Laboratory 3:Tensiletesting

L a b o ra
t o ry 3

Tensile
Testing
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_________

Objecti
ves
Studentsarerequiredtounderstandtheprincipleofauniaxialtensile
testing and
gaintheirpracticesonoperatingthetensiletestingmachineto achieve
therequired tensileproperties.
Studentsareabletoexplainload-extensionandstress-strain
relationshipsand
representthemingraphical
forms.
Toevaluatethevaluesofultimatetensilestrength,yieldstrength,%
elongation,
fracturestrainand YoungsModulusoftheselectedmetals when
subjectedtouniaxialtensile loading.
 deformation and fracture characteristics of different materials
Student suchas aluminium,steelsorbrass whensubjectedtouniaxial
s can tensileloading.
explain

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1.LiteratureReview
1.1Uniaxialtensile testing

Uniaxial tensile test is known as a basic and universal engineering test to

achieve material parameterssuch asultimatestrength,yieldstrength,%elongation, %
areaof reductionandYoungs modulus. Theseimportantparametersobtained from
thestandardtensile testingareusefulfor theselectionof engineeringmaterialsforany
applications required.

The tensile testing is carried out byapplying longitudinal or axial load at a specific
extension ratetoastandardtensilespecimenwith known dimensions(gaugelength
andcrosssectionalareaperpendicular to the load direction) till failure. The applied
tensile load and extension are recorded during the test for the calculation of stress and
strain. A range of universal standards providedbyProfessionalsocietiessuch as
AmericanSocietyof Testingand Materials (ASTM), Britishstandard, JISstandardand
DINstandardprovidestestingareselectedbasedonpreferentialuses.Eachstandard
maycontain a varietyof test standards suitable for different materials, dimensions and
fabrication history. For instance, ASTM E8: is a standard test method for tension testing
of metallic materials and ASTM B557 is standard test methods of tension testing
wronght and cast aluminiumand
magnesiumalloyproducts

A standardspecimenispreparedinaroundorasquaresectionalongthe
gaugelengthasshown in figures 1 a) and b) respectively, depending on the standard
used. Both ends of the specimens should have sufficient length and a surface
condition such that theyare firmlygripped
during testing. The initial gauge length Lo is standardized (in several countries) and
varies with the
diameter (Do) or the cross-sectional area (Ao) of the specimen as listed in table 1. This is
because if
the gauge length is too long, the % elongation might be underestimated in this case.
Anyheat
treatmentsshouldbe appliedon to thespecimenpriortomachiningtoproducethefinal
specimenreadily for testing. This has been done to prevent surface oxide scales that
might act as stress concentration which might subsequentlyaffect the final tensile
properties due to premature failure. Theremight besomeexceptions,forexamples,
surfacehardening orsurfacecoatingonthematerials. These processes should be
employed after specimen machining in order to obtain the tensile propertiesresults
whichinclude theactualspecimensurfaceconditions.

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Figure1:Standardtensile
specimens

Typespecimen UnitedState(ASTM) GreatBritain

Germany
Sheet(Lo/ Ao ) 4.5 5.65 11
.3
Rod(Lo/ Do ) 4.0 5.0 10
.0
Table1: Dimensionalrelationshipsof tensilespecimensusedindifferent
countries.

The equipment usedfortensile testingrangesfromsimpledevicesto

complicatedcontrolled
systems. The so-called universal testing machines are commonly used, which are
driven by mechanical screwor hydraulic systems. Figure 2 a) illustrates a relatively
simple screw-driven machine using large two screws to applythe load whereas figure
2 b) shows a hydraulic testing machineusing the pressureofoilin apiston forload
supply. Thesetypesofmachinescanbeusednotonlyfortension,butalso for
compression,bendingandtorsiontests.A moremodernizedclosed-loopservo-
hydraulicmachineprovidesvariations ofload,strain,or testingmachinemotion (stroke)
usingacombination of actuator rod and piston. Most of the machines used nowadays
are linked to a computer-controlled systemin which the load and extension data can
be graphicallydisplayed together with thecalculationsofstressandstrain.

General techniques utilized for measuring loads and displacements employs

sensors providing electrical signals. Load cells are used for measuring the load applied
whilestraingaugesareused for strain measurement. A Change in a linear dimension
is proportional to the change in electricalvoltageof thestraingauge attachedonto the
specimen.

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Figure2:Schematicsshowinga)ascrewdrivenmachineandb)ahydraulic
testingmachine[3].

1.2Stressandstrain relationship

When aspecimenissubjectedtoan externaltensile loading,the metalwill

undergo elastic and plastic deformation. Initially, the metal will elasticallydeformgiving a
linear relationship of load andextension.These two parametersarethenusedfor the
calculationof theengineeringstressand
engineeringstrain togivea relationshipasillustrated in figure3usingequations1and
2 asfollows

P (1)
Ao

L f Lo
L (2)
Lo Lo

wher istheengineeringstress
e istheengineeringstrain
P is the external axial tensile load
A istheoriginalcross-sectionalarea of the
specimen
o

L istheoriginallength of the
specimen
o
Lf isthe finallengthofthespecimen
 The unit of the engineering stress is Pascal (Pa) or N/m2 according to the SI
Metric Unit
whereastheunitofpsi(poundpersquareinch)canalso
beused.

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1.2.1Youngsmodulus,E

Duringelasticdeformation, theengineeringstress-strain relationship follows the

HooksLaw
andtheslopeofthecurveindicatesthe Youngs
modulus(E)

E (3)

Young s modulus is of importance where deflection of materials is critical for the

required engineering applications. This is for examples: deflection in structural beams is
considered to be crucialfor the design in engineering components or structures such
as bridges, building, ships, etc. The applications of tennis racket and golf club also
require specific values ofspring constants or Youngsmodulusvalues.

Figure3: Stress-strainrelationshipunderuniaxial tensile

loading
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1.2.2 Yield strength,y

By considering the stress-strain curve beyond the elastic portion, if the tensile

loading
continues, yielding occurs at the beginning of plastic deformation. The yield stress,y,
can be
obtained bydividing the load at yielding (Py) bythe original cross-sectionalarea of the
specimen (Ao)
asshowninequation4.

Py
y (4)
Ao

The yieldpointcanbe observeddirectlyfromtheload-extensioncurveof the

BCCmetalssuch asiron and steel or in polycrystalline titaniumand molybdenum, and
especiallylowcarbon steels,seefigure3a). Theyieldpointelongationphenomenon
shows the upper yieldpoint followed by a sudden reduction in the stress or load till
reaching the lower yield point. At the yield point elongation, the specimen continues to
extend without a significant change in the stress level. Load increment is then followed
with increasing strain. This yield point phenomenon is associated with a small amount
of interstitial or substitutional atoms. This is for example in the case of low-carbon steels,
whichhavesmallatomsofcarbonand nitrogenpresentasimpurities.Whenthe
dislocations are pinnedbythese solute atoms, the stress is raised in order to overcome
the breakawaystress required for the pulling of dislocation line fromthe solute atoms.
This dislocation pinning is related to the upper yield point as indicated in figure 4 a). If
the dislocation line is free from the solute atoms,thestress requiredtomovethe
dislocationsthensuddenlydrops,whichisassociated withthe lower yield point.
Furthermore, it was found that the degree of the yield point effect is affected bythe
amountsofthesoluteatoms andisalsoinfluencedbythe interactionenergybetween
thesoluteatomsandthedislocations.

Aluminiumontheotherhand havinga FCCcrystalstructuredoesnotshowthe

definiteyieldpointincomparisontothoseofthe BCC structure materials,butshows a
smoothengineeringstress-straincurve. Theyield strengththerefore hasto be
calculatedfromtheloadat0.2%strain dividedby
theoriginalcross-sectionalareaas
follows

0.2%y P0.2% ...(5)

Ao

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Note: the yieldstrengthvaluescanalso beobtainedat0.5and

1.0%strain.

The determination of the yield strength at 0.2% offset or 0.2% strain can be
carried out by
drawing a straight line parallel to the slope of the stress-strain curve in thelinear section,
having an intersection on the x-axis at a strain equal to 0.002 as illustrated in figure 3 b).
An interception between the0.2%offsetlineand thestress-straincurve representsthe
yieldstrengthat0.2%offsetor0.2% strain. However offset at different values can also
be made depending on specific uses: forinstance; at 0.1 or 0.5% offset. The yield
strength of soft materials exhibiting no linear portion to their stress-strain curve such as
soft copper or graycast iron can be defined as the stress at the correspondingtotal
strain,forexample, = 0005.

The yield strength, which indicates the onset of plastic deformation, is

considered to be vital forengineeringstructuralorcomponentdesigns wheresafety
factorsare normallyused asshown in
equation 6. For instance, if the allowable working strengthw = 500 MPa to be
employed with a
safetyfactor of 1.8, the material with a yield strength of 900 MPa should be selected. It
should be
noted that the yield strength value can also be replaced by the ultimate tensile
strength,TS , for
engineeringdesigns.

Safetyfactorsarebasedonseveralconsiderations;theaccuracyof theapplied
loadsusedinthestructuralorcomponents,estimationofdeterioration,and the
consequencesoffailedstructures (loss of life, financial, economical loss, etc.) Generally,
buildings require a safety factor of 2, which isratherlowsincetheloadcalculationhas
been well understood.Automobileshassafetyfactor of2 whilepressurevesselsutilize
safetyfactorsof3-4.

y
w Safety Factor , TS (6)
Safety Factor
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Figure4:a) Comparative stress-strain relationshipsoflowcarbonsteeland aluminium

alloy andb)
thedeterminationoftheyieldstrengthat0.2%
offset.

1.2.3 Ultimate Tensile Strength,TS

Beyond yielding, continuous loading leads to an increase in the stress required

to
permanentlydeformthespecimen asshown in theengineeringstress-straincurve.At
thisstage,thespecimenisstrainhardenedorworkhardened.Thedegreeofstrain
hardeningdependsonthenatureof thedeformed materials,crystalstructureand
chemicalcomposition,whichaffects thedislocationmotion.FCCstructure materials
havinga highnumber ofoperatingslipsystemscaneasilyslipand create a high density
of dislocations. Tangling of these dislocations requires higher stress to uniformlyand
plasticallydeformthespecimen,thereforeresultinginstrainhardening.

If the load is continuously applied, the stress-strain curve will reach the
maximum point, which is the ultimate tensile strength (UTS,TS). At this point, the
specimen can withstand the
highest stress before necking takes place. This can be observed bya local reduction in
the cross-
sectional area of the specimen generally observed in the centre of the gauge length as
illustrated in figure5.

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TS Pmax (6)
Ao

1.2.4 Fracture
Strength,f
After necking, plastic deformation is not uniform and the stress decreases

accordinglyuntil
fracture. The fracture strength (fracture) can be calculated from the load at
fracture divided by the
originalcross-sectionalarea,Ao,asexpressedin
equation7.

Pfracture
fracture (7)
Ao

1.2.5 Fracture Strain,f

Figure5: Neckingofatensilespecimen occurringpriorto

fracture

1.2.6 Tensile ductility

Tensileductilityof thespecimencanberepresented as%elongationor%

reductioninarea
asexpressed intheequationsgiven
below

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%ElongationL100 (8)
Lo

Ao Af
%RA 100A100 (9)
Ao A0

where Af isthecross-sectionalarea ofspecimenat

fracture.
The fracturestrain of thespecimencanbeobtainedbydrawing astraight line

startingat the
fracture point of the stress-strain curve parallel to the slope in the linear relation. The
interception of theparallel lineatthex axisindicates thefracturestrain of thespecimen
beingtested.

1.2.7Workhardeningexponent,n

Furthermore,materialbehaviorbeyondthe elasticregion wherestress-strain

relationshipis
nolonerlinear(uniformplasticdeformation)canbe shown asapower law
expressionasfollows

Kn (10)

Where isthetrue
stress

isthe truestrain

n isthestrain-hardening
exponent

K isthestrengthcoefficient

Thestrain-hardeningexponentvalues,n,ofmostmetalsrangebetween0.1-0.5,
whichcanbeestimated froma slope of a log true stress-log true strain plot up to the
maximumload as shown in
figure5. Equation10can thenbe writtenas
follows
 log n log log K (11)

Y = mX + C (12)

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Whilenis theslope(m) andthe Kvalueindicates thevalueofthe truestressat

thetruestrainequal to unity as illustrated in figure 6. High value of the strain-hardening
exponent indicates an abilityofa metal tobereadilyplasticallydeformedunderapplied
stresses.Thisisalsocorresponding with alargeareaunderthestress-strain curveupto
themaximumload. Thispower lawexpressionhasbeen modifiedvariablyaccording
to materialsofinterestespeciallyforsteelsandstainlesssteels.

Figure 6: Slope of log true stress- log true strain curve up to the ultimate tensile
strength indicating
theworkhardeningexponent(nvalue)
[3]

1.2.8 Modulusof Resilence, UR

Apart fromtensileparameters mentionedpreviously, analysisofthearea under

thestress-
straincurvecangiveinformativematerialbehavior andproperties. Byconsidering the
areaunder thestress-strain curve in the elastic region (triangular area) as illustrated in
figure 7, this area represents the stored elastic energyor resilence. The latter is the ability
of the materials to store elastic energy
whichismeasuredasamodulusofresilence,UR,as
follows
 U R 1o o o 2
(13)
2 2E

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The significance of thisparameterisconsideredbylookingatthe applicationof

mechanicalsprings whichrequireshigh yieldstressandlowYoungs modulus.For
example,highcarbonspring
steelhasthe modulus ofresilence of2250kPawhilethatof mediumcarbonsteel is
only232kPa.

1.2.9Tensiletoughness,UT

Tensiletoughness,UT,canbeconsideredastheareaundertheentirestress-
straincurvewhich
indicates the ability of the material to absorb energy in the plastic region. In other words,
tensile
toughness is the abilityof the material to withstand the external applied forces without
experiencing failure. Engineeringapplications thatrequires hightensile toughnessis for
examplegear,chainsand
cranehooks,etc. Thetensiletoughnesscanbeestimatedfroman
expressionasfollows

UTuf orouf (14)

2

Fig 7: Area under the stress-strain curve of highcarbon spring steel and
structural steel [2].

1.3Fracturecharacteristicsofthetested
specimens

Metals with good ductilitynormallyexhibit a so-called cup and cone fracture

characteristic observedon either halves of a broken specimen as illustrated in figure 8.
Necking starts when the stress-strain curve has passed the maximumpoint where
plastic deformation isnolongeruniform. Across the necking area within the specimen
gauge length (normally located in the middle), microvoidsareformed, enlargedand
then mergedto eachotherastheloadisincreased.Thiscreatesacrackhavinga plane
perpendicular to theappliedtensilestress.Justbeforethespecimenbreaks,the

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shear plane of approximately45o to the tensile axis is formed along the peripheral of the
specimen. This shear plane then joins with the former crack to generate the cup and
cone fracture as demonstratedinfigure8. The roughorfibrous fracturesurfacesappear
ingreybynakedeyes.UnderSEM, copious amounts of microvoids are observed as
depicted in figure 9. This type of fracture surface signifies high energyabsorption during
the fracture process due to large amount of plastic deformationtakingplace,also
indicating good tensileductility. Metalssuchasaluminiumandcopper normallyexhibit
ductile fracture behavior due to a high number of slip systems available for plastic
deformation.

For brittle metals or metals that failed at relativelylowtemperatures, the fracture

surfaces usually appear bright and consist of flat areas of brittle facets when examined
under SEM as illustrated in figure 10. In some cases, clusters of these brittle facets are
visible when the grain size of the metal is sufficiently large. The energy absorption is
quite small in this case which indicates relativelylowtensile ductilitydue to limited
amount of plastic deformation prior to failure.

Figure8: Cupandcone fracture

[4]
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Figure 9: Ductile fracture surface (Ductile metals) Figure 10: Brittle fracture surface
(Brittle metals)

Insummary, tensilepropertiesshouldbeconsideredasimportantdesign
parametersfor theselection of engineering materials for their desired application.
Engineers have played a significant rolein thattheyshouldbeable toanalyze and
understand materialbehaviorandpropertiesthroughthese mechanicaltesting
parameters. Table2liststensile propertiesofvariousengineeringmaterials.

Table2
Tensilepropertiesof
metals[2]
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2.Materialsandequipment
2.1Tensilespecimens
2.2Micrometerorverniacalipers
2.3Universaltestingmachine
2.4Stereoscope

3.Experimentalprocedure
3.1 The specimens provided are made of aluminium, steel and brass. Measure
and record
specimendimensions (diameterandgaugelength)ina tableprovidedfor the
calculationof theengineeringstressandengineeringstrain.Markingthe location
of thegaugelength along the parallel length of each specimen for subsequent
observation of necking and strain measurement.
3.2 Fit the specimen on to the universal Testing Machine (UTM) and carryon
testing. Record
loadandextensionforthe constructionofstress-straincurve ofeach
testedspecimen.
3.3 Calculate Young s modulus, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, fracture
strain, %
elongationand%areaofreductionofeachspecimenandrecordonthe
providedtable.
3.4Analyzethefracturesurfacesofbrokenspecimensusingstereoscope,sketch
anddescribethe
results.
3.5Discusstheexperimentalresultsandgive
conclusions.
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4.Results

Details Aluminium Steel

Brass
Diameter(mm)
Width(mm)
Thickness(mm)
Cross-sectionalarea(mm2)
Gaugelength(mm)
Youngsmodulus(GPa)
Load at yield point(N) Yield
strength(MPa)Maximum
load(N)
Ultimatetensilestrength(MPa)
%Elongation
%Areaofreduction
Fracturestrain
Workhardeningexponent(n)
Fracturemode
Fracturesurfaces
(Sketch)

Table3: Experimentaldatafor tensile

testing.

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Engineeringstress-straincurveof
aluminium

Describetheengineeringstress-strain
curve
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Engineeringstress-straincurveofsteel

Describetheengineeringstress-strain
curve
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Engineeringstress-straincurveofbrass

Describetheengineeringstress-strain
curve
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5.Discussion
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6.Conclusions
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7.Questions
7.1Whatis work hardeningexponent(n)? Howis thisvalue relatedtotheabilityof
metalto be
mechanicallyformed?
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7.2Ifthetensilespecimen isnotcylindrical rodshaped butaflatrectangular plate,

howdo you
expectneckingtooccurinthistypeof
specimen?
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7.3 Both yield strength and ultimate tensile strength exhibit the abilityof a material to
withstand
a certainlevelofload.Whichparameterdo youprefer touse asadesign
parameter fora
properselectionof materialsforstructuralapplications?
Explain
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8.References
8.1Hashemi,S.Foundationsofmaterialsscienceandengineering,2006,4th
edition,McGraw-
Hil,ISBN007-125690-3.
8.2Dieter, G.E.,Mechanicalmetallurgy,1988,SI metricedition, McGraw-Hill,
ISBN0-07-
100406-8.
8.3Norman E.Dowling,MechanicalBehaviorof Materials, Prentice-Hall
International, 1993.
8.4W.D.Callister,Fundamentalofmaterialsscienceandengineering/an
interactivee.text,
2001,JohnWiley& Sons,Inc., NewYork, ISBN 0-471-
39551-x

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