay,"The Tale of Abercius,"/HS 3 (1382): 3i9ff.;J.B.Lightfoot, Apostolic
Fathers: 11.1.S. Ignatius, S. Polycarp (London: Macmillan, 1885), 492-501; W. M. Calder, "The
Epitaph of Avircius Marcellus," IRS 29 (1939): l-4; Laurence H. Kant, "The Interpretation of
Religious symbols in the Graeco-Roman world: A case study of Early christian Fish Symbol-
ism," 3 vols. (Ph.D. diss., Yale Universiry t993), 3:752-80 (app. 3); M. Volante, ,.Il ,Casto
'Inscrizione' 'Pastore'
Pastore'dell' di Abercio e il de Erma," Orpheus8 (1937): 355-65 (SEG
37.1166). wolfgang wischmeyer has demonstrated how this epigram employs conventional
phraseology,formulae, topoi, and vocabulary, and he reapplies them to convey christian ideas in
a cryptic manner. For a history of the restoration with an extensive critical apparatus see W.
"Die
Wischmeyer, Aberkiosinschrift als Grabepigramm," IAC 23 [198O): 22-26 (cf. SEG
Epigrams | 361
16.02The Rules of Prosodv
The following summary of the rules of prosody is intended as a generalguide
only. The reader should consult the works of M. L. West, Paul Maas, and
David Ravenfor a more detailedtreatment of this subject.T
To determine the meter of an epigram, the quantity of each syllable-
whether it is long s1 5hsft-rnust be determined. A given syllable may count
as short for prosodical purposesbut be long by nature and vice versa.The
fundamental principles for the determination of vowel quantity can be sum-
marized by four rules.
Rule 1. Syllablescontaining either 11, trl, or diphthongs are long by
nature. A vowel that is long by nature is short by position if in hiatus. The
final vowel of a word is said to be in hiatus if it is followed by a word
beginning with a vowel and is unelided. This process is a phenomenon
known as Epic correption.
RuIe2. The quantity of the vowels o, r, and u can be either long or short
and must be determined from the context.
Rule 3. Syllablescontaining e and o are short by nature. Any vowel that is
short by nature becomes long by position when followed by two or more
consonantsor by a double consonant (8, E, qr). For example,the e and o in
glovtcl are short by nature but count as long for the purpose of scansion
becausethey are each followed by two consonants. Similarly, when a short
vowel-consonantcombination occurs at the end of a word, followed by a
word beginning with a consonant, the short vowel becomeslong by position
(e.g.,n6v0oStrlg).
Rule 4. There is one major exception to rule 3: a naturally short vowel
tion of a mute (n, x, x, Q,0, X, F, , y) followedby a liquid (I, p, v, q). This
phenomenon is known as Attic correption. For example, the a in fioredg can
be treated as either long or short becauseit is followed by a mute-liquid
combination (-rg). Similarly, a final short vowel followed by a word begin-
ning with a mute-liquid combination can be treated as either long or short
(e.g.,nore l3eQoE).However, when the mute and liquid belong to different
30.1479); R. Merkelbach, "Grabepigramm und Vita des Bischofs Aberkios von Hierapolis,"
EpigAnat28 (1997):125-39. Cf. Horsley in NewDocs6.177-81. SeeM. Guarducci'sdefenseof its
Christian provenance (Guarducci, EG, 4.380-86; cf. M. Guarducci, "L'iscrizione di Abercio e
Roma," AncSocZ [l97ll: 174-203). Cf. the Christian funerary epigram by Pektorios (IV e.o.) in
lG XIV, 2s25 (cf. SEG 28.82s);SEG42.1201.
7 . M . L . W e s t , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o G r e e k M e t r e ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d ol 9n8, 7 ) ; M a a s , G r e e k M e t e ( c f .
supra n. 4); Raven, GreekMetre (cf. supra n. 3); JamesW. Halporn et al., Meters of Greekand
Latin Poctry,rcv. cd. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,1980).
362 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy F.pigrams | 363

words (e.g., dx l.yorv) or to different parts of a compound word (e.g.,
xl.6yro),the vowel must be long.
16.03 Dactylic Hexameter
By definition, a dactylic hexameteris made up of six metra.s.Thefirst five
metra may be either dactyl or spondee,ethough a spondee is rare in the third
and fifth metra. The sixth metron is a spondee,or in the caseof a final ancepsl0
(r), a trocheelt (-') is permitted.
There must be a caesura(i.e.,a break betweentwo words in the middle of
a metron), indicated by l, after either the first or the second syllable of the
third metron or after the first syllable of the fourth metron.l2 This hexameter
pattern can be summarized as follows:
16.04The Elegiac Distich
'l'he
hexameter is frequently combined with a secondmetrical form, the most
popular combination being known as the elegy.laAn elegiacdistich consistsof
two lines, the first being a dactylic hexameter; the second consistsof the first
two and a half metra of a hexameter, known as the hemiepeqrepeated once
and separatedby a caesura(l).ls Some authors loosely refer to this repeated
"pentameter,"
hemiepesas a though the meter doesnot correspondprecisely
to a pentameter,nor doesit end with a spondeeas a pentametershould.
The first two metra of the first hemiepes may be either dactyl or spondee,
but the first two metra of the second must be dactyls. The last syllable of the
secondhemiepesis an anceps.This repeatedhemiepespattern can be summa-
rized as follows:

t 2 3 4 5 6 t 2 L 2 Vz
- 1 " 1 " - 1 " " - x X

or or oT or or or or

(-lr -t- c-)

This pattern is illustrated by the following epigram written in two hexameters. This pattern is illustrated by the following epigram (from Athens after 350
s.c.).
1 2 3 4 5 6

>TlE E t rl::.rt,"n,
' &as/r't Iy,*j:.; 0,"::r
_x_ai 'l{e
xo,/or,yvtl/"q I i / )prxOo / v0ce I xeito,i (hexameter)

l"elruerg,
/ oixtq nolOv Mol/qag | n / cripovog/ 10go0.13
l 2 V z l z V z

8, Metron, -a: the basic unit of a line of verse, There are also irregular dactylic lines with Qi/},olg0ep6/vr1.(double hemiepes)16
nv0og/ rfrg &ge/trtE| / ruOor.
lengths of seven or eight metra, i.e., heptameters and octameters, mixed with hexameters (e.g.,
cIG 808).
" ")
9. Dactyl: a metron (metrical foot) consisting of a long-short-short (- pattern; spondee:a
-) 14. There are many possible groupings ofhexameters and elegiacs.A seriesofhexameters are
metron consisting of a long-long (- pattern.
10. For ancepsseen. 5. fiequently preceded and/or concluded by one or more repeated elegiac distichs.
") 15. SeeRaven, GreekMetre, 45.
ll. Trochee:a metron consisting ofa long-short (- pattern.
"This
12. SeeRaven,GreekMetre,43-44. 16. is the sister Smikytho who is buried here, who caused all her friends sorrow
"You because of her virtue" (Christopher W. Clairmont, Gravestoneand Epigram: Greek Memoials
13, leave to all a memorial ofyour virtue and goodnessafter suffering a pitiful lot from
a destinyto a hostile deity" (IG II, 13087;GvI 1783 [secondhalf of IV s.c.] ). from the Archaicand ClassicalPeriod lMainz: P. V. Zabern, 19701,139,no. 6l).
 364 | An htrortuctionto ()reekEpigruphy EpigramsI fos

A secondexample,from a villagenear sardis (after 300 n.c.), is written in two 0u/pv

elegiacdistichs. :n:ul' I l'"]:t"n 1'l'u*'::
, *:1 ,.r / rovoy'/Qu,I norlsigeKe/Lq,rvai.
(hexameter) In certain cases,a long syllablein an iambic metron can be resolvedinto
Y:tr
two short syllables(' ).to For example,the long secondsyllablein the first
foot can be resolved into two short syllables-forming, in effect, a dacryl-
" ". - " ")
"u,:* ' *:l'-'"t , '::: r6le,(double
hemiepes) when the first syllableis long, that is, + Hence vOae(: can be
- -.
1"-u-n'*o":t_lu resolved into
The long secondsyllablein the first or secondmetron can be resolvedinto a
double short syllable,forming a tribrach,2r when the preceding syllableis short
U::"t ":::r v/ oixto,(hexameter) - " " ").
(- + In the following example, the long second syllable in both the
11"t""11_^t"o]]n"r, first and the second metra are resolved into tribrachs: xU,r./o-s xrse/eouE
" " "1" " -).
(: The first in a sequenceof two long syllablesin the first foot can
"),
be resolved into two short syllables (" forming, in effect, an anapaest22
ru:, , "::',u^u"::]ur,*u^: (doubre
hemiepes),7 -
+
" " -),
(:
- - -).
:::,'utl: (- as in &r),eolrov To accommodatea proper name, an
:, - - -).
anapaest is allowed in any foot except the last, as in Av/tr,yvrl (:

16.05 Iambic Trimeter 16.06 lrregularities of Meter

The iambic meter was also used in epigrams, though with much less fre-
quency than the hexameter and elegy.Some epigrams combine iambic verses
with hexameters.lsAs its name would suggest,an iambic trimeter is com-
posed of three iambic metra, with each metron consisting of two feet. An
iambic metron is defined as x - " -, where r representsan anceps,
A caesura(l) occurs after the first syllable of the third or fourth foot. No
word can end after a long anceps,exceptat a caesurain the middle of a line
(Porson'sLaw).leThis iambic pattern can be summarizedas follows:
| 2 3 4 5 6(feet)
"x
x xl- "l- x
This meter is illustrated in the following verse.
A knowledge of the meter of an inscription can be a useful aid in restoration,
since the metrical requirements of a line ought to prohibit some proposed
restorations.However, caution needs to be exercised,since some epigrams
display suih liberty with meter that the meter becomesmuddled and irregu-
lar. This is especially true in regions where Greek was not the dominant
language.For example, a number of the hexametersin the Aberkios Inscrip-
tion from Hieropolis (Phrygia) are flawed.23Similarly, of the approximately
twenty surviving Jewish metrical texts, primarily from Egypt (especially
Leontopolis),most are in crude metrication.2a
In regions where Greek was not the dominant language, irregularities of
meter are often attributable to the influence of the popular pronunciation on
the quantity of syllables. After his study of Phrygian epigrams, A. Petrie
"the
remarks, meter is in some casestolerably correct, as judged by classical

"Matis 20. SeeRaven, GreekMetre,27-28.

17. was my name, my homeland was Kelainai, and Andromenes, my husband, set up - - (see
21. Tribrach: the foot consisting of- Raven, GreekMetre, 28; cf. 54).
this stone over me; I bore for him and left behind me in our home three sons and one daughter. I - - -.
22. Anapaest:the pattern
left them fstill living] when I died" (George M. A. Hanfmann and Kemal Ziya polatkan, "A 23. SeeGuarducci,EG,4.377-386, esp. 382; cf. supra n. 6.
Sepulchral Stele from Sardis," /,4 6a U9601: 49-52). "Towards
24. SeeG. H. R. Horsley, a New Corpus Inscriptionum Judaicarum?A propos W.
18. E.g.' cIG 41lB; cf. an epigram from Nikaia (IIIIII a.o.) that consists mostly of iambic Horbury and D. Noy, fewish Inscriptions of Graeco-RomanEgypt," /SQ 2 (1995): 77-101, esp.
trimeters, with one line (L. 10) in hexameter (GVI Zla). "lewish
89,96-97; P. W. van der Horst, Poetical Tomb Inscriptions," in J. W. van Henten and
19. SeeMaas, GreekMetre, 34. P. W. van der Horst, eds.,Studies in Early lewh Epigraphy (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994), 129-47.
 366 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy
Epigrams | 367
canons'and a fair guide to restoringthe text with somethinglike accuracy;
in (icorgoudi, S. "La mer, la mort et le discoursdes 6pigrammesfun6raires."AIONQing)
others it is crude in the extreme, and it is hard to discover on what system,
if l 0 ( 1 9 8 8 )5: 3 - 6 1 .
any, the engraverproceeded."2srhis may suggesta low level of literacy in (]riessmair, Ewald. Das Motiv der mors immatura in den griechischenmetrischen
the
area in question. The survival of few metrical inscriptions in the same Grabschrifien.Commentationes Aenipontanae I 7. Innsbruch: Wagner, 1966.
loca-
tion, relative to the total number of extant inscriptions, lends further support Hansen, Peter A. A List of Greek VerseInscriptions down to 400 r.c.: An Analytical
to this conclusion. Survey.Oprtscula Graecolatina 3. Copenhagen:Museum Tusculanum, 1975.
"Quarante
There is evidenceto suggestthat epigrams were sometimes gathered into Helly, B. 6pigrammes thessaliennes." RPhil (1978): 121-34. (Cf. SEG
28.506.)
collections by the more elite stonemasons'workshops and made available "Bildsyntax
to Hesberg,H. Von. und Erzhlweisein der hellenistischenFlckenkunst./d1
customers.26This would explain the use of stock phrasesthat is so evident 103 (1988):309-6s. (Cf. SEG38.1962.)
in
epigrams.some inscriptions have correct hexameter versesin such stock lines Horsley, G. H. R. Homer in Pisidia: Degreesof Literatenessin a BackwoodsProvince of
as vOeyfixartyet" rv eivo and &veovre oflpcr e0va iguoe the Roman Empire. Armidale, New South Wales, Australia: University of New
re
eivt but immediately run afoul once the engraver commenceshis own England, 1999.
free Horst, Pieter Willem van der.
"Iewish
Poetical Tomb Inscriptions." In Studiesin Early
composition to describethe age,character,and occupation ofthe deceased.2T
Jewish Epigraphy, ed. lan W. van Henten and Pieter W. van der Horst, 129-47.
Leiden:E. J. Brill, 1994.
Kaibel, Georg, ed. Epigrammata Graeca,ex lapidibus collecta.Berolini: G. Reimer, 1878.
SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY
Moretti, Lr;igi. Inscriptiones Graecae Urbis Romae. 4 vols. in 5. Studi pubblicati
dall'Istituto italiano per la storia antica 17, 22, 28, and 47. Rome, 1979.Esp. vol. 3,
Allan, F. D. "on Greek versification in Inscriptions."pAs 4 (1g85-8 nos. l142-490.
6):35-204.
Bernard, Etienne. Inscriptions mtrieluesde |Egpte grco-romaine; recherches Peek,Werner. GriechischeVers-Inschriften. Vol. l, Grab-Epigramme.Berlin: Akademie-
sur Ia
posie pigrammatique des grecs en Egypte.Annales litteraires Verlag, 1955.
de I'universit6 de "Vier
Besangon98. Paris:"Les BellesLettres,,,1969. Peek,W. Epigrammeaus Kleinasien."EpigAnat6 (1985):87-90.
Engelmann,H. "Der Berg pion auf ephesischenMnzen." zpE 67 (r9g7): Petzl, Georg. Die Inschriften von Smyrna. Yol. 1, Grabschriften,posthume Ehrungen,
149-50.
(SEG37.892-91t; Ephesianepigrams.) Grabepigramme. IK23. Bonn: Rudolph Habelt, 1982.
Friedlander, Paril. Epigrammata: GreekInsciptions in verse, Pircher, Ioief. Das Lob iler Frau im vorchristlichenGrabepigrammder Griechen.Com-
from the Beginningsto the
Persian wars. Berkeley: university of california press, 194g. Repiint, mentationes Aenipontanae 26; Philologie und Epigraphik 4. Innsbruck: Wagner,
hi.ugo,
Ares, 1987. 1979.(Cf. SEG29.1798;funerary epigramsof women.)
Gallavotti, Carol. Metri e ritmi nelle iscrizioni greche.Bollettino dei Classici,
Accademia Pfohl, Gerhard. Das Epigramm: Zur Geschichteeiner .inschriftlichenund literarischen
Nazionale dei Lincei Suppl. 2. Rome: Accademia nationale dei Lincei, Gattung. Darmstadt: WissenschaftlicheBuchgesellschaft , 1969.
1979.
Geffcken, Johannes.GriechischeEpigramme. Kommentierte griechischeund lateinische Pfohl, G., ed. Greek Poemson Stones.Yol. 1, Epitaphs: From the Seventhto the Fifth
Texte 3. Heidelberg:W. Winter, 1916. Centuries.a.c.TextMin 36. Leiden:E. L Brill, 1967.
Preger, Theodor. InscriptionesGraecaeMetricae: Ex Scriptoribuspraeter Anthologium
25. A. Petrie, "Epitaphs in phrygian Greek," in studies in the History
Collectae.Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1891.Reprint, Chicago: Ares,1977.
and Art of the Eastern
Provincesof the Roman Empire, ed. W. M. Ramsay (London: Hodder and Raalte, Marlein van. Rhythm and Metre: Towards a SystematicDescription of Greek
Stoughton, 1906), l19_
34' esp. 133-34. There was also a tendency to sacrifice meter in order Stichic Verse.Studies in Greek and Latin Linguistics 3. Assen: Gorcum, 1986.
to cite a iumeral specifying
the age ofthe deceased(seec. p. Jones,"Two Epigrams from Nicomedia Raubitschek,A. E., B. Gentili, and G. Giangrande. In L'pigrammegrecque.Fondation
and Its RegionJ,zpE 2l
[1976]:189-91). Hardt pour l'6tude de I'antiquit6 classique,Entretiens sur I'Antiquit6 classique14.
26. see S. Mariner Bigorra, "Il problema degli epitafi ripetuti e le sue derivazion Geneva:Francke,Berne, 1968.
i,', in Atti del
terzo congressointernazionale di epigrafa greca e latina (Rome 4-g, "Review: 'Griechische
"L'Erma" settembre 1957) (Rome: Robert, Louis. W. Peek, Vers-Inschriften."'Gnomon31 (1959):
de Bretscheider, 1959), 207-ll. l-30.
27'E-9., in one epigram, the first line displays the correct hexameter (dqrr,
pe yeuopvqv Robert, Louis. Hellenica:Recueild'pigraphie,de numismatique et d'antiquitsgrecques.
((Drlg Bq6QoE{gncoe aiporv), the hexameter breaks down
in the second line (ono rqlerrv Vols. 1-2,4, and ll-12. Amsterdamand Paris.1940-60.Vol. 1, pp. 7-24;vol.2,
ii4), then the hexameter is correct again further down, when the engraver
returns to using stock pp.109-22; vol.4, passim;vols. 1l-12, pp.267-349.
phrases (fi o[aorvo] pe Moieo noOqqncoe) (petrie, "Epitaphs in phrygian
Greek," 123, no. 5;
cf. r34). Shore, P. RestLightly: An Anthology of Latin and Greek Tomb Inscriptiors. Wauconda:
Ilolchazy-Carducci, 1997.
368 | An htroduction to GreekEpigraphy

stecher, Anton. Inschriftliche Grabgedichteauf Krieger und Athleten: eine studie zu

griechischenwertprdikationen. commentationes Aenipontanae 27; philologie und
Epigraphik 5. Innsbruck: Wagner, 1981.(Cf. SEG 31.1646;funerary epigramsfor
17
warriors and athletes.)
V6rilhac, A.-M. "L'image de la femme dans les 6pigrammes funraires grecques.',In Ia Currencyand lts
femme dans Ie monde mditerranen,l:85-112. Lyon: Maison de l'Orient, 19g5.
(cf. sEG 3s.1844.) CommodiryValue
Weber, Leo. "Steinepigramm und Buchepigramm." Hermes 52 (1927): 536-57.
wilhelm, Adolf. GriechischeEpigramme,aus dem Nachlasshrsg.von Helmut Engelmann
und Klaus Wundsam.Bonn: R. Habelt, 1980.(Cf. BE [1981], 71.)
Wilhelm, Adolf. GriechischeEpigramme aus Kreta. Symbolae Osloenses Suppl. 16.
Osloae:Grondahl and Sons,1950.

In the Hellenistic and Roman periods, most financial transactions were car-
ried out in the form of gold, silver, and bronze currency, except in remote and
backward areas.rSincemany inscriptions record the prices of financial transac-
tions of one kind or another, epigraphists must know something of the de-
nominations of currency in use in the ancient world and their relative ex-
changevalues.
However, such knowledge, though indispensable,is insufficient by itself
for the interpretation of many inscriptions: if a scholar has no appreciation of
"purchasing power," of a particular price or sum, the
the commodity value, or
full significance of the figures will elude him or her. As I shall show, the
determination of the commodity value of a denarius is no simple task and
may indeed be unachievablein many cases,sincethis currency becameincreas-
ingly devalued over the centuries.

17.01 The Denominations of Greek Currency

The denominationsof Athenian currenry in the fifth and fourth centuriess.c.

were used as a model for a number of Greek and Macedonian currencies
throughout the Hellenistic period. The standard Athenian denominations
were the chalcus,the obol, the drachma, and the mina. The tetradrachm2
"The
l. See Christopher ). Howgego, Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World' 200
B . c .t o A . D .3 0 0 , "/ R S 8 2 ( 1 9 9 2 ) :l - 3 1 , e s p . 1 6 - 2 2 .
2. terppc1pov, rtqa1pov. On accentuation and orthographical variants ofthis term see
s^E(;37.1859.

369
370 | An Introductionto GreekEpigraphy Cunenryand lts()tmntodityValue | 371

was a coin worth four drachmae.These denominations have the following accounting.Four sesterces were reckonedto the denarius.Smallercoins were
relative values: also minted, such as the victoriatus (% denarii), the quinarius (lzzdenarii), the
dupondius (two asses), and fractionalbronze coins (semisfVzasl, triens f% asl,
Greek Currency quadrans IVt asl). The gold aureus,introduced by fulius Caesar(49-44 v .c.),
was 100 percent gold, struck at forty to forty-two to the pound, and valued at
8 chalcoi (1crl.xo[) : twenty-five denarii. Thus, from the late first century n.c., the three principal
I obol
6 obols (Boloi.) : coins of the empire were the aureus (gold), the denarius (silver), and the
I drachma
100 drachmae(qolpci) : sesterce(bronze),with the most businessbeing transactedin denarii.
I mina
60 minas (pvci) : I talent
Roman Cunency from the Second Century n.c.
The Macedonian kings from Alexander onward adopted the Attic stan-
dard in minting their silver coins, the most important denomination being the 1 quadrans : Vaas
Macedonian tetradrachm. Aetolia also minted silver tetradrachms on the 1 triens : Vzas
Athenian standard, in addition to gold staters (oto,rflqeE). As their standard 1 semis : Vzas
currency, the Thessalianleagueand the other leaguesofnorthern Greeceused 1 dupondius :2 asses
the stater,basedon the standard of the Roman victoriatus (: % denarius), 16asses :1 denarius
with 15 staters reckoned as 22/z denar. Northwest Greece and Illyria also 4 sesterces(HS) : 1 denarius
minted on the standard of the Roman victoriatus.3 I quinarius : %denarius
l victoriatus : %denarius
ldenarius :4sesterces
17.02 The Denominations of Roman Currencv
1 aureus :24 denar

The first denarius was issued after the First Punic War (241 n.c.). It was
composedof 100percentsilver and weighed4.55grams.At the sametime, the
copper as was implemented as the unit of accounting.
ln 217 s .c., a new currencystandardwas implementedwith a new, lighter
denariusweighing 3.9 grams, struck at eighty-four to the pound,a its silver
content remaining at 100 percent. Ten asseswere reckonedto the denarius.
This new denarius standard continued until the time of Nero. The denarius
becamethe common currency of the Roman empire, though local currencies
continued alongsideit.
After the SecondPunic War (201 n.c.), the aswas devaluedto sixteenasses
to the denariusand was replacedby the sesterce(HS) as the standardunit of
3. SeeESR 4.326-34; cf. Barclay V. Head, Historia Numorum: A Manual of GreekNum-
matics, enl. ed. (Oxford: Clarendon, 19ll; reprint, London: Spink, 1977).
4. The theoretical weight of gold and silver coins was expressedin terms of how many corns
were struck out ofone pound ofprecious metal; e.g., the expression "struck at eighty-four to the
pound" means that eighty-four coins were struck out of one pound of ingot. In actual fact, the
moneyers would strike a few more coins than this and keep these additional coins for themselves
as a servicefee.
17.03 Regional Currencies
Despite the fact that Roman imperial coinage was circulated on a vast scale
throughout the empire, a bewildering arcayof city and regional coinagesper-
sisted.They were produced by the hundredsof local (as opposedto imperial)
mints that flourished throughout the Roman provinces. Local mints issued a
great variety of coins made from basemetal or bronze.sThere were also re-
gional currencies in Eg1pt, Asia Minor, Clprus, Crete, Syria, and Phoenicia.
Rome kept Egypt as a separateeconomicentity in the empire,prohibiting
the circulation of imperial currency.6 The principal Egyptian coin was the
bronze tetradrachm, establishedby Augustus. Though it was composed of
"Augustan "silver"-out
bronze, it was called 5llvs1"-61 simply of respectto
the emperor. A bronze drachma and a bronze obol were also issued.The
5. See Michael Gran6 Roman History from Coins: Some Usesof the Imperial Coinage to the
Llistorian(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press,1958),73-74.
6. SeeGrant, Roman Historyfrom Coins,81.
372 | An ntroductionto GreekEpigraphy Cunencyandhs Commodityvalue I lll

official exchange rate of the Egyptian tetradrachm was twenty-four obols, denarii before being used in the empire at large.r2The Attic drachmaewas
though it could exchangeat twenty-six to twenty-nine obols in private transac- usualtyexchangedon par with the denarius.The Egyptiantetradrachmhad a
tions. The Ierms denaius and as were used in Egyptian taxation and account- value close to that of the denarius.r3 Over the centuries, all silver regional
ing records as ciphers for the Egyptian tetradrachm and obol, respectively.T coins shared progressive debasementsand weight reductions in proportions
In a.o. l9120, Tiberius replacedAugustus'sEgyptian tetradrachm with a so similar that the relative exchange rate between them did not undergo
"impure"
billon tetradrachm(i.e., tetradrachm) composedof silver and base significant changesin the course of inflation'
"silver,"
metal. It was also called though its actual silver content was slight
(one-third lesssilver than an imperial denarius). Marcus Aurelius reduced its Currency Equivalences
already small silver content by a further 75 percent to finance his military
campaigns,but this did not affect its trading value, owing to the isolation of I cistophoru .75 denarius,.75 Attic drachma
Egypt's fiduciary currency. The silver content disappearedcompletely in the 1 Attic drachma : I denarius
third century a.o. The Egyptian tetradrachm continued to be minted until 1 Rhodian drachma : .25 cistoPhorus
r.o . 296, at which time Egypt beganto sharea common monetary systemwith I Attic tetradrachm : 4 denariila
the rest of the empire as a result of Diocletian'seconomic reforms. 1 Egyptian tetradrachm : about I denarius
Though Roman currency was legal tender throughout Asia Minor, the 1 Macedonian tetradrachm : 4 denarii
cistophoric coinage was also minted throughout the province.s It was first I Syrian tetradrachm : 3 denarii
established by the Pergamene kings and was continued by Augustus and
succeeding emperors. The cistophorus was a silver coin, minted to the 17.04 The Commodity Value of Roman Currency and
Rhodian standard and reckoned at t/t AtIic drachma, or % imperial denarius. Military Pay
Hence, the cistophoric tetradrachm was valued at three denarii.
Even as late as the third century A.D., some epitaphs and documents in "purchasing power," of denarii, one
To appreciatethe commodity value, or
Asia Minor continue to assessfines in Attic drachmae.eThe light Rhodian could attempt to calculate their equivalent value in American dollars or
drachma also continued to be popular in southwestern Asia Minor under British pounds sterling at the time of reading this book. The value of this
Augustus and Claudius, as did silver issuesfrom some of the client kings. Syria exerciseis very limited, since such equivalenceswould quickly go out of date
also minted its own silver tetradrachm, which was not only more popular as a result of modern inflation and the vicissitudes of the currency markets.
than other local issuesin the first to second centuries but also more popular It is more useful if the value of the denarius is compared to the average
than the Roman denarii.ro daily wage of a working person in the ancient world and to averageprices of
These local and regional currencies tended to stay within the areas of commodities in the same period. With knowledge of the ratio of an average
their production, probably because they were not legal tender elsewhere, wage to tlpical commodities in a given century, the scholar is in a somewhat
though this has not been confirmed.lr The drachma-basedcurrencies of better position to estimate, at least approximately' its modern equivalence.
Attica, Egypt, Asia Minor, and Syria would probably be converted into However, even this approach has its limitations, since the items purchasedby

12. SeeDuncan-Iones, Structure and Scale,39 n.46.

7. SeeESR2.422-28,434. 13. It is difficult to determine the exchangevalue of Egyptian currency, since it was entirely
8. See Moritz Pindet, ber die Cistophoren (Berlin: Nicolai, 1856); Kurt L. Regling, fiduciary, being determined by law; around,l.o. 70, the Roman aureus was reckoned in Egyptian
"Kistophoren,"
RE Il (1922):524-25; ESR4.555-56, 883-84, 888. currency at 104 drachmae and I obol. Tenney Frank estimates that the aureus was worth 98
"A
9. See/GRR IV, 1185, 1360;W. H. Buckler, CharitableFoundation of t.o.237," JHS57 drachmaein a.n. 97. In e..o.I 10,the aureusfell fiom 115 to 111drachmae.By the end of III r.o"
( 1 9 3 7 ) l: - 1 0 .
the Egyptian tetradrachm and the Roman denarius were still considered to be of almost equal
10. SeeESR4.211.556. 883. value, although both were virtually worthless (see ESR 2.425' 433-34)'
ll. See Richard Duncan-Jones, Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy (Cambridge: 14. Though the Athenian tetradrachm (at 17.46gm) weighed slightly more than four denarii
CambridgeUniversity Press,1990),39 n.45. (at 3.9 grams each),it was reckonedon par.
 Cunencyand ltsCommodityValue I IZS
374 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy

an ancient (or the allocation of his income) were necessarilyquite different annum.Thoughthe stipendremainedat 120denarii,bonusesgrew,and prom-
from those of a modern person. isesof land were also given.
The market value of wheat is a relatively good reference point for the The soldier's daily wage is roughly on a par with the wagesof temPorary
value of commodities in general, since the price of wheat is quoted in a and seasonallaborers, who received .66-.8 denarius per day, but laborers
uniform measure, the modius (: e/ropeck) or, in Egypt, the artaba (: 3 were not employed for as many months as a soldier. The daily work of a farm
modii). Moreover, wheat constituted the staple food of the commoner and slave was reckoned as worth .5 denarius per day. These wages can be com-
representedthe greatestelement of a commoner's expenditure,at least for pared with the approximate prices of the following commodities from 250 to
commonerswho did not grow their own wheat.ls 1 5 0n . c . : 1 8
However, even the use of wheat for this purpose is not without its difficul-
ties, since the price of grain varied annually, especiallyin times of scarcity,and wheat .75 denarius Per modiusre
regionally, depending on the proximity of the place of production. In the olive oil .4 denarius Per liter
sectionsthat follow, I discussthe cost of wheat and other commodities (e.g., vnne (ordinaire) '2-.26 denarius per liter
wine, olive oil) as they can be known from century to century and compare farm slave 300-500 denarii
thesecoststo the wageof a common foot soldier and common laborers.This
provides the reader with a general senseof how the purchasing power of The price of wheat and other commodities remained relatively constant
currency varied with respect to wages, especially throughout the periods of throughout the first century 8.c.20In 70 n.c., Cicero statesthat the normal
increasinginflation. price for the year varied from .62 to 1.25denariusper modius (Verr. 3'L63).
In other words, the averageprice remainedat about .75 denariusper modius.
17.04.1Prior to Nero (218 a.c.-e.o. 54) In the late first century s.c., there were modest increasesin the price of olive
oil and wine:
During the SecondPunic War (218-20I n.c.), troops were paid at a rate of 120
denarii per annum (or % denarius per day) for about nine months of active olive oil .5-.75 denarius/liter
service.l6Each soldier also received four modii of wheat per month of active vnne (ordinaire) .2-.3 denarius/liter
service;in other words, they receiveda total of thirty-six modii of wheat, with a
market value of about twenty-seven denarii.lT Therefore, the total value of a Though prices for many commodities are unavailable in this period, it
stipend (including rations) was I47 denarii per annum. Troops also received would appear that prices in general increased only incrementally. Wages
bonuses derived from booty, at first amounting to a few denarii, but fixed at increased slightly as well, with temporary and seasonalworkers being paid a
fifty denarii between 191 and 188 s.c., raising the total to 197 denarii per maximum of one denarius per day. Against this background, Julius Caesar's
increaseof the basic pay of a soldier from 120 to 225 denarii per annum is
15. A soldier consumed about forty-eight modii ofwheat per year, while the averagecitizen notable.
consumed about thirty modii (see ESR 5.87 n. 54). The poor might have eaten less expensive
grains. (librall,kgs) ('
lg. Other commodities include beef at four to five assesper Roman pound
16. Soldiers were paid their annual pay in three installments (stipendia), paid on I fanuary, I denarii; shccp
"The .75 avoirdupois); pork at six to seven per
asses libra; plou$t oxen at sixty to eighty
May, and I September. See D. W. Rathbone, Census Qualification of the ssidul and the
at six to eight denarii (ESAR 1.200' 220).
Prima Classis,"in De Agricultura: In Memoriam Pieter Willem de Neeve,ed. R. J. van der Spek, (241-2lE tt't:.)
1g. The normal price of wheat between the First and second Punic wars
DMAHA 10 (Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben, 1993), l2l-153; M. Alexander Speidel, "Roman Army pet
"Roman ranged from .66 to 1.06 denarii per modius; in Rome, the normal price was % denariur
Pay Scales," JRS82 (1992):87-106; R. Alston, Military Pay from Caesarto Diocletian," the price varicd ln
"Stipendium," -oi.rr. In 150 s.c., the normal price was still 3 sestercesper modius, though
/RS 84 (1994): lI3-23; F. Lammert, kE 3 (1929): 2536-38, esp.2537; H. M. D.
times of famine and surPlus.
Parker, The Roman Legions(Oxford: Clarendon, 1928),214-24.
20. SeeESR 1.191,198, 283'384-85' 402-5.
17. With wheat at .75 denarii oer modius: cf. ESAR 1.76-77.
376 An htoduction to GreekEpigraphy
|
17.04.2From Nero to SeptimiusSeverus(t.o. 54-211)
In the first two centuriesa.o., the denariuswas debasedmuch more rapidly
than the aureus.2rDespite the debasementof the denarius, inflation through-
out the first century a.D. was very moderate. The price of wheat seemsto have
fallen in the late first century a.o., to .5 denarius per modius.22Some other
commodities, such as wine (ordinaire), apparently show little or no increase,
sellingat about .4 denariusper liter. About this sametime (in a.o . 83), Domi-
tian raisedthe annual wageof a soldier from225 to 300 denarii, paid in aurei.23
This stability of prices went out of the market by the late second century
e.o.: the price of wheat doubled, selling at one denariusper modius,2awhile
the basicwage of soldiersremained unchangedat three hundred denarii per
annum.2s Generally speaking, all wages during this period failed to keep
pacewith inflation. In an attempt, at least in part, to addressthis problem, the
wagesof the troops were increasedby Septimius Severusin a.o. 197; the
21. The standard of the denarius establishedtn 217 s.c. remained unchanged until .r.o. 64,
when Nero attempted to restore imperial finances by tampering with its content and weight: he
debasedthe denarius to 90 percent silver by mixing in a basemetal; he also reduced the weight of
each coin, striking ninety-six to the pound, up from eighty-four. Nero also had the aureus struck
at forty-five to the pound (up from forty-two per pound), but it remained at 100 percent gold
throughout the first two centuries. Trajan (.r.o. 98-ll7) debased the denarius a second time,
reducing its silver content to 85 percent; it was subsequently reduced to 75 percent silver by
Marcus Aurelius (a.o. 161-80) and to 50 percentsilver by SeptimiusSeverus(e.o. 193-211). See
A. H. M. lones, The Roman Economy:Studiesin Ancient Economicand Ailministrative History, ed.
P. A. Brunt (Oxford: Basil Blackweli, 1974), 194; M. Crawford, "Finance, Coinage, and Money
from the Severansto Constantine,"NRWII, 2 (1975):578-81.
22.\n the reign of Domitian (a.o. 8l-96), wheat in Pisidian Antioch normally sold for eight
"Studies
to nine asses(.5-.56 denarius). SeeW. M. Ramsay, in the Roman Province Galatia: VI.
Some Inscriptions of Colonia CaesareaAntiochea," /RS 14 (1924): 172-205, esp. 179-84; ESAR
4.879. Seealso Jones,Roman Economy,193, for more examplesfiom I-lLr.o.; ESR 4.879-80
(cf. 1.273n. 14\.
23. In the reign of Domitian, a soldier had deducted from his 300 denarii 60 for rations
(annona),50-60 for his uniform (vest), ard an additional sum for boots and sundries-in total
134-44 denarii in deductions. Arms did not require annual replacement. A soldier was able to
saveapproximately two-thirds of his salary.
24. SeeESR 4.880.
25. In e.n. 138, one chiton and four cloaks were worth twenty-four denarii each (seeJones,
Roman Economy,208). The deductions seem to have remained constant, at about 134-44 (ct.
figures of 130-40 denarii in e.o. 83-84: see Jones,Roman Economy, 192; H. M. D. Parker, The
Roman Legions[Oxford, 19281,214). Thus, a soldier would be able to save approxirnately half of
his salary. Similar changes are observed in Egypt during the same period (see Fritz M.
"Zur
Heichelheim, Whrungskrisis des rmischen Imperiums im 3. fahrhunden n. Chr.," Kio 26
[1933]:960113).
Cunencyand ltsCommodityValue I nl
annual salary of a foot soldier was raised from 300 denarii (set in a.o. 83)'
probably by 50 percentto 450 denarii.26
17.04.3From Caracallato Numerianus(t.n. 211-284)
The debasementof the silver coinage,begun in the first two centuries, contin-
ued in the third century, resulting in a loss of confidence in the monetary
system. For the first time, people began to refuse to accept denarii at face
value;27though the official trading price for denarii was still twenty-five to the
aureus, its actual exchangerate on the open market was much lower.
Since the denarius was the standard coin of all wages' rents, and business
transactions, the fall of the denarius forced markets to adjust themselvesby
increasingprices, resulting in high inflation.28Egypt also exPeriencedinflation
in the first sixty years of the third century 4.o., owing to persistent wars and
recurring famines, with prices for land, wheat, and other staples increasing
significantly from the levels of the second century A.D.
The acceleratinginflation of the third century e.o', combined with the
fact that there had been no significant increasein imperial taxation since the
first century,q.o.,resultedin a crisis in imperial finances,though some taxes
were paid in kind. The expenditures subject to the greatest inflation were
those that were paid out in denarii, such as the payroll for public officials' the
largest component being the wagesof the troops. Caracalla(,r.o. 198-217)
raisedthesewagesby 50 percent (if our conclusionconcerningthe previous
pay rate of SeptimiusSeverusis correct), resulting in a new pay level of 675
denarii per annum.2eIt was raisedagain by Maximinus Thrax (,l..o.235-38)
by 100 percent,probably to 1,350denarii.30
"Roman
26. SeeAlston, Military Pay," 114-15.
27. Cancalla issued a new coin, the antoninianus, valued at two denarii; this coin replaced
the denarius as the standard coin of the empire for the next fifty years. He also slightly reduced
the weight of the aureus, striking fifty to the pound. The antoninianus was debasedthroughout
the first half of III e.o. By the reign of Gallienus (4.r. 260-68), it containedlessthan 5 percent
silver and was greatly reduced in weight.
28. The minting of gold and silver coins ceasedat this time' Aurelian (.r.o. 270-75) mintcd
two silver-plated copper coins, the nummus (worth five denarii), and a smaller coin. (lold and
silver coins that already existed were driven out of circulation, as people began to hoard thcm
and melt them down for their precious metal (seelones, Roman Economy, 196).
29. This rapid increase is only partly attributable to the debasement of the denarius rnd
inflation of prices; it also representsan attempt by the emperor to win the support of the army in
his struggleswith the Senate.
"Roman "Roman
30. SeeAlston, Military Pay," I l5; cf. Speidel, Army Pay Scales"'Ell.
378 | An lntroductionto GreekEpigraphy Value I
Cunencyund ltsCommodity IZS

The basicpay increasesfor a legionaryfrom the late third century B.(:.to the late third century onward, there was no fixed relation betweenthe value
the late third century e .o. accruedas follows: of the denariuscommunis,silver, and gold currency: the value of gold had
risen forty-five times and that of silver eighty-six times from their values in
Date Annual Pay o/oIncrease
the second century,3swhereas the denarius had depreciatedtwo hundred
late III-late I s.c. 120
times with respectto the price of wheat (one hundred denarii per modius).
Caesar/Augustus (late I r.c.-e,.o. 83) 225 87
In other words, there were three currenciesin use, gold, silver, and copper
Domitian (e.o. 83-197) :OO 33 Vt (i.e., silver-plateddenarii), and eachfound its market value independentlyof
SeptimiusSeverus(r,.o. 197-212) (450?)31 50
the others.36
Caracalla(r.o.212-34) (675?) 50
The rate of inflation continued to increaseunder Diocletian. Diocletian's
Maximinus Thrax (234-late III a.o.) (1,350?) 100
Price Edict (a.o . 301) representsan attempt to stabilizethe exceptionallyhigh
This cumulative increasein military pay did not come close to keeping pace prices of commodities by stipulating maximum levels that must not be ex-
with inflation. The fact that it was far beyond the means of the government to ceeded.The actual effect of the edict was to drive goods off the open market,
increasewagesin proportion to the rising cost of living forced it to abandon which suggeststhat the prices quoted in the edict were significantly below
currency as the principal form of payment to the troops; military wageswere their current market value.37The Diocletian Price Edict quoted the following
supplemented with issues in kind of wheat, wine, meat, oil, and clothes, pricesfor the following commodities:38
obtainedby a systemoflevies.
wheat 100 denarii per modius3e(I, 1)
17.04.4From Diocletianto Constantine(e.o. 284-337) wine (ordinaire) 13.7 denarii per liter (II, 10)
olive oil 13.7 denarii per liter (III, 3)
Diocletian(a.o. 284-305) addressedthe problem of inflation and the resultant
beef 8 denarii per Roman poundao(IV, 2)
crisis in imperial finances by instituting an annual budget and system of in-
dictions.At the beginningof eachfinancialyear (1 September),the praetorian
35. Gold increased from 1,125 denarii per pound to 50,000 denarii per pound; silver in-
prefect would calculatethe quantity of goods required by the government for creasedfrom 96 denarii per pound to 8,328 denarii per pound.
the comingyear.He then setthe leviesfor wheat,meat,wine, oil, and garments, 36. SeeJones,Roman Economy,201,206.
"Diocletian's
37. See K. T. Erim, J. M. Reynolds, and Michael H. Crawford, Currency
so asto meet this anticipated demand. Thus, unlike previous taxes,leviesvaried "The
Reform: A New Inscription,",lRS6 (1971): l7l; K. T. Erim and f. M. Reynolds, Aphrodisias
according to the requirements of the statein a given fiscal year. As a result, the Copy of Diocletian'sEdict on Maximum Prices,",lRS63 (1973):99-110; M. H. Crawford and
"The
imperial levy doubled betweenthe yearse.o. 324 and 364.32 f. M. Reynolds, Publication of the Prices Edict: New Inscription from Aezani," ,lRS 65
"The
In e..o.296,the old denarius was discontinued and replacedwith a new (1975): 160-63; M. H. Crawford and J. M. Reynolds, Aezani Copy of the PricesEdict," ZPE
"The
26 (1977): 125-5lt I. M. Reynolds, Aphrodisias Copy of Diocletian's Edict on Maximum
denarius,a copper coin with a silver wash.This debaseddenarius-or denarius "The
Prices," ZPE 36 (1979):46; M. H. Crawford and J. M. Reynolds, Aezani Copy of the Prices
communig as it is known in Diocletian's Price Edict-was the standard coin of "XII.
Edict," ZPE J4 (1979): 163-210;- l. M. Reynolds, Imperial Regulations," in lAphrodChr,
all businesstransactions.33Diocletian also attempted to reintroduce silver and 252-318; SEG37.335,346;Jones,Roman Economy,200.
"Append:
38. SeeElsa Rose Graser, The Edict of Diocletian on Maximum Prices," in ESR
gold currency, the minting of which had ceasedin the third century.3aFrom
5.307-42I; Siegfried Lauffer, Diokletians Preisedikt, Texte und Kommentare 4 (Berlin: W. de
Grulter, l97l); Marta Giacchero, Edictum Diocletiani et Collegarum de Prets Rerum Venalium
31. The figures in parenthesesare those ofR. Alston; Speidel estimated rates of600,900, and (Genoa: Istituto di storia antica e scienze ausiliarie, 1974);1.-P. Callu, La politique montaire des
1,800 denarii, respectively (cf. n. 16). empereursromainsde 238 a 3i1, BEFAR 214 (Paris:E. de Boccard, 1969),394-407.
32. SeeJones,Roman Economy,199. "castrensis
39. Literally, a modius," which is identical with an ordinary modius (seeAngelo
33. The old nummus, previously worth 5 denarii, was devalued by half. A new silver-plated "Inflation
Segr, and Its Implication in Early Byzantine Times," Byzantion 15 [ l9a0-al ]: 249-79'
coin, the new nummus, was issued. It was much heavier than the old nummus and valued at 25 esp.277).
denarii. 40. One Roman pound (libralj'G)kpa) = .75 avoirdupois; on the epigraphical evidence for
34. A gold coin was issued at seventy (and later sixty) to the pound, and a silver coin (of "Le
this standard of measurement see Michel Leieune, nom de m6sure ITPA: Essai lexical,"
unknown name) at ninety-six to the pound. R E G1 0 6( 1 9 9 3 ) :
l-ll.

380 | An lrtrodrction to GreekEpigraphy
pork 12 denarii per Roman pound (IV' la)
farm laborer 25 denarii per day (VII, la)
(with maintenance)
The high rate of inflation dramatically reduced real wages of the troops.
The government was unable to offset inflation by increasing wages, partly
becausethe rate of taxation had been virtually frozen since the first century
a.o. However, the impact of the low rate of taxation was lessenedby the
imposition of many new taxes over the years, as well as by the long-standing
practice of requisitioning wheat, meat, wine, oil, textiles, and leather without
payment and issuing them to the troops without charge.
Constantine(e.o. 306-37) continued Diocletian'spolicy of issuing gold
and silver coins. He minted a new gold coin known as the solidus at seventy-
two to the pound. This coin served as the basis for the imperial treasury for
centuriesthereafter, though the common people naturally transactedbusiness
in debaseddenarii, not solidi.al The aureus had declined in weight to such an
extent that it was abolished in the fourth century.
Since the government basedits own finances on the stable gold solidus, it
ignored the copper currency, allowing the debaseddenarius to deflate rapidly.
Inflation ran wild throughout the remainder of the fourth century for goods
purchased in denarii. The upper classeswere unaffected by this trend, since
they were paid in gold and since their capital consisted of land and gold.
However, troops and most public officials were paid in denarii, whose value
had become nominal. Soldiers were somewhat cushioned from inflation by
the payment of a donative of five solidi annually and one pound of silver on
each imperial accession(and five solidi every five years thereafter).a2By the
41. New silver coins were also issued,though the names of this coinage and its relation to the
denarius and solidus are not knom.
42. Seelones, Roman Economy, I97 , 208, 21J,225. It is diffrcult to calculate the total value of
the remuneration of soldiers in IV e.o., because it was a composite of a number of factors: a
soldier's stipend had remained unchanged from its value in early IILr.o. at 750 debaseddenarii
and therefore was of negligible value. He also received a ration of 200 denarii, bringing the total
to 950 denarii. However, with the price of wheat set at one hundred denarii per modius, it would
cost each soldier four thousand denarii to purchase a year's rations. In other words, their annual
wageswere sufficient (in theory) to purchase only eight weeks of grain, though (in actuality) it is
unlikely that soldiers were required to purchase all the grain they required. The edict sets the
price ofa
"military
indictional chlamys (best quality)" at four thousand denarii, i.e., an increase
of 166 times from its value in a.r. 138 of twenty-four denarii. The remainder of their rations
(annona), uniform (vestis), and arms were supplied without charge in kind. In addition, a soldier
received one-fifth of his donative paid in denar communes(under Diocletian). He also received
an accessionand quinquennial donative paid out in gold or silver as an annual bonus. As his
Value I
und ltsCommodity
Currettcy f Sf
late fourth century, the value of the denarius was so low that the issuewas
abandoned.a3
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Andreau, Jean.La e fnancire dans le monde romain: Les mtiersde manieursd'argent
(IV sibcleav. J.-c.-ilI sicleap. I.-c.). BEFAR 265. Paris: Ecole frangaisede Rome,
1987.(Cf. A. M. Burnett, CR 39 [1989):323-24.)
"L'apporto della linguistica alla lettura metrica di testi epigrafici greci."
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ln Metica classicae linguistica: Atti coll. (Jrbino 3-6 ottobre .198& ed. R. M.
Danese,F. Gori, and C. Questa,pp. 121-42. Urbino: Quattro Venti' 1990'
Billeter, Gustav. GeschichteilesZinsfussesim griechisch-rmischen Altertumbis auf lustin-
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Bosquet,Jean. units monetairesdans les comptesde Delphes."BCH I l0 (1986):
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"Greek Imperials."
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Burnett, Andrew. Coinagein the Roman World' Lotdon: Seaby' 1987'
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Crau{ord, Michael H.
"Money and Exchange in the Roman World." /RS 60 (1970):
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Crawford, Michael H. Coinage and Money under the Roman Republic: Italy and the
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Duncan-fones, Richard. The Economyof the Roman Empire. 1974.2d ed. cambridge:
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Gallo, Luigi.
"salari inflazione:Atene tra V e IV sec.a.C." ASNP, 3d ser', 17 (1987):
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19-63. (SEG 37.242;wages,cost of living, and inflation in IV r.c.)
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382 | An lntroduction to GreekEpigraphy

"'Un
LeJeune,Michel. huitime'dans le lexique mtrologiquegrec." REG 104 (1991):
198-201. (Greek terms for fractions of weight, both monetary and nonmonetary,
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University of Michigan Press,1993. Appendix: Electronic
"La
Martino, Francisco de. Storia economicadi Roma antica. Florence:
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Nuova Italia,"
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"Economic
Pleket, H. W. History of the Ancient World and Epigraphy: Some Introduc-
tory Remarks." ln CongrEpigrV, 243-57 .
The following is a list of severalelectronic tools that provide accessto primary
Pleket, H. W., ed.Epigraphica.Yol. l, Textson the EconomicHtory of the GreekWorld.
TextMin 31. Leiden:E. I. Brill, 1964. texts and images, including Web- and CD-ROM-based tools. In addition to
"The these, many other tlpes of electronic epigraphical resources are catalogued
Rathbone, D. W. Ancient Economy and Graeco-Roman Eg1pt." ln Egitto e storia
antica dall'ellenismoall'etd araba, ed. Lucia Criscuolo and Giovanni Geraci, 159- on the web site of the American Society of Greek and Latin Epigraphy
76. Bologna:CLUEB, 1989. ( <http://asgle.classics.unc.edu/>
).
Rostovtzeff,Michael. The Socialand EconomicHistory of the Hellenistic World. Oxford:
Clarendon,1941.
Rostovtzeff,M. The Socialand EconomicHistory of the Roman Empire. 2d ed. Rev. P. M. CSAD Imaging Project
Fraser.Oxford: Clarendon, 1966. <http://www.csad.ox.ac.ukJCSAD/Images.html>
Sutherland,C. H. V. Roman History and Coinage(44 a.c.-.t.o.69): Fifty Points of
Relation from Julius Caesarto Vespasian.Oxford: Clarendon, 1987.
The Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents at Oxford is creating an on-
Walker, David R. The Metrologlt of the Roman Silver Coinage.3 vols. BAR Suppl. 5, 22, line database of epigraphical images drawn from its squeeze archive (see
and 30. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1976-78. S 3.06).Under the supervisionof the center'sdirector, Dr. AIan K' Bowman,
Wallace, Sherman. Taxation in Eg1rytfrom Augustusto Diocletian. Princeton: Princeton and its administrator, Dr. Charles Crowther, CSAD aims to distribute digital
University Press,1938. images of all its squeezesvia the Internet, accompanied by a complete
West, Louis C., and Allan C. Johnson. Currencyin Roman and ByzantineEgr?t Studies
catalogue of data. Greek inscriptions from all periods are represented,with
in Pappology 5. Princeton: Princeton University Press,1944.
emphasison Attica, chios, Samos,Priene, Rhodes,and samothrace.Several
sample images are already available.

EpigraphcheDatenbank Heidelberg
<http:/www.uni-heidelberg.de/institute/sonst/addedh)
Seminar fr Alte Geschichte,Marstallhof 4, D-69117 Heidelberg.
Telephone:06221I 54 22 39
Fax:,06221| 54 22 34

383
384 | eppendk
This long-term project for the registrationof Roman inscriptions,under the
direction of Dr. G6za Alfcildy and the auspicesof the Heidelberger Akademie
der Wissenschaften,has already digitized approximately thirty thousand in-
scriptions.Those reported in the AnneEpigraphiquebetween1900and 1990
are availableon-line. Biannual updates are planned. The texts are presentedin
revisedand corrected full-length minuscule texts. Abbreviations are expanded
and fragmentary texts restored. Bibliographic referencesto relevant major
editions are included. A multifeature searchengine (in German and English)
is available on-line. Future plans include Web accessto a bibliographical
database with over six thousand items and a digital version of the Epi-
graphischePhotothekHeidelberg with over twenty-one thousand images.
InscriptionesGraecaeEystettenses:
A Databasefor the Study of the GreekInscrip-
tions of Asia Minor
< http ://www.gnomon.ku-eichstaett.de/LAG/datenbank.html>
Developed and maintained by Dr. frgen Malitz at the Katholische Uni-
versitt Eichsttt, with the assistanceof Dr. Wolfgang Blmel (Cologne), this
database is distributed on CD-ROM for use on IBM PC (or compatible)
computers. A hardware copyright protection device called a dongle must be
attached to the computer for the program to run. Both Greek and Latin
characters can be used in formulating searchesand displaying results. Full
texts are not displayed: the program is designed to function as a concor-
dance and word-search tool. The databaseincorporates an extensive corpus
of the inscriptions from Bithynia and Pontus, which can also be searched
on-line.
Inscriptionsfrom the Lqnd of Israel
< http://j efterson.village.Virginia.EDUimls4n)
Directed by Prof. Michael L. Satlow at the University of Virginia, this project
seeksto create a computerized, multilanguage corpus of inscriptions from
ancientPalestine.It will cover the Hellenisticperiod (ca. 330 r.c.) through the
Persianconquest (a.o. 614). The project's Web presencecurrently permits
searchesof the inscriptions from Beth She'arim, based on the publication
IBethShe'arim.To view the original texts of the inscriptions, the individual
user must download and install the freeware java program called BABBLE
(Windows 95 or NT only).
Appendix | 385
"Greek
PHI CD-ROM #7, DocumentaryTexts"
<httpzl | 132.236.125.30I content.html>
Licenseand pricing information: PackardHumanities Institute, 300 Second
Street, Suite 200, Los Altos, CA 94022.
Telephone:(415) 948-0150
E-mail: <7 4754.27l3@compuserve.com)
"Greek
The PHI CD-ROM #7, Documentary Texts," was releasedin |anuary
"The
L997. lt contains two major databases: Duke Databank of Documentary
Greek Papyri" and an extensive collection of Greek epigraphical texts as-
sembled by the Greek Epigraphy Project at Cornell, the Epigraphical Center
of the Ohio State University, and the Institute for Advanced Study at Prince-
ton with the cooperation of scholars from other institutions. The epigraphic
databasefacilitatesthe efficient searchof Greek epigraphical texts using appro-
priate software purchased from a third-party vendor (such as Pandora for the
Mac or the PHI workplace).For a completelist of softwareaccessprograms,
see the Web page of the Thesaurus Linguae Graecaeproject at <http:i/
www.tlg.uci.edu/-tlg>.
De ImperatoribusRomanis
- romanemp/test.htm)
<http://salve5.salve.edu/
This site allows its usersto retrieve short biographical essaysof all the Roman
emperors from the accessionof Emperor Augustus to the death of Emperor
Constantine XI Palaeologus.Each essayon this site, which is peer reviewed,is
written by a scholar and is accompanied by a bibliography, illustrations, and
footnotes.
Rulersof the Roman and ByzantineEmpires,753 n.c.-e.o. 1479
<http://www.dalton.orgigroups/Rome/RPol.html>
An extensive and thorough collection by N. Wittering of lists of kings, con-
suls,emperors,despots,and dukes.A generalbibliography is included.
ProsopographiaPtolemaica
<http://kuleuven.ac.be/facdep/arts/onderzi
dep/klass/autorn-prosop.htm>
This databaseby E. Van't Dack et al. will eventually contain all the material in
the printed volumes, that is, lists of all inhabitants of Egypt between300 and 30
n.c., from Greek, Egptian, and Latin sources,both authors and documents.
 Abbrer,ziationsof Epigraphicaland
Related ClassicalPublications

This list of abbreviations is a suggestedset of abbreviations for future epi-

graphical publications. It incorporates the list of new epigraphical abbrevia-
"A
tions published by G. H. R. Horsley and fohn A. L. Lee in Preliminary
Checklist of Abbreviations of Greek Epigraphical Volumes," Epigraphica 56
099a): n9-69. Additional abbreviations for journals and series have been
incorporated, and sometimes modified, from SupplementumEpigraphicum
Graecum, Anatolian Studies, L'Anne philologique, the American Journal of
Archaeology(AJA 95 [1991]: 1-16), and elsewhere(e.g.,lean SusorneyWel-
Iington, comp., Dictionary of BibliographicAbbreviationsFound in the Scholar-
ship of ClassicalStudiesand Related Disciplines [Westport, CT: Greenwood,
1933]).Standardabbreviationsfor some of the principal collectionsof ostraca
and papyri have also been given on the grounds that they are often relevant to
the study of inscriptions (for a complete listing of abbreviations for papyri
"Checklist
and ostracaseeJohn F. Oates and Wm. H. Willis, of Editions of
Greek Papyri and Ostraka,"BSP 11, no. I ll974l: 1-35). The arrow symbol
(-) directs the reader to another recommended abbreviation of the same
work.

AA ArchologischerAnzeiger ( Berlin) (continued

by IdI.)
AAA Aplcr,ol.oyr,x val"exto l A0r1vv
AAES - ISyriaPrentice
AAPat Atti e Memorie dell'AccademiaPatavina di
Scienze(Padua)

387
 Abbreviations | :al
388 | Abbreviations
AegForsch AegyptologischeForschungen
SOR Annual of the American Schoolsof Oriental
Aegyptus Aeglrytus: Rivista italiana di egittologia e di
Research(Cambridge, MA)
papirologia (Milan)
AAT Atii della Accademiadelle Scienzede Torino
AEpigr L'Anne pigraphique
(Bologna)
AeR Atene e Roma: Rassegnatrimestale
AAWW * AnzWien
dell'Associazione
AbhBerl Abhandlungen der preussischen Akademie
Aevum Aevum: Rassegnadi scienzestoriche,
der Wissenschaften zu Beilin
linguistiche e filologiche
AbhGtt Abhandlungen der Gesellschaftder
Afo Archiv ftlr Orientforschung (Austria)
Wissenschaftenzu Gttingen,
Aggelos Aggelos: Archiv fr neutestamentliche
Philologisch-historische Klasse
Zeitgeschichteund Kulturkunde
AbhHeid Abhandlungen der Heidelberger Akademie
Agora The Athenian Agora. Princeton, 1953-.
der Wissenschaften
lII. Literary and Epigraphical Testimonia,
AbhKM Abhandlungen fr die Kunde des
ed. R. E. Wycherley. 1957.Reprint,
Morgenlandes
London, 1973.
AbhLeip Abhandlungen der schsischenAkademie
XY. The Athenian Councillors,ed. B. D.
der Wissenschaftenzu LeiPzig'
Meritt and I. S. Traill. 1974.
Philosophisch-historischenKlasse.
XYII. The FuneraryMonuments,ed. D. W.
Leipzig, then Berlin.
Bradeen.1974.
AbhMunch Abhandlungen der BayerischenAkademie
XIX. lnscriptions:Horoi, Poletai Records,
der Wissenschaften,Philosophisch-
Leasesof Public Lands, ed. C. V. Lalonde,
historische Klasse.Munich.
M. K. Langdon and M. B. Walbank.
ABSA * BS
1991.
ABV Attic Black-Figure VasePainters,by I. D.
XXl. Grffiti and Dipinti, ed. M. L. Lang.
Beazley.Oxford, 1956.
r976.
Acme Acme: Annali della Facoltd di Filosofia e
XXY. Ostrak4,ed. M. L. Lang. 1990.
Lettere dell'IJniversitd statale di Milano
GSPeekI Attische Grabschriften,vol. l, Eine Nachlese
Acta. . . - CongrEpigr
zum letztenBand der Inscriptiones
ActaArch Acta Archaeologica
Graecae.llllll 2, by Werner Peek.
ActalnstRomFin Acta Instituti romani Finlandiae. Helsinki
Abhandlungen der Deutschen Akademie
Actalund Acta Universitatis Lundensis
der Wissenschaftenzu Berlin, Klassefr
ActaOrHung Acta orientalia Academicae scientiarum
Sprachen,Literatur und Kunst, fahrgang
Hungaricae
1953,no. 4. Berlin: Akademie Verlag,
Actes. . . - CongrEpigr
t954.
ADA Anzeiger fr deutschesAltertum
GSPeekII Axische Grabschriften,vol. 2, Unedierte
ADA] Annual of the Department of Antiquities of
Grabinschriftenaus Athen und Attika, by
Iordan
W. Peek.Abhandlungen der Deutschen
AdI Annali dell'Istituto di Corrispondenza
Akademie der Wissenschaftenzu Berlin,
Archeologica.(Issued as Part of
Klassefr Sprachen,Literatur und
Monumenti ed annali.)
390 | Abbreviations AbbreviationsI fff

Kunst, fahrgang 1956,no. 3. Berlin: AncW The Ancient World (Chicago)

Akademie Yerlag, 1957. AnnAcFenn AnnalesAcademiaeScientarumFennicae
AGWG - AbhGtitt Annales(ESC) Annales (Economie,Socits,Civilisations)
AHR American HistoricalReview (Paris)
AICA - AdI AnnArch Annales arch6ologiques
AIEGL L'Association internationale d'6pigraphie Ann. de |EPHE Annuairede I'EcolePratiquedesHautes
grecque et latine Etudes
AIlN Annali: Istituto italiano di numismatica AnnEconSocCiv Annales:Economies, civilisations
soci6tes,
(Rome) AnnLiv Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology.
AION(filol) Annali dell'Istituto per universitario orientale ' Liverpool.
di Napoli, Sezionefilologico-letteraria. AnnRepCypr Annual Report of the Director of the
(Rome) Department of Antiquities of Cyprus
AION(ing) Annali dell'lstitutoper universitario Annuario Annuario della ScuolaArcheologicadi Atene
orientale di Napoli, Sezionelinguistica e delle missioni italiane in Oriente
(Naples) (Bergamo,then Rome)
AIA American Journal of Archaeology(Princeton) ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergangder rmischenWeIt
AJAH American Journal of Ancient History (Berlin)
(Cambridge,MA) AntCI L'Antiquits classique(Louvain-la-Neuve)
A]P American lournal of Philology (Baltimore) AnthPaI Epigrammatum Anthologia Palatina, ed. F.
AJSL American Journal of Semitic Languagesand Dbner. 3 vols. Paris. n.d.
Literatures AnzWien Anzeiger der sterreichischenAkademie
ALA - IAphrodChr der Wissenschaftenin Wien,
Alto Der alte Orient philosophische-historische Klasse
Alt v. Hierapolis - IHieraPJ AAW - AnzWien
AM Mitteilungen des deutschen APAW - AbhBefl
archologischenInstituts: Athenische ArchAnz +AA
Abteilung. Berlin. ArchCl Archeologiaclassica.Rome.
AMNS - IAsMinBH ArchChron Ag1crlol.oyr.x, Xgovr,xc,. In ArchEph.
AnalBoll AnalectaBollandiana.Brussels. ArchDelt Aplorol,oylxv Ael.tiov, xr,pevov
AnalOr Analecta Orientalia nb ro'Ynougyelou tv
AnalRom Analecta romana Instituti Danici 'Exxl.qor,aorrxd)vx,o,itflg Aqpooi,oE
Anatolica Anatolica: Annuaire international pour les 'Ezncr,eoeorg(Athens)
civilisations de I'Asie ant6rieure. Archeologia ArcheologiaPolski (Warsaw)
Istanbul. ArchEph Aqlar,ol.oyrxil'EQqpeqiE (Athens)
AnatSt Anatolian Studies:Iournal of the British ArchNews ArchaeologicalNews
lnstitute of Archaeologyat Ankara ArchPF Archiv fiir Papyrusforschungund
(London) verwandte Gebiete. Leipzig.
AncEg Ancient Egypt ArchRW Ar chiv fr Religionswissenschaft
AncSoc Ancient Society(Louvain) Arctos Arctos: Acta philologica Fennica (Helsinki)
392 | Abbreviations Abbreviations | 393

ARW - ArchRW Academie Royalesdes Scienceand by

s - AnatSt the Bulletin de la classedes lettres et des
ASAW * Abhleip sciencesmoraleset politique of the
ASNP Annali della ScuolaNormale Superioredi Academie Royale de Belgique.)
Pisa BAC Bulletin archologiquedu Comit des
ASOR American School of Oriental Research travaux historiqueset scientifiques(Paris,
ASP American Studies in Papl'rology 1883-1964;n.s., 1965-)
Athena A0qv0: Xyygappc negrcr,xvtflg v BAH Bibliothque archologique et historique
A0fvc6 ntorqpovtxflg ralgelcrg. Baillet,Inscr....des - lEgBaillet
Athens. tombeauxdesrois
Athenaeum Athenaeum: Studi periodici di Letteratura e BalkStud Balkan Studies(Thessaloniki)
Storia dell' Antichit. Pavia. BAntFr Bulletin de la Soci6t6 nationale des
'A0fivorov, oyyqnppa ntgtoixov xat antiquaries de France. Paris.
A0fvalov
rpqviov xr,pevovoupngler BAR British Archaeological Reports
no)"}.v l"oyi.tov BASOR Bulletin of American Schools of Oriental
AthMitt -AM Researchin Jerusalemand Baghdad.
'Atiqot 'Atiqot: Cambridge, MA.
Journal of the Israel Department of
Antiquities BASP Bulletin of the American Societyof
ATL - IAthTrib Papyrologists(New York)
Attilincei Atti della Accademia nazionale dei Lincei, BASP Suppl Bulletin of the American Society of
Rendiconti della Classedi scienze Papyrologists Supplements
morali, storiche e filologiche. Ser. BCBA - BAB
V-VIII. Rome. BCAR Bulletino della CommissioneArcheologica
AttiPontAcc Atti della Pontificia Accademia romana di Comunalein Roma (Rome)
archeologia. Rome. BCH Bulletin de correspondance hellnique(Paris)
AttiTor Atti della Accademia delle Scienzedi BCH Suppl Bulletin de correspondancehell6nique.
Torino, Classedi Scienzemorali, Suppl6ments.Paris, 1973-.
storiche e filologische. Bologna. BCILL Bibliothque Cahiers Institut Linguistique
Audollent * IDefrAudollent de Louvain
AVI Attische Versinschrifteaed. W. Peek. Berlin: BCO Bibliothecaclassicaorientalis.Berlin, 1956-
Akademie-Verlag,Abhleip 69.2. 1980. 69.
AvP - IPergamon (Altertmer von Pergamon) BDAG A Greek-EnglishLexicon of the New
AW Antike Weh (Zurich) Testamentand Other Eaily Christian
BA - BiblArch Literature,3d ed., ed. F. W. Danker.
BAB Bulletin de la Classedes lettreset dessciences (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
moraleset politiques de l'AcadmieRoyale 2000) Basedon Griechisch-Deutsches
de Belgique(Brussels)(Continued by the Wrterbuchzu den Schriftendes Neuen
Bulletin de la classedes beaux-arrsof the Testaments, by W. Bauer, 6th ed., and
394 Abbreviations Abhreviarions I lfS
|

previous English editions by W. F. I]ES Bulletin d'pigraphies6mitique

Arndt, F. W. Gingrich, and F. W. BFC Bollettino di filologia classica
Danker.) BGU AegyptischeUrkunden aus den kniglichen
BdE Bibliothque d'etude Meseenzu Beilin: GriechischeUrkunden.
BE Bulletin pigraphique.Publishedin REG l1 vols. Berlin, 1895-1968.
( I 888-), notablyby B. Haussoullier, BIAAM British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara
A.-J.Reinach,P. Roussel,and R. Flacelire, Monograph Series
and, from 1938to 1984,byI. Robert and L. BIAO Bulletin de l'Institut frangais d' archologie
Robert;from 1987,revivedunderdirection orientale de Caire
of P. Gauthier.The issuesofBEbythe BiblArch Biblical Archaeologist
Robertshavebeen published separatelyin Biblica Biblica
10vols. (Paris1972-87),with 5 vols.of Bibo Bibliotheca Orientalis. Leiden.
indices(Paris,1973-83). BIBR Bulletin de I'Institut historique beige de
BechtelFrau Die attischenFrauennamen nach ihren Rome.
Systemdargestelh, by BICS Bulletin of the Institute of ClassicalStudies
F. Bechtel.Gttingen: Vandenhoeckand of the University of London
Ruprecht, 1902. BICSSuppl Bulletin of the Institute of ClassicalStudies
BechI"elMann Die einstmmigenmnnlichen of the University of London
Personennamendes Griechischen,die aus Supplements
Spitznamenhervorgegangen sind, by BlES Bulletin of the Israel Exploration Society
(: Yedioth)
F. Bechtel.Abhctt 2.5. Berlin:
BIFAO - BIAO
Weidmannsche,1898.
BithStud * lBlthSahin
BechtelPN Die historischenPersonennamendes
Griechischenbis zur Kaiserzeit,by F. BIU Bonner JahrbcherdesRheinischen
Bechtel.Halle. 1917. Landesmuseumsin Bonn und des Vereins
Bees - IKorinthChr von Altertumsfreundenim Rheinlande
BEFAR Bibliothque des Ecoles frangaises BJPES Bulletin of the Jewish PalestineExploration
d'Athneset de Rome. Paris. Society
BEHE Bibliothque de I'f,cole des Hautes Etudes, B]RU Bulletin of lohn Rylands University
IV" section, scienceshistoriques et BKP Beitrge zur klassischenPhilologie
philologiques BMAH Bulletin des Mus6es royaux d'Art et
Belleten Trk Tarih Kurumu: Belleten d'Histoire. Brussels.
BMI - IBM
BEO Bulletin d'6tudesorientales,I'Institut
Frangaisde Damas. Damascus. BMQ British Museum Quarterly
Ber. Akad. Berlin - SBBerl BN Beitrgezur Namenforschung(Heidelberg)
BNF *BN
BeTRGK Berichte der Rmisch-Germanischen
BO - BibO
Kommission des deutschen
Bonner - IEgAmuIet
archologischenInstituts. Frankfurt.
Brit.Mus.Inscr, - IBM
Berytus Berytus:ArcheologicalStudies(Beirut)
396 | Abbreviations Abbreviations I ISZ

BS Annual of the British Schoolat Athens Y. Aegyptus,Africa, Hispania, Gallia et

(London) Britannia. 1986.
BSI Bulletin de Ia Socitde Linguistique de YI. Germania, Raetia, Noricum, Pannonia,
Paris (Paris) Dalmatia, Macedonia, Thracia, Moesia,
BSR Papersof the British Schoolat Rome Dacia, Regnum Bospori, Colchis,Scythia
(London) et Sarmatia. 1989.
BSRAA Bulletin de la Soci6t6 d'arch6ologie YII. Musea et collectionesprivatae. 1977.
d'Alexandrie CCET Corpuscultusequitis Thrac.EPRO 74.
Buck Introduction to the Study of the Greek Leiden, 1979-84.
Dialects: Grammar, SelectedInsriptions, l. Monumenta oraePonti Euxini Bulgariae,
Glossary,by C. D. Buck. Boston, 1910. ed. Z. Goevaand M. Opperman. 1979.
BUILp. -BE Il. Monumenta inter Danubium et Haemum
Buresch - ILydiaB reperta, ed. Z. Goeva and M.
Bursian BursiansIahresberichtber die Fortschritte Opperman.
der klassischenAltertumswissenschaft. II.l. Durostorum et Vicinia, RegioOppidi
Berlin and Leipzig, 1873*1944145. Tolbuhin, Marcianopolis et Vicinia, Regio
Byzantion Byzantion: Revue internationale des tudes Oppidi Sumen.1981.
byzantines II.2. RegioOppidi Trgovite,Abrittus et
BZ ByzantinischeZeitschrift Vicinia, SexagintaPrista et Vicinia,
Cabrol-Leclercq Dictionnaire des antiquits chrtiennest de Nicopolisad Istrum Novae. L984.
Iiturgie, ed. H. Leclercq and F. Cabrol. [Y.4. Moesia Inferior (Romanian Section)
Oxford. 1905. and Dacia, ed. N. Hampartumian. 1979.
CAH CambridgeAncient History Y. Monumenta intra fines Iugoslaviae
CahArch Cahiers Arch6ologiques: Fin de l'antiquit6 reperta, ed. A. Cermanovi-Kuzmanovi.
et Moyen ge.Paris. t982.
CahEtAnc Cahiers des ftudes anciennes.Montreal. CCID Corpus cultus Iovis Dolicheni, ed. M. Hrig
Calderini Dizionario dei nomi geografci e topografici and E. Schwertheim.EPRO 106. Leiden,
dell'Egino greco-romano,by A. Calderini t987.
and S. Daris. 5 vols. and supple. Cairo, CCIS Corpuscultuslovis Sabaz,by M. I.
Madrid, and Milan, 1935-88. Reprint, Vermaseren.3 vols. EPRO 100. Leiden,
MlIan, 1972. 1983-89.
C6M - ClMed CD - IDelph
Carie - IAmyzon CDH - IDelosCDH
CCCA Corpus cuhus CybelaeAttidisque, ed. M. J. CE - ChrEg, IDelosEg
Vermaseren.EPRO 50. Leiden: E. J. CEFR Collection de l' 6cole francaise de Rome
Brill, 1977-89. CEG Carmina epigraphicaGraeca,ed. P. A.
I. Asia Minor. 1987. Hansen.2 vols. Berlin, 1983-89.
lI. Graeciaatque insulae.L982. I. SaeculorumVIII-V a. Chr. n. TK 12.
lll. Italia: Latium. 1977. 1983.
IY. Italia: Aliae Drovinciae.1978. II. SaeculiIV a. Chr. n. TK 15. 1989.
398 | Abbreviations Abbreviations I fee

CERP Cities of the EasternRoman Empire, by lV. Inscriptions of doubtful origin, Jewish
A. H. M. )ones. Oxford: Clarendon Press, l and Christian inscriptions,instrumentum
t937. domesticum,ed. E. Curtius and A.
CF - ICollFroehner Kirchhoff. 1856-59. Index by H. Roehl.
CFCIP - lPhrygChr 1877.
CGCI Corpus der griechischchristlichenInschriften CIGPeI Corpus Instiptionum GraecarumPelopon-
von Hellas, by N. A. Bees.Vol. 1. Athens: nesi et insularum vicinarum. Berlin, L902.
Christlich-archologische Gesellschaft, (Vol. i supersededby IG IV.)
1941.Reprint, Chicago:Ares, 1978. r CIGS Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum Graecia
Charitonidis, - lLesbosSuppl Septentrionalis.Berlin, 1895-97.
Xuprul,fqorpc AI - CII
ChID - IDelosChoix CU Corpus Inscriptionum ludaicarum, ed. J.-8.
Chiron Chiron: Mineilungen der Kommissionfur Frey. 2 vols. Sussidi allo studio d'elle
alte Geschichteund Epigraphik des antichita cristiane I and 3. Rome,
DeutschenArchologischenInstituts 1936-52.
(Munich) I. Europe. 1936.Reprint, with
CHL Commentationes Humanarum Litterarum prolegomenon,ed. B. Lifshitz, New
Choix - IDelosChoix York, 1975.
ChoixlG Choix d' insriptions grecques:Textes, II. Asia-Africa. 1952.
traductionset notes,ed. M. Pouilloux. CIJUd - CII
Bibliothque de la Facult6 des lettres de CIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, Consilio
Lyon. Paris, 1960. et Auctoritate Academiae Litterarum
ChrEg Chronique d'Egpte (Brussels) RegiaeBorussicaeEditum. Berolini,
ChronOr Chroniques d'Orient, by S. Reinach. In RA, t863-1974.
l 8 9 1/ 1 8 9 6 . CIMRM Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum
CIA Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum, ed. W. ReligionisMithriacae, ed. M. I.
Dittenberger, A. Kirchhofi I. Kirchner, Vermaseren.2 vols. The Hague, 1956-
and U. Khler. 3 vols. in 8. Berlin, 60.
1873-95. (Revised and reprinted as IG CIRB - IBosp
r-rII.) CIS Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum
CID3 - IDelph CJ ClassicalI ournal (Athens)
CIG CorpusInscriptionum Graecarum.4 vols. Clairmont Gravestoneand Epigram: GreekMemorials
Berlin, 1828-77. Reprint, Subsidia from the Archaic and ClassicalPeriod, erJ.
Epigraphica,Hildesheim, 1977. C. W. Clairmont. Mainz, 1970.
I-II. Greece,islands,European coast of ClAnt Classical Antiquity ( Berkeley)
Pontus Euxinus, western Asia Minor, ed. ClArch ClassicalArchaeology
A. Boeckh. 1828-43. Clarosl, Robert - IKaros
III. Asia, Africa, Europe, ed. J. Franz. ClMed Classicaet Mediaevalia: Revuedanoise
1845-53. d'Historieet de Philologie(Copenhagen)
400 | Abbreviations Abbreviations | +Of

CM Clio Medica: Acta Academiae CQ ClassicalQuarterly

internationalishistoriae medicinae. CR ClassicalReview (Oxford)
Amsterdam. CRAI Comptesrendus de L'Acadmie des
CMRDM Corpus Monumentorum ReligionisDei inscriptionset belles-Iettres(Paris)
Menis, ed. E. Lane. 4 vols. EPRO 19.1-4. CRBosporani -IBosp
Leiden.l97l-78. CRHP Centre de Recherchesd'Histoire et de
Coll.Froehner - ICollFroehner Philologiede la X'Section de I'Ecole
Compt.Rend.Ac.Inscr. - CRAI Pratique des Hautes Etudes
CongrEpigr Actesdes congrsinternationaux d'pigraphie CSIR Corpus Signorum Imperii Romani
grecqueet latine (Placesand dates of Cumont. Fouilles - IDuraCumont
congressesare indicated in parentheses.) de Doura-EuroDos
I. (Amsterdam, 1938.)No volume CVA Corpus Vasorum Antiquorum
published. CW ClassicalWorld
II. (Paris,1952.)Paris,1953. Cyrne Cyrne et ln Libye hellnistique.Libykai
III. (Rome, 1957.)Rome,1959. Historiai, de l'poquerpublicaineau
IV. (Vienna, 1962.)Vienna, 1964. principat d'Auguste,by A. Laronde. Paris,
V. (Cambridge,1967.) Oxford, 1971. ;i 1987.
VI. (Munich,1972.) Vestigia 17. Munich, DAA + IAthAkrop
t973. : Dacia Dacia: Revued'archologieet d'histoire
VII. (Constanza,1977.)Bucharest,1977; ancienne,n.s. (Bucarest)
Parrs,1979. DACL - Cabrol-Leclercq
VIII. (Athens, 1982.)Athens, 1984. DAGR - DarSag
IX. (Sofia, 1987.)Acta Centri Historiae, DAIMR Department of Antiquities of the Israel
Terra Antiqua Balcanica2. Sofia, 1987. Museum Reports
X . ( N i m e s ,1 9 9 2 . ) Dain, Inscr. du Louvre - ILouvreD
XI. (Rome, 1997.)Rome,1999. Dain, Textesindits - ILouvreD
Cointh 8.1 - IKorinthMeritt DarSag Dictionnaire des antiquits grecqueset
Corinth 8.3 - IKorinthKent romainesd'aprs les texteset les
C(orpus) Bosp - lBosp monuffients,ed. C. Daremberg and E.
CP ClassicalPhiIoIog1t( Chicago) Saglio.6 vols. in 10. Paris, 1873-1884.
"Inscr" "The - IAthTrib
CP,l 3 |ewish Inscriptions of Egypt," ed. DAT
D. M. Lewis. In CPJUI 3. 138-96. DAWphK * DenkschrWien
CPIUd Corpus Papyrorum Judaicarum. 3 vols. DCA Dlos, colonieathnienne,P. Roussel.
Cambridge, }.4A, 1957-64. B E F A R1 1 1 .P a r i s ,1 9 1 6 .
I. Ed. V. A. Tcherikover.1957. DCTFD Dil ve Tarih-Coirafya Faktiltesi Dergisi
II. Ed. V. A. Tcherikover. 1960. Dedic.Ath. Acropolis + lAthAkrop
III. Ed. D. M. Lewis. 1964. Dlos - EAD
CPSSuppl Cambridge Philological Society Supplement Demitsas,'H Maxeoviq, - IMakedD
402 | Abbreviations Abbreviations | +OS

DenkschrWien Denkschriften der sterreichischen Dura - IDuraRep

Akademie der Wissenschaften, Durrbach IDelosChoix
Philologisch-historische Klasse.Vienna. EA - EPigAnat
Dessau - IIS EAD Exploration arch6ologique de D6los faite
DGE Dialectorum Graecarum exetnplaepigraphica par I'f,cole frangaised'Athnes
potiora, ed. E. Schwyzer.Leipzig, 1923. EAD XXX - IRhenaia
Reprint, Hildesheim, 1960. EAH T'Eqyov tflE Aq1crrcl"yr,xflg'Etcrr.qelag
DHA Diologuesd'histoire ancienne(Paris) EAM - IMaked
Dia[Arch Dialoghi de Archeologia EAZ Ethnographisch- archoIogische Z eitschrift
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vols. Genoa, 1974.
IDiocletL Diokletians Preisedikt,ed. S. Lauffer. TK 5.
Berlin. 1971.
IDiocletMB Der Maximaltarif desDiocletian, ed. T.
Mommsen and H. Blmner. Berlin.
1893.Reprint, 1958.
IDolichenus Rpertoiredesinsuiptions et monuments
Abbreviations | +tl
figurs du culte de Jupiter Dolichenus, ed.
P. Merlat. Paris, 1951.
IDorIns Inschriften von den dorischenInseln, ed. W.
Peek.Abhleip 62.1. Berlin, 1969.
1DR - IDacia
IDuraCsmont Fouilles de Doura Europos (1922-1923), ed.
F. Cumont. BAH 9. Paris. 1926.
IDuraRep The Excavationsat Dura-Europos:Prelimi-
nary Reports.New Haven, 1929-52.
l. First Season,Spring 1928. 1929.
lI. SecondSeason,Oct. 1928-April 1929.
r93t.
IIL Third Season,Nov. 1929-March 1930.
1932.
.i lY. Fourth Season,Oct. 1930-March 1931,
by P. V. C. Baur, M. I. Rostovtzeff, and
A. R. Bellinger. 1933.
VL Sixth Season,Oct. 1932-March 1933.
1936.
lX. Ninth Season,1935-36.
i l. The Agora andBazaar.1944.
3. The Palaceof the Dux Ripae and the
Dolichenum. 1952.
IEgAmulet Studiesin Magical Amulets Chiefly Graeco-
Egyptian,ed. C. Bonner. University of
Michigan Studies,Humanistic Series49.
Ann Arbor, MI, 1950.
IEgBaillet Inscriptionsgrecqueset latines des tombeaux
des rois ou syringesd Thebes,ed. l.
Baillet. MIFAO 42. Cafto,1926.
IEgChr Recueildes inscriptionsgrecques- chrtiennes
d'Egypte,ed. G. Lefebwe. IGAeg 5.
' Cairo, 1907.Reprint, Chicago, 1978.
i IEglntaglo Les intailles magiquesgrco-gyptiennes, ed.
A. Delatte and P. Derchain. Bibliothque
nationale, Cabinet des m6dailles et
antiques.Paris, 1964.
IEglud - IIud.Eg
IEgnatMil Les milliares de la voie Egnatienneentre
418 | Abbreviations
HracledesLyncesteset Thessalonique,
ed. L. Gounaropolou and M. B.
Hatzopoulos.Meletmata 1. Athens,
1985.
IEgSyene De Thbesd Syne,ed. A. Bernand. Paris,
1989.
IEgVers Inscriptions mtriquesde I'Egyptegrco-
romaine: Recherches sur la posie
pigrammatiquedes Grecsen b,gypte,ed.
E. Bernard. Paris, 1969.
IEI Israel Exploration Journal
IEph Die Inschriften von Ephesos.Bonn, 1979-.
Ia. Nos. l-47. ed. H. Wankel.IK 11.1.
1979.
II. Nos. 101-599.ed. C. Brker and R.
Merkelbach.lK 12. 1979.
III. Nos. 600-1000, ed. H. Engelmann,D.
Knibbe, and R. Merkelbach.IK 13. 1980.
IV. Nos. 1001-445, ed. H. Engelmann,D.
Knibbe, and R. Merkelbach.IK 14. 1980.
V. Nos. 1446-2000, ed. C. Brker and R.
Merkelbach.IK 15. 1980.
VL Nos. 2001-958, ed. R. Merkelbach and
I. Noll6. IK 16. 1980.
VII.l-2. Nos. 3001-500,3501-5115,ed. R.
Merig, R. Merkelbach,J. Noll6, and S.
Sahin. 2 vols. IK 17.l-2. l98L
YlIl.l Wortindex, Konkordanzen, ed. H.
Engelmann.IK 17.3. 1984.
YIII.2 Verzeichnisder Eigennamen,ed.
l. Noll6. lK 17.4. 1984. [indices to
v o l s .r - l . I
Addenda et corrigenda zu den Inschriften
von EphesosI-VII, I (IK 11.1-17.1),ed.
R. Merkelbach and I. Noll6. In vol.
VII.I.
IEphChr De Oud-christelijkeMonumenten van
Ephesus,ed. J. N. Bakhuizen van den
Brink. Leiden, 1923.
Abbreviations | 419
IEphHlbl ZeugnisseglptischerRelionsvorstellungenfr
Ephesus,ed. G. Hlbl. EPRO 73. Leiden,
L978.
IEphMcCabe EphesosInscriptions: Texts and List, ed.
D. F. McCabe, R. N. Elliott, A. Hilton,
K. Na, and C. Redmond. 3 vols.
Princeton, NJ, 1991.
IEphZoll Das Zollgesetzder Provinz Asia: Eine neue
Inschrift aus Ephesos,ed. H. Engelmann
and D. Knibbe. Epigraphica Anatolica
14. Bonn, 1989.
IEpidaur Neue Inschriften aus Epidauros,ed. W.
Peek.Abhleip 63.5. Berltn, 1972.
IEpidaurAskl Inschriften aus dem Asklepieionvon
Epidauros,ed. W. Peek. Abhleip 6012.
Berlin, 1969.
"Appendice 6pigraphique,"ed. P. Cabanes.
IEpiros
ln L'Epire de la mort de Pyrrhos In
conqu\teromaine (272-167 av. J.-C.,
534-95. Paris. 1976.
IEpitVers GriechischeGrabgedichte,ed. W. Peek.
Schriften und Quellen der alten Welt 7'
Berlin. 1960.
IErythMcCabe Erythrai lnscriptions: Texts and List, ed.
D. F. McCabe and J. V. Brownson.
Princeton, NJ, 1986.
IErythr Die Inscriften von Erythrai und Klazomenai,
ed. H. Engelmann and R. Merkelbach.2
vols. IK l. Bonn, 1972.
IF IndogermanischeForschungen.Berlin.
IFarasChr Faras, vol. 4, Inscriptionsgrecques-
chrtiennes, ed. J. Kubinska. Warsew,
1974.
IFayum Recueildes inscriptionsgrecquesdu Fayoum,
ed. E. Bernand.Leiden, then Cairo,
t975-81.
I. La'mris' d'Hrakleids.1975.
II. La'mris' de Thmistos.Bibliothque
d'Etude 79. 1981.
420 Abbreviations Abbreviations I qZt
|

lIl. La'mis' de Polmn Bibliothque tG txltr.2 InscriptionesAcarnaniae,part l, no. 2, ed.

d'Etude80. 1981. G. Klaffenbach.1957.
IG InscriptionesGraecae.Berlin. IG txlrr.3 InscriptionesLocridis occidentalis,part 1, no.
IG I' InscriptionesAtticae Euclidis anno (403/2) 3, ed. G. Klaffenbach.1968.
anteriores,ed. F. Hiller von Gaertingen. IGtx/z InscriptionesThessaliae,paft 2, ed. O. Kern.
1924. 1908.
IG l3ll Decreta et tabulae magistratuum, ed. D. IGXl2.r InscriptionesThessalonicae et viciniae, part
Lewis and L. ]effery. 1981. 2, no.2, ed. C. Edson. 1972.
IG II InscriptionesAtticae aetatis quae est inter rGxt/2 lnscriptionesDeli, Tabulae archontum,
Euclidis Annum et Augusti tempora, ed. I Tabulaehieropoeorum,i14-250, ed. F.
johannes Kirchner. 5 vols. 1877-95. Drrbach. 1912.
(Supersededby IG II,.) IGXII3 InscriptionesDeli, ed. F. Hiller von
IG II2 InscriptionesAtticae Euclidis anno anteriores, Gaertringen.1927.
ed. IohannesKirchner. 4 vols. l9l3-40. IGXt/4 InscriptionesDeli: Decreta,foedera, catalogt,
l.l. Deqeta.2 fascicles.1913-16. dedicationes, varia, ed. P. Roussel.1914.
2.1. Tabulaemagistratuum.1927. IG XII Inscriptionesinsularum maris Aegaeipraeter
2.2. Cataloginominum: Instrumentaiuris Delum 9 vols. and Suppl.
privati. 1935. IG XII/I InscriptionesRhodi, Chalces,Carpathi cum
3.1. Dedicationes,tituli honorariai, tituli Saro, Casi, ed. F. Hiller von Gaertringen.
sacri.1935. 1895.
3.2. Tituli sepulcrales.1940. IGXIII2 InscriptionesLesbi, Nesi, Tenedi, ed. W. R.
4.1.Indices.1918. Paton. 1899. (SeelLesbos-Suppl.)
IG IIIIII2 - lG II2 IGXill3 InscriptionesSymes,Teutlussae,Teli, Nyri,
IG III - CIA. (Supersededby /G II,.) Astypalaeae,Anaphes, Therae et
IG IV InscriptionesGraecaeAeginae,Pityonesi, jt Therasiae,Pholegandri,Meli, Cimoli, ed.
Cecryphaliae,Argolidis, ed. M. Frnkle. F. Hiller von Gaertringen.1898.
1902. lGXlll3 Suppl Supplementum,ed. F. Hiller von
IG IV'II InscriptionesEpidauri, part 1, ed. F. Hiller Gaertringen,1904.
von Gaertringen. 1929. i IG XIII5 InscriptionesCycladum, ed. F. Hiller von
IGVII InscriptionesLaconiaeet Messeniae,part 1, Gaertringen.2 parts. 1903-9.
ed. W. Kolbe. 1913. IG XIIIT lnscriptionesAmorgi et insularum vicinarum,
IGV12 InscriptionesArcadiae, part 2, ed. F. Hiller ed. J. Delamarre. 1908.
\ IG XII/8 Inscriptionesinsularum maris Thracici, ed.
von Gaertringen.1913.
IG VII InscriptionesMegaridis et Boeotiae,ed. W. C. Fredrich. 1909.
i
Dittenberger.1892. IGXIU9 InscriptionesEuboeae,ed. E. Ziebarth. 1915.
IG DVI InscriptionesPhocidis,Loridis, Aetoliae, IG Xll Suppl Supplementum,ed. F. Hiller von
Acarnaniae, Insularum Maris lonii, part Gaertringen.1939.
l, ed. W. Dittenberger. 1897. IG XIV lnscriptionesSiciliae et ltaliae, additis Graeci
IG tx/tr.r Inscriptiones Aetoliae,part 1, no. l, ed. G. Galliae, Hispaniae, Britanniae, Germaniae
Klaffenbach.1932. inscriptionibus,ed. G. Kaibel. 1890.
422 | Abbreviations Abbreviations I lZl

IGA - IGAnt 4th ed. Leipzig, 1930.Reprint, Stuttgart,

IGAeg InscriptionesGraecaeAegypti
IGalatN I The Inscriptions of Ankara, ed. S. Mitchell.
RECAM I. Forthcoming.
IGalatN ll The Ankara District: The Inscriptions of
North Galatia ed. S. Mitchell. BAR
International Series135: RECAM II.
Oxford, 1982.
IGAnt InscriptionesGraecaeAntiquissimaepraeter
Atticas in Anica Repertas,ed. H. Roehl.
Berlin, 1882.Reprint, Chicago, 1978.
IGB - IBildauer
IGBR - IGBulg
IGBulg InscriptionesGraecaein Bulgaria repertae,
ed. G. Mihailov. Sofia. 1956-70.
I. Inscriptionesorae Ponti Euxini. 2d ed.
r970.
II. Inscriptionesinter Danubium et Haemum
repertae.1958.
IILI. Inscriptionesinter Haemum et
Rhodopemrepertae:Territorium
Philippopol. 196r.
III.2. Inscriptionesinter Haemum et
Rhodopemrepertae:A territoria
Philippopolitano usquead oram Ponticam.
t964.
lY. Inscriptionesin territorio Serdicensiet in
vallibus StrymonisN estiquerepertae.
1966.
IGC - IAsMinChr.
IGC Inscriptions de Grcecentrale,ed. F. Salviat
and C. Vatin. Paris. 1971.
IGCB Inscriptiones GraecaeChristinae Veteres et
Byzantinae
IGCVO - IGOccidChr
IGDefxKagarow GriechischeFluchtafeln, ed. E. G. Kagarow.
Eos Suppl. 4. Lviv and Paris, 1929.
IGDial Inscriptionesgraecaead illustrandas dialectos
selectae,ed. F. Solmsen and E. Frnkel.
t966.
IGDS - lSikilDial
"The
IGerasa Inscriptions," ed. C. B. Welles.In
Gerasa(City of Decapolis), ed. C. H.
Kraeling, 355-494. New Haven 1938.
IGForsch -IF
IGHist HistorischegriechischeInschriften bis auf
Alexander den Grossen,ed. E.
Nachmanson.KT 121.Bonn, 1913.
IGHistVers HistorischegriechischeEpigramme, ed. F.
Hiller von Gaertringen.KT 156. Bonn,
t926.
IGHon GriechischeEhreninschriften,ed. G. Gerlach.
Halle, 1908.
IGIurid Recueildes inscriptionsjuridiques grecques:
Texte, traduction, commentaire,ed. R.
Dareste,B. Haussoullier,and T. Reinach.
2 vols. Paris, 1894-1904.Reprint, Studia
iuridica 6, Rome, 1965.
IGLAkris Inscriptionsgrecqueset latines d'Akris, ed.
E. Bernard. BIFAO 103. Cairo, 1988.
IGLAM - Le Bas
IGLBenef Der rmischeWeihebezirkvon Osterburken,
vol. l, Corpw der griechischenund
IateinischenBeneficiarier-Inschriften des
rmischenReiches,ed. E. Schallmeyer.
Forschungenund Berichte zur Vor- und
Frhgeschichte in Baden-Wrttemburg
40. Stuttgart, 1990.
IGLBibI Iscrizioni grechee latine per lo studio della
Bibbia, ed. E. Gabba.Turin, 1958.
IGLDakke Die griechischenund lateinischenlnschriften
von Dakke (Der Tempel von Dakke, III.),
ed. W. Ruppel. Cairo, 1930.
lGLEccl Griechischeund lateinischeInschriften zur
Sozialgeschichte der Ahen Kirche, ed. W.
Wischmeyer. Texte zur Kirchen- und
Theologiegeschichte 28. Gtersloh, 1982.
424 | Abbreviations
IGLHib * IKhargeh
IGLP - IGPalermoMus
IGLRomania Inscriptle grecestisi latine din secolele
N-Xm descoperitein Romnia, ed. E.
Popescu.Bucharest,1976.
IGLS - IGLSyria
IGLSlcythia InscriptionesScythiaeMinoris Graecaeet
Latinae (Inscriptle antice din Dacia si
ScythiaMinor, seria II). Bucharest,
r980-87.
l. Histria et vicinia, ed. D. M. pippidi.
1983.
II. Tomis et teritorium, ed. I. Stoian. 19g7.
Y. Capidava, Troesmis,Noviodunum, ed. E.
Dorutiu-Boil. 1980.
IGLSyria Inscriptionsgrecqueset latines de la Syrie. 2I
vols. Paris, 1929-93.
I. Commageneand Cyrrhestica,ed. L.
|alabert and R. Mouterde. BAH 12.
t929.
II. Chalcidica and Antiochea, ed. L. Jalabert
and R. Mourterde. BAH 32. 1939.
(Reprints material from lSyriaprinceton
B.)
III.I. Region of Amanus, Antioch, ed. L.
lalabert and R. Mouterde. BAH 46.
19s0.
IIL2. Antioch, Antiochea"ed. L. |alabert and
R. Mouterde. BAH 51. 1953. (Index to
vols. 1-3.)
lY. Laodikeia, Apamea, ed. L. |alabert, R.
Mouterde, and C. Mond6sert. BAH 61.
1955. (Reprints material from
ISyriaPrincetonB.)
Y. Emesea,ed. L. falabert, R. Mouterde.
and C. Mond6sert. BAH 66. 1959.
YL Baalbekand Beqa',ed J.-p.
Rey-Coquais . BAH 78. t967.
425
Abbreviations |
Yll. Arados and Neighbouring Regions,ed.
|.-P. Rey-Coquais.BAH 89.1970.
XIII.I. Bostra,ed. M. Sartre.BAH 113.
1982. (Reprints material from
ISyriaP r entice and from lSyriaPrinceton
A.)
XI[.l. Suppl. Bostra des originesd l'Islam,
ed. M. Sartre.Paris,1985.BAH 117.
(completesXIII.l with Index
onomastiquecomment, pp. 16I-245.)
XXl Inscriptions de la lordanie.
XXI.2. Rgion centrale (Amman, Hesban,
Madaba"Main, Dhiban), ed. P.-L. Gatier.
B A H l l 4 . P a r i s ,1 9 8 6 .
XXI.4. Ptra et Ia NabatCnemridionale du
wadi al-Hasa au golfede'Aqaba, ed. S.
Sartre.Paris, 1993.
IGLVindob Greichischeund lateinischeInschriften der
Wiener Antikensammlung, ed. R. Noll.
Vienna. 1962.
IGOccidChr InscriptionesGraecaeChristianae Veteres
Occidentis,ed. C. Wessell.Halle, 1936.
IGonnoi Gonnoi,ed. B. Helly. 2 vols. Amsterdam,
1973.
IGPalermosMus Iscrizioni grechelapidarie del Museo di
Palermo,ed. M. T. Manni Paraino.
Sikelika6. Palermo, 1941.
lGPfohl GriechischeInschriften als Zeugnissedes
privaten und ffentlichenLebens:
Griechischund deutsch.ed. G. Pfohl.
Munich. 1966.
IGPortus Iscrizioni greched'Italia: Porto, ed. G. Sacco.
Rome. 1984.
lGR - /GRR
IGRavenna Le iscrizioni grechede Ravenna,ed. M.
Bollini. Faenza, 1975.
IGRJurid Epigrafa giuridica greca e romana, ed. G. I.
Luzzatto. Universit di Roma.
426 | Abbreviations
Pubblicazionidell'Istituo di Diritto
Romano L9. M1lan, 1942.
IGRR IscriptionesGraecaead res Romanas
pertinentes,ed. R. Cagnat et al. 3 vols.
Paris, 1906-27. Reprint, Chicago, 1975.
l. InscriptionesEuropae (praeter Graeciam)
et Africae, ed. R. Cagnat, J. Toutain, and
P. fouguet. 1906.
II. Not published.
Il.I. InscriptionesAsiae 1, ed. R. Cagnat and
G. Lafaye.1906.
lY. InscriptionesAsiae 11,ed. G. Lafaye.
1927.
IGSl InscriptionesGraecaeSiciliae et Italiae.
Berlin, 1890. (BecameIG XIV.)
IGSikilDial Inscriptionsgrecquesdialectalesde Sicilie, ed.
L. Dubois. EFR l19. Rome, 1989.
IGSikilJurid InscriptionesgraecaeSiciliae et infimae
Italiae ad ius pertientes,ed. V. Arangio-
Ruiz and A. Olivieri. Milan, 1925.
Reprint, Chicago, 1980.
IGSK -IK
IGUR InscriptionesGraecaeUrbis Romae, ed,.L.
Moretti. Rome. 1968-91.
I. Studi pubblicati dall'Istituto italiano per
la storia antica (SPII) 17. 1968.(nos. l-
263).
II.l. SPII 22.1. 1972.(nos. 264-728).
II.2. SPII 22.2 1973.(nos. 729-1141).
IIL SPII 28. 1979.(nos. 1142-1490).
VIV.SPII 47. 1991.(nos. 1491-1705).
IG Urb Romae - IGUR
IGVeronaMus Iscrizioni e rilievi greci nel Museo Maffeiano
di Verona,ed. T. Ritti. Rome, 1981.
IHadrianoi Die Inschriften von Hadrianoi und
Hadrianeia, ed. E. Schwertheim.IK 33.
Bonn, 1987.
IHellHist Iscrizioni storicheellenistiche,ed. L. Moretti.
Abbreviations | 427
2 vols. Bibliotecadi studi superiori 53,
62. Florence,1967-76.
IHeracleaPont The Inscriptions of HeracleaPontica, ed. L.
fonnes. IK 47. Bonn, 1994.
I IHerodesAttic HerodesAtticus, ed. W. Ameling. 2 vols.
Studia epigraphica11. Hildesheim,
1983.
"Inschriften,"
IHierapl ed. W. Judeich. In Altertmer
von Hierapolls, ed. C. Humann, C.
Cichorius, W. Judeich,and F. Winter,
67-202. Iahrbuch des kaiserlich
deutschen archologischenInstituts,
Ergnzungsheft4. Berlin, 1898.
IHierapKast Inschriften aus Hierapolis-Kastabala,ed. M.
Sayar,P. Siewert,and H. Taeuber.
SBWien 547. Vienna, 1989.
"Nuove
IHierapP iscrizioni di Hierapolis Frigia," by
: F. A. Pennacchietti. AAT l0I 0966-67\:
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IHierapR Hierapolis: Scavi e ricerche,vol. l, Fonti
letterarie e epigrafiche,ed. T. Ritti.
Archaeologia53. Rome, 1985.
IHistria - IGLSkythia I
IIA Imagines inscriptionum atticarum: Ein
Bilderatlas epigraphischerD enkmler
Axkas, by I. Kirchner. 2d ed. Ed. G.
Klaffenbach.Berlin. 1948.
IIasos Die Inschriften von Iasos,ed. W. Blmel. 2
vols. IK 28, I-2. Bonn, 1985. (Vol. 2
contains the corpus of Bargylia.)
i IIG Imagines inscriptionum graecarum
antiquissimarumin usum scholarum,by
H. Roehl. 3d ed. Berlin, 1907.
IIlion Die Inscriften von llion, ed. P. Frisch. IK 3.
Bonn. 1975.
"
IIIionSS Heinrich Schliemann's Sammlung
trojanischerAltertmer," by H. Schmidt.
Berlin. 1993.
428 | Abbreviations
IItal InscriptionesItaliae AcademiaeItalicae
Consociataeediderunt. 13 vols. to date.
Rome: Libreria dello stato, 1931-.
l. RegioL Fasciculusl, Salernum. ed.
Vittorio Bracco. 1981.
lll. RegioIIL Fasciculus1, Civitates vallium
Silari et Tanagri, ed. Vittorio Bracco.
1974.
Yll. Regio VIL Fasciculusl, Pisa, ed. Aldo
Neppi Modona. 1953.
lX. RegioIX. Fasciculus1, Augusta
Bagiennorum et Pollentia, ed. Antonio
Ferrua. 1948.
N4. RegioX. Fasciculus4, Tergeste,ed.
Pietro Sticotti. 1951.
)V5. RegioX. Fasciculus5/1-3, Brixia, ed.
Albino Garzetti. 3 vols. 1984-86.
XIII. Fasti et Elogia. Fasciculus2, Fasti
Numani et luliani: Accedunt Ferialia.
Menologia rustica, Parapegmata,ed.
Attilio Degrassi.2 vols. 1963.
IIznik - INikaia
Ilerusalem Die lateinischenund griechischenInschriften
der Stadt Jerusalemund ihrer nchsten
Umgebung,ed. P. Thomsen. Leipzig,
1922.
UG - IGIurid
IJudaeaMil Roman Roads in Judaea, vol. l, The Legio-
ScythopolisRoad, ed,.B. Isaac and I. Roll.
BAR International Seriesl4l. Oxford.
1982.
IJudDonateurs Donateurs et fondateurs dans les synagogues
grecques:Rpertoire des ddicacesgrecques
relatives la constructionet d la rfection
dessynagogues, ed. B. Lifshitz. Cahiers de
la Revue Biblique 7. Paris, 1967.
IludEg JewishInscriptions of the Graeco-Roman
Egypt, with an Index of lewh Inscriptions
of Egypt and Cyrenaica,ed. W. Horbury
Abbreviations | +Zg
and D. Noy. Cambridge, 1992.(Includes
indices for IJudKyren.)
IIudEur lewish Inscriptions of WesternEurope,vol. 1,
Italy (Excluding the City of Rome), Spain
and Gaul, ed. D. Noy. Cambridge, 1993.
IJudKyren Corpusjdischer Zeugnisseaus der
Cyrenaika, ed. G. Lderitz. Beihefte zum
Tbinger Atlas des vorderen Orients
Reihe B.53. Wiesbaden,1983. (New
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IIudRomL The Jewsof Ancient Rome, ed. H. |. Leon.
Philadelphia,1960.Updated ed.,
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IJudRomN lewish Inscriptions of WesternEurope, vol. 2,
The City of Rome, ed. D. Noy.
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IJurGr - IGJurid
IK Inschriften griechischer Stdte aus
Kleinasien. Bonn.
IKafizin The Nymphaeum of Kafizin: The lnscribed
Pottery, ed. T. B. Mitford. Kadmos
Suppl.2. Berlin, 1980.
Die Inschriften von Kalchedon, ed. R.
IKalkhedon
Merkelbach,F. K. Drner, and S. Sahin.
IK 20. Bonn, 1980.
IKalymna Tituli Calymnii, ed. M. Segre.Bergamo,
1952.Reprinted from ASAA 23-24, n.s,,
6-7 /1944-4s).
IKanais Le Paneion d'El-Kanais: Les insciptions
grecques, ed. A. Bernand. Leiden' 1972.
IKeramos Die Inschriften von Keramos,ed. E.
Varinlio$lu. IK 30. Bonn, 1986.
lKhargeh The Temple of Hib in El Khargeh Oais,
parr 2, GreekInscriptions, ed. H. G. E.
White and l. H. Oliver. Publications of
the Metropolitan Museum of Art,
Egyptian Expedition 14. New York, 1938.
IKhers Novye epigrafieskiepamjatniki Hersonesa
(New epigraphical monuments of the
430 | Abbreuiartons
Chersonesos),ed. E. I. Solomonik. 2
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IKhersGraff Grffiti antinogoHersonesa(Graf6ti of
ancient Chersonesos),ed. E. I.
Solomonik. Kiev. 1978.
IKhiosMcCabe Chios Inscriptions: Texts and List, ed. D. F.
McCabe and J. V. Brownson. Princeton,
Nl, 1986.
IKibyra-Olbasa An Epigraphic Survey in the Kibyra-Olbasa
Region,ed. N. P. Milner. RECAM III;
BIAAM 24. Hertford, 1998.
IKilikiaBM I Journeysin Rough Cilicia, 1962-1963, ed.
G. E. Bean and T. B. Mitford.
DenkschrWien 85. Vienna, 1965.
IKiIikiaBM2 Journeysin Rough Cilicia, 1964-1968, ed.
G. E. Bean and T. B. Mitford.
DenkschrWien 102; Ergnzungsbndezu
den Tituli Asiae Minoris 3. Vienna, 1970.
IKilikiaDF Inscriptions de Cilicie, ed. G. Dagron and
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IKlaudiop Die Inschriften von Klaudiupolis, ed,.F.
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IKlazom - IErythr
IKazomMcCabe Klazomenai Inscriptions: Texts and List, ed.
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IKnidos Die Inschriften von Knidos, ed. W. Blmel.
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IKoptos De Koptos Kosseir,ed. A. Bernand.
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IKorinthChr Corpus der griechisch-christlichen Inschriften
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IKorinthMeitt Corinth 8.1, GreekInscriptions, 1896-1927,
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IKosHerzog Heilige Gesetzevon Kos,ed. R. Herzog.
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Il(osHK Asylieurkundenaus Kos, ed. R. Herzog and
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IKourion The Inscriptions of Kourion, ed. T. B.
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l. Tituli Cretae mediaepraeter Gortynios.
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432 | Abbreviations
ll. Tituli Cretae occidentalis.1939.
lll. Tituli Cretae orientalis. 1942.
IY. Tituli Gortyn. 1950.
IKretChr The GreekChristian Instiptions of Crete,
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IKyme Die Inschriften von Kyme, ed..H.
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IKyprCh 'H
g1cic KnqoE eig rg'El.l.qvr.xg
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IKyprSalamMN The Greekand Latin Inscriptionsfrom
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IKyprSalamPRM Testimonia Salaminia: Corpus pigraphique,
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IKyrenAug Les dits d'Augustedcouverts Cyrne, ed.
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IKyrenFerri Alcune iscrizioni de Cirene, ed. S. Ferri.
AbhBerl 1925,5.Berlin. 1926.
IKyrenJud - IludKyren
IKyzikos Die Inschrifien von Kyzikos und Umgebung,
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L Grabtexte.IK 18. 1980.
Il. Miletupol: Inschriften und DenkmIer.
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ILabraunda Labraunda: SwedishExcavationsand
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lll.l. GreekInscriptions,part l, ed. |.
Crampa. 1969.
Abhreviations | +fl
lll.2. Greeklnscriptions,part 2, ed. f .
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ILampBN Lampesantiques de la Bibliothque
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l. CollectionFroehner. 1985.
lL Fondsgnral:Lampespr-romaineset
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"Les
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ILarissa - I9me
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ILegesSacr LegesGraecorumsacraee titulis collectae,ed.
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ILepsiaMcCabe Lepsia Inscriptions: Texts and List, ed. D. F.
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ILerosMcCabe Leros Inscriptions: Texts and List, ed. D. F'
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ILesbosSuppl Ai nrygoQai trlE AoBou: )upnl.fgorpcr,
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ILouvreD Inscriptionsgrecquesdu Muse du Louvre:
434 | Abbreviations
Les textesindits, ed. A. Dain. Collection
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ILouvreF Muse imprial du Louvre: Lesinscriptions
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lIS InscriptionesLatinae Selectae,ed. H. Dessau.
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lrs Inscriptionum latinarum selectarum
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ILydiaKP Beicht ber eine Reise... , ed. I. Keil and
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I. .. . in Lydien und der snlichenAiolis.
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IL . . . in Lydien. DenkschrWien 54.2.
l 9 11 .
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I. Der Sden. Ergnzungsbndezu den
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ILykianP
IM - IEgVers
IMag - IMagnMai
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'EmypaQE'Avo
IMaked Maxeovlcg, vol. 1,
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IMakedChr Recueil des inscriptionschrtiennesde
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'H
IMakedD Maxeovlcr v l,[Oor,EQ0eyrTop6vor,E
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IMakedO 'EnrlgcQci
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IManisaMus Greek and Latin Inscriptions in the Manisa
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Ergnzungsbandezu den Tituli Asiae
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IMaronlsis Une nouvelleartalogied'Is d Marone, ed.
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IMauer GriechischeMauerbauinschriften,ed. F. G.
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IMemnon Les inscriptionsgrecqueset latines du Colosse
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Bernand.Cairo, 1960.
IMessapic Nuovi studi messapici:Epigrafi, lessico,ed..
436 Abbreviations Abbreviations | 437
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C. Santoro. 3 vols. Galatina, 1982-84. d'arch6ologied'Istanbul 7. Paris,

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M6moires de I'Institut franais INubiall Inscriptionsgrecquesd'Egypteet de Nubie:
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Rpertoirebibliographiquedes IGRR, ed. Cappadocia:Relazionesulla seconda

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Il. Inscriptionesregni Bosporani. 1890.
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IPrag Greekand Latin Inscriptions on Stone in the
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IRhodFB The Rhodian Peraeaand Islands, ed. P. M.
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IRhodP Recueil des inscriptionsde la Pere
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IRomlud - I]udRomL
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442 | Abbreviations Abbreviations I u:

ISalamis - IKmrSaIamMN lSikilChr Sillogedi iscrizioni paleocristianedelln

ISamosMcCabe SamosInscriptions: Texts and List, ed. D. F. Sicilia, ed. S. L. Agnello. Rome, 1953.
McCabe, |. V. Brownson, and B. D. lSikilDial Inscriptionsgrecquesdialectalesde Sicile:
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ISamothr Samothrace:The Inscriptions on Stone, ed.. colonial, ed. L. Dubois. Collection de
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444 | Abbreviations Abbreviations | 445

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Qedem Qedem: Monographs of the Institute of Recueil - lAsMinChr

Archaeology, Hebrew University of Recueilinscr. Fayoum - IFayum
Ierusalem. REG Revue des tudesgrecques(Paris)
RA Revuearchologique ( Paris) REH Rwue des tudeshistoriques
RAC Reallexikonfi;r Antike und Chistentum ReiseLydia - ILydiaKP
(Stuttgart) ReisenKilikien - IKilikialf''lV
RACrist Rivista di archeologiacristiana (Rome, then ReiseNordostlydien - ILydiaH
Vatican Ciry) REI Revue des tudesjuives (Louvain)
RAL * Rendlinc REL Revuedes tudeslatines (Paris)
Ramsay,CBP Cities and Bishopricsof Phrygia, by W. M. Rendlinc Rendiconti della Classedi scienzemorali,
Ramsay.2 vols. Oxford, 1895-97. storiche e filologiche. Ser. V-VIII.
Reprint, 2 vols. in 1, New York, 1975. Rome. 1892-.
RArch -R RendPontAcc Rendiconti della Pontificia Accademia
RB - RBibl Romana di Archeologia(Rome)
RBArch Revuebelged'archologieet d'histoire de l'art RESE Revue desEtudessud-est-europennes
(Brussels) (Bucarest)
RBibl Revuebiblique (Paris) ResGestaeAug Resgestaedivi Augusti ex monumentis
RBPhiI Revuebelgede philologie et d'histoire Ancyrano et Antiocheno Latinis Ancyrano
Brussels. et Apolloniensi Graecis,ed. f. Gag6. Paris,
RC - Welles 1977. (Nouvelle collection de texteset
RD RevueHistorique de Droit frangais et de documents.)
tranger (Paris) Rev.de l'instr. Belg. - RIPBelg
RDGE - Sherk, RDGE Rev.Phil. - RPhiI
RE fPaulys] Realencyclopdie der klassischen Reynolds,
"Apollonia" - "IApollonia"
Altertumswissenschaft. Rev. G. Wissowa, RFIC - RivFil
ed. K. Ziegler. Stuttgarr, 1894-1980. RGDA - ResGestaeAug
l. Reihe (A-Q). 1894-1963. RHist Revuehistorique
2. Reihe(R-Z). l9l4-72. RhM RheinischesMuseum fi)r Philologie
Supplemente1-15. 1903-78. (Frankfurt)
Register der Nachtrge und Supplemente. Rhod. I - IRhodK
1980. RHR Revuede l'histoire des religions
REA Revuesdes tudesanciennes(Bordeaux) R1C The Roman lmperial Coinage,by M.
RECAM Regional Epigraphic Cataloguesof Asia Mattingly and E. A. Syndenham. 9 vols.
Minor London. 1926-5L.
RECAM I - IGalatN I RICM - IMakedChr
RECAM II - IGalatN lI RIDA RevueInternationale des Droits de
RECAM III - IKibyra-Olbasa l'Antiquit ( Brussels)
RECAM IV - IBurdur RIG -' Michel
Rec. inscr. gr. Egypte - IEgChr RIGSUp - MichelSupp/
462 | Abbreviations Abbreviations | 463

RIL Rendiconti dell'Istituto Lombardo, Classedi RobertNons Nomsindignesdans l'Asie Mineure grco-
Lettere,Scienzemorali e storiche (Milan) romaine,by L. Robert. BAH 13. Paris,
RIPBelg Revuede l'instruction publique en Belgique L963.
(Brussels) Roberts-Gardner An Introduction to GreekEpigraphy,by E. S.
RivFil Rivista de filologia e di instuzione classica Roberts and E. A. Gardner. 3 vols.
(Turin) Cambridge, 1887-1905.
RivLF Rivista de linguistica y flologica clasica Roman Docs GreekEast - Sherk, KDGE
(Madrid) Rm Mitteilungen des deutschen
RM * Rm archologischenInstituts: Rmische
RN RevueNumismatique (Paris) Abteilung (Continuation of
Robert, Collection - ICollFroehner Bull.dell' Instituto. )
Froehner RmQSchr RmischeQuartalschriftfr christliche
':
Robert, EtAnat 6,tudesanatoliennes: Recherchessur les Altertumskunde und Kirchengeschichte
inscriptions grecquesde I'Asie mineure, (Freiburg)
by L. Robert. EO 5. Paris,1937. Rough Cilicia IKilikiaBM I
Robert, EtEpPhil Etudespigraphiqueet phitologique,by L. Royal Corr. * Welles
Robert. BE}{E 272. Paris, 1938. RPAA Rendiconti della Ponfficia Accademiadi
Robert, Hellenica Hellenica: Recueild'pigraphie,de Archeologia(Rome)
numismatique et d'antiquits grecques,by RPhiI Revuede philologie, de linraire et d'histoire
L. Robert. 13 vols. Amsterdam, then anciennes,n.s. (Paris)
Paris,1940-65. RQA - RmQSchr
I. By L. Robert. Amsterdam, 1940. RRMAM - IAsMinMil
II. By L. Robert. Paris, 1946. RW ReligionsgeschichtlicheVersuche und
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IY. Epigrammesdu Bas-Empire,by L. Sahin,BSr - lBithSahin
Robert. Paris, 1948. Sammelbuch *SB
V. By L. Robert. Paris, 1948. Samml. Griech Dial.-Inscr. - GDI
YI. Inscriptionsgrecquesde Lydie, by L. SardisYII, I - ISardBR
Robert and J. Robert. Paris, 1948. SA\AIM - SBWien
VII. By L. Robert. Paris, 1949. SB Sammelbuch griechischer Urkunden aus
Ylll. Inscriptions en langue carienne: Agypten, ed. F. Preisigke,then F. Bilabel,
Monuments de gladiateursdans I'Orient F. Kiessling,H.-A. Rupprecht.vols. l-
grec.by L. Robert. Paris, 1950. 2I. l9l5-73. Reprint, vols. l-2, ed. J.
IX. By J. Robert and L. Robert. Paris, 1950. Bingen. Gttingen, 1952-61. (Collection
X. By L. Robert. Paris, 1955. of documentary papyri, inscriptions, etc.
XI-XI. By L. Robert. Paris, 1960. from Eglpt published in journals and
XIII. By L. Robert. Paris, 1965. unindexed catalogues.)
Robert, Lesgladiateurs - Gladiateurs SBAk.Berlin * SBBerl
464 | Abbreviations Abbreviations | +OS

SBAW * SBWien 26-39. Ed. H. W. Pleket and R. S. Stroud.

SBBerl Sitzungsberichteder [first preussischen,
thenl Deutschen Akademie der
Wissenschaftenzu Berlin, Philosophisch-
historischen Klasse
SBHeid Sitzungsberichteder Heidelberger
Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Philosophisch-historischeKlasse
SBLDS Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation
Series
SBLeip Sitzungsberichteder SchischenAkademie
der Wissenschaftenzu Leipzig
SBMnch Sitzungsberichteder bayerischenAkademie
der Wissenschaften,Philosophische-
historische Abteilung
SBWien Sitzungsberichteder sterreichischen
Akademie der Wissenchaften in Wien,
Philosophisch-historische Klasse.
Schindler - IBubon
Schwertheim,I. Kyz(iko) - IKyzikos
Schwyzer - DGE
scl Scripta ClassicaIsraelica: Yearbookof the
Israel Societyfor the Promotion of
ClassicalStudies( Jerusalem)
sco Studi Classicie Orientali (Pisa)
Scriptorium Scriptorium: Revue internationale des tudes
relativesaux manuscrits
SDHI Studia et Documenta Historiae et Iuris
(Rome)
sD/ - GDI
SEG SupplementumEpigraphicum Graecum
l-11. Ed. l.l. E. Hondius et al. 1923-.
12-25. Ed. A. G. Woodhead et al. Leiden.
-t97r.
Indices to vols. Il-20, by G. Pfohl. Leiden,
t970.
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Alphen aan den Rijn, then Amsterdam,
r979-92.
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Roozenbeek.Amsterdam, 1990.
sE/G SacrisErudiri: Iaarboek voor
Godsdienstwetenschapp en ( Steenbrugge,
St. Petersburg)
SEHHW Social and EconomicHistory of the
Hellenistic World, by M. Rostovtzeff. 3
vols. Oxford,194I.
Selectiongr. hist. inscr. * Meiggslewis
SERP Studiesin the History and Art of the Eastern
Provincesof the Roman Empire, ed.
W. M. Ramsay.London: Hodder and
Stoughton, 1906.
SGDI - GDI
SHAW * SBHeid
Sherk,RDGE Roman Documentsfrom the GreekEast:
SenatusConsuhaand Epistulae to the Age
of Augustus,ed. R. K. Sherk. Baltimore,
1969.
Sherk, TDGR TranslatedDocumentsof Greeceand Rome,
vol. 4, Rome and the GreekEast to the
Death of Augustus.Cambridge, 1984.
SI InscriptionesAtticae: Supplementum
Inscriptionum Atticarum, ed. A. N.
Oikonomides. 5 vols. to date. Chicago,
t976-.
l. 1976.Reprint of Defixionum tabellae,ed.
R. Wnsch (1897) and of studiesby W.
Peek and G. Stamiris.
Il. 1979.Reprint of studiesby I. Hondius
(1923-27).
lll. 1979.Reprint of IG IIl.2, nos. 1363,
1383-87, 1428, 3435-47; of De titulis
Atticae christianis antiquissimis, ed. C.
"Early
Bayet (Paris, 1878); and of
Christian Epitaphsfrom Athens," ed.
466 | Abbreliations Abbreviations | 467

f. S. Creaghanand A. E. Raubitschek, Sokolowski I . LSAM

Hesp 16 (1947): r-54. Sokolowski II -. ISCG
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Acropolis. 1984. Namenbuch,by H. Solin. 3 vols. CIL,
V. Ostracaand tablets. 1984.Reprint of Auctarium. Berlin, 1982.
studies by E. Vanderpool, f. H. Kroll, Solmsen - IGDial
and W. Peek (seelAthKeram). SPAW - SBBerl
SIBD Syllogeinscriptionum Boeoticarumdialectum i Spiegelberg Agyptischeund griechischeEigennamenaus
popularem exhibentium, ed. W. Larfeld. Mumienetiketten der rmischenKaiserzeit,
Berlin, 1883. by W. Spiegelberg.IGAeg 4. Leipzig:
SIBoet Syllogesinscriptionum Boeoticarumparticula, E. J. Brill, 1901.Reprint, Chicago:Ares,
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SIFC Studi italiani di fililogia classica.Florence. ss - IIlionSS
slc' SyllogeInscriptionum Graecarum,ed. W. StAmst Studia Amstelodamensia ad epigraphicam,
Dittenberger. lst ed. Leipzig, 1883. ius antiquum et pappologicam
SIG' Syllogelnscriptionum Graecarum,ed. W. pertinentia.Amsterdam, 1972-.
Dittenberger. 2d ed. 3 vols. Leipzig, StClas Stud Clasice:Societateade stud clasicedin
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t9t5-24. Stlesfun. Byzance - IByzEpit
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SIGLM - IMakedD Sterrettl4/E The Wolfe Expedition to Asia Minor during
SIMA Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology the summer of 1885,ed. J. R. S. Sterrett.
SIRIS Syllogeinscriptionum ReligionisIsiacaeet PAS 3. Boston. 1888.
Sarapiacae,ed. L. Vidman. Religions- StPap Studia Papyrologica
geschichtlicheVersuche und Vorarbeiten StudiaPontica,lll,I - IPont
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Sitz.Bayr.Akad. - SBMnch MYAQNAN. 2 vols. Athens, 1986-87.
Sitz.Berl.Akad. * SBBerl SubEpig Subsidia epigraphica: Quellen und
sitz.Heid.Akad. * SBHeid Abhandlungen zur griechischen
Sitz.Wien.Akad. * SBWien Epigraphik. Hildesheim, 1972-.
Smallwood - DocsGaius SuppIt SupplementaItalica (Rome)
Smallwood - DocsNerva Syll3 - SlG
SMEA Studi Micenei ed egeo-anatolici.Rome. Sylloge - SIG
so - SymbOslo SymbOslo SymbolaeOsloenses,auspicsSocietatis
SAw * SBWien Graeco-Latinae(Oslo)
:s
= s
:is ;i r : s
E:E'ssE
E ; Es s : S
sSEi r :;Fqst:-st: *; s
r i *s E
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si t ; g g ,; !4 : $s*:$Eis;ns-E
E . $ ni : i . - t:-t : i ; i { ? s " i i i E
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j!iiii r* r r isE-EE=iFtr#SE*,$oE*,$

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Sr :$i E
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470 | Abbreviations Abbreviations | 471

Threatte,Grammar The Grammar of Attic Inscriptions,by L. C. B. Welles.New Haven, 1934' Reprint'

Threatte.2 vols. Berlin. 1980-96. Chicago,1974.
TIB Tabula Imperii Byzantini WienAnz * AnzWien
Tituli Tituli: Pubblicazioni dell'Istituto di WienStud -WS
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dell'Universit di Roma Alt ertumswissenschaft Wrzb ur g,
TK Texte und Kommentare t946-50, NF,1975-.
Tod A Selectionof GreekHistorical Inscriptions WolfeExped. -* SterrettW'E

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TrkArkDerg Trk arkeoloji dergisi vorderenOrients, by H. Wuthnow.
Trsteine Die kleinasiatischenTrsteine: Typologische Studien zur Epigraphik und
und epigraphischeUntersuchungender Papyruskunde 1.4. Leipzig, 1930.
kleinasiatischenGrabreliefsmit Scheintr, WVDOG WissenschaftlicheVerffentlichung der
ed. M. Waelkens.Mainz, 1986. Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft
Tyche Tyche:Beitrgezur Alten Geschichte, WZKM Wiender Zeitschrift fr Kunde des
Papyrologieund Epigraphik (Vienna) Morgenlandes
UPZ Urkunden der Ptolemerzeit(here Funde), vcs Yale ClassicalStudies
ed. W. Wilcken. 2 vols. Berlin, L927-57. Yedioth * BIES
VDI Vestnik Drevnej Istor: Revued'Histoire ZAS Zeitschrift ftir gyptische Sprache und
ancienne(Moscow) Altertumskunde. Berlin.
VigChr Vigiliae Christianae ZDMG Zeitschrift der deutschenmorgenlndischen
von Prott & Ziehen - ILegesSacr Gesellschaft
Wadd. * LBW ZDPV Zeitschrift des deutschenPalstina-Vereinr
Waltzing Etude historiquesur lescorporations ZfN Zeitschrift fr Numismatik
professionnelleschezles Romains depuis les ZgustaKO KleinasiatischeOrtsnamen,by L. Zgusta.
originesjusqu' la chute de l'Empire, by Beitrgezur Namenforschung21.
J.-P. Waltzing. Brussels,then Louvain, Heidelberg,1984.
r895-1900. ZgustaKP Kleinasiatische Personennamen, by L.
I. Le droit d'associationd Rome. 1896, Zgusta. Prague, 1964.
lI. Les colhgesprofessionnelsconsidre ZgustaNB Neue Beitrgezur kleinasiatischen
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lll. Recueildes inscriptions. 1899. Disserationesorientales 24. Prague:
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Welles Royal Correspondence in the Hellenistic ZgustaNS Die Personennamen Stdteder
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Period: A Study in GreekEpigraphy, ed. nr dli chen Schwarzmeerkste,by
474 na", of Greek Terms Index of Greek Terms | 475
|

'Aoxl"r1nLog, pou),q,2.03 (fre.7), 2.09,4.17,8.01-08,

voOolg,9.05, 12.06 Anl"l.orv, 0.10,4.06,4.07.2,4.09, 4.04,4.07.2,7.1I (fig. la),
&vOqpo,9.04, 10.02,10.03 7.11,10.02-03,10.05(fig. 2r), 12.05, 10.05 9.06,13.01-02
vox,{qu[6, 9.03 13.03 , 4 . 0 8 1, 4 . 0 9
o d q 1 q g , 1 3 . 1 11 Bol.qpo,8.01
vl,opo, 8.10,9.06 &nl.oyog,13.11 onLeiov, 9.06 Bol"opor,9.06
,vcrnauor,E, I1.02 nol"or,12.06 otu, 7.08 Bqetcvvrx9, 5.13.4,5.13.11,(no. 53)
&votoolg, 9.06 norelvo, 7.13 oruvpog,13.01,13.08,13.11'14.01, Bgpu.og,4.07.2
&voriOqpl, 1.11, 2.06 (table 2), 7.12, or[oTrpo(t),/.u/ 14.09 BoFog, 11.02,11.07,12.01
9.04,10.00-05,12.03 nor/ryqpo,7.07 oul.icr,9.03 BorpoSul.oxio,11.02
&vqcyo0'r.c,9.01 noti,vor: &,nteloo,I 1.07 &oQl.er,cr,9.03
&vqLaE,7.18,9.06 norg1o, 12.06 &tl.er,o,9.03 yopppg,11.09
veifiov, 9.05 n6Qcrorg,8.01 tel.tg, -Lg,12.06 y'-vqoE,2.06 (table2),14.09
&ver.oQoqi,o, 9.03 noQ0ivro,11.01 ayouq, 14.09 yevrl0loE,-o, -ov, 11.06
&venl1gcrQor,, 7.18 no1elqorovi.a, 13.01 AyouoteCov, 14.08 yevtqE,11.04
&v6QonroE,12.05 &nq6oxonog, -ov, 11.03 crroxqroq, 2.05, 5.13.1-2, 5.13.4, yevvo, I l.0l
v0lvog, 9.05 &nr,a, 12.05 s.r3.7, 7.08, 14.09 y6qoweg, 13.01
vOog,4.09 AqcrBrrg,5.13.4,5.13.1I (no. 54) ot1Oov, -ov, 10.04 yegouoia,4.17,9.01,11.06,13.10
&vOn<rrog,2.06 (table 2), 5.13.9,7.08, gygrov, 12.05 &Qor.qor, 9.01 yegouor,g1r1g, 11.08
14.01,14.05,14.09 qerr1,9.05,11.00 Qeor,g,9.03 y6vog,11.05,12.05,13.08
'AqIg,11.00 yn, 9.01,9.03
&vi.orr1pr.,
9.04-05 &Qr,eqto,10.01
&vtoglrov, 14.09 Aqr,yvr1,10.03 Qi,4pl,12.01 yrlqoxto,I1.01
&vrr.yqoQf,8.01 &qr0p6g,7.ll AQgoi,tq, 10.03,10.0s yivopcn, yeyathg,4.17
vrilqoQov, 8.10 grotog, -rl, -ov, 4.09,5.13,5.13.11, (no. yr,voxtrr,yvov, 8.07
vtrorgnrlloE, 2.06 (table 2), 14.01, 3 5 ) ,1 1 . 0 0 Bo0qrltv,11.01 yl"o,pi.eg,0.06
14.03,14.09 qtrr6vcr, 12.06 p-vqr.xg,2.06 (table 2), 14.09 yl.uxrcrog,-I, -ov, 11.03,11.07
vrr,roprlcrE,14.09 qpi, 13.04 pao.eg,2.03 (frg.7),2.06(table2), yl"uQeio,0.06
vrog, 4.09 &q1ciog, 2.06 (table 2), 2.06.1 6 . 0 1 ,1 3 . 0 5 1 , 3.11 yvirrl, 8.05, 13.04
'AvouB6,
7.16,10.03(fig. 19) g1eicr,r, 0.07,11.06 Boolleo, 6.01 WorE, 2.06 (table 2)
vBqtorog, -ov, 10.04 q1QIBog,13.ll Baoi,l,loocr,13.11 y v o E , 4 . 1 71, 1 . 0 9
&vun6r.zog,-ov, 12.05 q1lorqE,13.08 pcroxovlcr,4.16 yqoppcL0.10
noq1"4,10.04 dqlfoxo}"og, 10.02 pcrorcr[ol, 10.04 yqcrppgr.o,2.06 (table 2)
nerpl, 11.01;ni.ovtoS,2.06(table 2); qp.ger,cr, 13.08 pBoroE,-ov, 12.05 yqopporeE,0.07,6.01,7.13,8.01,8.04,
pqvg nr,wog,6.04 &q1r.eqeg, 2.06 (table 2), 5.13.5, BeBoLrrrtqq, 12.05 t3.02, 13.o4,13.11,14.07
nel.e0egog, 2.06 (table2),5.09 s . 1 3 . 1 11, 3 . 0 8 1
, 4 . 0 7 - 0 9; Q X . BevCg,4.05 lqcrppcrtetl, 8.04, 12.05
&nel.euOeg<o, 12.01 pyr.orog,2.06 (table 2),5.13.5, BeveQr.xrlrgrcE, 2.06 (table 2) ygoppatlottrg, 6.01
nel.l,, 13.00 5.13.11 (nos. 21, 28, 29, 42, 44-45, 48, p l o r ,1 1 . 0 0 1, 1 . 0 1 ygoppotoroxatrog, 13.08
&n6q1opor,, 11.00 52-54,60-61,65, 71, etc.),11.08, pr"Ouvlq1qg,13.04 yqarrE, -i, -u, 9.05-06
n1to, 12.05 14.01,14.09;q1. novtl$lxorv, 14.01; B i . o gs, . 1 3 . 1 1( n o . 2 9 ) , 1 1 . 0 0 1, 1 . 0 4 , ya+ot,l,0.09,7.r4
&ni1v4,9.01 qX. qtfrs'Aoi,o,g, 14.07 12.05,13.08 lupvooraqlto, 9.04
pl.6nor,I1.04 -og, 7.13, 13.09,I 3.I I
&n6yovog,5.13.3 g1leqoovq,13.1I, 14.09 lupvoolcrg11g|
&noyqogor, S.Ot &qy,0laolteor,6.01 (fig. 12) po40g,2.06 (table 2) yuvarzovpoE,l3.ll
noeivupr: noeerypvog,5.13.6 q1r,nqpoul,og, 6.0r, 13.02,13.11 Bor.tr,oE/-torg, 4. I 8 yuvi1,4.17,5.07,I l.0l
noitopr,9.01,10.03,11.06,12.04-05 g1lnqrcrvlg,6.01, 13.07 Bol.crq1oE, 6.01, 13.02,13.11
&noOvfoxor, 11.04 gllouvoytoyE, I1.08 poul.eurfiqlov, 8.06, 13.02 clprov, 11.03
dnowLa, 14.07 g1nxrov, 13.08,14.09 poul"eurf g, 2.06 (table 2), 8.01, 13.02, crxqo,I1.01
dnoxo.9Low1,pl,7.l2 q1t'rv,2.06 (table2), 6.01,6.03,7.13- 1 4 . 0 3 1, 4 . 0 9 crxrutrog,2.06.3
nxqr,po,8.01 8 1 , 8 . 0 6 ,8 . 0 7 ,1 2 . 0 5 1, 3 . 0 4 - 0 5 1, 3 . 1 1 , [3ou].eurrxriv,14.00 apog, 4.09
n6l.l,upr,,11.05 14.09 poul.tixrr, 12.05 -vgeg,2.06 (table2), 14.09
476 | nAr* of Greek Terms Index of Greek Terms 477
|

oncrvor,9.05 lxcrovpoE, 14.01 eipqvcqlqE/-oE,13.08,l3.l I vOe,0.07,2.06(table2), 4.r7-18,

onovq,11.02 lxor,oovq,11.07 eiqqq, 9.03, I1.08 I 1 . 0 1 ,1 1 . 0 8I,1 . 0 9
gvq, 9.05 rxaotfqrov, 12.01 eiE,15.04 vloor,o,11.07
eivo, , 1.02,1.ll-12 (table1) i,xq,2.03 (fig. 6), 12.0s eiooyyl,l.o, 8.06 vlourg, 6.00,9.03,9.05
einvov, 9.03 r,xttrrrq,5.13.11(no. l), 14.09 eiocryoyf, e.03 von),og,9.06
excrog1og/q E, 14.03,14.09 loixlolg,8.10 eiorlyopo6 8.06 vro0Oo,11.01
exngtotog, 14.06-09 Arovolo, 1,4,9.04 eiorl^yqtfg,8.01 wcQr1,11.01
exq, 10.04 Arvuoog,4.07.2,8.07,8.11, 10.02, eion).oog/-nl"oug, 9.03 w6l,elo,9.03
expour,gol,14.09 13.08,14.07 eionolrlrg,7.13 wo)"f,8.01
exouqiov, 14.07,14.09,cf . 14.03 iog, -a, -ov,2.06,a.09;(irg) eionoqeopor, 7.07 w o p i E ,1 1 . 0 1
el"roygoQqpa,8.01 p(vfoug), 2.06 (table2), 11.03 eioorq, ll.0l i.w69,7.07
evogr,o,2.08 loxougol,4.04 e'-xof.-ri-vqog,2.06 (table 2), 14.09 woOOcr, ll.0l
eonr1g,2.06 (table 2), 2.06.1,5.13.1l, LE,4.17 6zcrrovg1r1g, 2.06 (table 2), t4.04, vnlov, 12.03
(no. 57), 14.09 r,to.ypei.ro,l, 13.08,13.1I 14.09 loyoryfi, 9.03
o, 11.03 6ypo, 8.01, 8.05;6ypo oull,frou, 6xorovcrqlicr, 2.06 (table 2), 14.04 faxol"ou06or, 7.07
qpoq1[a, 14.09 7 . 0 1 ,8 . 0 1 'Exo:rtog,4.O6
lpr1voE,6.03, 12.05
qpoqlrxil louoi,o, 2.06 (table 2), ox6to:e10or.,8.08,9.01;r xBoporor,g, 11.01 !on6l.exuE,14.01,14.05
5 . 1 3 . 86, . 0 1 ,7 . 0 8 lowo, 9.05; o[e(v), 1.04, 1.11, xyovog,5.13.3,9.03,11.02,11.07,11.09 leivo, 9.01,9.06,11.06
npoq1og,0.07,l3.ll, 14.01,14.09 2.03 (fig. 7), 8.07,9.0r-02, 9.06 xr,xoE,2.06 (table 2), 13.11,,t4.09 [ercrotfig, 13.11
Aqprlqp, 4.23 ouxqvqr,og,14.02,14.09 xo1e9,-e0g,6.0l (fig. 12) [qyr1r4E,1a.09
qpr,ouq1g, 6.01, 13.04,13.07,l3.ll o0l.og,2.06.1,4.22,5.08,I1.08 xOepc,8.01 louoi,cr,2.06 (table2), 5.13.8,6.01,
r1trroxl"{g, I1.00 o01, 14.09 xrl,qolcr, 13.01-02; 6xxl.qoio xuqlcr, 10.04
qpoE,1.04,2.03(fig.7),2.06 (table2), SoXpt, 0.10,1.07,2.08(table5),2.09, 1 . 1 1 , 6 . 0 9 , 8 . 0163, . 1 lo16rorog, 9.01
4.19,9.01-03,9.06,10.02,11.00, 7.13,9.05,17.01 xoneig, 0.06 ll"Ig, -es, 9.01
13.01;r1pog'Popalorv,2.06 (table 2) uo,vqrxE,14.09 xou6otgqg, 14.09 nolvor,8.08,9.01
qpoor,og,-0,,-ov, 0.07,7.14, lO.O1, uvcrrg,-q, -ov, 12.06 xnLoog/-nl,oug,9.03 no,lvoE,9.03
I 1.00 <oqe,2.06 (fig.8), lo.o2 l"cnongo1og,13.1I novoq0rrrrai, 14.06-09
loygoppc, 8.01 qov, 9.04, 10.02-.03 l"or.6vol,13.08 nogxei,or,/-or, 14.00
loyqoQ{, 8.01 l.eu0eqlcr,12.03-05 noq1oE,14.01,14.05,14.09;n.
r,cOfxq, 7.06, 11.07 61- (for dx-), 15.10 l.eOeqog, 12.01 yoqdg, n. Aiynrou , 14.02;tn.
r,cxovog,2.06 (table 2),2.06.3, 11.09, y- (for v-), 15.07 ),eOeqo,12.01 criqopiou, r. l.er,pwov,14.01;n.
l3.ll yxouolg, 0.09 'El,l.fvr.oE,"El.l"4v (ethnic),
4. 18 ),qE,n. eu0qvi,og,n. xl"oor1g,n.
ro),.yto,8.06 yxcrgr.E,0.09 pB),rpog,pBoILpoiog,6.03, 6.06 Ieyr,vog,r. oullo),urv, n.
looqptorog, 9.01 poneE, 0.06 pnoglg1qg,13.11 vur.ctoQulaxv, n. oitov
r,ao<i[to,10.05 yxrqolE, 9.03 pnoqos,6.01 (fig. r2), 10.02 moxonv, n. ngcu,tolgi,ou,14.02;
rarcrypcr,8.01 11eqitto: Bvelelqroev, 10.01 v- (for y-), 15.07 ll.'Ppqg, 14.01;n. or,r4geoiou,
r,oro[r,g,8.01 og,10.03 v- (for p-), 1s.07 14.02;n. olroperqi,ou, n. oi,rou
lore),<o, 9.01 0l"o: 061.<o,12.06 vo.vila, 12.02 oeorg,14.01;n. ole[q4E, n.
r,crS6qor, 11.01,I 1.05 eioi, 6.05 voyevfig,12.05 orolou, n. orqcrreuprov/
lorpL,2.06.3(frg.8), 9.03,11.05; eiov, 11.04 voEl-ov,7.07 orqatonorv, n. royl^lotog, | 4.02;
e10al, 8.08, 9.01;o0vcu.,8.10 eixoot (vqeg),14.0r,14.09 dvolorrrog, 2.06 (tab\e 2) n. tapLelou, 14.01;n. fl1g o)"rlE,
mlor,ztg,8.10 eixtv,8.10,9.04,9.06 vexcil-xty, 9.03, 9.05, 11.00;pvfiprqE n. rdrv oquQqotv,14.O2;tn.
rrlvexfg, 9.05, 11.00 eip|,7.14,lo.o3; oto, 9.ol vexo,I1.03 ltiqrqg, 14.01
lE Mvforg,2.06 (table 2) einovlev/-orv, 8.05,9.01 v6gyeltr,0.07 nel, 8.06,9.01
rxcnor1g,14.01,14.09 eineq, I1.02 dveXeiqLoev. Seey1elpiltr nerf, 2.03 (frg.7), 8.06,9.01
478 | nat* of Greek Terms Index of Greek Terms | +ZS

neloplfopor,,4.06 g.SeeeiE (xogoE, l3.ll OeooepfE,2.06 (table 2)

nq1opar,,8.06 oooqr,ov,I l.0l (ur, 2.09,I1.00-05 0eot6xog,2.06.3
n{xoog,2.06 (table2), 10.05 6or'r.c,,I 1.02;xolvil 6otlcr, 9.02;' Ear,Lct, Zeg,2.06,10.03;r9, 4.04,10.03;r.i, 0eou6og,2.05
ni, t:.08; nl too elvog,6.01,6.03, 10.00 2.06 (table 2) 0eqrv9,-i1, -6v, 6.03
7.r2,7.13,9.01 o1go,11.02 lr1pi.o,(opi,cr,12.05 0 6 o 1 9I,1 . 0 1
nr.^yevvoo, 10.05 reqog,-a, -ov, 11.06 [orygaQio, 2.06 (fig. 8) 0eopo0ror, 13.05
nlyqcrQt, 9.0s lo9,2.06 (table 2), 2.09, 6.00,6.08, [oq, 12.06 Oeoqooxlo, 9.02
rulyqQo,9.05 , 1 . 0 4 1, 1 . 0 7
9 . 0 4 ,1 1 . 0 1 1 Oe<ogoxol, 7.13, 9.03
nrqpo,9.03 euolg(gog, 10.04 fiyeprovlo,2.06 (table 2) OeoqE,-oL,2.03(fig. 6) 7.r3,9.03,
nr0org,9.06 euovrqg, -eg, 10.05 i1yeg,v, 2.06 (table2), 6.01,13.11, 13.05
Enwg,|t{UD,4.20 euyeveg,9.01 t4.01, 14.04,14.05,t4.09 0iyq, 2.06.3,7.07,I 1.01,I 1.08
Bnrxcrpn{{1,xmp"ntort, 7.I3 eeqyeoi,o,9.04 fiyopevog,14.09 Oqocrugg,10.03(fig. l9)
'TIl,roE,
nLxl,qotg,4.20 eueqy6tqg,5.13,9.00-04 4.04,5.13.1,5.13.1I (no. l5) Oicroog,7.02,7.06,7.10,7.13,8.07
nixqryo,8.0l euOqvdglqg, 13.11 i1pqo,2.06 (table2),2.09 06l.o9, 13.02
9.06, 11.06
npel.()otrr,cr., exorgov,8.12 ilpr,rrrp1'tov, 2.08 (table 5) 0qppcr,11.02,12.00
nrpel.ltfg, 0.07,0.14,6.01,I 1.07, euxoopla, 13.08 ilouoxdrog, 2.06 (table 2) 0gntog/-ov,4.17,4.22,l l.0l-02
'Hgoxlrerog, -a",-ov,
13.02,13.11,14.09 eul.o^ylo,2.05, 10.05,11.08 7.07 Ogrltog,4.17
'Hqoxl"e g/-xl.e(r.)rqE/-xl.erog,
nrpqvrc<o,13.02 zupoqo,11.03 4. 18 Ouyrr1g, 2.06 (table2),4.17,5.07,10.05
'Hqcxl.{g,
nr,voplo,9.03 ruvoio,9.04, 11.03 4.06,10.03,11.07 0uyorqonoicv: xor 0uyctgonotcrv,
nful.lcr, 9.03 evoug/er.rvoog, 9.01 f t q Q v ,1 1 . 0 1 4.17
nr,oqx<o,7.ll EooE,4.07.2 i t S , i , o n1, 1 . 0 1 1
, 1 . 0 5 1, 1 . 0 9 0up1.1o,11.02
ninvora, 10.03 euo6Ber,o, 9.05 rigtog,iqots, ftqorivq,11.03 0uola, 9.03,9.05
nr,oxeuc,lo,7.18,10.01 zuoepi1g, -6E,0.14 (fig. s), 2.05,2.06 0ro,I1.05
ri.oxorog,I 1.09,l3.l I (table2), 5.13,5.13.11(nos.46, 50- 0l.oooo, 9.03
nioropol, 9.01 sl, s3, 56, 59-60,65-66,68), 7.08, Ocrl"l.E,
9.05 L'-vgeg,2.06 (table 2), 14.09
nlorrr1E, 0.14,6.01,7.10,7.13,8.01, 10.03(fig. 18), 11.03 OcvotoE, 2.03 (fig. 6), 7.07 icrrgi,vq,10.05
13.02,t3.ll zuoeptng,9.01 Ocrnt<o,7.07, 11.00,12.05 icrrgg,2.05,4.06
nlotol.f, 8.01 eutevfg,7.13 0ogoro,11.04 iroE,-o, -ov, 7.11,9.06,10.01,11.02,
nltcry{, 10.03 eurulol,11.03 0qoog,11.08 I1.05.
nlroypa, 8.01,10.03 zutu1i1g,-69,0.14 (fig. s), 2.05,5.r3, Oatqov,9.03, 12.01 irtDraL,12.05
nnqqo,9.01 5.13.11(nos. 55, 56, 59,60, 65-68), 01.o,12.06 ioi, 6.0s
nlrgoaog, 2.06 (table 2), 14.02,14.04, 7.08;euruleotq, 6.01 Opo,I l.0l igro,10.01
14.05,14.09 eulaqlot{1qrovfcr, 10.04,10.05 0e6nrrorog,2.06 (table 2) re'-vgeE, 2.06 (table2),14.09
nr.1er,qotovo, 9.01 eu1qr,otog,9.01 0egfoi, 2.03 (fig. 6),2.06 (table2), ieg, rcr, l.oz
7.10, 13.01
nr,1er,qotovi,cr, zu14, 10.0a 2.06.2-3,7.1I (fig. 14),7.r3, 7.r7, leqonl.og, 13.l I
n[1quoog,9.06 e1opor. 2.06 (table2), 10.01,10.05 9.01,9.04,10.01-05,11.04-05,12.03, ieqeE,iqeLa,6.01,7.11 (fig. ru),
nnpl$i[or, 8.01,8.05,8.08 eurpul6or,11.03-04 12.05;as an invocation, 7.12-13,8.03; 1 2 . 0 5 1, 3 . 1 1 1, 4 . 0 9
nr.rfqQwt{19,8.01 QFLI)"og,-ov, 9.01 Oeot ui9, 5.13.3;0eoig oipoor,,2.06 iegeo, 9.04
EnotxLct,14.07 Qnrto, 12.05 (table2); 11.03;OeoigdiqtooLv, 11.03; iegou),og,12.03
qcrvog,7.02,7.10, 8.07 dQtBcrglog,13.11 0eoCgxcrtcrl0ovior,E,2.06 (table 2), ieqo0ureiov, 9.02
qylopo6 10.01 S{Berov,13.08 11.03,11.05;0eoig ncrrqiorg,10.03; i e q o O r q g , 6 . 0113, . 1 1
gycrrlotct6co,9.05 Qqpos,13.10 Oegrpr.orog,7.13, 10.03;OeoCE iegv, 16, T.07,8.t0,9.05,14.07
qyenr,otaqg,l3.ll Qr,nnog,9.06 10ov[or,g,2.06 (table 2); OeQ l e q o n o d g ,0 . 1 0 ,6 . 0 1 ,7 . 1 3 ,1 3 . 0 8 1, 3 . 1 1 ,
pyov,7.18 Qoog,8.01 Bo10o0vrr,2.06 (table 2); xor 0ev, r4.09
'Eepltg, Q o q o E , 6 . 0 1 ,3 . 0 4 1, 3 . 1 1 1, 4 . 0 9 6.02,6.03;pvupcr toE OeoE, 7.11; ieq9, -a, -ov, 0.07, 7.13, 10.03,12.05;
4.07.2,7.09, 10.02-03; 6qlr.r;g,
qpircr,7.09 1o: [er.otQ ngg tv @ev, I1.05 noq 0eQ, 10.02 r [eq, l.o:
480 | Index of Greek Terms lndex of Greek Terms | 48 |

legotoy.i.a,13.02 xorooulropg, 12.05 x<ipqE,2.06 (table 2), 14.09 l . e u x gl,. l l , 8 . l 0

iegoQowqg,13.1I, 14.09 xcrta0nttrl, I l.0l xoppewqLa, 2.06 (table 2) l.ov, 4.10.1,11.01
'I1oo0g,
2.05,2.06 (table 2), 2.06.3, xor Oev,6.02 xuiqrcn, 14.04 etg,4.10.1
'h1oo0E xotcrxelpol, I l.0l none9,0.06 Ifyo: pqvg l,fyowog, 6.04
I1.05; Xplotg @eo0Yi6g
)trrtfig, 2.06 (table 2) xotalreinto, 1l 00 xnoE,11.02 l.qpvloxog, 9.05
iOuixr1E,9.01 xotcrl.oyol, 13.02 xoqaolg, 10.04 l\ryatog, 4.07.2
il.oqoE,-o, -ov, 11.05 xotcoxeunlto, 7.12, 11.02,| 1.06 xoqlrov, 12.05 l.qvE,11.01
ipnepotop, 2.06 (table 2),14.09 ,{,0r<ro?{eurl, 9.06; 1quooO gyqou x6qr.l"l.o,ll.0l l.[0rvog,-q, -ov, 0.09,1.11,8.10,9.06
ivr,xti.t'rv,2.06 (table 2), 6.01 1alxo0 1oq[etog xanaoxeu\5, 2.06 xoop4re<o,7.13 l.r,0olyog,0.06
'Iouoiogfo, 11.08 (table 2) xoopqrfg, l3.l1 l . i 0 o g ,l . l l , 8 . 1 0
[rn<ig1qg,6.01,13.11,14.09 xora106vr,og. SeeOeg xoopi,roE,I1.00 l,r0otpoE,0.09
innrxv t1po, 14.00 xcrtolguoo0v, 7.16 ropo1,8.10 l,r.0ouqyc,0.05
innog, 9.06 xotor,xro,I l 0l x6opog,8.07,11.00,13.04,13.11 l.r0ouqyg,0.06
'Ior,g,
4.04,4.07.1,10.00,10.03(fig. 19) xororxio, 13.01,14.07 xoucri.ororq,14.01,14.05,14.09 l"lxrorg, 14.09
ioorl.eL<r, 9.03 xoorqcr,I l.0l xouarrqoulq, 14.09 l,lnocrqzog,-ov, I 1.04
iorqpr,, 9.03;iotopvou trrfvog,6.03-04; xeipar, 2.06 (table2),4.17-18, ll.0l, xouqtoq, 9.04,14.01,14.09 l.irqo, 2.06 (table 2)
orQoor,8.10,9.06 11.07 xqrr,orog,2.06 (table2),9.01 l.oyr.orfig,13.11, 14.06-09
xevrqvcrgroE, 14,02, 14.09 xqqni.E,11.01 lo.yog, 11.05
Koperqor,,4.04 xewuqlo, 14.04 4ipo,8.01 l"or,ng,-f , -ov, 9.04
xcr0cu,go,2.05 xewu girov, 14.04, 14.09 xrL\a,7.12 l.o0ol, 2.06 (table 2)
xcr0rep, 8.09 Keqapeig,4.18 xr,X.,1.12(table l) l.ourqv, 13.08
xo0opg, 9.01 xqeupv, 14.01,14.09 xurvexlpour,g,14.09 l.olcryE, 14.04, 14.09
rcrOlyepv, 8.07 xqetrl,11.05 xuglcr 6xn].qoicr,8.06, 13.01 l.uxrcqlqg, 13.03
xo0leqo, 9.04, 10.01 xr1opou11.06 xgrog,2.05,2.06(table2), 2.06.3,9.00, xr,og,5.08
xoOiorqpr,;xo0eotap6vog,5.13.6 xqguxrg, 9.05 10.03(fig. 18), 12.05-06;xuqlo,7.11 l"p1,11.05
xcrOooro<rr, 2.06 (table 2) x Q q u l , 8 . 0 1 ,1 2 . 0 1 1, 3 . 0 4 1, 3 . 0 8 xdrprl, 10.03,13.01 l.nr1,4.11
xo[, xsi, 4.14,4.20,5.0b xrl,log1qg, 13.04 r<oponol,lg,13.00 Li:otg,7.07
KcCoop, 2.05,2.06 (table 2), 2.06.3, xivuvog, 10.05 zprog,13.08 Loo,4.11,7.07
4.22,5.13.2,5.14.4,10.03(fig. 18); xnr,og,9.05 x<oprpg,13.08
tog rtlE KoioogoE vix,qg,6.08 xi,<ov, 1.11,8.10 xtovoo0l",2.06 (table 2), 14.01,14.09 p,yeqoE,2.06 (table 2)
Kcroger.ov,KcrLocrgelo, 9.04, 14.08 rLooqE, 2.06 (rable2) pcryr.orqr.cvg, 14.09
xaxog, -1, -ov, 11.05 xl,qgovpog, I1.02 l,oyxvol, l"1ouorv, 9.01 pcrylotqog,14.09
rcrxE, I1.05 xl.qgoul[o, 14.07 InpBcvor, 7.07, 12.06 p c 0 q r i 1 g , 7 . l 81, 1 . 0 8
xol.ovoi, 6.05 xorpopol, 11.09 l.opnoq1r1g,13.08 poxeovroqlqE, 13.03
xol"<o,5.06,9.03, 12.01 xoi.pr1olg,I 1.01 I 1.08 Lcrtrrnqrorog,1.07,2.06 (table 2), 9.01, pnxgo,ll.0l
xol,E, -r1,-v, 7.11,7.14, 11.03:' xolp4rqqlov, I 1.01,I 1.07 9.06 McvgoE, Mvqo, 4.07.1
xnl,l,lorog, -q, -ov, 9.04 xorvv,4.24,6.01(fig. l2), 8.07,8.10, lo9, I1.08 povio,4.05,4.ll
xcpqo, xapgrov, 11.01 9.04,13.00,14.07 ),crqvo[,4.17,11.01 poweio, 10.03
xopaqr,ov,11.01 xowtrvol, 2.06 (tab\e2) l.crfeurilgro, 0.05 pcrgpog[vr1,9.06
xapa"tog, ll.O2 xor,tv, 13.08 l.crr6plov, I l.0l poqpoqoE,0.05
xo:pni\og,7.l3 xol.lro, 10.05,12.05 l,crt6proL,0.05 poqrug, 12.05
x -QXtl,2.06 (table2),14.01,14.09 xol,cm{q,0.06 Leyrv, l.eyev, 2.05,2.06 (table 2), peyol.orgen6ot anog, 2.06 (table 2 )
xarcoer,g,7.16 Kol,l.ute g, K}.),urog, 4. 19 t4.04 peyol.oQqvoE,9.01
xcteopor,,7.16 xol"ooolxil, 9.06 l,ytrr,8.05,9.01; l,eypevog, 4.20, 5.06 pyogov, 10.02
xoralx(to, 2.03 (fig. 6) xIolv, 10.02 )"eiaL,0.06 prycrg, pey},q,pyo, 10.05;pyroroE,
xataoul"lfor, 12.06 xol.orvlcr,2.06 (table 2),9.04, 14.07 l.eLroupylc,9.01,13.04,13.09 -1, -ov, 9.04-05
482 na"* of Greek Terms lndex of Greek Terms | +S:
|

pvo, 12.06 vedxoqog,9.0a (fig. 15), 13.1I, 14.08 qyerirvoL,7.1O,8.07 naqorxo, 4.04
8.10, I 1.04 vetoaoi.oE/-qg,7.13,8.10,13.08,13.11 gxog,7.I l, 8.I 2 ngoLxol,4.04
trr.eqi[trr,
peoo, 6.04 vlxcrto, 10.04 pvr0dE,4.09 nooyrr, 10.05
7.ll (fi9. U) vlxq, 6.08 po;,7.07 notdlq norql og, 2.06 (table 2), 4.17,
;rercrn6pn<o,
per<rri.Or1pL, 9.01 vopr(pevo,t, 11.07 oroOfxq, ll.0l 5.13.10,5.13.11(nos. 16, 21, 29, 45,
pler10r,11.06 vopoyqcrQog,13.11, 14.09 oueig,11.04,11.08 66),7.08, 14.09
p6tor,xor,4.18,5.02,12.00,13.05 voploeittqg, 13.11 oetgovg,2.06 (table 2),14.09 ncrtpr,crqlqg,2.06.3
pqOeig,-Oepla, -O"t,7.07 vopor,oxol.og,I 1.08 ouqf .l"crriov, 2.06 (tabIe2) nc,rpov6pog,6.01, 13.1I
pqpoglov,I 1.01,I 1.08 vopoOq9,7.10 oulyoul.eg,2.06 (table 2) rdrqtov, 9.04
pfv, 6.03-04, 6.08 vopopOqE,11.08 our,xouqog,14.09 natgtilvutrlog,4.17
Mfv, 4.04,4.07.1,7.10,10.03,11.05 vprog/-or,,7.10,8.01,9.03,9.05,13.01 oqoviog,-o, -ov, 11.05 no<o,4.11,11.00;pqvgnouopvou,
pfrvlg,4.05,4.1I vopoQl.ol,13.11 Q(Q)rxrdl.rg,2.06 (tabIe 2) 6.04
pip4q, 0.la (fig. 5), 2.06 (table2),4.r7, voupqvio, 6.04 nt\txi1,9.06
5.07;M{tqq, 4.04,10.01,10.03-05; NpQn,4.04,4.07.3 nolglov, 12.05 fleqoreg,4.19
prprlq xotqov, 2.06 (table 2) ncnovpoE,13.11 nl"cryog,10.05
pryqaol.r,g,2.06 (table 2),9.03 (fig. ls) 1bvo9,4.04,5.02 rolorqr.Bo, 7.13 nl.ro, I l.0l
-0,,2.06(table 2), 7.08 loteg, 0.06 nolorqlBqg,13.11 fleqyoiog, 4.18
trri,Lr.ov,
pr,)r),i,o,gtov, 7.08 !uotfrqeg, 0.06 nolarolg: xor ncrlorolv,4.17 ntpL, 7.07,9.06;negi. riv, 8.06,9.01
pr.pvi1oxotrr,or., 2.05,2.06 (table 2), 7.02, nil.l.og, I l.0l neqlB].entoE,2.06 (table 2)
7 . 1 l , 9 . 0 1 ,1 0 . 0 2 Bol.69,2.06 (table 2),2.08 (table s), naig, 4.I7, 9.03,11.01 neq[Bo].o5, 7.07,7.12
pr,o0orti1g, 13.11, 14.09 17.01 nal.or,orgorr,drr,rlg,2.06 (table 2), 14.09 neqmol.cg14g,l3.ll
pvd,2.08 (table5), 17.01 oicr:ei<l1g, 9.01,11.04 nol.ororgoQIol, 13.1I nepLrve1c,7.13
pvoicr,11.00,11.03 oizo, oixo0vrnE,4.04 rl"og cr, 2.06 (table 2) ni}"og, 2.06 (table 2)
pvfipa,7.07,I 1.01,I 1.03,I 1.08 oixlo.,7.07,9.03,10.03(fig. l8) nopQul.r,oqplE,13.03 nwaxtov,12.05
pvqpetov, 2.06 (table 2), ll.0l-02, oixolevilg, 12.05 flv, 4.04, 10.05 nivo!,,8.10
11.06-08 oixoop6or, 2.05,2.06 (table 2) rovqyugq14g, l3.ll nrore<o,12.05
Ilovoqplrqg, 4.18 nr,otg,-rl, -ov, 11.01,11.03
pvqpl: pvi1trrr1g 1oqr,v,2.06 (table 2), oixoOev, 9.05
l 1 . 0 2 - 0 3 ,1 1 . 0 9 oixovpqpo, 8.01 no,vroxgdrtoq, 2.06 (fig. 8), I 1.05 nl"tc,E,I1.01
pvqpqr,ov,11.01, I 1.08 oixov6pog,2.06(table2), 11.01,12.00, nnog, 11.07 nl,eiotog, -q, -ov, 9.04
pvqpouvov,11.01 13.02,13.11,14.09 ncrgy1el.pcr, 8.01 nl.fl0og, 9.04
p v o g 1 o g , 6 . 0 ll,3 . l f o?xog,2.06 (fig.8), 10.00;oixriv v,4.18 noqcrylvo;ror,,8.06 nl.rlppel.f g,o, 2.06.3
Mo0oal,4.04 oixrfiqr.ov,11.01 ncqcriopr,7.13,I 1.00,I 1.05 nl.oCov,9.04
p10o9,9.01 6xcil,4.20 ncrqcrpvro,12.05-06 noOto,11.02
Mrpog, 4.23 l,oopotog, 9.06 noqapov{, 12.06 no#.a, 4.17, 7.ll-12, 7.14,7.18,9.01,
puqioqlog, 13.01 l,upnr,crg, 6.08 nogopu0lrlxdE, -I, -v, 9.02, 11.00 10.02,10.5,11.02,11.07,12.05
'Ol.pnroE,4.07.2 naqcro4pcrlvopau7.13 nolqor.g,9.06;xar noLqorl, 4.17
puqnE, pqr.ol,2.09
puoulgi.arv,13.08 o p v u p r ,/ . r r ncrqcrotcrtlnv,I 1.0I no).6pcrp1og, 2.06 (table 2), 6.01, 13.05,
voq, 10.03 nogooleiv. Seencrg1ro t4.09
Na[i,rq,8.01 vqolg, 9.01 noqaruylovro, 12.05 nl.epog,2.06,9.03
vog, 0.07,9.06, 14.07 vopo, 4.02,7.1I, I 1.05-06,12.05-06; nagcrQl.al, 13.08,13.l I n)*9,2.06(tabIe2),4.17 ,7.08,9.01,9.06
vq01[, ll.0l Oeo vpr,orcr,4.08; 0eoQqo nper,pr,,9.03 no),woq1qg,6.01,13.04,13.1I
voxl.qqoE,6.01 (fig. 12) vpota, 4.03 noq1o, 9.05,12.05 nol"Ltei,cr,9.02
veovi,oxoE,13.10 al.ov, t n)"o, 9.05, 11.00,13.05 flcrq0rxg,5.13.4,5.13.11(nos.38, 42, nolirqE, 5.02
vaonor,oi,,13.08 nog,9.01 44-45,52-54) nol.r.toyqaQoE,13.I l, 14.09
v o g ,- c r ,- o " r , 4 . 1 7 , 5 . 1 3 .51. ,1 3 . 1 1( n o . gopcr, 10.03 flaqLog,7.18 nvog, 10.05
l5), 6.04;vol, 9.01,13.10 pooLE,10.05 ncrpoirqc, I 1.03-04 rowq1r1g, 13.03
484 Index of Greek Terms Index ol Greek'l'erms I laS
|

nopi(trl, 11.04 ngE:nqg tv Oev,11.05 2 ) , 5 . t 3 . 4 ,1 0 . 0 3( f i g . l 8 ) , 1 4 . 0 1; r o s v0ncrtog,orq. lon)"exug,14.01,

nqog, 10.01 nqoo61opol, 9.05 Xepcrorv,6.08, 10.04;Xepoorol, 2.05 14.04,14.07;otq. ncrtog, 14.01
Ilooelv, 9.01,9.05 nqooeul{,11.08 (table2),2.06.3,9.04(fig. l5); orqotro, 11.00
flooerorvlootcrl,6.0t (fig. 12), 7.18 nqoozvqpo,7.ll XepoorEMyr,oroE,2.06 (table 2); orqcrrlrqE, 2.06 (table 2)
notryqQo, nqooyqQto, t2.06 nqooog,8.01,8.06,9.03,11.02 Xep. o, XeB.rqeig, 2.06 (table2) orqtnyog, 8.06
notrtootrr, tqoorcrootrr, 12.06 nqoonaqalru: p.67.13 ot,op.ol,7.17 org6pcl 10.03,11.01
xrouE,/ .v / ngdotcrlprcr,8.01, 10.03(fig. 19) oepvotrog, -q, -ov, 9.06 ouyxl.4tr,xE, 14.09
ngoyporeutilg, 2.06 (table 2), 2.06.1, rqorofilg, 8.01 oeloylvq r.og,| 4.02, 14.09 oyxlqtog, 7.01,8.01,13.01,14.04,
5.08,12.00,14.09,l3.ll, 14.09 npoorcrrqg, 0.07, 6.01,9.04, 13.02, o{pa, 7.07,11.01 14.09
flqoroi.rcv,2.06 (table 2),2.06.1 1 3 . 0 4 1, 3 . 1 1 1
, 4 . 0 1 1, 4 . 0 9 otqapBog, 4.12 olxqouotov, 1l 0I
rpoi,ttrrg, 14.01, 14.05,14.07 ngooQLl.fig,-g, 11.03 or,qqt,a,0.05 oul.o, oul.6o, 12.05
nqolQexroE,2.06 (table2),14.05, ngooQog, 2.06 (table 2) Xr,vr,og,4.18 oIq, 9.03,ll.0l
14.09 nqotonov,4.0, 9.06 Xr,xe(Ig),4.18 opprog,2.06 (fig. 8), 4.r7, s.07,I1.09
agcrxftpoE,-ov, 12.05 nqoreqolog, -c, -ov, 12.06 olrqor,g,9.03 ol.pol,ov,7.14
nqoooorhgrr,a, 7.07, 9.01 rgregov, 4.20,5.02 o r t v q E , 1 3 . 0 8l,3 . l l ouppcrlia, 8.12,13.00
nqeoBe9,14.07 ngoti.011pr., 8.06 oworvlxv 1qlpa, 13.08 oupporqE, 10.02
nqeoBeutilg,2.06 (table2),9.05, I3.ll, ngorop{, 9.06 oxoQ{, ll.0l oupQpo,9.01
14.01,14.09 nqoler,qotovi.c,8.01 ox6ncrqvov,0.06 ouv- - oup- (15.07)
ngeoBregog,2.06 (table 2), 2.06.3, nquroveicr, 6.01, 8.04, 13.02 oxilvog, I1.04 ouvayory{1,11.08
I 1.09;aqeoBtarcg, 9.02 npu'rove0ov,9.03 oxoti,o, 11.00 ouvaqllo, 13.01
nqi,apol, 12.05 ngrovr,g,-er,g,6.01,7.13, 8.05, 13.02, oxorl"trrolg,2.06 (fig. 8) ouvq1ovreg, 13.07
rqr,ponll.qLog,2.06 (table 2) 1 3 . 0 41 , 3.07-ll, 14.09 oxuropuqeg,9.06 ovBloE.SeeopPr,og
nqrponil.oE,2.06 (table 2) nqtotetov,2.06 (table 2) ooeg,11.01 ouvlxog,13.11
nqlv, 4.17,4.20,5.02 ngrrrrxoop.oE, 6.01 oneiqol, 14.04 ouvqr,ov,13.08
ngiorv l.r0onqlorqg, 0.05 ngorol.yoE, 6.01 oner,gogqog,13.08 ouv6gog,l3.ll
nqocrnorqg,12.05 ng6tog, -r'1,-ov, 7.13,9.03-04, 12.05, onovai,, 8.12 ouveqyaoicr,9.06
nqoBol,eupa,8.01 13.05;netog nL)"og,2.06(table 2) otLov, 2.08 ouvOflxot,8.12
rqoBoul.eo, 8.01, 13.02 flroiog, fItCooE,4.07.2 orotilp, 0.10,2.08,12.01 ovOqpo,7.14
ngBoul.og,8.05,13.02,13.11 ll'(:Orr,g,4.07.2 Xrer,gr,e9, 8.05 ovoog,4.24,11.01,13.01,13.10
ngyqcrppo,8.01, 13.02 nu[i.lov, 12.05 otevoloqicr, 9.06 ouvorxi,<r,14.07
ngoygaQ{, 2.03 (fig. 6), 8.01,13.02 nuqi.cr,I1.01 otesovdlQoqog,4.09, 6.01, 13.03-04, ouwel,<o,9.05
nqolqQo, 8.06, 12.05 norl,ro,12.06 13.1 owqoQoE,11.09
nqorx[o,9.03 otQcrvog,9.05, 11.00 )unol{trlog, 4.19
aqoeg[o, 9.03 9' (qoppa),2.09 oreQavto,9.05, 10.04 oQor,qrotilgtov,I3.08
nqeqol,8.01,13.02,l3.l I ore$ovortlx6v, 11.06-07 orplor, 10.05
'PoBBi,,11.08 otoxoporov, 12.05
nqofyogog, 2.03 (fig.6) orfitrq,0.06-07,0.09,4.17,7.16,8.10;
nq0eorg,8.05 QoBo01oE, 14.05,14.09 orrl)"qv l.r.0ivr1g, 0.10, 8.10 orirpcr,12.05
'Pr.og/-'r,o,
4.18 oropotoOfxq,ll.0l
nqOupog,9.01 ou.Bg,Il.0l
nQo[9,/.u/ Qoeqg,g,11.07 oriypa, 2.09 otor{q, 2.06 (table2), 5.13,5.13.11(nos.
'PcoprcrioE,
10.02,10.03(fig. 18) 11,43)
ngxqLrog,14.07 orou,7.09
nqopcrvteicr,9.03 orolp&9, I 1.01 ootqqla, 9.02,10.05
npopo'tgtog,I1.00 Xoqonlg, 4.04,8.00,10.03(fig. 19) orgataqlqg, 14.01 oorQqvo4,11.00
ngopvqpo,11.01 !epcroteCov,14.08 orqat4yo, 9.04 orrrQgoovq,11.00
rqolevicr, 9.03 Xepcrorf,0.la (fig.5), 10.03(fig. l8) orqctqyg, 2.06 (table 2), 2.09,6.01,
rglevog, 9.03 oepoordg, -f, -v, 6.08 8.01,8.05,8.06,13.04-05,13.06, r a y 6 g , 1 3 . 0 41, 3 . l l
npoLxog,l3.ll XeBcorg,l.la (fig. 5),2.o5,2.06(table 1 3 . 0 7 - 1 11, 4 . 0 1 1, 4 . 0 4 1, 4 . 0 9o; r g . rcrrvic, tcrlvilov, 9.05
486 Index of Greek Terms lndex of Greek Terms | 487
|

rl.avtov, 2.08 (table 5) rgr.po0vog, 2.06(table2), 14.01,14.09 Q0ior: p1vg Q0lvovrog, 6.04 XoglE,9.01; pv{pqg/pvelag 1grv, 2.06
raplog, 0.07,6.01,7.13, 10.01, 13.02, rqiE, 5.02 Q.vrol.og,I1.08 (table2), 11.00,11.02-03,11.09
13.04,13.11,14.01,14.04,14.09 tqltrg,4.19,13.02 gLlla,8.12 lcrqlor{qlov, 10.00,10.04,10.05
r<rpwiov, 14.01 tgonor.o01og, 5.13 Q.l.aog,I1.08 lcrqroul.glog, 2.06 (table 2)
rog.retrr, 12.05 rqoQg,12.00 11.08 ler.peqr,vE, -{, -v, 6.03
QLl.vopog,
ToqovtivoE, 9.03 rqQcrxtog, 7.07 I1.04
Qi.troE, 1r,1,[oq1og, 14.01, 14.09
ra0rcr,11.04 rquScro,11.04 Qll"oopcrorog,9.01 X[<ov,9.04
toli,crg1og,14.01-02, 14.09 tuylnvor: reuEe, I 1.02 Q"ooQog,9.04 1ol.co,I1.05
toQf,ll.0l dpBog,ll.0l-02 QLl.oorogyicr,9.04, 11.03 1qfipcrcr,7.13,9.03,10.01
roQog, 2.06 (table2); rQq, 11.01 rupBoqullcr,11.05 Qrl.otrptrr,9.00, 9.01 XQrloprE, 10.03,11.04
rolicrglog, 14.01 runco,0.07 Qrl.orr.pla,9.00 1gr;orE, -on, 11.01,11.03
-tl,
rer.p4rfiE Seerr,plrltilg ruyr1,4.16,7.10 (fig.l3), 8.03,8.07,9.01 Qr.),tLpog,9.00 lqlotr,ovg, 11.09
rixvog, 2.06 (fig.8), I1.02 QLl.orlprrrg,9.00 lqrotog, 2.05
'Yyi.en, 10.05 Xglorg, 2.05,2.06 (table 2), 2.06.2,
t6xtov, I1.01 Qioxog,11.06
r e l c r p d v ,1 . 1 1 , 8 . 1 0 uioOeolo, 2.06(table2),4.17 2.06 (table 2)
Ql,cpr.v),r.oE, 11.05,11.09;Xqtotv Moqia yewQ"
tel.eio, 9.05 ui9,2.06(table2),4.17,5.01,5.10, Qogog, 9.03 2.06 (table 2)
r L r o r g , 8 . 1 0I ,1 . 0 2 5.13.3, 10.03,12.06;ui.poutrr1g, ul. Qqoupevtgr.og,2.06 (table 2), 14.09 lguoE, 9.05,11.00;1quoo0 &qypou
tel.eurdor, I l.0l yegouotog, ui. {pou,4.17; ul. 0eo0, <Dqyrog,Ogl (ethnic), 4.18 lcrl.not laqoleoE xaro,oxeu\9, 2.06
tel.tll,9.01, 10.01 5.13.3; ui. n6\zag,4.17 Qul.azi1,2.03 (fig. 7), 9.02 (table 2)
t } , o E , 8 . 1 01,1 . 0 4 ur(l)voE, f.rr.J Ql.cg1og,14.01,14.09 1qa, 9.02
rpevog,14.07 nq1o, 9.03,9.06,11.00 Qul"ooor,11.05 lorqeni.ozonog,I1.09
retcrgtqgoqlov, 2.08 (table 5) narelo/natLs, 2.06 (table 2), 6.01 Qul.rr1g,9.04 x(l)Qlov,/.u/
terqy<ovog,10.02 norog, 5.13.6,6.01,7.08,14.01,14.07 QuIf, a.19, 6.0r,7.r3, 13.02
retgngapov, 17.01 ne, 10.2;n. eu14g,n. tqg oqoe<og, $aq,4.r7 VnQiEo, 8.08,9.06,11.01
rl-tqo:xq,4.l7 n. ot:tqqicrg, 10.05;n. riv, 8.06 rffiQr.opa,0.09-10, 2.06 (table 2), 7.01,
t6tqclpov, 17.01 n4get<o,8.10, 10.04 1o[g<o:yo ipt, 2.06.3,11.01,I 1.03 8 . 0 1 ,8 . 1 0 ,9 . 0 2 ,9 . 0 6 ,1 1 . 0 0
reul.euttrl,11.01 nqgqs, 14.01,14.04,14.09 1cr),xeoE,-o, -eov, 11.00 rlrqQog,8.01
relvCrol, 8.07 aBoor.E, 11.01 yo,)"xtg,4.17
ti04pt, 9.04 nyer.ov,I l.0l 1cr)"x4,i1,7.16,9.06
{rnoyupvoolcrpXng^oE, 7.13, 13.l I vfi, v, lz.os
rLxtlol. txouoov, 10.03 lcrl,xougyro,7.18
11.00 qlvqrog, 2.06 (table 2)
rr;ldor/-or, 4.06,7.13,9.01,9.04,I1.00- n6er,ypr<r, 1cl.xoog,6, 2.08 (table5),4.17,17.01
natog, 14.09 grc, r, 12.06
01 Xotr,ooerov,11.01
rLpf, 4.09,9.O4,12.05 nlxog, -ov, 9.01 lcrqcrooor,0.07
rlpqttlE/telpqt \g, 5.13.9, 5. 13. I I (nos. trnorelpcrr,I1.06 1og[(opcr, 9.05 \(sampi),2.09
21,26,29), 14.01,14.09;crivtog npv1pcr,11.01
rlprltf g, 5.13.9 noogr,ov,11.01
rrpo01og,4.09,13.04,l3.l I nonelqov,11.01
Tloi.g, 4.18 n6otcror,g,8.01
t6rog, 0.06 n6orq, ll.0l
r6nog, 11.01,11.08;tnog vcrncroeoE, oreqog, -o, -ov, 6.03
11.01 rprotog,2.06; Oegrprotog,2.06 (table
roqpcr,2.06 (table 2) 2),7.rr,10.03
rgoyq6E, 9.04
rqne[o, 11.05 Qalvopat,9.01
-6v, 9.01
tqone[itr1g, 10.02 Qoveq6g,-,
rpexLvcrprog, 14.02, 1 4.09 gltr'r, 12.01
 lndex of Creek
PersonalNames

This index excludesRoman personalnameswritten in Greek(e.g.,Agfl"r,og),

namesof months. and demes.
'ABooxcrvtog,
4.16,4.22
'A0qvrogog,4.07.1
'Aycr0avqog,
4.10.1
'AOqvoxtrflg,4.06
'Ayo04r1q, 'A0ugpo,4.21.2
4.16
'Aya0ogog,4.10-11 Aiovri,19,4.13
'Ayo0noug, Aicrw6ogoE, 4.07.1,4.07.3
4.16
'Ayo09, Aiyuntlo,4.21.1
4.09
'Ayo06ru1og, Aiymogl-a,4.22
4.16
'Ay0ul.Iog, 4.I 0.1
A iveoi,r1trr.og,
4.09
'Ayol.pn/-p,crrlov,
4.21.2 Aio6ogoE,4.1I
'Aynq,'
Ay nqto", 4.21.2 Aioqnog,4.l2
'AynnroE,4.22 Alolqlov, 4.21.2
'Ayyel.lorv,
4.09 Aiolul,og,4.06
'Ayye?tog,4.09 'Axogvog,4.09
'Ayvoyqog,
4.10
'ALelp,evog, 7.17
'Aptogog,4.09 'Ale[vqog/-ct, 4.17,4.21.1,
5.08,9.04
'AyvoE, (fig. 16)
4.09
'AyoqcrOfivarog,
4.06
'Al,lxg,4.15
'AygeoQv, 'A),xr.pnry,4.17
4.12
'Ayqol"tov,4.10.1 'Al"xr,p6orv,9.04
'A{qr.roE,
4.12
'Al"xi.otgcrtoE,9.04
'AupoE,4.12 'ALxurit,4.2l.2
'Aelpvqorog,
4.10.3
'Al.Qe9, 4.12
'A0fivcLog,
4.17
'Apogoxi,g/-xivq, 4.O9,4.21.2
'A0qvc[E,
4.21.1
'AprOum6g,4.09
'A01voyvqg,4.17 'Apqr,pvog, 7.02

489
 lndex ol'()reekPersonalNames | +St
490 | nar* of Greek PersonalNames

'Appi.o,4.20 'Aq16poulog, I'l'uxtrtgog,4.1I orqOeog, 4.12

4.10.1
'Ap$i.oqog, 'Aq1ttr,pog, 10.05 Fvqoia, 4.02 tnqogf ig, 4.10.2,4.21.1
4.l l
'ApQi,Io1og, 11.00 'Aaiu, fvlloprl,4.22
4.15,4.21.1 'Ep[xrr1roE,10.05
'Avc,otcrolog, 'Aantw6g, 4.77 foqyol.<ov, 4.10.1
5.04 "EpqoE,
'Avgdyo0og,4.10.1 'Aoxl.qnr,crqg,2.05,5.06 fouq<rg,4.12 4.12
'Avq6crg,4.20 'Aaxlrpiag, 4.21.1 Eipoxtriog, 4.06
'Avqrxg, 'Aoxl.qnr,oqag, 4.16 opuirl,og,4.09 Eipcrxog, 2.05
4.15
"AvOwog,4.22 'Aono,oio,4.2l.l Ael,$ls, 4.21.1 EigqvoioE,4.09
''Av9og,4.22 'AoanE, 4.12 evrouqpqE,4.12 Eioryvqcr,4.04
'Av0ouoo, 'At0lxE,4.15 el[o1oE,4.10.2 Eior,yvr1E, 4.04
4.21.1
'Av0ul.l.oE, 'Artpqr.og,4.22 Aeov0g, 4.04 Eioloqog/-o, 4.04
4.09 'Excrroxl,ouE,4.06
'Awlpcg,4.20 'Arqoylog, 4.10.2 Ar1'r.}.tov,
4.10.1
'Avti,toqog,-orog, 4.11,4.19 'Arnx9, 4.15 'E},euolvr.og, 4.02
Aqiolog, 4.10.2
'Avol.6tov, 4.10.1 'ELtxv,4.22
AyouotoE,-ot",2.06 (table2), 5.11, Arll.rx9,4.15
'Avrlo1i.g,4.18 'Ei.i.E,4.21.1
5.13.4 Aqplcr'lvetog, 4. I 0.1
'Avru1"l,og, 'AQOvqrog,4.16 'El,nrr1Qgog,11.03
4.09 r1p4tqi.og,4.16
'AlLoE,4.12 'AQqo(e 'El"ar,[zq,
Arlpfitqrogf Lcr E, 4.02,4.04,4.17, 4.20, 11.03
)iolo gl -'ta,4.21.1,5.06 'Eno[r1or,E,4.16
'A[io1og, 'A1or9,5.10 4.23,8.Ol
4.10.2 'Enr,16tov/-l.crog,4. I 0. I
'A\Ll:cp"a,4.21.2 'Alrllegltg, 4.07.3 Aqpoy6vlE, 6.01
'An(g, 'A1},oqog, 4.07.3 'En'lver.xog,5.06
4.16 Aqpoo06vr1g,4.07.2
'Anol.l.6oqog,4.06,4.07.1,4.17,4.19, ',A.1qrog, 'En[reuypo/-t euytg,4.21.2
5.06 royqoE,4.06
'Enr,rv1crvog,10.05
10.03(fig. 19) Aiupog, 4.05
'An}.},<ov, 'Eqoomnog, 4.10.1
4.05 ALolvr1g, 4.06,4.07.2,4.17,71.01
Bap1.1*oE, 5.08 'Eqaor.og,4.22
'Anol.l.6vr,oE/-t"a,4.05,4.21.1 r,orog,4.07.1,4.I8
'Ago0oqoE, 4.09 Ba\ag,4.l2 'EgpoioE, 4.05
r.toqoE, 4.07.1,4.18
'Aqqnuqog,4.12 BqBcl, a.l3 'Egpovlog, 4.10.2
Aroxl.frE/-qg,4.04,4.06,4.09
'AqnE,11.00 BcrqvBcrE, 4.20 'Eqp<rnlov, 4.06
Ar,optqg, 4.04
'Aqi.orovqog, 4.09
Baor.l,eir19, 'EqpoQgnog, 4.06
7.18 lvr,xog,4.04
'Aqr,oreivo, Bcrorl"eg,Bcro[]"eog,4.09 'Eqp4g, 4.05
5.7 Arovouo'r,a,4.04
'Aqiotrov, 4.21.2 Ber0dg,4.12 'Egpicrg,4.05
Alov0E, 4.04
'AglorqpoE,4.10.1 Bfgul.l,oE, 4.09 'Eqpox [xog, 'Eqpoxaiolv0og, 4. I 3
rovoegpoE, 4.12
BropqlE,Bro1196,4.12 'Eqpol.ovfl,ooE, 4. 10.I
'Agroroxl.o, 10.05 Ar,ovuolog,4.16
Boiaxo,4.27.2 'Eprng,4.22
'Aqr,otol"cov,4.10.I rovorog/-L E,4.04,4.05,4.16,6.01
'Aqiotul"l"oE,4.09 Bovr,Qotg,5.04 'Eorr,oolQoE, 4.07.1
(fig. l2)
'Apptr,ov,4.21.2 B6on<ov,Boonqr,x1og,4. 13 [og, 4.04,4.05 EoygoE,4.10
'AqpovloE, 7.02 BorguorqoE,4.l l 'rul.)"oE,4.09 EoypoE,4.10.3
'Aqrepcry6qcg,4.10 Boul.aygttg,4.18 Ltrrvrouortogog, 4.04, 5.09 Ea0l.og,4.10.3
'AqreperE, Bol.og1og,4.10.1 r,qr1g,4.04 Ecrl.zi.qE, 4.18
4.05
'Aqrepei,orog, Bqc1ul"l.og,4.09 Aof g/-cr,4.16, 4.21.2 Eovgia, 4.21.2
11.02
'Aqrep{9, 11.02 Bq1ug, 4.09 Aog[rvOog,4.12 EBoixE,4.15
'Agrepi<ogog, Bqe0xog,4.09 L.or;,4.21.2 Eyewlr.vl-og,4.12
4.04,4.07.1,4.20
'Agteprg,'AgteptetE,4.05 Bqu[og, 4.12 AqcrxvrroE,4.09 Eoitrrov,4.10
'Aqteplor,og,-lo, 4.05,11.02 Agltrog, 4.09 E o 4 o g , 4 . 1 04, . l l
'Aqrpov,4.05 le}.or,og,4.09 A,p6pov,4.22 Exr{p,orv,8.05
'Agropotlvrllptr,ov, 4.09 f),Qupov, 4.21.2 Apr1pa,4.21.2 E0uprog,4.02
492 | lndex of GreekPersonalNames lndex of GreekPersonalNames ll.'.z
E?'orcg,4.12 @etrrqoE,4.02, 5.04, 10.05 Kalrru1oE,4.16 ,lto;xrur.v,4.22
EpqroE,8.05 @exgwog,8.01 Kavoqa, 4.21.2 llro,l'rp,a,4.21.2
Epoirnog, 4.02 @eQr,l,og,
8.04 KqvLE,4.l2 oo06v1g,4.17
Enqclr,g, 4.21.2 @eQgcrotog,4.02 Kaorgr.og,4.12 Acypog,4.10.1
Eg4pla,4.21.2 @ertolq, 4.21.1,4.22 KauorglxoE, 4.12 Aevtr,og,4.14
Equltirov,4.02 @SdrE,@panooo,4.22 K<rorq)'o1og,4.12 eovi,qg,5.02
Epqpog,4.10.1 @gooog,4.20 Keqxdraq, 4.09 rp<rlqog,4.04
Equ),6ov,4.10.1 @goou1.og/-l.ooE, 4. 10.I Klvvopog,4.09 Ai,yuqov,4.2l.2
Er1qE, Etu1og, 4.09, 5.08-09 @gooul.l.og,4.09 KCvurp,4.12 Aq, 4.21.1
Eru1io, 4.21.2,5.07 @qaouE,4.09 KrlQioavqog,4.07.3, 4.12 Aurx69,4.15
Eru1iqg,6.01 @uporqoE,4.1l KqQlolcrg,KqQr,oltov,4. I 2 uxnorv, 11.00
E$qpio, 4.17 @ropdg,5.04, 11.08 KqQr.oqpog,4.12 uxroglr,xg, 4.09
EQqavr[E,11.01 KqQro6orgoE/-otog,4.07.3 Auxol'6ov, 4.10.1
'IoxtoB (* AuxttpoE,4.06
EQqqg/er,o,4.12 variants),4.14 K1Qrooxl"frg,4.12
'Ioni.g, Auoavicrg,4.10
4.09 KqQr,oxqwog,4.12
'IcrrqE,
ZztnapoE,4.l2 4.07.2 KqQrorupog,4.06
'Ieqorr,xE, M<ri,ovqr.og,4.12
Znntg,4.l2 4.09 KrlQrcoQv,4.12
'Iege9, McrrovoqoE,4.12
Ze!rcv,4.21.2 4.09 Kl.elvtcrE,4.l7
'll.cgog/-o/-ov, Moxnoq,4.l2
Zqva4ogforog, 4.07.l, 4. l8 4.02,4.21.1,4.21.2 Kl.eoatgo, 4.17
'I)*ovo4,4.12 Mcrxoplogfo, 5.12
Z1qvog,4.09 Kl.eoqog,4.11
'ILwog,4.l2 Moxeovr,x9,4.15
Z.ot1tog,5.02 Kl.uroqog, 4.l l
'lvayog,4.l2 MaloBo0qi,vq, 4.09
Zanrqog,2.06.3, 10.00 Kl"1og, 4.15
'Ivog,4.12 Mcrlt"oorog,4.12
Zrbr,atoE,5.06 Kgqoyog, 4.12
'Ioog, Mol.liarv, Mol"1og, 4.09
Zanw\g,4.16 4.20 Kooprcrg,4.16
'Innoxgrqg, Mavqopog, 4.07.1
4.07.2, 4.l0.l Kotog,4.09
'IoLg, Mvqg, Movio, 4.05,4.22
'Hyl,o1oE, 4.04 Kqor{or.nnog, 4.10.1
9.03 'Iolyvq g,'Ior.y6voE, Moqycrglg,4.09
'Hyqorov,4.21.2 4.04 Kqctmnog,4.10.1
'Ioitrgog, Mcrgio,5.04
'Hela,4.2l.l 4.04,4.07.1 Kgr.voyqog,4.13
'Iorgtogog, Moqi,4.16
'Hl.og/-r,ov, 4.13 Kgrvov0qg,4.13
4.09,4.21.2 'IorgontrQg,4.13 Moqxr,ovilE,4.16
"HuE, Kglvoqeq,4.13
4.09 'IarpoE,4.l2 Mqrug, 5.12
'HegQr,l.og, Kqlvdg, Kqlvicrg, 4.13
4.07.1 'Io11"oE, MoroxoE, 4.09
'Hqoxl.erqE, 4.09 Kqivrnnog, 4.13
4.12 'Io1ug, Mrouqog, 4.22
'Hqoxl.icg, 4.09 KgoiooE, 4.22
4.05 'It<rl.[o, Mtqorvo, 10.05
'Hqrovg,4.12 4.15,4.21.1 Kqovdpprov,4.06
'Iov(v)qg, Melloq, 10.05
'Hqyer.rog, 2.06.3,5.04 Kqovi,1g,4.05
4.12 'Itov&E, Meyr,orogoE,4.1I
'Hg<ogog/-orog, 4.20 Kqvrogflov, 4.05
4.07.I 'Ioroqg,4.14 Mel.aprorq og, 4.07.3
'HQ0rIoE, KrooooE,4.20
4.07.1 Kr,\po.,4.21.2 Ml.og, 7.18
Ko0oqo,4.21.1 Kqoicrg, 10.03(fig. 19) NNf.e\rn,4.21.2
@olrl.ouocr,4.21.1 Kixog, 4.12,4.13 Kqolxl"Qg,4.20 Ml,r1pa,4.21.2
@goul,l,og, 4.09 Kol,rlpeqog,4.16 KngoE,4.12 Mel.rlocvgoE,4.12
@oqoug,4.09 Kal,l,r,yei,ttrrv,4. l2 Kvog,4.18 Mel.foegpoE,4.12
@yer,rog,4.12 Kcl.l"i.orqog,4.11 Kupoyqcg,4.10 M?'lttov' 11.02
@eoorog,5.04 Kolxor,qog, 4.16 Kuploxilg, 4.16 Me),i,S0ovyoE, 4.22
@e6otoE,8.04 Kol.noug, Ka).nora, 4. I6 KuqL}"l.og,4.l6 M6vavqoE,7.18
494 Index of GreekPersonalNames lnilex of Greek PersonalNames I af S
|

Mev6,4.12 'Ol.u pnrooOvng, tl0rov,4.17 )rgcrtovr.lt6g, 4.09

4.07.2
Mevexqorqg, 4.17 "Ol.upnoE, fluqou)"crg,4.12 )tqpouv, 4.12
10.05
M6vr1g,4.05 'OpBglxg,4.ls Iluqpi.ag, 4.22 Xdpcrf,4.09
MevQr.l,oE,5.09 'OpQxltrlv, XuBcqi,g,4.ls
4.02
'Ovd1or.pog, 'Pqyeivqs,
Mqorlr,4.05 4.17,4.22, 11.03 2.06 (fig. 8) )ppoqrg,4.21.1
'Ovu1iov,4.09 'Pr1ytrog, )pQogoE,4.18
Mq)"rxg,4.15 4.20
'Oqvr,0lov,4.09 'P6rr,El-o,,4.22 2verov,4.2l.2
MtilSq,a.22
'Ooovoo, 'Pooxl.eio, 4.05 2v9npo,4.21.2
Mflvlg, M{vr"og,4.05 I1.02
'Pooxlflg, )uvtu1{9, 4.16
Mqv6trqog,4.07.1,4.17 Ovrv, 4.09 4.05
'Pperg, 2pogl-a,4.22
MqvoQ,aE,4.16 4.09
'Pvoxog,'Pvcrl,4.06,4.13 Xurxgor[r.ov,4.02
Mrylo1og,4.10.2 Iil"IoE, -1,og,-Iicrg, -)"eL 11.01
Mqtqoo4g, 4.16 flpQr,l.og,4.17 )oocrpevdE,4.17
Mi0qqE, 4.04 floqpovog, 10.03 Xopouql, 4.14 X<rlrcqLcrg, 4.16
MLl,l,ov,4.21.2 Irp6,4.22 )ngonopprrrv, 4.06
MLx(x)a,4.2r.r flopp6vloxog, 4.17 Xoqonr,g,4.04 Tarerg,4.16
Mtrnpog,4.23 floq6qcrpcr,4.21.2 Xaqaniov, 4.04 Torr.ovilg,4.16,5.02
M|opov,4.2I.2 floor,t6l"qg,7.18 )aqltov, 4.09 Tcrtlg,4.l7
Mouocrlog, 4.02 IIc0i.og, 5.06 )o,gvul,4.09 To0goE,4.20
Muqlop6E, 4.09 flauonvlog, 4.10 )orugi,rov, 4.02 Teltrro01oE,4.09
Muq/Mqov,4.09 flouo[],unog, 4.10 2o0l,og, 5.06 TLpetoE,4.22
Morqgftlorv I -ux6g, 4.09 fltbl;ov,4.22 )epaorg, XeBoorg fegpavr.x6g,5.13.4 Trpol.tov,4.10.1
Muorlxg, 4.02 flf.rc6,4.17 )6l"euxog, 9.04 Tlpl.uxog, 4.06
flegooloorqoE,4.12 2qnLa,4.2l.2 Tr,po01ogf lov I -yLav, 4.09
Noqr.ov,Ncglvr1, 4.09 fleqelrog,4.l2 2qqapBog,4.12 T|nnag,4.07.3
NeCl,rg,4.04 llL9cwov,4.2l.2 2Lp,q,4.2r.r T6plov,4.13
Notrg, N6otoE, 4.12 flrorroqog, 4. I I 2ryp|yq,4.21.r Tgeupo/-porrcv, 4.21.2
Neovrog,4.09 Iltrouor,o,4.l7 2iStov,4.2I.2 T6pxog,4.l2
N[xq, 4.09 lll"ouoroqoE, 4.1I Ixopcrvqr,og,4.12 TgQ1pcr,4.21.2
N[xr1pcr,4.21.2 flol,pov, 9.06 )xpcrvpog, 4.12 TuXtS" T upx6gl -r1g,Tu1Lxrl,4.09,4.16,
Nr,xiloeqpoE,4.12 llol"rav04E, 4.12 og,4.06,4.12
Xxcrtrlcrvq6trp 10.04
Nm+i,crg,
10.01 flol.roqog,4.l l XropovgQL\og, 4.12 Top'urv,4.13
Nrxo4og,4.11 fll,ul.),oE, 4.09 )xopcrvg tvu1tog,4.12
'YBIfior.oE,4.12
NLxorqotog, 6.03 IIl,ug, 4.09 Xxnog, 7.18
'YBgloror,oE,
N6r1po,4.21.2 IIol,1oqpog, 5.06 )n0rvog, 9.04 4.02
'Y1ei.o,
Noupvi.E,4.21.l flol.u1g6vlog, 5.02 )xl.po/-ptr ov, 4.21.2 4.09
'\navtg,4.l2
No0E,4.12 fIowLxE, 4.15 Epapo^y6g,4.09
NuprQcriog,NupQ6qo4, 4.04 flooer.6qpog,4.12 )plxul.iov, 4.18
Nu FQ6togog/-oroE, 4.07.3 IIooer,vroE,4.05 )pgvq,4.09 @vo1oE,4.10.2
Np$os, Nupgis,4.04 Ilgor<,onq,4.16 2o$apo"r,4.21.2 iDvul.l.oE,4.09
[q[e(r)vog, 4.09 2oQto ,4.21.2 QdotE,4.12
Eo.v9Lo,g,4.22 flqutoveug, 4.09 2nro,\oE,4.22 tDrlo0vog,9.04
Ev0og, 5.08 flqutovr,n6g, 4.09 )roxrf, 4.09 4.17,4.21.1
<Di,l"o/-q,
Euorog,4.02 flrorcogoE,4.07.2 )toQul.og, 4.02 @crypcrE, 4.10.2
flOeqpog,4.12,4.13 )teQovqQoqLx6g,4.09 @lLr1pa,4.21.2
'O),upnr,xgl-1g, XrScrvoE, 4.17,7.18 @"ftq/og, 4.09,4.22
4. 15 flu0r.xE,4.15
'Olupnr6orqo Xrgcrt{yrog, 4.09 <Di,),mnog, 4.10.1
E,4.07.2 flu0roqog,4.07.2
496 | tndex of GreekPersonalNames

tDr.l.i.otq,
4.21.1 <Dqovipo,4.l7
@opqotog,4.10.1 Odrxegpog,4.12
@t"Ioeonrqg,4.22 @roxi,ov,4.02
@qpog,4.10.1 iDxoE,4.02
<Dr,l.oixqE/-og, 4.10.1,4.1O.2 lndex of Latin Terms
@,oo1roE,4.16 Xor.qeBouLog, 4.10.2
<Dr?r,oQos, 4.1I XogpiIg,5.02
<Dr,l,x)',1E,
4.10.1 Xa}.riwq,4.21.2
(Dll.oxov, 4.10.1 Xl.iovov, 4.21.2
@rl.levog,4.10.I XLoq,4.02
<D,rqoE,4.09 Xorgilov, 4.21.2
Od\.oup6vq,4.21.1 X(q)r1po,4.21.2
<Dfirqc,4.21.1
'QQ6l,qpc, 4.21.2
@olBpp.trw,4.06

actor, 14.09 collegium,7.02

aedilis,14.01,14.06,14.09 colonia,14.06
annona, 17.04.2 comesAugusti, 14.01
antoninianus, 17.04.3 concilia, 14.07
as. 17.02 conductor, 14.09
ascia,0.06 constitutio' 8.01
Asiarch,14.09 consul(cos)'2.05,5.13.6,6.01'14-01'
auctoritas,13.02 14'09;consulesordinarii, 14.01' 14.03;
augur, 14.01,14.09;augur publicus consulessuffecti, 14.01;cohortesprae-
populi Romani Quiritium, 14.01 toriae' 14.03
aureus,17.02 conventus,14.03
corrector, 14.01,14.04' 14.09
beneficiarius,2.06 (table 2) curator, 14.01,14.09;cur. alvei Tiberis'
cur. aquarum et Miniciae' 14.01;cur.
caelatae,inscriptiones,T.16 fisci, 14.14;cur' Miniciae, cur. operum
Caesar,5.13.2 publicorum, 14'01;cur. rei publicae/
carpentum, 9.01 civitas, 14.05;cur. senatus' cur.
catalogus,7.13 viarum' 14'01
censitor, 14.01 curia, 14.06
censor,5.15.9,14.09;censorpe{petuus, cursushonorum' 9.04, 14.01
5.13.9
centenarii, 14.02,14.09 damnatio memoriae,0.14
centuria, 14.03 decaproti, 14.05,14.09
centurio, 14.03,14.09 decemvir'Xvir' 14.09
cippi, 11.00 decretum,7.01' 8.01
civis,5.02 decunarius,14.09
civitas,5.05 decurio'8.01' 14.09
clarissimus,9.01 dedicatio' 7.03
cohors, 14.01;corhortespraetoriae, dedicavit' 10.01
14.03 defensorcivitatis' 14.09

497
498 Index of Latin Terms lndex of Latin Terms | 499
|

defixiones,7.16 iure dicundo, 14.09 pontifex, 5.13.5,14.09;pontifex maxi- senatus,14.03,14.09;senatusconsulta,

denarius,1.07,2.08 (table 5), 2.09, iuridicus, 14.01,14.09;iur. per Italiam m u s ,5 . 1 3 . 5 1, 4 . 0 1 1, 4 . 0 9 7.01,8.01
17.01-02;denariuscommunis, 17.04.4 regionis, 14.01;iur. legatusiuridicus pontifices,14.01 sententia,8.01
deus:d(iis) m(anibus), 11.03 provinciae,14.01 populus Romanus,2.06 (table 2) septemvirepulonum, 14.01
devotiones,7.16 ius ltalicum, 14.06 praefectura,14.02 sequetur,11.02
dictator, 14.09 praefectus,14.01,14.04,14.09;praef. senrrs, 5.09
dignitas,13.02 lapicida,0.08 aerarii militaris, praef. aerarii Saturni, sestertius,17.02
d(iis) m(anibus),2.06(table2)' 11.03 lapidarii, 0.06 14.01;praef. alae,14.02;praef. ali- sexagenarii,14.02, 14.09
divus, 5.13.3,14.06-07 laurens lavinas, 14.02 mentorum, l4.0ll praef.annonae, signaturaeartificum, 7.18
dolabra, 0.06 legatus,2.06 (table2),14.01,14.09;leg. praef. classis,praef. cohortis, 14.02; sllus, ,/.r /
dominus, 14.09 Augusti pro praetoreProvinciae, praef. frumenti dandi, 14.01;praef. le- sodalis,14.01
donarium, 7.03, 10.00 14.01,14.04;leg. legionis,14.01,14.03; gionis, praef. praetorio, 14.02, 14.O3;
ducenarii, 14.02 leg. praetoreprovinciae,leg. procon- praef. provinciae, | 4.02, 14.04; praef. tabulae,7.13
duovir duuvir, Ilviri,6.01, 14.06,14.09 sulis, 14.01;legessacrae,7.09 urbis, 14.01;praef.vigilum, 14.02 terminus, 7.07
dupondius, 17.02 legio, 7.08 praesesprovinciae, 14.01 titulus, 0.07; tituli aedificiorum pub-
dux, 14.09 libertus, 5.09-10 praesidium, 2.06 (table 2) licorum et privatorum, 7.12;tituli
Iictor, 14.09 praetor, 14.09;pr. aerarii, pr. peregrinus, agonistici, 7.02:,titnli honoratii, 7.02,
edictum, 8.01 l(oco) p(ublico) d(ato) d(ecreto) pr. tutelarius,pr. urbanus, 14.01 9.03;tituli memoriales,7.02, 11.00;
egregius,2.06(table2),9.01 d(ecurionum),11.01 primus pilus, 2.06 (table 2) tituli sacri, 7.1l; tituli sepulcrales,
eicosaproti,14.05 loculus, 11.00 princeps, 14.09 7.04,11.00
eminentissimus,9.01 lupercus,14.02 proconsul,2.06 (table2),5.13.9,14.01, trecenarii,14.09
equester,14.09 14.09 tribunicia potestas,5.13.8,6.01
equites,14.02 magister,14.09 procurator, | 4.02-04, | 4.09 tribunatus plebis, 14.09
mandatum,8.0l promagistratus,14.09 tribunus: trib. cohortis vigilum, 14.02;
faber, 14.09 m(emoriae)c(ausa),| 1.03 pronepos,5.13.3 trib. militum, 14.01,14.02,14.09;trib.
fecit, lo.ol millaria, 7.08 propraetor, 2.06 (table 2),14.09 plebis,14.01,14.09;trib. praetoriae,
fetialis, 14.01 modius, 17.04 proquaestor,14.09 14.02;trib. urbanae,14.02
fiIius,4.17,15.10;dM filius,5.13.3 monumentum, 11.02 provincia, 14.00 triens, 17.02
fiscus,11.06 publicani, 14.05 triumvir IIIvir, 5.13.1,14.09
flamen, 14.01 nepos,5.13.3 turma, 2.06 (table 2)
flaminalis,2.06 (table 2) quadrans,17.02
frater arvalis, 14.01 officiales magistratuum, 14.02 quaestor,14.01,14.03,14.06,14.09, vacat, 1.03,2.06 (fig. 8)
frumentarius,2.06 (table 2), 14.09 omina, 14.01 14.14 vectigalium,14.02
ordinantur, 0.07 quattuorviri/IllIviri iure dicundo, 14.09 vestis,17.04.2
gens,5.04,5.06,5.13.2 ordinarius, 2.06 (table 2) quinarius, 17.02 veteranus,14.09
gravitas,13.02 ordinatio, 0.08 quindecimir sacris faciundis, 14.01 victoriatus, 17.01-02
vigintivirate, 14.01
haruspex,14.02,14.09 pater patriae,2.06 (table 2), 5.13.10, res,5.08;res publica,5.13.10 vigintiviratus, XXviratus, 14.0I
14.09 rescriptum, 8.01 vigintiviri, 14.01,14.09
imagines clipeatae,9.06 peregrini, 5.02 vir, Ilviri. Seeduovir
imperator,5.13.1,5.13.3,5.13.7,14.09 perfectissimus,9.01 salius,14.01 virgo vestalis,14.01
imperium, 13.04 plebiscitum,8.01 sculpuntur, 0.07 vitium lapidis, 1.03
ingenui,5.10 plebs:plebs collegii, 14.14;plebs semis,17.02 v(iva),11.02
instrumentum iuris privati, 7.06 ingenua,5.04 senator,14.09 v(ivus) f(ecit), 11.02
invictus, 5.13 pondera,7.14
 lndex of Roman
PersonalNames

n : nomen; p : praenomen;c : cognomen;a : agnomen.For the sakeof

brevity, this index excludesthose nomina that are mentioned only in table 8.

Adiabenicus,5.13.4 Blandus (c), 5.04

Aelianus (c), a.14, 5.0a Bonifatius (c), 5.04
Aelius (n), 4.17,5.Oz Bovillanus(c), 5.04
Aemilianus(c),5.04
Aemilius (n), 4.14,5.03,5.l0 Caecilianus(c), 5.04
Africanus (a), 5.06 Caianus(c), 5.05
Albanus (c), 5.0a Carminius(c),5.05
Albus (c), s.04 Cato (c), 5.04
Anastasius(c), 5.0a Cicero (c), 5.09
Antonius (n), 2.05,4.17,5.02,5.07, Cincinnatus (c), 5.04
5 . 1I Claudiusi-a (n), 4.05,4.14,5.02-03,
Appidia (n), a.la 9.06
s.6-7,5.rr,5.r3.2,
Appius (p), 5.03 Cocceius(n), 5.02
Arabicus(a), 5.13.4 Corneliusi-a (n), 5.06-07
Areobinus (c), 5.04 Cottius (n),5.10
Aruntius (n), 5.05 Crescens(c), 5.04
Augustus(a/c), 5.06,5.11, 5.13.4
Aulus (p), 2.06.3,5.03,5.09- l0 Dagalaiphus(c), 5.04
Aurelianus (c), 5.04 Decimus(p), 5.03
Aurelius/-ia (n), 1.07,2.04-05, 4.14, Domitianus(c),5.ll
4 . r 7 , 5 . 0 2 , 5 . 0 5l,2 Domitius (n),5.09
Avillius (n), 5.11 Drusus (c), 5.09

Barbatus(c),5.04 Faustus(c), 5.04,5.11

Benignus(c), 5.04 Felix (c), 5.04

50t
502 nau of Roman Personal Names Index of Roman PersonalNames 503
|

Flavius(n), 5.02,5.04,5.09,5.11,5.12, O p p i u s( n ) , 4 . 1 7 Theodorus(c),5.04 Valerius/-a(n), 5.02,5.07,5.11

9.04 Orbius (n),5.08 Theodosius(c), 5.04 Varius (n), 5.11,9.04
Fortunatus/-a(c), 5.04,5.07 Ovius (p),5.03 Thomas (c),5.0a Venustus(c), 5.11
Fulvius (n), 5.09 Tiberius (p), 5.03,5.06 Verus (n), 5.11
Parthicus(Maximus) (a), 5.13.4,5.13.10 Titus (p), 5.03,5.12 Vespasianus (c),5.11
Gaius(p), 5.03,5.06,5.08,5.12,5.13.1 Paulus (c), 5.06 Traianus(c), 2.05,5.05,5.13.4 Vestinus,5.1I
Gallus (c), 5.04 Pescennius(p), 5.03 Tullius/-a (n), 5.07,5.09 V i b i u s( n ) , 5 . l l
Gelasus(c), 5.09 Pilo (c), s.04 Tuscus(c), 5.04 Victor(c),5.04,5.ll
Germanicus,5.13.4,5.l0 Pius (c), 5.09 Victorinus(c),4.17
Gnaeus(p), 5.03,5.09,5.12 Plotius (n), 5.09 Ulpius (n), 5.02,5.05 Vitalis (c), 5.04
Pompeius/-a(n), 5.07 Ursius (n),5.05
Herius (p), 5.03 Pomponius (n), 5.02
Hermeias,5.07 Primus/-a (p), 5.03, 5.07
Hilarus (c), 5.04 Priscus(c),5.04
Proculus (c), 5.04
Ianuarius (c), 5.04 Publius (p), 2.06.3,s.03
Iohannes(c), 5.04,11.08
Iulianus (c), 5.01,5.04 Quarta, 5.07
Iulius/-a (n), 5.02,5.06,5.07,5.08 Quietianus(c),5.11
Q u i e t u s( c ) , 5 . 1 1
Kaeso(p), 5.03 Quintus/-a (p), 5.03,5.07

Licinus(c), 5.01,5.04 Romanus (c), 5.04

Ligus (c), 5.04 Rutus (c), 5.04,5.06
Livius/-a (n), 5.09
Longus (c), 5.04 Sabinus(c), 5.04
Lucius(p), 5.03-04,5.08-11 Salvius(p), 5.03
Saturninus(c), 5.04
Macarius,5.12 Scipio(c), 5.06
Maior (p),5.07 Secundus/-a (p), 5.03,5.07,5.11
Mamercus(p),5.03 Septimius(c), 5.02,5.05
Manius (p), 5.03,5.12 Septimus(p),5.03
Marcus (p), 5.03,5.07,5.11-12 Serenus(c),5.04
Marius,Maria (c), 5.04,5.07,5.12,11.08 Sergius(n), 5.06
Martialis (c), 5.0a Servius(p), 5.03
Maximus/-a (p), 5.04,9.04 Severus(c), 2.05,5.04,5.1I
Minatius (p),5.03 Sextilius(n), 5.04
Minor (p), 5.07 Sextus(p), 5.01,5.03
Siculus(c), 5.04
Novius (p),5.03 Spurius(p), 5.03
Numerius(p), 5.03,5.10 Statius(p), 5.03
Numonius (n), 5.01 S u l p i c i u (sn ) , 5 . l l

Octavianus(c), 5.06 Tabille (c), 5.08

Octavius(n), 5.02,5.06,5.12 Tertius/-a (p), 5.03,5.07
Olus (p), 5.03 Tertullus (c), 5.07
 Ceneral Index

abbreviations,1.07,2.05-06; Alexandria,5.ll
acrophonic, 2.05-06; ancient Greek, altars,0.06,10.04-05
2.05-06 (table 2); Christian, 2.05, Ambrakia, 6.01
I 1.09,15.03;by contraction, 2.05;edi- Amorgos,4.04,6.01,8.07,11.00,13.04
torial, l.l2 (table l); ofpublications, Amphipolis, 6.01
0.18;of Roman names,5.12 Amphissa,6.01, 6.03 (table 12)
Aberkios (bishop), 11.09,16.01,16.06 amphorae,7.14
Acarnania. 4.06 amulets,7.14,7.16
accounts,7.l3 Amyzon,2.02
Achaia, 6.01, 14.04;Achaian league, Anactorion, 6.01
8.07;Achaian era,6.08 (table 15) Anazarbos, 6.01
Achelous River, 4.06 anceps,16.03-05
Achilles,4.07.3 anchors,7,14
acrophonic abbreviation, 2.06 Andros, 6.01
Aktion,6.0l; Aktian era,6.08(table l5) antae.0.06
Aemilianus,5.13 Antilyra, 6.01
agoranomos, 7.14 Antioch, Pisidian, 6.08, 17.04.2
Aidepsos,2.03 Antiochus I, 6.08
Aigiale,6.01, 8.07, 13.02 Antonines, 2.05
Aigina, 4.12, 8.07, 13.04 AntoninusPius,5.13.ll (nos.45-46)
Aigosthenes,4.07.3 Anubis,7.16,10.03(fig. l9)
Aiolis, 4.06,4.09 Apameia,6.08
Aitolia, 6.01, 6.03 (table l2), 12.05 Aphrodisias,5.01 (fig. l0), 5.05,6.01,
Aizani, 13.02 7.r3,9.02,l1.00, 13.02,13.04
Ajax, 4.07.1,4.07.3 Aphrodite, 10.03,10.05
Akarnia, 6.01 Apollo, 0. 10, 4.06,4.07.2,4.09,7.rr,
Akmonia, 6.08, 11.07,13.02 10.02-03, 10.0s(fig. 2r), r2.0s, 13.03
Akragas,6.01 Apollonia,6.01,6.08
Alexander IV, 6.08 apotropaicstatues,7.11,8.03
Alexanderthe Great, 6.06, 10.04(fig. 20) Arabia, 6.01, 6.08

505
506 | GeneralIndex
Aradus, era of, 6.08 (table 15)
Arkensine,6.01
architectural epigraphy, 3.00
architecturalterms, 7.12
archives,0.07,8.00, 11.06
archons,0.07,6.01,7.13, 13.02,13.05
Ares, 11.00
aretalogies,7.11, 10.00
Argos, 6.01;era of the Argolid
6.08 (table ls)
army, Roman, 14.01,14.03-04;legion-
ary pay, 17.04
Artemis, 4.05,8.00
artists'signatures,0.09, 7.18
as. 17.02
Asia Minor, 2.05,4.06, 4.17,4.20,4.24,
6.07-08,7.00,10.04,11.00-02,11.06,
13.00,13.05,13.08,13.10,14.04,
14.06-07, 17.03
Asklepios,4.04,4.07.2, 7.1I (fig. 1a),
10.05
aspiration,15.06,15.12
assembly, 8.01,8.07,9.01,13.01-02
assimilation:of v, 15.07;of x, 15.10
Astypalaia,6.01,8.05, 13.02,13.04
Athena, 7.l1, 9.04, 10.04(fig. 20)
Athens,2.02,4.06,4.14,4.24,6.01,7.13,
8.00,8.01,8.04,8.07,9.05,11.00,
11.05,13.00-08,15.02,16.04
Atteleia,7.16
Attica,0.05,2.03,2.08,4.06,4.07.3,4.12,
7.18,8.09,11.01;alphabetof, 2.01;
namesof months in, 6.03;tribes in,
6.01
Attic correption, 16.01
Augustus,0.03,5.06,5.Ll-12, 5.13.1-5,
5 . l 3 . l l ( n o s .5 - 1 0 ) , 6 . 0 5 ,6 . 0 7 ,1 1 . 0 6 ,
14.01,14.04,L4.06-07, 17.03,17.04.3;
Augustanera, 6.08 (table 15)
Aurelian,5.l3.ll (no. 67)
aureus,17.02, 17.04.2-4
Balbinus,5.13
banquets, terminology of, 9.03
Bargylia,6.01,8.05, 13.04
Bechtel,F., 4.ol
benefactors,7.I 3
Beroia,6.01,11.03,12.04,13.04,13.08
Beth She'arim, 11.08
Bith1mia,6.01,6.06 (table l4), 14.04,
14.O7
Boiotia, 0.09,4.06,4.07.3,4.12,4.24,
6.01,6.03 (table12),8.01,8.07,
games, l1.00-01
D o n e s/,. 1 4
Bosporus, era of Bosporos and Pontos,
6.08 (table l5)
boundary stones,0.06, 7.07
brackets:angular, 1.05;brace, 1.06;dou-
ble angular, 1.05.2;double square,
1.08;parentheses,1.07,2.09;pointed,
seeangular;square,1.02,1.08, l.l1
bricks,7.14
bronze,7.16
building inscriptions,7.12;building epi-
grams, 16.00
Buthrotos, 6.01
Byzantium,4.13,4.15,6.06 (table 14)
Claudius,5.13.3,5.13.9,5.13.11 (nos.
Caesar,14.01,14.06,17.02
CaesareaMaritima, 4.09, 9.03, 10.02,
10.05,14.04;Caesareanera, 6.08 (ta-
ble ls)
caesura,16.04-05
calendars,6.00-07; by eras,6.08; civil,
6.01,6.03,6.08,13.01;Asian,6.07 (ta-
ble 14); Attic, 6.03, 13.01;on the east-
ern Roman Provinces,6.07 (table 14);
Egyptian,5.11,6.06;in the Hellenistic
kingdoms, 6.07;Jewish,6.05; Julian,
6.01,6.05,6.07-08; Iunar, 6.02;
month namesin, 6.04;pre-fulian,
6.05;Ptolemaic,6.06;ritual, 7.11;Ro-
man, 6.05;Seleucid,6.06; solilunar,
6.02,6.08; Slno-Macedonian,6.06
calends,6.05,6.07
Caligula,5.l3.l l (nos. 14-15), 14.07
Campagna,Roman, 7.13
Cappadocia, 4.12,6.07(table 14), 13.07,
r4.04
Caracalla, 2.05,5.02,5.13.1I (nos.53-
54), 10.03(fig. l8), 17.04.3;Edict of
Citizenship,4.14, 5.02
Caria,6.01,7.11,11.00-01, 13.02,
13.04-05
catalogues,7.11, 7.13
Chalcedon,6.01, 13.02,13.04*05
chalchus,2.08, 17.0I
Chalcis.6.01.13.08
Charadros,6.01,13.08
Cheronesos,4.13, 12.06
Chios,4.12,6.01,9.04,13.00,13.04,
13.08
Christ,Jesus,7.16,11.05
Christian inscriptions,0.08,7.11, 10.05,
I 1.01,I 1.05, I 1.08-09; abbreviations
in, 2.05;Aberkios Inscription, 11.09,
1 6 . 0 1 1. 6 . 0 6
Cicero. 5.09
Cilicia,6.01,11.05,13.04
cistophorus,17.04
classificationof inscriptions,2.02, 7.00-
l8
dashes,1.08
t6-t7), t4.02, t4.07, 17.03
Claudius Gothicus, 5.13.11(no. 66)
Cleopatra, era ofthe rule of, 6.08 (table
ls)
cognomina, 5.04 (table 10)
collyria,7.l4
colonies,14.06
Colossai,13.02
commemorative inscriptions, 7.02
commissioners,8.10
Commodus,5.13.11(nos.49-50)
confessions,7.1I
consonants,singleand double, l5.ll
Constantinethe Great, 0.03, 5.13.11
(nos.72-73)
Constantius,5.13.1I (no. 7l)
Constitutio Antoniniana, 5.02
contests,7.11,7.13,13.08(tablel5);
agonisticepigrams,16.00;victors of
prizes,7.13
contracts,7.06
Generallndex | 507
corpora, epigraphic,0.18
corrections,0. l4
council, 2.09, 8.O7,13.02
councillors,7.I3, 8.01, 13.02
crasis,1.05.2
Crete,4.12,6.01,6.03,8.07,13.04,13.08,
14.04,14.06,17.03
crowns,wreaths,9.01-02, 9.04, 10.04,
1 1 . 0 0I,1 . 0 7
cults, 5.06,7.10,7.11;cult tables,7.11;
Egyptian,4.04; of emperors,5.13.3,
10.03,14.07;of nymphs, 4.07.3
currency, 17.00-04; currency symbols,
1.07,2.08(table5), 2.09;commodity
value of, 17.04;devaluationof, 17.04;
equivalencies,17.03;Greek, 17.01;re-
gional currencies,17.03;Roman, 17.02
curses,7.11,7.16
Clprus, 2.03,6.01,6.06,11.05,14.04,
17.03
Damascus,6.08
damnatio memoriae,0. la (fig. 5)
dating inscriptions, 6.00-09; by paleogra-
phy, 2.02l'dating decrees,8.04; dating
eponymousinscriptions,6.01,6.03,
6.08,7.11, 7.t3, 8.04,13.02-03,13.08
days:Attic, 6.04(table l2); counting,6.04
Decius,5.l3.ll (no. 63)
decrees, 6.01,7.0I, 7.1l, 8.00-ll, 9.01,
13.02;abbreviated,8.I l; amendments
to, 8.09;dating of, 8.04;enactmentfor-
mulae in, 8.07; engraving and exhibi-
tion of, 8.10;formal motion in, 8.08;
invocation in, 8.03; mover of motion
in, 8.05;passageol 8.01;premablein,
8.06;probouleumatic and
nonprobouleumatic,8.07-08; struc-
ture of.8.02-ll
dedications,2.06 (fig. 8),7.03, 10.00-05;
dedicator in, 10.02; deities and emper-
ors in, 10.03(fig. l8); ex-votos,7.03,
7.r0,7.r1, 10.0s(fig. 2l); form of,
10.01;obiectsof dedication,10.04
508 | GeneralIndex GeneralInilex SOf
I

deedsofsale, 7.06 Elateia.6.01 forgeries,0.16 Hekate,8.00

Delos,0.07,0.10,2.03,4.12,5.09-10, Elaea,7.16 Fossey,f., 4.24 Heliogabalus. SeeElagabal
6.01 (fig. r2),6.03 (tablel2), 7.11, elegy,16.01,16.04 fractions, 2.09 Helios, 4.04, l l.0l, 12.06
7.r3,7.16,7.18,9.01,10.03(fig. l9), Eleusinian mysteries, 13.08 Fraser,P. M., and E. Matthews, 4.01 hemiepes,16.04-05
10.05,13.08;Poseidoniastaiof, 7.18 Elis,6.01,8.07 free cities, 14.06 Hephaistia,13.08
Delphi,0.10,4.12,6.01,6.03 (tablel2), emperors,10.00,10.03;cults of, 14.07; freedmen,4.21, 5.09- 10, 12.00 Herakleiaad Latmum, 6.01, 13.04
8.00,8.01,9.02, 12.00-06, t3.02, naming and titular conventions, 5.13 fricatives, 15.06 HerakleiaPontika, 4.18,6.01
13.08;era of the Pythian gamesof, Emporion,4.13 funerary inscriptions,2.06,6.09, 7.00, Herakles,4.06, 10.03,11.07
6.08 (table ls) encaustic painting, 0.09 7.04, 11.00-09, 16.00-06;for animals, Hermes,4.07.2, 7.09, 10.02
demes,2.06,6.01,7.13;Kleisthenic,0.07, engraving,0.09; cost of, 0.10;tools, 0.05 ll.0l; Christian, 11.09;mention of Hermos River, 4.06,4.12
4.16 (table 7) (fie.2),0.06 (fig. 3) commemorativerites in, I1.03, I1.07; herms, 7.09
Demeter,cult of, 5.07 (fig. ll) Ephesos,2.03 (figs.6, 7), 4.05, 4.09, cursesin, 11.05;encouragementand Herod Agrippa, 14.04
demotic,4.19,ll.0l 4.r2, 6.07,6.07 (tablel4), 8.00,8.06, consolationin, 11.04;expressionsof heroes,4.07.3
denarius,1.07,2.08-09, 17.00-04;denar- 9.04 (fig. 16), 11.01,13.02,13.0s, endearmentin, 11.03;fines in, 11.06; Hestia, 10.00
ius communis, 17.04.4 14.07 formula in, 11.01;|ewish, 11.03-04, hexameter,16.01-06
digamma,2.09 epic correction, 16.02 I 1.06,I 1.08;motive in, 1I .03;prepara- hiatus, 16.02
dinners. Seebanquets Epidauros,2.03, 6.01,6.03 (table l2), tion of, I1.02 Hierapolis,4.12,6.01,8.07,11.06,13.02,
Diocaesarea, 7.08 6.07,7.rr (fig. la), 10.0s,13.02,13.08 1 3 . 0 41, 3 . 1 0
Diocletian5.02,5.13.11(nos.68-69), epigrams,7.04, 16.00-06 (fi1.22); ele- Galatia, 14.04;Galatianera, 6.08 (table Hierocaesareia,13.02
6.01, 17.03,17.04.4;era of, 6.08 (table giac distich and, 16.01,16.04;hexame- If,' Hieropolis,11.09,16.01,16.06
l5); Price Edict, 17.04.4 ter in, 16.03-06;meter in, 16.01;iam- Gallienus,5.13.11(no. 65), 17.04.3 Histiaia, 6.01
Dionysia,7.13 bic trimeter in, 16.05;irregularities of, Gambreion,6.01,13.04 homonyrny, 0.07
Dionysos,4.07.2,8.07,8.11, 13.08,14.07 16.06;prosody in, 16.02 games.Seecontests honorific decrees,7.02,9.01
Dioskouroi, 4.04 epigraphy. Seeinscriptions gems,7.14 honorific inscriptions,7.02,7.16,9.04
diphthongs,5.1I, 15.02-04;convergence Epiphania,6.08 gentilicial polynomy, 5.02, 5.04 (figs. 1s, 16)
of, 15.04 Epiros, 6.01 gerousia.Seesocieties Hyettos,4.l2
dittography,0.13, 1.05.2 epitaphs. Seefunerary inscriptions Gibson, Elsa,11.09 Hygeia, 10.05
Domitian,0.14,5.13.4,5.13.9,5.13.1I equestrian careers,14.02 glassware,T.14 Hymettus, Mount, 0.05
(nos. 29-32), 14.07,17.04-03 eras,6.08(tablel5) gods: epithets of, 08.2, 4.06; Olympian, hymns,7.11,10.04,16.00
Doric: dialect, 15.01;government,13.01; Eresos,6.01 4.04.4.07.1 Hypaipa, 13.02
names,4.12 Eretria,6.01, 8.05 gold, 0.16,7.16,9.03,10.04,17.01-04
Dornseiff, F., and B. Hansen,4.01 errors,0.09,0.11-13 GordianII, 5.13.11(no. 59) Ialysos,7.10
dots, subscript, 1.04 Erythrai, 6.01, 8.05, 13.02,13.04-05, GordianIII, 5.13.11 (nos.60-61) Iasos,6.01,7.13,8.05,13.04
doubtful readings, 1.04 13.08 graffrti, 2.05,7.17 ides,6.05
drachma, 1.07,2.08-09, 17.01;Attic, etrog 71.08 gravestones.Seefunerary inscriptions Ikonion, 6.01
17.03;Rhodian, 17.03 Euboia,2.03,6.01,13.08 guidelines, 0.06 Ilium, 13.02,13.05
drafting inscriptions,0.07, 11.00 Eumeneia, 13.02;Eumeneian formula, Imbros, 6.01
Dura Europos,2.05,6.06, 15.02 I 1.05 Hadrian, 2.02, 5.l3.ll (nos. 39-44), indiction, 6.01
dynasticnomina, 5.02,5.12 (table l0) ExtremeFreedom,Principle ol t.1t 6.08,7.16,9.05,14.02 initiates,7.13
ex-votos,7.03,7.lO-11, 10.00,10.05 Halai,6.01,13.08 inscriptions: as archaeologicalartifacts,
editorial abbreviations,1.0-12 (table l) Halikarnassos,8.05, 13.02 3.00;classificationof, 2.02,7.00; cost
Egnatian Way, 7.08 festivals,6.02, 7.11,9.03 Halos, 6.03 (table 12) of, 0.10;dating, 6.00-09; drafting of,
Egypt,2.05,4.09,4.20,5.11,6.01,7.13, filiation,5.01,5.09,5.13.3 handbells,T.l4 0.07; engraving of, 0.09; interpreting,
8.07,10.02,ll.0l, 11.03,12.04,13.02, finials,0.06 Hannibal, 5.06 0.02;making of, 0.04;public versus
13.08,14.04,17.03,t7.04.2-3 fish, I 1.09 haplography,1.05.2 private, 7.00;value of, 0.01
Elagabal, 5.13.1I (no. 55) foreigners,7. I 3 heafingnarratives,7.ll (fig. ru) intercalation, 6.01-02, 6.06
510 | Generallndex Generallndex Sf f
I

Iobacchi,7.10 Koine Greek,4.06,5.1I, 15.00-l l; Doric ligatures,1.07,2.06.2 Marcus Aurelius, 5.13.I 1 (nos. 47 -48)
Ionia, 4.06 Koine, 15.01 limestone,0.05 masons'marks, 7.15;tools, 0.05-06
iota: adscript, 1.00,15.02;parasitic, Kolophon,2.03,4.12,6.01,I 1.01,13.02 Lindos,4.12,6.01,7.10,7.18,8.05 Massilia,4.09,4.13
1.05.2;subscript,1.00,15.02 Komana, 13.07 lintel, 0.06 Mastura, 13.02
Isis,4.04,4.07.1, 10.00,10.03(fig. l9) Korinth, 6.01;era of the Isthmian games lion, as gravecover, ll.0l Maximianus, 5.13.11(no. 70)
Isthmia, 8.00; era of the Isthmian games, of,6.08 (tablels), ll.0s, 14.06 liquids, 15.11 Maximinus Thrax, 5.13.11(no. 58),
6.08 (table 15) Korkyra, 0.07,6.01 liturgies, 13.09 17.04.3
Istros,4.07.3 Kos,4.06,4.15,6.01,6.03 (table l2), Livia Augusta, 5.09 Megalopolis,6.01
itacism, 1.05.2,15.04 10.05,11.02,13.00,13.04,13.08 loans, 7.06 Megara,6.01
Italos, 6.01 Kyme, 4.13,6.01 Lokris,6.03(tablel2), 12.05 Megaris,4.07.3,4.12-13
Italy,7.16 Kyrenaika,4.12,6.06 loom weights,7.14 Melas fuver, 4.12
Kyrene,4.12-13, ll.0l, 14.04 loulab. 11.08 Melos,6.0l
javelin heads,7.14 Kltinion, 6.01 Lousoi, 6.01 Men, 4.04,4.07.1, 7.10, 10.03,11.05
Ierusalem,7.07, 1I.05 Kyzikos,4.06,4.12,6.01,6.06 (table l4), lunar calendar,6.02 menorah,I1.07
jewelry,7.74,7.16 13.02,13.05,13.08,14.07 lunate letters,2.01 Meritt-McGregor Principle, l.l I
Jewishinscriptions,2.06 (fig. 8), 7.13, Lycaonia,2.03, 11.05 Messenia,6.01
10.05,11.08,12.06,13.08;Jewish labels:letter labels,0.10, 7.13;on small Lycia,11.01-02,11.05-06,13.03 metal,inscriptionsin, 7.16
namesin, 4.14,4.21;metrical, 16.06; flasks,7.14 Lydia,0.07,6.01,6.08,11.06-07,13.04- meter, 16.00-06
at a soup kitchen in Aphrodisias,7.13 lacunae,1.02 05 Meter, 4.04,10.01,10.03-04
Iudaea,14.04 Lakedaimonia,4.12 Lykos, 4.06 Methymna, 6.01, 13.05
Julia Mammaea,0.14 Lakonia, 6.01, 13.04 Lykosura, 2.03 Metonic cycle,6.02
JuliusCaesar,5.06,5.13.2-3,5.13.1I Lamia, 6.01, 6.03 (table 12) metrical inscriptions, 7.04, 12.00, 16.00-
(nos. 1-4), 6.05,6.08,14.07,17.04.1, lamps, 7.14 Macedonia,4.12, 11.06,13.04,14.04, 06; Iewish, 16.06
17.04.3 Lampsakos,13.02,13.05 14.06;Macedonian era of indepen- metron, 16.03
Laodikeia,4.12, 6.08, 13.70,14.07 dence,6.08 (table l5); Macedonian milestones,2.05, 7.08
Kabeiroi, 4.04 Larissa,4.12, 8.10, 12.01 provincial era, 6.08 (table l5), 10.04 Miletos, 4.12-13, 4.19,6.01,6.07 (table
Kaikos River, 4.13 larnax, 71.01 MaeanderRiver, 4.06,4.09,4.13 r4), 13.02-05, 13.07,14.07
Kalauria,6.01 laws,7.01,7.16,8.01,13.01;sacred,7.10 magic and incantations,7.11,7.16 military. Seearmy, Roman
Kalymna, 6.01, 13.04 (fie. l3) magistrates,6.01, 7.13,8.05,8.07, 13.00- mina, 2.08,17.01
Kalymnos,8.05, 13.02 lead,7.16 09; archons,6.01,7.13,13.05;boards, Minoa, 6.01,13.04
Kalynda, 8.05 leaf, ivy, 2.04,2.09 13.04;eponymous,6.01,6.03,6.08, missiles,7.16
Kamiros, 6.01 Lebadeia,0.09 7.rr,7.r3, 8.04,13.02-03,13.08; Mithras, 4.04
Karystos,6.01, 13.02,13.08 Lebanon,6.08 Greek, 13.09;magistracies,13.04, Mithridates, era of the rule of, 6.08 (ta-
Kayster River, 4.06 Lebedos,6.01 13.08;prytaneis,6.01, 13.02-05, 13.07; ble ls)
KephissosRiver, 4.06,4.07.3,4.12 legal instruments of common law, 7.06 Roman, 14.07;strategoi,13.06 Mithridates II, 6.08
Kerameikos,11.00 legions. Seearmy, Roman Magnesiaon the Maeander,2.03,4.06, Mitylene, 6.01,8.05, 13.00,13.02
Keramos,13.04 Leiden system,1.00-l I 4.13,4.20,6.01,8.00,13.02,13.04-05 moldings,0.06
Kibyra, 4.04,9.05 Lemnos,6.01 Mammaea,Julia, 0.l (fig. 5) Molossis,6.01
Kieron, 6.01 Lenara,6.02 Mantinea, 6.01, 8.07 money. Seecurrency
Kirchner,J.,4.24;Kirchner Principle,l.l1 Leros,6.01,13.04 manumission,7.05, 12.00-06;by dedica- Montanism,11.05,11.09
Kius, 13.02 Lesbos,4.09,6.01,6.03 tion to a god, 12.03;by fictive sale, month names,6.03-07 (tables12-18);
Klazomene,4.05 Leto, 4.04 12.04;by last will and testament, Attic, 6.03;Egyptian,6.06;in Aitolia,
Kleisthenes,I 3.02; Kleisthenaic demes, Ietter forms, 2.01 12.02;conditional, 12.06;sacral, Amphissa,6.03 (table l2); in Asia, Bi-
4.19 (table7) letters, official, 7.01 12.05;unconditional, 12.06 thynia,6.07(tablel4)i in Boiotia,6.03
Knidos,6.01,8.11,13.04-05 Leukopetra,10.03 marble, 0.05 (table 12); in Byzantium, 6.07 (table
512 | GeneralIndex
month names (continueil)
14);in Capadocia,K1pros,6.07(table
14);in Delos,Delphi,6.03 (table l2); in
Ephesos,6.07(table l4); in Epidauros,
Halos,Koq6.03 (table 12);in Kyzikos,
6.07 (tablel4); in Lamia,Lokris,6.03
(table 12);in Miletos, Perinthos,6.07
(table l4); in Phokis,Rhodes,6.03
(table 12);in Smyrna,6.07(table 14);in
Thessaly,6.03 (table l2); Julian,6.01,
6.05,6.07;namesbasedon, 5.04;Syro-
Macedonian.6.06
mortgages,7.06
mosaics,7.12
movablev. 15.09
Mnsterberg,R.,4.01
Muses,4.04
Mylasa,6.01, 13.02,13.04
Myndos, 6.01, 13.04
Myra, 13.07
Mysia, 4.06
Mytilene, 4.12,8.06
names of months. Seemonth names
namesof persons,Greek,4.00-24; based
on Agrioi gods,4.12;basedon ani-
mals,4.09,4.21.2;basedon birds,
4.21.2;basedon divine epithets,4.06;
basedon fish' 4.21.2;basedon insects,
4.09,4.21.2;basedon magistracies,on
perfumes,4.09;basedon plants,4.09,
4.21.2;basedon preciousstones,on
professions,on religious initiates, 4.09;
basedon reptiles,4.21.2;basedon riv-
ers,4.06,4.07.3,4.12-13; Bithynian,
4.12;Christian, 5.04, I 1.07;classifica-
tion of, 4.03;in colonieS,4.13; Cretan,
4.12; the demotic, 4.19, I l.0l; derived
from Bevig, 4.05;Dorian, 4.12;the
ethnic, 4.18,7.18;ethnicsas,names,
4.15;femalenames,4.21;female
namesin -{1E,4.16;foreign, 4.14,4.18;
freedmen's names, 5.09; ghost names,
4.23; hlpocoristic names, 4.02; Illyrian
names,4.20;in'Ayv-, 4.09; in
GeneralIndex I Sf:
aypcrg,4.06, 4.10.1;in -o?'og,4.06, namesof persons,Roman, agnomen); Palatine,7.16
4.10.2;in -ovicrg,4.10.2;in -og (with titulature of emperors,5.13;translit- paleography,2.00-02, 7.16
gen. in -o), 4.20;in -poul,og,4.06' eration into Greek,4.02, 5.ll Palermo,0.07
11.02;in -yeirtuvftoE,4.l2; in -yvrlE, nasals,15.08;movable v, 15.09 Palestine, 6.01,I 1.08,15.01
4.06,4.08;in -yoqag,4.06; in -qpog, Naxos, 0.05,6.01 Palmyra, 6.08
4.10.1;in -lxog,4.06,11.02;in Naepolis, 14.07 Pamphlagonia, 4.05
-toqog/-orog,4.06-07, 4.10.2,4.11, Nemea, 8.00;Nemean games,6.08 Pamphylia,6.0l,13.04
4.12;in -sppoE,4.12;in E-,4.10; in Nero, 5.13.3,5.13.11(nos. 18-20), 7.16, Pan, 4.04,4.07.2,lO.O5
-r1g/-og(masc.),4.07.2,4.20;in -qg 14.07,17.04.1-2 Pape,W., and G. Benseler,4.0l
(fem.), 4.21; in -06vqg,4.08; in -lxEi Nerva,5.13.1I (nos.33*34) Paphlagonia, 6.06 (table 14)
-txi1, 4.09, 4. 15; in -r.i.og,-)'(1.)og, Nesos,13.02 papponymic, 4.17
4.09;in -lov (male),4.02,4.10;in -lov Nicaea, 13.10;Council of, 4.03 paramoneclause,12.06
(fem.), 4.21; in -rog/-r,c,4.09; in Nikaia, 13.02,16.05 Paros,0.05,6.01,8.05,8.06,11.00
-rnrros,'Ina(o)-,4.10.1;in Koll'r-, Nikomedia, I 1.05,14.07 patronymic, 4.17
Kol.o-,4.Il; in -xlflg, -x)"6crE, -xl.ioE, Nilometer inscriptions,5.l2 Paul (apostle),5.06
4.06,I 1.02;in -xl.oE(fem.), 4.06,4.21; Nisyros,6.0l, 13.04 pediment, 0.06
in -l.oog,4.10.1;in -1,6ov,4.10.1; in nomina, 5.02 (table 8); nomina sacra, Peloponnesos,6.01,8.07, 13.04
-l.e<oE,4.10.1; in -po, -potlov (fem.), 2.06.3 pentameter,16.01,16.04
4.21;in -ov (fem.),4.21;in -o1oE, nones,6.05 Pentelicus,Mount, 0.05
4.10.21in @ll.o-,4.10.1;inventoriesof, numbering of lines, l.0l Perasia,4.09
4.01;lewish,4.05,4.14,ll.O7 (cf.2.06 numerals,2.07-09; acrophonic,2.08 (ta- Pergamon,7.17,7.76,10.04-05,13.05,
[fig. 8]); Kyrenian, Lycian, Macedo- ble 4); alphabetic,2.09(table 6); cardi- 13.10,14.07
nian,4.12;method and,4.23;namesof nal, ordinal, 2.07 (table 3) Perinthos,6.06(table l4), 11.01
slavesof Greekmasters,4.22,5.08,5.10; nlnnphs,4.04, 4.07.3 PharnacesI, 6.08
neuter feminine namesin Attic,4.21; Nysa,6.01, 13.02,13.04 Pheneus,6.01
nontheophoric,4.08-12; the pa- Pherai,4.12
tronymic, 4.17;the papponymic,4.17; oatns./.1 I Philadelphia,6.08,7.10, 13.02,14.07
prosopography and, 4.24; Samian,4. I 2; obol, 2.08, 17.01,17.03 Philip the Arab, 5.13.11(no. 62)
surnames,4.20;theophoric,4.04-08; Odessos, 4.12,6.01 Philippi, 6.08, 14.06
useof uig, rois,4.17; with g, i, , Oenoanda.2.03 Phoenecia,4.09, 6.08, 17.03
4. l7; with Doric genitive(-o), 4.20; offrcials: Greek, 13.09;official letters, Phokaia,4.12,6.01, 13.02,13.04
with xoi,4.14,4.20, 5.06;with 6 nqi,v/ 7.01;Roman, 14.07 Phokis,4.13,6.01,6.03 (tablel2), I 1.01,
nqdtegov,5.02 Olbia (Euxini),4.07.3,4.13,4.15,6.01 12.06
names of persons,Roman, 6.09; abbrevia- Olous, 6.01 phonetic p olarization, 4.23
tions of Latin names,5.12(tablell); Olympia,7.16,8.00; era of the Olympic photographs,3.01
agnomen,5.06;cognomen,5.01,5.04 gamesof, 6.08 (table 15) phratries,7.13
(table 10), 5.05;double names (see Olynthos, 6.01 Phrygia,4.06,6.01, I l.0s-07, I 1.09,
names of persons, Roman, agnomen); omens.7.1I 13.04-05
emperors'name, 5.13;femalenames, Opons, 6.01 Pilate,Pontius, 14.04
5.07;filiation, 5.01,5.09,5.13.3;free oracles,7.1l, 10.03,16.00 poetry, 10.00-05
men's names,5.10;freedmen'snames, Orchomenos,6.01, 8.07 Pompey,era of, 6.08 (table 15)
5.09-10; namesof slavesof Roman orthography, 1.00,5.11, 6.09, 7.13, PontusEuxinus,4.05,4.09,4.13,4.15,
masters,5.08,5.10;nomen, 5.01-02 15.00-12 6 . 0 1 ,1 1 . 0 5
(table 8), 5.05;praenomen,4.02, 5.01, ossuaries,T.l4 Porson'sLaw, 16.05
5.03 (table 9), 5.05;surnames,(see ostraca,7.14 portable objects,7.14
 GeneralIndex I SfS
5L4 | GeneralIndex

societies, 9.01,I 1.06,13.10 Temnos, 13.05

Poseidon,9.01,9.04; Poseidoniastai,
(fig. l2),7.r8
Potidaea,6.01
praenomina,5.03 (table 9)
prayers, 7.I I
Preisigke,F., 4.01
Priene,4.05,4.13,6.01,8.05' 10.04(fig.
20), 13.02,13.04-0s, 13.07
5.07 (fig. l1), 7.11,
priests/priestesses,
7.13,13.08,14.01;priesthood,7.10
Propontis,4.06,8.10
proportional spacing,2.03 (fi1.7)
prosopography,4.24
provinces(Roman), 6.01,6.08, 14.00,
14.04, 14.07;finances in, 14.05
proxenie,4.09,7.02
proxeny decrees,7.O2,9.02
prytanis,prytaneis,6.01, 13.02-05, 13.07
prytany, 6.01,7.I3, 8.04, 13.01
psilosis,15.12
Ptolemy II Euergetes,6.06
Ptolemy V Epiphanes,6.06
Ptolemy Philadelphus, 6.06
punctuation, 2.04
Pythian games,era of the, 6.08 (table l5)
qoppa,2.09
quarry, 0.05,7.15;quarry marks, 7.15
quotationsfrom ScriPture,7.1I
rasures.1.08
restorations,l.l l, 3.00
Rhedium,6.01
Rhodes,2.05,4.19,6.01,6.03 (tablel2),
11.02,t3.02, 13.04-05, 14.06;
Rhodian drachma, 17.03
Rhyndakos River, 4.06
Roma, 6.01 (fie. l2),7.18, 14.07
Roman administration and functionar-
ies, 14.00-08;army, 14.03,17.04;colo- Skamander River, 4.06
nies and cities, 14.06;currency, 17.04; slaves,7.17, 10.04,12.00-06;namesof,
offices below senatorial rank, 14.14;
provincial finances,14.05;rule ofprov-
inces,14.04
rosalia,71.07
6.01 sacredinscriptions,T.l0 (fig. l3),7.ll
soldiers,7.13, 14.01,14.03-04;stipend temples,7.09, 10.04,13.08
sacredstones,T.ll
sacrifice,7.l0 (fig. 13),9.03,13.08 for, 17.04.1-4 Tenos,6.01
6.01, 13.02,13.08 solidus, 17.04.4 Teos,4.09,4.12, ll.0l, 13.04
Sagalassos,
saittai,6.08,11.01 solilunar calendar, 6.02 Termessos, 6.01,13.02,13.08
soubriquets,4.21 tesserae,7.14
Salamis,4.O7.3,13.04
Sounion,5.08,7.10 tetradrachm, 17.01,17.03
Samos,4.12,6.01,6.03,6.08,8.05,13.02,
13.04-05 Sparta,6.01,8.07,9.02,13.01,13.08 thank offering, 10.00
spoons,7.14 Thasos,4.12,6.01,8.10,13.08
Samothrace,6.01
sampi,2.o9 squeezes, 3.00-05;brush for, 3.03(fig. 9) Thaumaces,6.01
stamps,7.14 Thebes,4.07.2,4.12, 6.01
Sarapeion,4.04, 8.00, 10.03(fig. 19)
stater,17.01 theoroi,7.13
Sarapis,10.03(fig. l9)
sarcophagi,0.06, I 1.01-02, I 1.06 statuesand statuettes,0.06,7.I4, 7.18, Thera,4.12-13,6.01
Sardinia,14.04 9 . 0 1 , 9 . 0 4( f i g . l 6 ) ; 9 . 0 s , 1 0 . 0 4 Thessalonika,6.01, 7.08, 13.04,13.08
Sardis,2.06(fig. 8),6.01, r0.00, 10.03 steiris, 12.06 Thessaly,6.01,6.03 (table l2), 8.10,
(fig. 18), 11.01,13.04,14.07,16.04 stele,0.06-07,0.09-10,7.16,8.10 12.01;Thessalianleague,13.05,
stephanephoros, 4.09, 6.01, 13.03-04, 17.01
Scarphei,6.01
seals,terracotta,7.14 13.06,13.08 Thrace,4.09,4.73,4.22, ll.0l, 11.06,
2.03 stobi,7.10 t4.07
Sebasteia,
stoichedonsryle,1.02,2.03 (fig.6) Thronium,6.0l
secretary,6.01, 8.10, 13.02,13.04
stonemasons,0.06, 0.09, 1.05.3,1.06, Thyatira, 2.05, 6.01, 13.02,13.08
Seleucia,7.13, 13.07
SeleucidI, 6.08
1.07,16.06 T i b e r i u s5, . 1 3 . 15, . 1 3 . 1 1( n o s .l l - 1 3 ) ,
stops, 15.06 6.0t, t4.07
Seleucidera, 6.08 (table l5)
strategos, 6.01,8.01,8.05,13.05-06 tiles, 7.14
Seleucids,6.06
Stratonikeia,2.02,6.01, 13.02,13.04, titulature,5.13
senatorialcursushonorum, 14.01
SeptimiusSeverus,5.13.1I (nos. 5l-52),
13.07 Titus, 5.13.9,5.13.11(nos.24-28)
t4.02, 17.04.2-3 Sulla,5.03, 8.07;Sullan era, 6.08 (table Tlos, 4.05
1 s ) ,1 1 . 0 9 tombs,0.06,ll.0l-03, 11.05-09
Severandynasties,2.05
Sundwall,J., 4.24 Tomi(s),0.la (fig. s),4.r3
SeverusAlexander,0.l (fig.5),5.13.11
(nos.56-57) sFnagogue, Jewish,2.01, 11.08 Torone, 6.01
Synnada,13.10 TrailI,1., 4.24
shofar, I 1.08
sibilants,15.11
Syria,2.05-06,4.05,4.09,4.20,6.01, Trajan,5.13.11(nos.35-38), 7.08,7.11,
6.06,6.08,14.04,17.03;Syria- 14.05-06
Sicily,0.07, 14.04
sigla,editorial, 1.00-12
Palestine,7.08 Tralles,10.05(fig. 2l), 13.02,14.07
Syro-Macedonian era. SeeSeleucid era transcription, 0.08-09
signaturesof artists,7.18
Syros,6.01,8.01 transliterationof Latin names,5.1I
signetrings, 7.14
Susa(Susina),12.02 treasurer,0.07, 13.02,13.04
silver,7.16,10.04,17.01-04
Sinai,4.09 treasury,7.1l; inventories,7.13; offer-
Sinope, 13.08
tablets,wooden, 0.07 tory treasury,10.03(fig. 19)
talents,2.08 treaties,7.01,7.16,8.12
Sittig, E., 4.04,4.06,4.07.3
Tarentum,4.l2 triangle,2.04,2.06.3
Tarsos,6.01,13.04,14.06 tria nomina,5.01,5.05
4 . 0 9 ,4 . 2 2 , 5 . 0 8s, . 1 0
taxes,14.04,17.03,17.04.3-4;taxpayers, tribes(Attic), 6.01,13.02,13.05
7.13 tribunate, 6.01
sling bullets, 7.14
Tegea,6.01,8.07 tribute lists,7.l3
Smyrna,4.13, 6.07 (table l4), 11.00,
13.02,13.04-07,13.10,14.07 Tembris Valley, 11.05,11.09 trimeter, Iambic, 16.05
516 | GeneralIndex

Trinity, 11.05 votiveofferings,7.03,7.l1,7.l6,10.00,

Triphis,4.07.l 10.05,16.00
Tripolis, 6.08 vowels, convergenceof, 15.06. Seediph-
Tritaia, 6.01 thongs
Troad (Aiolian),4.09
Troas, 4.06,4.12 water pipes, 7.16
Trochee, 16.04 wedge,2.06.3
Troizen, 14.O7 weights and measures,7.14
Tyche,4.l6, 10.05 widows, 11.07
Tyre, 6.08 wills, 7.06
women: constructions by, 7.12; financial
underlining, l.l0 contributions by, 9.00; Ilyrian names
of women in Thessaly,4.21; magistra-
vacat, 1.03,2.06 (fig. S) ciesof, 13.08;in public life, 5.07 (fig.
Valerianus,5.l3.ll (no.64) ll), 13.01,13.08;namesof women in
vases,7.14 -q9,4.21,5.07;namesof, 4.21;neuter
Verus, L., 5.13.11 namesof women in Attica, 4.21.2;wid-
Vespasian, 5.13.3,5.13.9,5.13.11(nos. ows, 11.07
2l-23),14.07 wreaths. Seecrowns, wreaths
veterans.14.06
vitiumlapidis,1.03 Zets,4.07.l,7.11,10.00,10.02-03,
voluntary associations,7.02, 7.06, 7.10- 11.07, 12.06
lL, 7.13, 9.04, I 1.06-07 Zgusta,L' 4.24
516 | GeneralIndex

Trinity, 11.05 votiveofferings,7.03,7.l1,7.l6,10.00,

Triphis,4.07.l 10.05,16.00
Tripolis, 6.08 vowels, convergenceof, 15.06. Seediph-
Tritaia, 6.01 thongs
Troad (Aiolian),4.09
Troas, 4.06,4.12 water pipes, 7.16
Trochee, 16.04 wedge,2.06.3
Troizen, 14.O7 weights and measures,7.14
Tyche,4.l6, 10.05 widows, 11.07
Tyre, 6.08 wills, 7.06
women: constructions by, 7.12; financial
underlining, l.l0 contributions by, 9.00; Ilyrian names
of women in Thessaly,4.21; magistra-
vacat, 1.03,2.06 (fig. S) ciesof, 13.08;in public life, 5.07 (fig.
Valerianus,5.l3.ll (no.64) ll), 13.01,13.08;namesof women in
vases,7.14 -q9,4.21,5.07;namesof, 4.21;neuter
Verus, L., 5.13.11 namesof women in Attica, 4.21.2;wid-
Vespasian, 5.13.3,5.13.9,5.13.11(nos. ows, 11.07
2l-23),14.07 wreaths. Seecrowns, wreaths
veterans.14.06
vitiumlapidis,1.03 Zets,4.07.l,7.11,10.00,10.02-03,
voluntary associations,7.02, 7.06, 7.10- 11.07, 12.06
lL, 7.13, 9.04, I 1.06-07 Zgusta,L' 4.24