Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
- ----- -_.
Contents
Preface 4
Appendix 93
Conversion tables
Route-planning information
Gearratios of the 4WD
Acknowledgements 96
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Preface
ff-road driving mean s different rhings to different peop le.
For the intrepid explorer, it is an adventu re. For the
curious , it is to experience a new environment. For the no vice,
it is a test o f nerve and character. For the expert, it is a chance
to match skills and knowledge against the forces of nature. Yet;
for the more ardent environmentalist, it is an activity to be
banned in the interests of protecting na tura l habitats.
Off-reading can be as dangerous as it is exciting, though,
should you ignore some of the basic safety and environmental
care rules stilted in this manual. American off-roaders live by a
creed 'Tread Lightly' by driving with care and respect at all
times and by keeping mainly to long-esrab lished tracks in the
wilderness to minimise the negative aspects to ecostr uctures.
Th is manua l sees o ur to help both no vices and experts in the
enjo yable pursuit of their hobby. It is an attempt to conso lidate
alot of useful information in a handy-sized book that can be
carried in the vehicle's glove box and referred to as and when
required. The suggestio ns, ideas and advice and equipmenr
mentioned come from many years o f personal ex perience, and
from the wealth of standar d knowledge rhar exists in
off-reading circles. I don't inrend rein venting the wheel!
Techn iques and equipment described ha ve been pro ven in
the course of man y journe ys: in the desem of the Sah ara, Sahel
an d the UAE; the tundras of the Yukon and Iceland ; the jungles
of Th ailand, the for ests of Brit ish Columbia, Scotland an d
Wales; the savannahs of Kenya, Tanzania, Senegal, Namibia
and Botswana; the mountains of Morocco, Yemen and Oman,
and finally, Dartmoor, in my ho me count y of Devon, England.
1
AbDul your vehicle
lot of people become very confused by the techn o-wizards
wh o use automotive [argon with such ap lomb . This chapter
att empts to simplify some of the tech nical terms that you will
co me acro ss. T he techno-wizards will no doubt find it a very
basic and simplistic presentation, bur no apologies for that!
Engine performance
Engine perfor mance is desc ribed and mea sured using two
indicators: powerand torque, and the maximum of both is
stated in revo lutions per minu te (rpm). Power is basica lly an
indicato r o f the speed a vehicle can achieve, whilst torq ue is an
ind icator of irs hill-climbing abilit y. Power is usually expressed
as ho rsepower or brake ho rsepower (bhp) , O ne bhp, in the
BritishlUS system, is the force needed to lift 33,000 Ib a
distan ce of on e foo t in o ne minute. One metric horsep ower is
the force needed to lift 75 kg a distan ce of one metre in one
second, and is generally expressed as PS (the German for hp
being 'p ferdestarke' ). H o wever, the current tende ncy in
countries using the metric system of enginepower
measu rement is to express it in kilowatts (kW) rather than PS.
1 kW =1.36 PS; 1 PS =0. 735 kW
1 bhp = 0.745 7 kW; 1 kW = 1.3405 bhp .
The maximum horsepower of an engineis usually generated at
a point close to its max imu m rpm.
Th e outp ut of an engine docs not necessarily rela te to irs
size, but more to irs design and the degree of techn ology used.
For exa mple, Michael Schumac her's 3.0 litre Ferrari Formula 1
engine produces over 700 bhp at 16,500 rpm compared to the
210 bhp at 4,2 50 rpm fro m my Land Cruise r's 4.5 litre engine.
6 Aboul your vehicle
have a separate lever marked with 'H' and 'L' to enable you to
select the chosen range.
However, there are some automatic transm ission models
that perform better in soft sand and on steep inclines if Low
range third and fourth gears are used. Automatic gearboxes
usually have fewer gears than a manual gearbox - three or
four as opposed to the five of a manual transmission. This
means that each gear of an automatic model has a slightly
higher ratio than its manual counterpart, which may restrict
the traction performance in difficult situations. It is therefore a
good idea to use Low range and the two top gea rs of the
automatic transmission. From experience, I have found that in
soft sand, automatic Jeep Cherokees, for example, will perform
better in Low range than in High range. -
FA- Frontaxle
FD- Fronldlfferentlal
FP- Front propshaft
RP- Rear propshaft
RP RA - Rear axle
RD- Reardlfferentlal
E- Engine
G- Gearbox
CD- Centre differential
T- Transfer case
===::{RD (forHand Lranges).
Transfer case
Almost without exception, when a 4WD vehicle is operating in
2WD mode it is the rear axle and wheels rhat are driving the
vehicle. They take the power from the engine and gearbox via a
propeller ('prop') shaft. When 4WD mode is seleered, the
vehicle requires a second prop shaft to transmit the power from
the engine and gearbox to the front axle. A prop shaft takes the
power to the rear axle and the rear wheels from the back of the
transfer case, whilst a second prop shaft at the front of the
transfer case takes the power to the front axle and front wheels.
The transfer case also contains the alternative gears for High
range and Low range which may be selected by the transfer
case lever.
Differential locks
With 4WD selected and driving off-road, the vehicle's
transmission transmits power through the gearbox and transfer
case to the differentials, via the prop shafts, and then through
the differentials to the wheels via the half shafts. In normal
driving situations, the power is delivered equally to all four
wheels. However, if one of the wheels loses traction it will spin
freely as all the power from the engine is delivered to that
wheel. This is because the differential is doing its job, but it
doesn't help the driver, since the vehicle becomes stuck. To
regain traction, power must be delivered to at least one other
wheel to get the vehicle moving: this is the role of the
differential lock (diff lock).
IflL-, ,
"' ~I
i Elr;:-lfJ
4 '" 50 ..
Itl/lE &0"
, D'
(a)Normaldrlvlngwlth equal
power toall four wheels;
-r.~~:'
-COL
centre dlfflock Isengaged.
(b) Left frontwheelstarts
IITI==-- sc-,
"' ~'" splnnfng: right rearwheel
D' 60"
also spins freely: vehIcle
(a) (b) doesn't move even though
thecentre dlfflock has been
applied.
(c) Therearaxledlfflock Is
". D. appliedto tryto regain
traction.
(d) Both rear wheels now
receive power; theleftrear
D' 25 .. wheelis on good ground and
has enough traction tomove
(c) (d) the vehicle.
About your vehicle 13
tw o prop sha fts in the tran sfer case. When the speed
differe ntial rea ches a pre dete rmi ned level, the di ff lock
mechanism automatically starts working so that each receives
equal amounts of power from the transmission.
Ideal set-up
On a modern full-time 4WD vehicle, the idea l set-up is to have
a centre diff lock (in the tr ans fer case ) and an LSD in th e rear
axle . With this set- up and with a powerful engin e you can
climb mountains!
Overdrive
In an automatic vehicle, 'o verd rive' refersto a high-speed gear
that has a ra tio of less th an 1:1. In genera l, the third gear of an
automatic transmission has a ratio of 1:1 and the overdrivegear
a bour 1:0.8. The lower the gea r ratio, the higher the speed of
the driven gear, therefore the same speed can be mai nta ined bur
at lower engine rpm. For example, you can be d riving at
100 kph in top (third) gear with the engin e turning over at
4,000 rpm. If overdrive is selected, you maintain yo ur road speed
burthe engine revs will decrease to 3,250 rpm. This improves
fuel economy, and less engine noise provides a quieter ride.
Monocoque body
This describes a vehicle whose ch assis frame a nd body ar e
combined into a single unit, rather than having a separate
ladder-frame chassis with the bod y attached. By eliminating th e
~~(! =n~
,. [('11 'a a a
The separale
ladder·frame
chau ls
.. .,..
~ ~
~~ :l\ ,..--;
14 About yourvehicle
Leaf springs
Also known as 'cart springs', these comprise a number of steel
leaves clamped together and can only be used on vehicles with
.1 solid beam axle. They are strong, but are prone to dust and
dirt getting between the leaves - the resulting friction makes
for a very jerky and bumpy ride. They offer limited axle and
wheel articulation, especially on front axles. They arc rarely
used for front suspensions on modern 4WD vehicles, but are
occasionally used in the rear suspension of less technically
advanced vehicles. Leaf springs are also used to locate the axle
to which they arc attached.
The basic
construction of
the leaf spring
U-bolt
/ o ~««-----
•
Spring eye
Abculycurvehicle 15
Torsion baB
{souru : Land
Cmise,'echn/rol
referenc egufde.
Toyota Motor
Corp.} Shoc k absurber
Upper wIshbone
The position
of ccn springs
(source: t rifid
Cruiserlechn/co/ lower wishbone Shockabsorbe,
reference guide.
ToyoloMotQf
Corp.)
16 AbDUl your vehicle
" . '
. . ,, ', " ' ..
Shockabsorbers
Shock absorbers act £0 damp o ur the bouncing of the spri ngs to
o ffer a more co mfort a ble ride. Without th em, th e springs of a
vehicle would continue to bo unce up and down (oscillate) after
hitting a bump in the road. Shock absorbe rs should last for
between 12-18 months o f serious off-road use. On 4WD
vehicles, rhey ar e often a compromise between the needs of
serious o ff-ra ading and no rmal highwa y driv ing, and th erefore
co nsideratio n should be given [Q fittin g up rared vers ions more
suited to the off-road environme nt . Stand ar d items ar e usua lly
filled with air an d oil; more sophis ticated shocks use nitroge n
gas and may ha ve la rger diam eter pistons a nd doubl e-acting
valves. It is also possible to get shoc k ab sorbers which ca n be
adjusted fro m within th e veh icle to suit th e condition s ('soft'
for highway driving, and 'firm ' for off-road).
1B About yourvehicle
(.)
(b)
lights
Extra lights arc an essential accessory for the off-wader, the most
usefulgenerally being driving lights, which in effect provide
intensification of the vehicle's hcadlarnps. Foglights and spotlights
are readily available, although are of less relevance off-road.
Foglights
These provide a wide spread of light horizontally, bur only a
small vertical spread (in order to reduce reflected glare).
Spotlights
These provide a penetrating but narrow beam of light, which
will illuminate objects a long way away.
AbDul your vehicle 19
Driving lamps
These combi ne elements of barh fog and spo rlighrs, a nd
provid e a wide but rea son a bly far-reaching spr ead o f light.
Safety equipment
Seat belts
Man y manu facturers no w fit 'emergency lockin g/ ret ractor'
(ELR) belts as standard eq uipment in their vehicles. When
fitted in vehicles supp lied with SRS air bags, these ELR scat
belts have tw o impo rtant function s to perform:
20 AbDul your vehicle
t
(a) Pre-tensioning: immediately before (b) Force-limiting: to reducethe risk
Impact, the seat beltsensor activates a of inJuryto the torso upon sudden
smallmotorInthe seat mechanism to deceleration. the seat belt 'gives'
wind it in - thus holding the occupant a llttle,enablingthe occupantto
firmly in his/her seat. moveforward.
SRSairbags
'Supplementary restraint system' (SRS) air bags provide
additional protection to the seat belt wearer in case of accident.
An air bag will deploy if a vehicle has a frontal impact with a
solid, immovable object at a speed in excess of about 25 kph
(15 mph). Air bags are designed purely for use in tandem with
seat belts as a means of reducing the risk of injury to the vehicle
occupants. It is very unlikely that an accident in the desert
would cause the air bag to inflate, as the speeds and rates of
deceleration would not be sufficient to cause the mechanism to
trigger off the air bag.
Off-road driving 21
2
Off-road driving
IIff-road driving can be a very dangero us business , w ith
lIman)' pitfalls for the unwa ry and inex perienced. T he
troub le with many novice o ff-ra aders is that as they have been
driving o n-road for yea rs, the y mistakenly believe that goi ng
o ff-road is [usr an extension of wh at the)' ca n already
competently do. Such extreme off-roa d behaviour can be called
the 'red mist' syndro me: reaso n goes QU[ o f the wi ndow and is
replaced by a mixtu re of fright and a com pulsion to exhibi t a
macho attitude. Thankfully, the majori ty of new and
ex perienced off-ro ad drivers adopt a more rational and
disciplined approach to the task in hand , coup led with
co mp lete alertness to unex pected hazar ds. There is no place for
the 'show-off', the 'ha lf asleep' o r the 'red mist' merchants.
To becom e a competent d river, yo u must learn certain
techniques that you will on ly use when driving off-road . Th e
best wa y to perfect these techn iques is by practice, practice and
even more practice . It will take time and patience to becom e
Leamf romyour
mlslake5.R
practice unlll
ygu don'l
rep eat them
22 OH-road driving
,
.
150m 100m 50m
Where to look
Be wary of sudden dips and jumps even when driving on a
well-defined sand track - they are often very difficult to see.
When driving in the desert, you should be focusing on the
ground no more than 50 m ahead and be constantly on the
alert for sudden changes in the surface. This close observance is
especially important in the summer, when the sun is high
overhead and not casting shadows. I never wear sunglasses
when driving in the desert, as I find they severely limit my
ability to 'read the ground'.
Off-road driving 23
(c)
Off-road
surfaces: Off-road surfaces*
(a) country roads
InKenya are a
mudnightmare The ground over which you are driving can vary from a smooth
after heavyrain: gravel track to a soft dune section in the Empty Quarter; a
drive In the centre
of the road 10 muddy sabkba (salt flat) plain Ot dry rocky wadi bed to a
avoid sliding Into
flowing stream of indeterminate depth. Unlike the smooth
Ihe ditches;
(b) typlcallracks surface of a tarmac road, which only varies according to the
In the sand.
weather, rhe variations of off-road surfaces arc endless.
momentum and
lyre pressure are
needed 10keep
going: Sand surfaces
(elgravel roads
Inarcticregions
Deserts vary from areas of large, flat plains to areas of towering
becomevery
slJpperywhen dunes over 100 m high.
wet:
By its very nature - millions of tiny grains of stone - sand
(d) the rocky
wadi bed: lovely is one of the most unstable surfaces to drive on. Perhaps only
10 photograph,
mud exceeds it in providing very limited grip for your tyres.
but difficult to
negotiate The secrets of successful sand driving are momentum and ryre
~ For a greater understanding uf the geographical and topographical nature of desert s and mountains,
read GlIlf LlIIdsc<1{Jt's (Elizabe th Collas and Andr ew Taylor, Motivate Publ ishing, 1992 ).
24 Dff-read driving .
~ Brake gently!
If you brake hard for a sudden
stop when driving on sand,
the wheels will dig into the
sand. Very often, the sand you
are driving on has a fairly firm
crust, which masks very soft
sand beneath. Break throngh
the crust and you may be in
trouble. Your first choice for
slowing down is to use engine
(a) braking. Try to avoid hard
braking when driving on sand
as you could not only break
the crust, but also lose control
of the vehicle. Never use the
brakes when descending steep
(b) slopes, as the whole weight of
28 Off-read driving
Tryto llvold th e veh icle w ill be th ro w n forward o nto th e front whee ls. Th ese
sudden braking
whe n drlvlngon wi ll dig into th e sand a nd th e rear w heels can lift off th e gr ound
s a nd. orYOll wlll ca using a n unbalanced vehicle to slew sideways a nd roll do wn
ge t sluck!
the slope. Use engine brak ing only to slow down yo ur descent
in these situa tio ns.
~ Accelerale gently!
Seco nd o n my Jist of pet hares, after the ' red mist' merchants,
are the 'ax le t ramp' dri vers. Excessive accelera tio n will also
ca use the wheels to dig into the sand - the result is litt le
co rruga tio ns several centi metres deep ca used by ax le tramp
tha t sha ke th e vehicle to pieces . As yo u accelerate ha rd on a
soft surface, th e vehicle digs in w ith th e same force as it mo ves
forward, and th e axle sta rts bouncing up and down, creating
th ose awful corrugati on s. Once a corru gatio n ha s been created,
ever y vehicl e that follows wi ll ma ke it wo rse.
Soft ryre press ures he lp to ab sorb the tramp ing of your ow n
axle, but tr y to limit yo ur speed to between 40-50 kph . Th e
tr ick is to find the sp eed at w hic h th e vert ica l suspension
movements are in synch wi th th e cor r uga tio ns; likely to be
between 50- 80 kph . It helps if you ca n keep to the extreme
edge o f th e co rruga te d track , w here th e wheels o n at lea st o ne
side of t he vehicle are tra velling o n a smoothish surface.
moving the transfer case lever from '],' through ' N ' into '1-1'.
If you stop to do this, you will lose momenrum and become
bogged down again. Perfect this by practising on firm ground
so that you get used to the procedure without getting stuck!
::::::=-- ----
-------~ -~~f
Winddirection
-- J ~:
wrnd-btewnsand
fromthe crest ..•
~;/:;:
~~ ":;
Th' leeward sfde ls the
steepslopeor'sllp'face
- ~: ~ :::
The windward sIde tstne shallow sIde
\
.>":~ \\ ... falls 10the base
( 21) \ }I. of the slope
rrcss-sectten of .'/ 1.,-" '-
the classic
Dunes
barchon dune
There are two main type s of dunes. The barchan type is a
crescent-shaped dune, which varies in size from 1111 to over
30 m high. It has a shallow angle face on the windward slope
(the side facing the prevailing wind), and a steep drop on the
leeward slope which is known as th e 'slip' face. These slip faces
can be very steep, often with an angle of about 33° (close to the
angle of inertia) and arc notoriously unstable. Th ere is
sometimes a flat area at the peak of the barchan dune which
disguis es an overhang - a small section of unsupported sand
Aclil5Slc
example of
sticking out over the slip face. Never drive your vehicle onto
'sel{s': knlfe- this type of overhang as it may collapse under the weight of the
edged ridges
vehicle. Stop well back from the edge and rake a look on foo t
whlch are
- formed bya before proceeding.
series of
borchon dunes
In areas where the prevailing winds come from different
linking together directions, the crescent shape of the barchan changes into a
continuous, but wavy,
knife-edged ridge called a 'scif
(sword). Th ese seif ridges can
extend for several kilometres
in an unbroken line, becoming
a formidable obstacle to cross
even in a 4WD.
A large area covered by a
mix of small, medium and
high barchan and scif dunes
can stretch for several
28 OU-road driving
,
... .~:;""t:..._':'-&~~ •
. ,
pro ba bly better to dri ve
a roun d th em unless yo u ar e
' . "- ... / / . look ing for a good
-I ~ :'
-' .~ '; playgro un d! You will a lso find
huge mounta ins of san d
several hun dred met res high
~ Descending dunesLopes
The most important thing to
remember is to let the engine
do the braking. It takes an act
3D Oil-road driving
Oescendlnga
of faith for a new off-reader to
dune slope: the
mostImportant refrain from braking on a down
thlng tn
remember1510
slope, especially if it is a very
let the engine do steep one, but braking can also
the braking
cause the wheels to lock up and
slide sideways, and the vehicle
might roll over.
Sabkhas can be
Greater experience in the
treacherous: Iry
10keep tc a terrain will eventually bring
vIsible track
knowledge of 'what is on the
other side',
Driving on sabkhas
Sabkhas arc created when
rainfall drains off the
surrounding mountains or
ergs onto a plain that becomes
saturated. As the sun
evaporates the water, so the
salt rises to the surface to form
a thick crust. During the
summer when the sabkhas
have dried our, they are usually safe to drive on provided that
you keep to a clearly visible track. Even in the spring, after any
winter rains, it can still be safe to use the well-trodden path
across a sabkha. Try not to stray from the track as there is no
way of telling if the surface is finn enough to bear the weight of
a 4WD. If it is not firm, you will quickly sink up to the axles
and face a lengthy and vcry dirty recovery job. Some sabkhas
are very treacherous, and have the consistency of quicksand
- there is little chance of recovering a stuck vehicle from this.
Driving in wadis
\Vadis are dried-up river or stream beds. Seasonal rains create
torrents of flowing water which drain off inca the desert,
sometimes forming the infamous sabkhas. \Vaclis occur in
sandy areas as well as in mountainous regions, where real
danger lurks in the form of flash-floods after major rainstorms.
Mountain wadis are littered with varying sizes of rocks,
boulders and stones, which call for caution and great care to be
taken to protect your tyres - use full road pressures to prevent
the tyre walls from being cur or holed on sharp stones.
Also, pay attention to ground clearances and the risk of
damaging the engine sump or other vulnerable mechanical
components. As you steer to avoid the bigger rocks and stones,
remember which side of rhe front axle rhe differential is on: ir
32 Off-road driving
Crossing ditches
will nor be in the centre of the axle! Driving across rocks is one
of the rare occasions when Low range will be your first choice,
and in first gear.
Wide sand wadis are nor as dangerous to your vehicle
unless you are driving too fast, lose control and roll over when
crossing unseen undulations.
below the air intake vent into the engine - a very expensive
engine rebuild was the result! If water does get sucked into an
engine, it is 'goodbye' to the con rods, pistons and valves .
Most 4WD vehicles have a fairly deep wading height,
typically 70 em. Ignition systems are usually well sealed against
the ingress of water, with the HT leads and spark plugs also
well sealed. The only thing to be careful about is the effect of
the fan blades if they become semi-submerged in water,
generating a spray like an egg whisk.
When there has been a flash-flood, the water is usually quite
Howtowade murky and it is difficult to see beneath the surface. There is only
through water:
nrst walkthe
one thing to do, and that is to get out and walk across, using
water, then spray your shovel or a stick to probe the bottom for unseen hazards.
the etectrrcs with
WD40. Place iI
It is a good idea to tie a plastic sheet across the front of the
plastlc sbeet vehicle to prevent the water from going through the grille. Also
overthe grille,
andIn nrst cr
give the electrics a good spray ofWD40 before you start. To get
second gear, through, it is usually best to select Low range second gear,
drlves[ow[y
thrcughthe
continue at a steady 4-5 kph and to keep moving without
water; remember changing gear. Once safely on the other side, proceed with
thatycurbrakes
will nolfully
caution as your brakes will not be working at maximum
functlon unUl dry efficiency until they have dried out.
34 Off-road driving
.Ilo-som
Clutch control
Perhaps the worst mistake made by inexperienced off-roaders
when driving in sand is slipping the clutch in the belief th at it
will assist traction. Neve r slip th e clutch when driving off-road
(or on-road, for that rnat rerl }; the first result will be a nasty
smell as the clutch disc starts coo king from the friction heat,
followed by a defective clutch pressure plate and disc. When
yo u first smell an overheated clutch, stop immedia tely and wa it
for the disc to cool down before trying to drive off.
Thumbs out!
When holding the steerin g wheel do not grip it with your
thumbs around the wheel. Keep your thumbs out and resting
on the rim of the wheel. It is safer to do rhis because if the
wheels should suddenly hit an o bject and the steering wheel
spins in yo ur hands , you will not damag e your thumbs.
Off-road driving 35
Clogged treads:
wet sand after
tecatraindogs
lhetyretreads,
glvillglo550f
steering control
and minimal
braking
performance
Air-conditioningconsumes bhp
On full blast, your vehicle's air-conditioning consumes up to
10 per cent of the engine's power. In recovery situations
all available power is need ed at the wheels, so switch off the
air-conditioning when carrying out recovery techniques.
Clogged treads
\Vhen driving in wet sand or mud, th e tyre treads very quickly
become clogged up, aod it is like driving on slicks. The result is
a roral1oss of traction from the tyres and erratic steering. To
avoid sliding into hazards requiring a major recovery exerci se,
get out and clean the treads from time to time . Prevention is
better than cure .
Mud
As we have seen, mud is an unpleasant surface to drive on and
makes steering and braking an imprecise process. Too much
throttle in low gears creates wheel spin and lack of control. It is
better to select High range third geat and use controlled wheel
spin to cut through the top surface to the firmer ground
beneath. When on a muddy track with a steep camber either
side, try to stay firmly in the centre of the track to avoid a
lengthy recovery process!
_.. _-
_...
Try the 'forward If reducing pressures doesn't work, try the 'forward and back'
andback' routine
to poweryclU out routine. Alternately select forward and reversegears very
of D soft patch quickl y and try to firm up th e sand by the co nstant to and fro
motion. Every time you go forward, and then reverse, rry to
travel a birfurther in each direction until you build up enough
momentum to power our of rhe sofr parch.
Starting in gear
Sometimes it is very difficult to get the vehicle moving at all due
to its position or the softness of the sand. A useful technique to
use and perfect is that of 'starting the vehicle in gear ', which can
be used when trying to pull out of soft sand patches, or when
desceoding steep slopes. The procedure is as follows .
~ Switch off the engine after applying the hand brake and/or
footbrake.
... Select Low range and first or second gear.
~ Release the brakes and allow engine compression to hold
the vehicle.
.... Start the engine with gear engaged, but w ithout using
the clutch .
iii- As the engine fires, apply gentle acceleration of up to
1,000 rpm .
Pushing
The assistance of your
passengers, and those of other
vehicles in the convoy, will
make all the difference when
you try to get started again in
soft sand. It is surprising how
the weight of even several slim
people will give your vehicle's
wheels that extra lirtle bit of
. .~ traction to get you out of
trouble. However, it is an
Even the weIght energy-sapping business, and, in the summer, an excessive
ofseveral slim
people tan be
amount of exertion can cause dehydration and exhaustion.
enoughto get you I have a rule during Jul y and August that, if stuck, a tow is the
eurenrcuete
first option, foll owed by winching with pushing as a lasr resort.
What to do when you gel stuck 38
Creating ramps
If all the ab ove fails, you will
have to start digging. By now
your vehicle may have sunk
several inches into the sand
and the build-up of the sand
'bow wa ves' in front of each
wheel means yo u are not
go ing anywh ere. Using yo ur
Removing the trusty shovels, scrape away the sand from in from of and
sand fromIn
fronlofan d behind all four wheels. Thi s crea res gentl y sloping ramps in
behindallfour front of and/or behi nd the wh eels to ease your exit. If you have
tyres creates
rampsto excess wat er supplies, dampen the sand in front of the whe els
driveup for add ed tracrion.
Rocking
This is another way to 'lift and
fill', but it requires the
assistance of at least six or
eight others. Line up an equal
number on each side of the
vehicle holding the rain gutter.
In turn, each side pushes the
top of the vehicle to get it
With helperson rocking sideways. The effort must be vigorous enough to start
elther side,push
alternately 10 lifting the wheels a few millimetres on each push. As the wheels
urttbewneets lift, so the sand will fill in the holes and the vehicle can -
oneach sIde;as
they lllt, the eventually be rocked to the surface. From there, with a further
holes will nil In push, you should be able to drive off again. (This technique
withsand,until
thevehicleis on works better with vehicles fitted with rigid beam axles, rather
levelground than those with independent suspension.)
Tow pulls
These come in a variety of forms - from the gentle tug to move
the stuck vehicle a few metres to firmer ground, to the violent
jerk (the 'snatch pull') to un stick a firmly embedded vehicle .
The latter, however, should be used rarely and with great care.
I recall a friend using a snatch pull on a Discovery who
mistakenly attached the rope to the bull bar. The result was
predictable - his 4WD remained stuck in the hole and the bull
bar was left dangling on the end of the tow-tope! If you do
need to offer assistance in the form of a snatch pull, then you
should use a kinetic energy recovery rope (a KERR - see
Chapter 4 for more details on this).
42 Whatto dowhenyou get stuck
Thecorrectwayto tow
When Uning up to offer a stricken frIend a pull out of his troubles there are
several things to remember.
• Both vehicles and the rope engage gear and await the pull
should be in as straight a line as with wheels turning, so that the
the area permits. towingvehicleIs not pullinga dead
• The rope should be attached at weight.
both ends by a shackle (see • As soon as the stuck vehicle Is
Chapter 4 for types of shackles). movingagain under Its own power,
• If your rope Is too short. use a towing ceases and the vehicles
second rope Joined by a shackle. stop. Be careful not to drive over
Do not start tying knots. as they the tow-rope and risk winding it
will becomejammedsolid because around the fronthubs.
of the towingforce. • Remove the tow-rope by
• Place the rope rs) on the ground undoing the shackles. If the pin is
between the two vehicles In an '5 ' Jammed, use a short metalspike or
so that each driver can see when bar In the hole at the end of the pin
the ropeIs about to take the st rain for extra leverage.
of thepull.
• Agree what signals will be used When the tow Is taking place,
by both drivers to ensure a co- helpers can push the stuckvehicle,
ordinated effort. . but they must stay behind the
• Just before the tow ing vehicle vehicle Incase the rope breaks and
moves off, the stuck driver should flails back.
Wi nching
Th e person who invent ed the electric winch deserves a
medal! It is witho ut dou bt th e single most impor tant piece of
off-reader's equipment after the sho vel and a recovery rope .
Vehicle-mounted winches can be either mechanically or
electrically pow ered. A mechanical winch is operated from a
power rake-off from the gearbox and is totally independent of
the vehicle's elecrrics, An electric winch takes its power from
th e vehicle's bat tery. Despite constant charging from the
alternator d uring the winching process, batteries will run
down. This is nor a prob lem with a mechanical winch, bur
these are mor e expensive, and few manu factu rers offer them.
the type of use it will get and your vehicle's weight. Generally, it
is wisest and safest to select a winch which has a pulling
capacity that is 2,000 Ib greater than your vehicle's gross
vehicle weight (GVW - the GVW is the manufacturer's
recommended maximum weight with the vehicle fully loaded).
Having selected your winch, it is a good idea to let the
experts fit it. DIY winch-fitting is not recommended unless
you are properly qualified to do it. The wioch frame must he
securely bolted onto the chassis frame of the 4WD. If your
vehicle has a rnonocoque construction, the mounting area must
be strengthened with welded plates. It is usual to mount the
control box near the winch and under the bumper or on the
bull bar. The control hox has a three-pin socket plug for the
remote control cable. However, if you prefer to operate the
winch from the comfort of the cabin, you can mount the three-
pin socket here by taking wires from the control box to the
socket plug mounted on the cabin's facia .
(Ie::
-"' .~., ' 1
.........
T. i!""~
:T'.
:'
~ ..
... -
. . "
.. .. I
-
Floormal I 1(RI
' ' 'f~ «:r f!", ,
, - ' - - - - -' J I I . . - - - - - - .
l· ..: .....
. !
~~
• •
(a) (b)
What to dowhenyou gat stuck 45
(e) (f)
(el Opent he other natural item . In the desert, there are fewer trees and even
pulley bloc:kOlnd
feed Ihe winch
fewer rock s, bur if you happen to be stuck where there are
cable around the trees, we sho w here the seq uence fo r self-recovery using a tree.
pulley
(d) Attach the
T here are also a number of ot her different pieces o f equipmenr
protector strap that could be used as an a ncho r:
to Ihe pulley
blockusingthe
· s hackle ~ Spare wh eel. Dig a trench and bury the wh eel upright, wi th
(e) Attach the
wlnm able
the winch rope att ached to the wh eel's lo wer part and
hooklo iI (owInc thread ed thro ugh its centre. Once the wheel has bedd ed in
hcckunder the
bumper
and tak en the stra in, engage Low rang e and start slowly
(il Start lhe w inch ing and driving simultaneously.
engine and
~ Sand a nchor (or 'Pull Pal'). An eas ily assembled collap sible
select nrsl gfar ;
lhe wtnch ls tool, w hich, w hen it dig s itself in, pro vides a solid anchor
operated and
theqWD's
poi nt in san d.
transmtssten Is ~ Danforth anchor. A sma ll boat a nchor, with hinged flukes
engaged to
ri!coverllto a
whi ch dig into the ground as pu ll-p ressu re is exerted on the
poInt whereIt ancho r.
c.an moveunder
Ils ownpower
... Carro ll anchor. A solid aluminium anchor, weigh ing less
than 10 kg, which works very ef fecti vely o nce it has s tarted
to dig itself into the ground.
46 What to do when you get stuck
ALWAYS
• Wearleather/industrial gloves when handling winch cables
• Keep your hands away from thefairlead asthecable reelsln
• Double-check theattachments before starting
• Keep everyone at least 20 mfrom the cable
• Place a matorblanket over thecable midway between thetwovehicles
• Make sure thattheattachment points arestrong enough
• Winch Inintervals of30seconds to prevent themotor overheating
• Check thecable and hook fordamage prlorto winching
• Stand behind thedoor orsitInthecabin when operating thewinch
• Pull outthecable byhand tosave battery power
• Check thecable frequently during winching.
NEVER
• Stand beside a winch cable when It Isunder strain
• Step over a winch cable thatIsunder strain
• Use atowing ball asanattachment point
• Start winching with less than three wraps on thedrum
• Continue winching if the motor starts smoking
• Use frayed ordamaged ropes orstraps
• Hook thewinch cable back onto itself
• Attach thecable orstraps tosteering parts
• Allow thecable to pileupat one end ofthe drum
• Stand orwalk behind avehicle beingwinched uphill
• Use avehicle winch forhoisting.
What to do when yo!' g~t stuck 47
~
- - , block: byuslnglhe pulley blockat
~ theanchorpolntandroutelngthe
===
•
~
) • 1 •
(b)
winch cableback tothewinch
vehicle, the effective pull Isdoubled.
(c) Double-linepullwithspreader
strap: thecable hook Isattached to
~
- -- - aspreader strap which Isattached
~
;=:=_.c::::a) i
(e)
to thetowIngbrackets onthewinch
vehicle, spread ingtheload fora
morestable and straight pull.
I
Anchorlngthe could easily distort or bend the chassis. The above figure shows
wInchvehicle:
attach the
how the testraining line should be passed under the vehicle and
restraInIngrope attached to the winch mounting plate.
10sclld points at
Ihewlnch
Never attach the cable hook back on to the cable itself.
mountlngplale, The strains involved will cause the hook to dig into the cable
then feed back
underneath the
and produce a permanent kink at that point, thus weakening it.
vehicleto the Never attach a winch cable to any part of the front axle tube, -
pulley block
steering and suspension components or bumpers or bull bars
- they will break or become distorted. Only use the
manufacturer's towing hooks or brackets which are welded to
the chassis.
My LandRover
was wedged in
Once the rolled vehicle is back on its wheels, check the fluid
rocksonthe levels, including battery acid and engine oil, before trying to
centre cross
member.Two
start the engine, as it is likely that some of the oil will have
wheels wereIn leaked into the combustion chambers. You should therefore
mld-alr and there
wasnotractren. remove all the spark plugs and then turn the engine over to expel
Wehad to lackIt any oil or other fluids from the combustion chambers. Stand
upand place
stones and rocks
back when this happens, or you will be covered in oil spray!
under the wheels
forenough
ground clearance
to get moving.
Stuck on, or in, rocks
Wedid not even
conslderpullJng
Resist the temptation to put on a rope and pull a vehicle that is
the vehicleoff stuck on a rock or in rocks, as it will land with its wheels
wedged among other rocks,
and you could damage a diff
casing or engine sump. The
best way to free a stuck vehicle
is to lift it with an air bag or
hi-lift jack and fill in the hole
with stones before lowering it
again. If the vehicle is resting
on a diff or transmission
casing, great care is needed to
prevent serious damage to the
underside.
50 What to dowhen you gel stuck
Stuck in mud
I once got stuck in wet black
cotton soil in the Aberdares,
Kenya, for seven hours before
being rescued by the park
rangers. Foolishly, I thoughr
we would be able to plough
through the mud, but due to
its treacle-like consistency, we
lost traction within metres
and sank up to the chassis. No
amount of pushing would
move the vehicle.
StuckInmudIn We got stuck at 4 pm, and help arrived at 11 pm in the form
theAberdares:
If this happens, of three rangers and a very old Land Rover. \Y./e had spent seven
youcan get out very uncomfortable hours with only a packet of biscuits and a
byusIngan air
bag, hi-liftJack bottle of water, but thankfully, plenty of cigarettes! 1 shall never
or a KERR, which forget being woken from a restless sleep by a Kikuyu Ranger
wedldn" have!
standing in the pouring rain: "Jumbo, Bwana, we are here to
rescue you!" Never was anyone so welcome!
The force of the suction was so great, it took the combined
efforts of the three rangers and me - digging, pushing and
pulling - over two hours to get out of the mud hole. The best
way to break the tremendous suction of mud is to lift the
vehicle vertically with an air bag or hi-lift jack - sadly, we had
neither of these items with us. The other essential piece of
equipment for mud recovery is a KERR - we didn't have one
of these either!
Using a flat piece of wood as a base platform, lift the vehicle
with either the air bag or the hi-lift jack to break the suction,
then fill in the holes made by the wheels with solid material
before lowering it. Then try to drive out.
Alternatively, attach the KERR and start pulling the vehicle
at walking pace until maximum stretch is achieved. The
contraction of the KERR is usually sufficient to break the force
of the suction, and move the vehicle, even if it is only for a
metre or two. The pull is then repeated until the stranded
vehicle is eventually recovered. Bear in mind that another
problem with mud is that it clogs up the tyre tread, and you
finish up with slicks.
What to dowhen you get stuck 51
Grounded on tap
of a sand rIdge:
the pulling
vehlcle engages
Lowreverse and
slowlV movesoff
Equipment far
when yau get stuck
n-board equipment is essential for safety and survival when
venturing off-road. This chapter gives details of the things
you need to take with you for when you get stuck, plus all the
other 'nice to have' bits and pieces.
Recovery ropes
You need a strong rope which has a breaking strain of several
times the GVW of your vehicle. So, if your vehicle has a GVW
of 3,000 kg, your rope should have a capacity of between
5-7 tonnes. Lifting straps are extremely strong, but lack the
elasticity found in specially made recovery ropes. Modern
polypropylene ropes are better than webbing lifting straps as
they have more 'give' in them to absorb some of the initial
shock from 'snatch' pulls. Do not confuse a recovery rope with
an ordinary tow-rope as the latter will break under the strain of
an off-road recovery situation. Never use wire tow-ropes for
recovery work. \Vire ropes are fine for winching because the
strain is slow and progressive, bur if you use a wire rope for
heavy snatch pulls, it will easily break.
The rope should ideally have a loop at each end. Never
attach either of these loops directly onto towing hooks or
brackets on either the towing or towed vehicle, since such
continuous unprotected use will tend to fray the edges and
weaken the rope. Always use a shackle at each end of the rope.
The longer the rope the better as a long rope allows the
towing vehicle to remain on firm ground well away from the
stuck vehicle. If the recovery rope is too short, the rowing
vehicle may be in the same mess as the stuck one and
Equipment for when you get stuck 53
Shackles
Shaped like the letter 'D', these are made of galvanised steel (to
prevent rusting), and are used to connect the recovery rope to
the towing brackets or pintle hooks found on 4WD vehicles.
It is important to select one with a pin that is long enough to
accept the full width of the tow-rape's end loop. You must also
ensure that the ends of the curved section (with the holes) will
pass through the towing eyes or brackets on your vehicle.
Shackles are subjected to a tremendous strain when towing, so
it is important to ensure that they are correctly aligned. The pin
of the shackle should be in contact with the rope, and the
curved piece of the 'D' in contact with the towing eye or
54 Equipment lor when you get stuck
Tow-bars
Some row-bars are built in as
an integral part of a 4WD's
construction, particularly
vehicles with a ladder-frame
TowJngslraps
chassis. Monocoque body 4WDs may need to have a suitable
and
ccnventlnnal tow-bar fitted as an extra. These tow-bars should be fitted
shackles professionally as they must be attached to the chassis frame or
to the main members of a monaco que body. When the tow-bar
is fitted, you must decide what type of connection with which
to attach the towed object. The usual choices are a ball hitch or
a pintle hook.
Shovels
These are not just the cheapest and most basic of the essential
equipment you must buy, they are also the most important!
As the shovel is used to clear sand, earth or mud from under the
vehicle, it needs to be of a handy size. Short handles are
preferable to long handles when trying to scrape the sand away
from under the front axle. The folding shovel (as used by the
military) is an excellent piece of equipment: it is light in weight,
Equipmentfor when you get stuck 55
Air jack
This is a simple bur very effective device to lift a stuck or
bogged-down vehicle. Its popularity lies in its large contact
area with the ground (thus spreading the load) and its light
weight and user friendliness. An inflatable bag roughly 30 em
in diameter, the air jack is made of plastic-coated fabric, which
expands to give a lift of approximately 25 inches. This allows
you to fill in the holes made by the wheels, or even change a
wheel in the event of a puncture - especially useful if the
puncture occurs on soft ground or sand where it would be
difficult to use a mechanical jack. DO NOT get under the
vehicle yourself unless you have placed an axle stand or
something solid under the vehicle to take its weight if the bag
loses pressure. Care should be taken to keep the bag away from
hot parts of the engine and exhaust pipe.
Hi-lift jack
The hi-lift (aka 'ratchet') jack
does exactly what the air jack
does -lifts up the vehicle
- but it does so in a rather
more macho style! Although
slim, it is tall (height varies
from 4-5 fr), and heavy due to
its cast-iron construction. It
The three major will lift your vehicle higher
ccmpunents in
the hi-liftJack: than the air jack, and can
theheled easily lift weights in excess of
upright column;
the ratchet Itself 3 ronnes. It is a fairly unstable
and a handle piece: of equipment, though,
wlthwhkhto
move the ratchet
and requi res a fabricated
upthe column recessed plate for the foot at
I
the base of the column to sit in. The base also acts to spread the
load in soft ground. The hi-lift can be used for wheel changing
in an emergency, but if there are other more stable means of
lifting the vehicle they should be used as first option. It can also
be used to 'lift and fill' if you have the proper jacking points
fitted ro the vehicle. Although unstable, the advantage of using
this jack is that once the front and then the rear of the vehicle is
clear of the holes, you can collapse the jack sideways so the
wheels land on level sand.
Trolley jack
A common sight in garage workshops, even a medium-size
trolley jack can lift 5 or 6 tonnes. (There are also lighter mini
trolley jacks measuring less than 45 cm.l You need a base plate
big enough for all the wheels to stand on ro spread the weight
and to keep the jack stable. The handle is removable, and is
usually in two pieces for ease of storage. The mini trolley jack is
definitely the best choice for wheel changing in the field.
Impact spanner
If you have ever had trouble removing wheel nuts when
changing a wheel, you will appreciate the usefulness and speed
of this 12V electric impact spanner, which plugs into the
vehicle's cigarette lighter. There is a choice of socket sizes to fit
all currently used wheel nuts, but you may need to use a socket
extension to clear the centre hub found on some vehicles. This
is definitely a worthwhile investment.
Wheel-nut spider
Most manufacturers provide a very basic type of wheel-nut
spanner, which is usually quite short, making it an impossible
job to loosen tight nuts. The 'spider' (a cross with different
sized sockets at each of the four ends of the spanner) overcomes
this problem as you can get two hands on it and exert a lot
more pressure.
Equipment forwhenyouget stuck 57
Recovery equipment
Base plate
You should always carry a (preferably) wooden base plate of
at least 30 ern', and strong enough to support the jack with
which the vehicle is lifted. The special foot recess base plate
used for a hi-lift jack can also double up for general use.
Tool kit
The kit supplied by most manufacturers is very basic and is of
little value to serious off-readers, whilst the cheap kits from
the Far East are a total waste of money. You will need sets of
open-ended and ring spanners (check if your vehicle uses metric
hardware or the older SAE); a 1/, inch drive socket set and
driver and extension drive; adjustable spanners; a Mole
58 E~pmentl~rWhen~
w rench; pliers of different types; screwd rivers with flat a nd
cross end s of dif ferent sizes; insu lating tape; duct tap e; a
Sta nley kn ife and blade s; a Swiss Army knife; a Leatherm an
too l; nu ts, holts and scre ws; Allen keys; W D40 and brak e
a nd clutch hyd raul ic fluids at least. (Do n't fo rget tha t other
a ll-impo rta nt item: a pai r of jump -leads t]
Hardware
T here are three pieces o f hardw are I always carry tha t have
proved inva luab le o n se veral oc casion s. The first is a jem my;
t he seco nd is a small 3 kg lump ha mmer for re-shaping any
de nted w ing s; the th ird is a sma ll hand ax e for remo ving
branc hes blo cking your wa y, o r fo r so urcing firewood from
dead trees (refrain from attacking Jiving trees and bushes! ).
A sma ll foldi ng saw is a lso usefu l for this type of work.
5
When your vehicle
lets you down '1
Preventive maintenance
For the average weekend off-reader, following the
manufacturer's recommended schedule of service and
maintenance is sufficient to ensure your 4\X!D is maintained in
good condition. More frequent usage, especially in hot and
dusty conditions, requires extra tender loving care.
Air filter
Frequent use in hot and du sty conditions quickly clog s up the
pores of the air filter. Thi s restricts the nor ma l air flow to the
ca rburerror and engine, which affects the air/fuel mixture ratio.
The resultant loss of power may cau se you to misjud ge the
engine's capa bility an d get stuck in the most innocuous places.
Change the air filter more frequently th an the standa rd service
schedule suggests, or hav e it regula rly clean ed at the service
station. Engines fitted with electronic fuel injection (EFII ar e
no t so badly affec ted.
Checking tyres
Before setting off for an off-road excursion, always check the
condition of the ryres. Th e tr ead is not a pro blem as th at is
very visible; it is the sidewalls that require inspection ,
particularl y on the inside to ensure there are no cuts or bulges
in the wall s. Don't forget to check the spa re wheel for damage
and tyre pres sure.
Fluids
A qu ick check un der the bonnet will confirm tha t the engine
oil is fine, a nd that the clutch and brake fluid cylind ers ar e
topped up. Don't forget the engine cool ant and th e washer
When your vehicle lets you down 61
Maintainingyourwinch rope
If you have had to use the winch, it is a good idea to unw ind
it from the drum, check for damage or fraying, an d then
rewind it evenly across the full width o f the drum when you
get home. If the rope is dirty, clean it but not with oil, as [his
leaves a sticky resid ue on the wire rope, attracting din and
sand to form a grindi ng paste, which will accelerat e wear.
Instead, use a wa ter hose or petrol-soa ked rag to clean off any
dirt and grit on the rope.
Once off-road
Overheating
In the summer month s, it does not ta ke long for an engine to
overheat , especially if you have been doi ng a lo t of slow driving
in Low rang e. As soon as the temperature gauge sta rts to
climb into the danger/red section you mu st take precautions to
reduce the temperatur e. Th e first thing to do is sw itch off [he
air-conditioning. If this has no effect, turn on the heat er fan to
the ' full hot' setting . This reduces th e temperature of rhe engine
coo lant by taking heat away fro m it and into the hearing
62 When your vehicle lets you down .
system. Turn the vehicle and drive into the wind for added
airflow through the radiator. It is a good idea to carry a full
20 litre water container as a precaution against severe loss of
engine coolant.
Remember that the most important element of the engine
coolant in hot countries is the rust inhibitor; therefore, you
should go to your garage and get them to drain and refill the
radiator and engine with the correct amount of coolant
mixture as soon as possible.
Boiling over!
metal parr of the vehicle. Where you store the jerrycan is your
personal choice, bur it must be securely fastened if inside the
vehicle and when driving off-road. Some vehicles carry their
spare fuel on a roof-rack, where the fuel can be decanted without
removing the jerrycan by using a hand-operated siphon pump.
There are two potential problem areas with the jerrycan,
though. Firstly, the rubber seal on the fillet cap may perish,
allowing fuel to leak our . Secondly, the ted paint lining the
inside of the can may start peeling off; if this gets into the fuel
tank it can cause a blockage in the fuel tank filter.
Broken Leafsprings
On one occasion, the main leaf in the left rear spring of my jeep"
Wrangler snapped, miles from anywhere. Luckily, we were able
to wedge a Dvshackle under the chassis that held the broken
sections in place long enough to get home. Broken springs are
like broken limbs - they usually need a splint to hold them
firmly in place. Remember that with a leaf spring set up, it is
the spring that locates the axle, so it is important to try ro make
a very rigid temporary repair.
Broken driveshafts
If one of the front driveshafts breaks, you can continue in 2WD
if you are driving a part-time 4WD vehicle. If it is a full-time
4WD, you would need ro remove the fron t prop shaft to isolate
the drive from the front axle. If a rear driveshaft breaks, after
removing the rear prop shaft, you can continue by engaging
When your vehielelets you down 65
,
4WD mode, and drive with only rhe fro nt wheel s pu lling rhe
veh icle along.
• Dead end / ; .: .
Talk aboullyres
s the majority of off-readers use their 4WD vehicles for
everyday things and only head off for the wilderness at the
weekend, the choice of ryre fitted to the vehicle has to be a
compromise; not solely for either tarmac or off-road use . Tyres
fitted by manufacturers are also a compromise, rending to be -
those which will cater for the GVW and maximum road speed
with little to spare.
Tyrespecifications
LOAD
INDEX
SPEED
TYRE SIZE SYMBOL
OESIGNAn ON
PRODUCTION
CCDE MARKINGS
PATIERN
tl AP~ e
MANUFACTURER'S
NAME OR
BRAt~D NAME
68 Talk about tyres
Tubed or tubeless?
There are advantages and disadvantages with both options for -
the off-reader. For the average weekend off-reader; tubeless
tyres will be satisfactory. Punctures from camel-thorns will be
slow compared to the sudden deflation when an inner tube is
pierced. For more frequent off-readers, tubed tyres are a better
option because there can be problems with tubeless tyres when
operating at low pressures: there is a risk of the bead coming
loose on the rim, or losing a good seal when sand gets between
the tyre and the rim, or when a wheel gets damaged on rocks.
The disadvantage with tubed tyres is the vulnerability of the
inner tube and the need to fit the spare because of a puncture.
Reduced pressures
As we have seen , 'flotation' is a term used by off-readers to
describe the concept of the vehicle floating on the surface of
the sand. The nature and consistency of the sand will change
Tyre-related tips
• A very simple yet often ignored precaution: always fit valve caps to
each wheel, includingthe spare.These smallcaps prevent grainsofsand
or dirt from getting into the valve, thus possibly losing air pressure.
Another wise investment is a tyre valve tool to tighten the valves from
time to time. It can also be used for deflation and for cleaning dirt from
the valvebody.
• Tubeless tyre repair kits are cheap and easy to use in an emergency.
They allow you to insert a temporary plug into the tyre, whicheffectively
seals the leak when the lyre is inflated. Theyare useful incases whenthe
tyre does not have to be removed from the wheel.There are also aerosol
cans available which contain a liquid that can be inserted Into a flat tyre
viathe valve.
Puncture repair kits for inner tubes are more sophisticated, and
requirethe tyreto be partiallyremoved fromthe wheeland the innert ube
to be taken out; you willalso need three lB·inchgood-quality tyre levers.
8
Navigation
Maps
Hew contour
lines reveal the
geography of
The maps we are concerned with are not the same as road
the land maps, which just show the road network and help us to get
from A to B. These arc usually
;-
T.
~~~
~~
/ l" ~ ]
·~!~l..
white and lack any form o f
topographical features. As
off-readers, we are interested
~"=fA-r i
:,::
'" ::, ~r:/, in full relief maps that show
: : : :, ::" "
: ' lots of detail to help th e driver
~DO
350 -
, i i ii ': i understand what the area or
3 00 -
"
:: ":: "
" :'
" " , region is like. Ma ps use
~ 50 -
2 0 0-
ii ' i sym bo ls to indicate certain
points of reference. such as
,.- roads, rivers, masts and so on.
Maps also use contour line s to
74 Na~gatiDn
,
Scales
........
The most important thing
about grids is that they give you
.~
a reference forany specific point
• on a map. If you want to give
a grid reference for Point H,
6 the saying 'along the corridor
and up the stairs' is useful [Q
4
help remind you where to
start. Take the east-west
3
reading first, then the
north-south reading. Another
helpful aid is 'Easrings-
Norrhings'. The example here
20
4 7 • • o
is taken from a 1:100,000
scale map (l em = 1 km).
Basic grIdand Grid references are usually given in six figures for
grid referencing
greater accuracy. The grid reference for Point H will therefore
be 207214.
Bearings
T hese represent the direction
from on e po int (0 a no ther an d
ar c expressed in deg rees. T he
full circle of th e co mpa ss is
360 0 , wit h due north as 0°,
Compass east as 90 °, sout h as 180 0 an d
bearings
west as 270 °. When using
bearings for nav iga tion , it is
so metimes necessa ry to usc
recip rocal bear ings. A
reciprocal bear ing will be
0
eithe r 180 more or less tha n
the direct bea ring, cg:
Th e figure sho ws how rhe a bove bea rings app ea r o ppos ite each
ot her on the full corupnss card.
Na~gatiDn 77
,
Magneticvariation
Types of compass
T here are tw o types of hand held magn etic compass that arc of
inte rest to off-roa ders. Th e or ienteering type is a lightweight .
usually plast ic, unit that Can be held whil st walking along for
quick referenc e to ensure you are going in the pla nned
direction. T his type of compass is not, however, ideal for raking
accurate bearings. T he second type is a pr isma tic compa ss,
which is used for sigh ting at distant obje cts and taking th e
resulta nt bearing. When using any magnetic compass, walk at
least 10 In from your vehicle to a void a ny inte rference from
metal component s on board.
78 Na~gation
0 .0 0
0 .00
4,.. Start at Al Madam rIb 08.45 hr
CAP,80
08 .30
0 ·40 ~~
~ 7'
Take Rfork
CAP 260
12· 5 0
: " ~:: J . ~ . ~ . SO at x-tracks Inbushy plain
4·20
.....:. .... ..... ~
. CAP 235
J( )( ) (
High dunes
~
Sabkha or gravel low dunes with vegetation Bush
GPS units have enough memory to srore between 250 and 500
waypninrs, from which you can create and develop your own
routes by selecting specific waypoinrs in the correct sequence.
WhichGPS?
There are many very good handheld GPS units available from
Garmin, Magellan, Eagle, Silva and so 00. They are battery-
powered, but can operate from the vehicle's 12V system when
fitted in a 4WD. [have a Trimble Nav'Irac 100 fitted in my
Land Cruiser, which has a nice big screen so I don't have to put
on my reading glasses to ensure I am taking accurate readings!
Findingyour direction
It is extremely easy to lose your direction when driving in
featureless regions or after sandstorms, when visibility is still
restricted. (After a sandstorm, to help identify your own
tracks, it is a good idea to tie your shovel, or a blanket, to a
piece of rope and tow it along behind you to create a distinctive
marking of your passage. An alternative to this would be to do
a 360 0 turn every 2-3 km , so you can say 'W hoo ps- that was
us!' should you come across it again.) You have to assume that
you know the general direction in which you should be
travelling, but how do you know if you are on it?
One way in which you can tell is by the action of the
UsIng your
watch tn find
prevailing wind. If, for example, you know the prevailing wind
your dhectlcn direction is from the north-west (as it is in the UAE) then you
should study the prnfiles of
nearby dunes. The slip face
will always be facing a SE
• direction. so from this you
_
... ............'" should be able to orientate
your direction of travel, and,
by using your compass and
DR, maintain a straight line
of travel. The sun always rises
in the east and sets in the
Navigation B1
"
:
? Placea 1-1.5m-lcngstickor
• shovelInthe ground.Mark the
r placewherethe end of the
s~ ..- shadow falls.Walt 15minutes
'.•r...........
..-
....
and markagain. Connect the two
marks. Thisrepresents the
west-east line, with the first mark
• N beingthe morewesterly. Draw
another lineat rightangles for
the north-southIIne.
E
Thepositionof
constellations In The sky at night
the Northern
hemlsphere The easiest constellation to identify that tells you the position
willtell you
where the Pole
of the North Star is the Great Bear ('The Big Dipper' in the
Startles USA). Another is Cassiopeia, which looks like a slightly
flattened 'M', both will be
present through the night. To
identify the Pole Star, run an
imaginary line along the axis
GREAT BEAR " NORTH POLE
of the two lowest of the seven
STAR
stars of the Great Bear for
• 4X~ ...... ~ •
A •...... ........
• . ..•
.
four times the distance
between them and you will hit
the Pole Star. Alternatively, the
centre star of Cassiopeia
"
CASSIOPEIA
points straight at the Pole Star.
, 82 Lookingalter yourself
Bee stings
~ Remove the stinger without squeezing it (as this will inject
more venom into the wound).
Dr Chari Laubscher works as an emergency room medical officer at a hospital ill the lIAF.. In this
capacity, he has served as a volunteer doctor in the 1997 llA E Desert Challenge , and, ill 199H, as
its medical director.
Lookingafter yourself 83
Be prepared
Scorpion stings
Scorpion stings are painful , but are seldom dangerous: the
more poisonous types have small pinchers and thick tails. Check
for scorpions before putting your shoes on, and wear gloves
when collecting firewood. If stung, treat as for a bee sting.
Children should receive medical attention as soon as possible.
I
I
Snake bite
Most snakes are non-poisonous and will avoid people if
possible, bur it is a good idea ro know which snakes are
prevalent in the area you are visiting. Snakes are more common
near water and vegetation.
Treatment:
... The victim should remain calm, and keep physical movement
to a minimum to help contain venom distribution.
.. Remove the victim from a still -attached snake. ;
... Do not try to capture the snake and risk a repeat bite or a
second victim.
... Immobilise the affected limb in a position below the level of
the heart.
.... Take the victim to the nearest medical facility.
... Apply a wide constrictive bandage - wind down towards
the wound, pushing the venom back to its source. It should not
be tight, and should not be applied for more than two hours.
Asthma
.... Individuals should be o n op timal preventative treatment.
.... Severe air hunger, fast breathing rate , and visible retractions
of the skin of the chest need urgent attention.
Treatment:
.... Two puffs of the snlbutamol inhaler shou ld be used, and
repea ted every 15 to 3 0 minutes. Seek urgent medical advice.
86 Lookingafter yourself
Burns
The size of the burn and the depth of heat penetration is
important in the treatment of burns: with a first-degree burn
(e.g. sunburn), there is redness of the skin , bur no blister
formation, whilst second-degree and third-degree need more
intensive care. The palm of the victim's hand represents one per
cent of the total body surface: the number of patient-hands
representing the total burn area indicates the extent of the burn.
Treatment:
... Treat a small burn like an abrasion, or, if first-degree,
like sunburn.
... Cover with water-soaked gauze for a cooling effect,
but not if the patient has more than 10 per cent burns.
... For bigger areas, cover the burnt area with clean sheets,
towels, or cling film.
... If the burnt area is less than 10 per cent, give an
anti -inflammatory (Ibuprofen).
"" Take the patient to hospital.
thi s imm ediat ely, maintaining the pressure if the bleeding starts
again. It is best nor to apply a to ur niq uet, as this ma y lead to
other complications. Phone fo r help and get the pa tient to a
hospi tal, as an anti -tetanus vacc ina tion may be necessary.
T reatment :
... Lie th e patient down an d elevate th e legs.
... Give him an isoton ic sports beverage, o r a mixture of a
hal f teaspoo n of sa lt a nd eight teaspoo ns of suga r
into one litre of water.
~ Get medical help .
BB Looking after yourself
Heatstroke
Any person with heat
exhaustion (see the above
crireria) who displays signs
of drowsiness, fainting,
epileptic seizure, irritability,
bizarre behaviour,
combativeness, ha llucinations
or walks unsteadily, should
Therecovery be considered to have heatstroke. This is a potentially
pnsltlon
Iife-rhrearening condirion and irn rnediare medical help should
be sought.
Trea tment:
... Take the patient out of the heat.
... Place in the recovery position .
... If awake, give the patient water or an isotonic beverage.
.... Remove all clothes, and cool the patient down by sponging
or spraying with water. The inside of a car with the air-
conditioning on is a good place for this in the open desert.
... Telephone a doctor who can give advice and organise the
transport and reception of the patient at the hospital.
Dislocations, fractures
and sprains
Dislocations
These should be splinted as
they arc , and the patient taken
to a hospital. A dislocated
Spllntlng an finger can be pulled back into position if this is done soon
Injured Ilngerta
Its healthy enough, and with the necessary skill.
neighbour
Fractures
... Refer to the section on major incidents.
~ Stabilise the affected limb with a splint - this could be with
a piece of wood or a thickish newspaper; the limb could also
be splinted to the body (a thigh bound to the orher leg with a
pillow between; a fractured finger strapped to a normal one).
~ Slightly elevate the affecred limb.
... Gentle traction 011 the limb ma y be necessary to regain
normal alignment.
... \X'here the splintered bone is protruding through the skin,
splint it in a normal position, but cover the wound with
antiseptic cream and a sterile bandage - this is a 'compound
fracture', and will need urgent
medical care. Give an
antibiotic by mouth as soon
as possible.
\. -~ ~
Sprains
These will need medical
attention because of the
possibility of hidden fractures
SplinUnga or rorn tendons. Splint as before with a slight elevation.
brokenleg wIth
a makeshift Apply icc or a wet rag.
splint
Eye injuries
These could be from a dust particle or other foreign body,
including a chemical.
Evertlng lhe
uppereyelid
held back with a ma rchsrick
wllh a to aid in the search for the
matchstick
particle.
.. Wipe th e pa rticle o ut with
t t "'" _- gauze.
.. App ly a nrihioric eye
( " - - ointment a nd seek medica l
, attent ion.
Major incidents
T his could be a hea d- on co llision, fall fro m a heigh I, suspected
heart attack, epileptic fit, or near drow ning. Be aware th at
moving an in jured perso n with th e wrong techniq ues co uld
ca use further injury, or eve n dea th as th e patient may have a
bro ken neck.
Poisonous plants
T her e are very few know n poison ou s pla nts in th e M iddle East ,
bur traditionall y th ose that have a milky sap can be conside red
to be poi son ou s. All cases of poison ing, wheth er rea l or
suspe cted, sho uld be seen by a docto r.
Sunburn
\X!ea r sun creams with inbuilt ultra violet pro tection factors; the
higherrhe numberrhe bcrrer - op t fora faCIO I 15 at least. To
t reat mino r sunburn, give Ibuprofen ta blet s three times a day,
a nd a pply a mix o f a nti-inflamma to ry gel and a hydroco rt isone
cream. Severe sunburn (w here the skin is breach ed ) sho uld be
Looking after yourself 91
~
Medlcalsupplies needed ~ Haveganethlsway
>CA.·· ,~
Food and water needed :~ or . -lJ./.. Yes
Air searches
You may be the subject of an air search if you have broken
down in a remote area or have an injured person with you. It
helps if you have been able to convey your exact location to the
searchers with a GPS co -ordinate. You can assist by arranging
internationally recognised signals on the ground (using
whatever materials arc at hand) that will identify your group.
Day searches
To assist your rescue team, place a bright piece of clothing on
top of a nearby dune. Occasional blowing of the vehicle's horn
also attracts attention, while a blast from your whistle will be
heard at a greater distance than you can shout. Smoke cans and
flares are other means of attracting attention, but these are not
always easy to find and are quite expensive. A heliograph is
cheap and very effective when attracting the attention of
circling aircraft; good specification Swiss Army knives have one
82 Lookingafter yourseU
,
Plck usu p liInd here Don"ll ry lo land here We can proceed shortly
y" No
R.
AII ls well
Night searches
Sea rches at night ar e only ca rried our in extreme emergencies.
The assistance you ca n o ffer inclu des shining powe rful light s
straight up into t he sky, such as a 500,000 or one m illion
candle-power lamp, which gives o ut a tremendou s beam, o r a
small stroboscopi c light. It ca n be seen for at least 5 km if
placed on n nea rby high point.
Appendix
Conversion tables
Power output
bhp kW
1 0·7457
1·34°5 1
Torque
Nm kgjm ftjlb
1 0.1019 0.7376
0.9 807 7-233
'-3559 0.1382
Tyre pressures
Ib/in 2 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
kgjcm 2 1.12 1.26 1.41 1.55 1.69 1.83 1.97 2.11 2.25
Temperature (degrees)
Fahrenheit 79 82 86 89 93 97 98 100 102 104 106 108 109 111 113
Celsius 26 28 30 32 34 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Speeds
kph 30 40 50 60 70 80 9° 100 120 140 150 160
Distances
i kilometre = 0.62137 miles
1 mile = 1.609 kilometres
To convert kilometres to miles = divide by 8, then multiply by 5
To convert miles to kilometres = divide by 5. then multiply by B
-- -------
94 Appendix
- --
Ar eas
1 hectare = 2.46 acres
1 acre = 0 .405 hecta res
Weights
1 kilogram (kg) = 2.2 pounds (Ib)
lib = 0.454 kg
Fuel consumption
1 km/litre = 2.3519 miles/US gallon = 2.8244 miles/imperial gallon
Htresj roo km 5 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
rnpg 56 35.2 28 23.5 20.1 17.6 15.6 14.1 12.8
Volumes
1 imperial gallon = 4.4 litres = 1.2 US gallons
1 US gallon = 3.78 litres = 0.8 35 impe ria l ga llons
I. t litre = 0 ,22 imper ial ga llons = 0.26 42 US gallon s
I
Route-planning information
Distance planning
Weoften overestimate the distances we aregoing to drive when planning an
off-road trip.n is surp rising how many int erru pti ons you will experience and
howtime-consuming it is to recover a vehicleonce it is stuck in the sand.
The table gives some useful guideli neswhen planning trips.
Fuel requirements
Normal tarmac fuel consumptio n will be very different once you start driving
off-road. Whenplanning longer trips, prepare a reasonably accurate fuel
requirement estimate to see if extra supplies in jerrycans are required. Adjust
your normal fuel consumption bVthe factor shown for each type of terrain.
·Appendix 95
--_.
Fuel consumption
For normal on-road overall consump tion of go kmj gal (adj ust downwards)
Note: the ratios of the High range /normal gears are reduced by multiplying
by the transfer ratio to give the Low range ratios.
SR Range/gear Ratio
Low reverse 10· 73:1
2 Low 1St 10.1 5:1
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