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ME 3M02 – Experiment F18: Drag on Spheres F18-1

MECH ENG 3M03 – COMPOSITE LABORATORY

Experiment F18: Drag On Spheres

Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to examine how the drag on bluff bodies, such as spheres,
varies for different flow conditions. The experiment also demonstrates the importance of
dimensional analysis in analyzing experimental results for engineering applications.

Background:
One of the most important and interesting features of flow past bluff bodies, such as cars or
trucks, is that the flow around the body changes significantly as the relative velocity between the
body and the ambient fluid increases. When this velocity is small, the flow follows the contour of
the body and the drag force on the body is primarily caused by the viscous stresses on the body.
For example, the flow around a sphere, which is often used as a prototypical bluff body, is shown
in Figure la. However, as this relative velocity increases, the flow moving past the body
separates from it near the back causing a region of re-circulating flow at the back of the body
(refer to Figure 1b). Further increases in the relative velocity causes the point where the flow
separates to move forward on the body and the size of the recirculation zone to lengthen. In these
separated flows, the pressure on the front of the body, where the flow stagnates, is large while
the pressure on the back of the body is approximately equal to the ambient pressure. This
asymmetric pressure distribution causes a net pressure force on the sphere called formed drag.
As the separation point of the flow moves forward and the relative velocity increases, the form
drag is the larger contributor to the total drag until eventually it makes, by far, the dominant
contribution to the total drag force. Thus, the transition from the attached flow regime to the
separated flow regime also represents a transition in the mechanism that causes drag on bluff
bodies from frictional forces to pressure forces.

There are also several important transitions in the separated flow regime. As the relative velocity
between the body and the ambient fluid increases, natural instabilities that occur in the flow grow
causing the recirculating region to oscillate. Eventually this causes this region to separate from
the body and large-scale fluid structures are shed periodically in the wake behind the body
(Figure 1c). In these flows, the drag force experienced by the body is no longer steady but rather
varies periodically as the structures are shed from the body. An additional increase in the relative
velocity causes the wake shed by the body to transition to turbulence (Figure 1d). The drag force
experienced by the body is still unsteady but tends to vary more irregularly. Initially, however,
the boundary layers on the sphere are still laminar. The last transition in the flow around bluff
bodies occurs when the boundary layers undergo transition to turbulence at still larger relative
velocities (Figure 1e). This transition enhances the momentum transfer to the boundary layer and
causes the point where the flow separates from the body to move toward the back of the sphere.
This reduces the size of the low-pressure region on the back of the sphere and hence the form
drag experienced by the sphere.
ME 3M02 – Experiment F18: Drag on Spheres F18-2

Figure 1: Schematic of the different regimes for flow over a sphere: (a) steady flow (b) steady
separated flow (c) unsteady separated flows with flow structures shed into the wake (d) wake
behind the sphere transitions to turbulent and (e) wake behind the sphere after the boundary
layers transition to turbulence.

Thus, the nature of the flow past bluff bodies and the drag experienced by these bodies varies
significantly under different flow conditions. Bluff bodies can be used effectively in engineering
designs if velocities where these transitions occur are known and the variation of the drag in each
of these regimes is also known. For applications, such as cars, putting the object in a wind tunnel
and measuring how the drag changes as the velocity is changed could accomplish this. It is
important to recognize, however, that changing the size of the body or the fluid also affects the
drag. Thus, for bluff bodies, such as a cylinder, it would be necessary to perform these
experiments on a range of different sized bodies in a range of fluids in order to determine the
drag force for all possible engineering applications. This process would require an extraordinary
effort. For example, Fox and McDonald (1992) estimate that it would require a minimum of 50
weeks (working a 40 hour week) of continuous experiments to produce a rough drag map for just
a sphere or a cylinder! This map would only be of limited used because it would be impossible to
accurately predict the transition points between different flow regimes or each configuration
without further careful experimentation. Nor would it be practical to determine the drag on large-
scale objects, such as buildings or large planes, using this approach.

Fortunately, it is not necessary to perform experiments on all these different configurations


because the results from different cases can be related using dimensional analysis. Dimensional
analysis recognizes that a flow's characteristics are not determined by the absolute size of the
forces in the flow. Instead, they are determined by the relative size of the forces in the flow,
ME 3M02 – Experiment F18: Drag on Spheres F18-3

which is characterized by the Reynolds number of the flow. Thus, two geometrically similar
objects with the same flow Reynolds numbers are said to be dynamically similar and their non-
dimensional velocity fields are the same. Thus, the non-dimensional drag forces experienced by
the two spheres are equal so that the drag force on one sphere can be deduced if the drag force on
the other is known.

Nomenclature:

A - projected area of the sphere.


CD - coefficient of drag.
D - diameter of the sphere.
FB - buoyancy force of the sphere.
FD - drag force on the sphere.
FG - gravitational force on the sphere.
g - gravitational constant.
N - number of trials.
ReD - Reynolds number of the flow over the sphere.
U - relative velocity between the sphere and ambient air.
ρl - density of the liquid.
ρs - density of the sphere.
μ - viscosity of the fluid.

Theory:

It is straightforward to argue that the drag force experienced by a sphere, FD, is a function of the
relative velocity between the sphere and ambient U, the diameter of the sphere D, the viscosity of
the fluid μ , and the density of the fluid ρ l ; i.e.,

FD = FD(U, μ , ρ l , D). (1)

The exact relationship cannot be determined analytically in most cases (except for small
Reynolds-number flows) so must be determined experimentally. The objective of this experiment
is to determine this relationship by dropping a series of spheres through different fluids and
measuring their velocity and the drag they experience once they have reached a terminal
velocity.

The velocity, U, is measured by simply timing how long it takes the sphere to fall between two
points once it has reached its terminal velocity. The drag force experienced by the sphere can be
calculated by recognizing that the vertical forces on the sphere must balance once the sphere has
reached its terminal velocity; i.e.,

FD + FB - FG = 0, (2)
ME 3M02 – Experiment F18: Drag on Spheres F18-4

where FG and FB are the gravitational and buoyancy forces on the sphere respectively (Figure 2).
Thus, the drag force is simply the difference between the gravitation force given by

1
FG= πD 3ρ s g (3)
6

and the buoyancy force given by (Archimedes' Principle)

1
FB= πD 3ρ l g ,
6
(4)

where ρ s and ρ l are the densities of the sphere and liquid. It follows that that the drag force,
given by
1
FD= πD 3 (ρ s − ρ l ) g , (5)
6

can be determined from the properties of the sphere and the fluid before the sphere is dropped.

Figure 2: Free body diagram of the falling sphere.

The drag force measured for different sphere and fluid combinations can be also be related using
dimensional analysis. For example, applying the Buckingham PI theorem to the expression for
the drag force given by (1), it is straightforward to show that the non-dimensional coefficient of
drag given by
FD
cD = (6)
1 2 ρ l AU 2

is a function of the Reynolds number only; i.e.,

c D = c D (Re D ) (7)
where

ρ lUD
Re D = (8)
μ
ME 3M02 – Experiment F18: Drag on Spheres F18-5

and A = π D 2 4 is the frontal cross-section area of the sphere.

A physical interpretation of the coefficient of drag can be deduced by recognizing that the
dropping sphere applies a force on the fluid (equal but opposite to the drag force) that accelerates
the flow around sphere. The nominal force per unit area required to accelerate the fluid on the
stagnation streamline at the front of the sphere is 1 2 ρ lU 2 . Multiplying this with the frontal
2 ρ lU
1 2
cross-sectional area of the sphere, A, yields A which is the nominal force used to
normalize the drag force

This force is not equal to the drag force because this force depends on the nature of the flow
around the sphere. In small-Reynolds-number flows, the viscous forces are large relative to the
inertial terms and the viscous shear stresses transmit the motion of the sphere far into the flow.
On the other hand, in very high-Reynolds-number flows the viscous shear stresses only affect the
flow close to the wall so a thin boundary layer forms near the sphere where the velocity varies
from U to approximately zero. The flow outside of this layer is caused by the pressure gradients.
The adverse pressure gradient formed as the flow moves around the back of the sphere causes the
flow to separate from the sphere. The location of this flow separation and the nature of the
separation (i.e., steady or unsteady) is determined by the interaction between the pressure
gradients outside the boundary layer and the viscous flow near the sphere so it also is determined
by the Reynolds number of the flow.

The typical variation of the drag on the sphere is shown in figure 3. This curve is usually split
into four regions:

1. For ReD ~ 0.1 or less, the flow regime is know as the Creeping Flow Regime. In this
region the governing equations can be solved to yield

FD = 3 πμ DU (9a)
so that
24
cD = , (9b)
Re D
which is a form of Stokes Law.

2. For 2 < ReD < 5x102, an intermediate regime, the empirical relationship given by

18.5
cD = (10)
Re 3D5
is used.

3. In Newton's region, which is approximately 5x102 < ReD < 3x105, the coefficient of drag
is nearly constant; i.e.

c D ≈ 0.44 (11)
ME 3M02 – Experiment F18: Drag on Spheres F18-6

4. Finally, when ReD> 4x 105 the boundary layers around the sphere become turbulent and
the coefficient of drag is significantly reduced as the separation point on the boundary layer
moves back. Unfortunately, this range of Reynolds numbers cannot be explored with the
current experimental configuration.

Figure 3: Drag coefficient for a smooth sphere as function of Reynolds number,


μ
where ν = (King, 2002).
ρ

These ranges are only rough guides. In particular, the Reynolds number at which the boundary
layer on the sphere undergoes transition to turbulence is affected by several factors, including
surface roughness and disturbances in the ambient fluid. Increasing the surface roughness on the
sphere significantly reduces the Reynolds number of this transition. In fact, in a number of
applications surface roughness is added to cause this transition and thus reduces the drag. The
most commonly known example is the golf ball (Figure 4). In the case of a golf ball, the
transition in boundary layer on a golf ball occurs at ReD ≈ 4x104. It should be noted, though, that
the coefficient of drag increases significantly with the Reynolds number when there is surface
roughness on the sphere. Thus, adding surface roughness will increase the drag in applications
where the boundary layers would transition to turbulence naturally.
ME 3M02 – Experiment F18: Drag on Spheres F18-7

Figure 4: Drag coefficient for a spheres with surface roughness near the transition Reynolds
number (Blevins, 1984).
.
Safety Rules:

• Do not overreach when dropping the spheres into the tubes. Keep proper footing and balance
at all times.
• Do not lean on the tubes containing the working fluids.
• Do not stand on the support platform for the tubes.
• Do not ingest the working fluids. Wash your hands after completing the experiment.
• Keep work area clean. Cluttered areas and benches invite injuries.

Experimental Procedure:
1. The experimental apparatus includes three vertical tubes containing water, ethylene
glycol and glycerin. All liquid properties are provided in Table 1.
.
Table 1 – Properties of fluids in vertical tubes

Fluid Density ρ Dynamic Viscosity μ


3
( kg / m ) ( Ns / m 2 )
Water 998.2 0.000993
Ethylene glycol 1115 0.0199
Glycerin 1260 1.48

2. Several spheres of various diameters and materials are also supplied. The diameter of
each set of spheres of a given material is given on a label in the box containing the
spheres. Note that these measurements are in inches.
ME 3M02 – Experiment F18: Drag on Spheres F18-8

3. Measure the mass of one size of sphere of each material provided (the largest size may be
the most appropriate to use) in order to calculate the density of the material. You will also
need to calculate the volume of the sphere based on the diameter of the sphere that you
have chosen. Measurements of the mass and calculation of the volume of the sphere will
m m
allow you to determine the density of each material. Note: ρ sphere = =
V 1
πD 3
6
4. Note that on each of the vertical tubes, there are two brown o-rings, positioned at a
specified distance, and used as start and stop point markers in the measurement of the
time for the descent of the spheres through a given fluid. You will need to note the
distance between the o-rings for the calculation of the velocity of the sphere as it moves
through the fluid. A vertical ruler adjacent to each tube is provided for the measurement
of the distance between the o-rings.

5. The spheres of the various materials can now be dropped into the fluids to experimentally
measure the relationship between the drag coefficient and the Reynolds number. Ensure
that you drop the spheres in the center of the tube with an initial velocity equal to zero.

6. The objective of this experiment is not, however, to drop all of the spheres in all of the
fluids. Instead, the objective is to choose an appropriate selection of spheres and fluids to
yield results for a range of different Reynolds numbers in order to produce a drag curve
for the sphere. The best method is to predict which sphere/fluid combinations will give
the maximum and minimum Reynolds number and based on these results, further choose
the sphere/fluid combinations to fill in the gaps in the drag curve. It is important to note
here that a Reynolds number close to 9000 is the maximum achievable. Also note that it
is important to accurately record the time for the sphere to move through a given fluid. If
the descent of a sphere through a given fluid is too fast to accurately time, do not use this
data as it may erroneously shift your experimental drag curve. Three stopwatches are
provided for time measurements. For each sphere drop, try to have at least two people
measuring the time for the sphere to move between the two o-rings. An average time can
then be calculated.

7. There is also a personal computer with Microsoft Excel installed. A spreadsheet can be
set-up to perform preliminary calculations to predict the sphere/fluid combinations that
will yield the maximum and minimum Reynolds numbers. It can also be used to
calculate Reynolds numbers after each sphere is dropped to ensure that you have covered
the entire range of Reynolds numbers from 0.1 to close to 9000. All calculations and
measurements should be in SI units.

Results and discussion:


1. A spreadsheet should be created which shows the calculated values of Reynolds number
and drag coefficient for each sphere/fluid combination. Note here, that all other
parameters used in the calculation of Reynolds number and the drag coefficient should
ME 3M02 – Experiment F18: Drag on Spheres F18-9

also be shown in the spreadsheet (i.e. time, velocity of sphere, properties of sphere and
fluid, drag force etc.).

2. A sample calculation of the Reynolds number and drag coefficient for one sphere/fluid
combination should be shown. Ensure that SI units are used in all calculations.

3. Create a plot of drag coefficient (CD) versus Reynolds number (Re) for a smooth sphere
using your experimental data. In addition, on the same plot, add the empirically obtained
drag curve, given in Figure 3 to compare with your experimentally obtained curve. You
can use Equations (9b), (10) and (11) to plot the empirical drag curve for a smooth
sphere.

References:
Fox, R. W. and McDonald, A. T., Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, Fourth Edition, John
Wiley and Sons, New York, 1992

King, R. P., Introduction to Practical Fluid Flow, Butterworth – Heinemann, Burlington,


MA, 2002.

Blevins, R.D., Applied Fluid Dynamics Handbook, Von Nostrand Reinhold, New York,
1984.

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