Etymology

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, hello is an alteration of hallo, hollo,[1] which came from
Old High German "hal, hol, emphatic imperative of haln, holn to fetch, used especially in hailing
a ferryman."[5] It also connects the development of hello to the influence of an earlier form, holla,
whose origin is in the French hol (roughly, 'whoa there!', from French l 'there').[6] As in addition to
hello, halloo,[7] hallo, hollo, hullo and (rarely) hillo also exist as variants or related words, the word
can be spelt using any of all five vowels.[8][9][10]

Telephone

The use of hello as a telephone greeting has been credited to Thomas Edison; according to one
source, he expressed his surprise with a misheard Hullo.[11] Alexander Graham Bell initially used
Ahoy (as used on ships) as a telephone greeting.[12][13] However, in 1877, Edison wrote to T.B.A.
David, the president of the Central District and Printing Telegraph Company of Pittsburgh:

Friend David, I do not think we shall need a call bell as Hello! can be heard 10 to 20 feet away.

Hullo

Hello may be derived from hullo, which the American Merriam-Webster dictionary describes as a
"chiefly British variant of hello,"[16] and which was originally used as an exclamation to call
attention, an expression of surprise, or a greeting. Hullo is found in publications as early as 1803.[17]
The

1. escription of Basic Computer

2. 6. Description of Basic Computer The central processing unit(CPU) for manipulating the data,
registers for storing data and instructions, and control circuits for fetching and executing
instructions. The memory of a computer contains storage for instructions and data. The
input-output processor contains electronic circuits for communicating and controlling the
transfer of information between the computer and user.

3. 7. Memory Hierarchy

4. 8. Instruction Codes Program: A program is a set of instructions that specify the operations,
operands and the sequence by which processing has to occur. Computer Instruction: A
computer instruction is a binary code that specifies a sequence of microoperations for the
computer. Instruction Code: An instruction code is a group of bits that instruct the computer
to perform a specific operation.

5. 9. Instruction Codes Operation Code: The operation code of an instruction is a group of bits
that define such operations as add, subtract, multiply, shift, and complement. Micro-
operation: Micro-operation is the elementry operation performed with the data stored in
the registers. Types of Micro-Operation: a)Register transfer. b)Arithmetic transfer. c)Logic.
d)Shift.

6. 10. Instruction Format An instruction format or instruction code is a group of bits used to
perform a particular operation on the data stored in computer. Processor fetches an
instruction from memory and decodes the bits to execute the instruction. Instruction code is
divided into two parts namely operation code and address of data. Operation code
consisting group of bits to define an operation such as add, subtract, multiply etc.
7. 11. Instruction Format In an instruction format: First 12 bits (0-11) specify an address. Next 3
bits specify operation code (opcode), or type of operation. Left most bit specify the
addressing mode I I = 0 for direct address I = 1 for indirect address

8. 12. Addressing Modes

9. 13. Types of Instructions On the basis of opcode and addressing mode, the basic computer
has three 16-bit instruction code formats: 1. Memory Reference Instructions. 2. Register
Reference Instructions. 3. Input/Output Instructions.

10. 14. Memory Reference Instructions First 12 bits (0-11) specify an address. 3 bits of opcode
are used to specify the types of instruction. Value of opcode ranges from 000 to 110. If I=0, it
is direct addressing mode and if I=1, it is indirect addressing mode.

11. 15. Register Reference Instructions First 12 bits (0-11) specify the register operation. The
next three bits equals to 111 specify opcode. The last mode bit of the instruction is 0 for
register reference instruction. Therefore, left most 4 bits are always 0111 which is equal to
hexadecimal 7.

12. 16. Input/Output Instructions First 12 bits (0-11) specify the I/O operation. The next three
bits equals to 111 specify opcode. The last mode bit of the instruction is 1. Therefore, left
most 4 bits are always 1111 which is equal to hexadecimal F.

13. 17. Input/Output and Interrupt

14. 18. Input/Output and Interrupt The terminal sends and receives serial information.
The serial info. from the keyboard is shifted into INPR. The serial info. for the printer is
stored in the OUTR. INPR and OUTR communicate with the terminal serially and with the AC
in parallel. The flags are needed to synchronize the timing difference between I/O device
and the computer

15. 19. Registers in Basic Computer

16. 20. Common Bus System A wire or a collection of wires that carry some multi-bit
information is known as bus. Main purpose of bus is to transfer information form one
system to another. It is also known as communication path way which connects all the
internal components of the computer to the CPU, main memory and I/O devices.

17. 21. Common Bus System Three functional groups of communication lines: A. Data lines
(data bus) - move data between system modules. Width is a key factor in determining
overall system performance. B. Address lines - designate source or destination of data on
the data bus. Width determines the maximum possible memory capacity of the system. C.
Control lines - control access to and use of the data and address lines.

18. 22. C O M M O N B U S S Y S T E M

19. 23. Control Unit CPU is divided into Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU). The
function of control unit is to generate relevant timing and control signals to all operations in
the computer. It controls the flow of data between the processor and memory and
peripherals. The control unit directs the entire computer system to carry out stored program
instructions. The control unit co-ordinates the activities of the other two units(ALU and main
memory) as well as all peripherals and auxiliary storage devices linked to the computer.
20. 24. Control Unit Control units are implemented using one of the two organizations: i. ii.
Hardwired Control Unit: In this, the control logic is implemented with gates, flip flops,
decoders and other digital circuits. Micro-programmed Control Unit: A control memory on
the processor contains microprograms that activate the necessary control signals.

21. 25. Control Unit of Basic Computer (Hardwired) Fig:-Control unit of basic computer

22. 26. Hardwired Control Unit Control unit consist of: o o o o Instruction Register Number of
Control Logic Gates, Two Decoders 4-bit Sequence Counter An instruction read from
memory is placed in the instruction register (IR). The instruction register is divided into three
parts: the I bit, operation code, and address part. First 12-bits (0-11) to specify an address,
next 3-bits specify the operation code (opcode) field of the instruction and last left most bit
specify the addressing mode I. I = 0 for direct address I = 1 for indirect address

23. 27. Hardwired Control Unit First 12-bits (0-11) are applied to the control logic gates. The
operation code bits (12 14) are decoded with a 3 x 8 decoder. The eight outputs ( D0
through D7) from a decoder goes to the control logic gates to perform specific operation.
Last bit 15 is transferred to a I flip-flop designated by symbol I. The 4-bit sequence counter
SC can count in binary from 0 through 15. The counter output is decoded into 16 timing
pulses T0 through T15. The sequence counter can be incremented by INR input or clear by
CLR input synchronously.

24. 28. Instruction Cycle Processing required for a single instruction is called an instruction cycle.
Basic instruction cycle consists of the following phases: a. b. c. d. Fetch and instruction from
memory. Decode the instruction. Read the effective address from the memory, if the
instruction has an indirect address. Execute the instruction.

25. 29. Instruction Cycle The instruction cycle can be broken down into two major phases:
Fetch - CPU reads an instruction from a location in memory Program counter (PC) register
keeps track of which instruction executes next. Normally, CPU increments PC after each
fetch. Fetched instruction is loaded into the instruction register (IR). Execute - CPU
executes the instruction The instruction is held in IR is decoded. Then, the instruction is
executed. May utilize previously changed state of CPU and (indirectly) other devices.

26. 30. Instruction Cycle Fig:- register transfers for the fetch phase

27. 31. Interrupt Cycle Fig:- flowchart for interrupt cycle

28. 32. Interrupt Cycle The interrupt cycle is a HW implementation of a branch and save return
address operation. At the beginning of the next instruction cycle, the instruction that is read
from memory is in address 1. At memory address 1, the programmer must store a branch
instruction that sends the control to an interrupt service routine. The instruction that
returns the control to the original program is "indirect BUN 0.

29. 33. References 1. M. Morris Mano, Computer System Architecture, third edition. 2.
William Stallings, Computer Organization and Architecture 3. http://www.edunep.com, 4.
http://www.eazynotes.com/notes/computer-systemarchitecture/slides/registers-and-
common-bus.pdf 5. http://www.eazynotes.com/notes/computer-
systemarchitecture/slides/timing-and-control-unit-handouts.pdf 6.
http://www.dauniv.ac.in/downloads/CArch_PPTs/CompArchC h05L13HardwiredControl.pdf
7. http://www.slideshare.net/anujmodi555/computer-instructions
word hullo is still in use, with the meaning hello.[18][19][20][21][22]