REVIEW OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Since our use of phasors in circuit analysis will require the manipulation of complex
numbers, it is worthwhile to briefly review some of the properties of complex numbers.

Notation for Complex Numbers: Phasors, which are complex numbers, can be
written in either rectangular, polar, or exponential form. Table 1, shows these different
forms and the formulas necessary to convert between them.

Rectangular Form Polar Form Exponential Form

Phasor Vector, V a + jb Vo Vo e j
a = Vo cos( ) Vo = a 2 + b 2 Vo = a 2 + b 2
Conversions
between Forms b = Vo sin( ) = tan 1 (b a ) = tan 1 (b a )
Table 1: Relationships between Different Forms of Complex Numbers

When comparing complex numbers, it is important to note that they are equal only if their
real and imaginary components are equal. If written in polar/exponential form, complex
numbers are equal only if their magnitudes and phase angles are equal.

Adding/Subtracting Complex Numbers: Complex numbers can only be added

or subtracted when they are written in their rectangular form. If the complex numbers,
which are to be added or subtracted, are written in polar/exponential form, they must first
be converted to rectangular form, using the conversion formulas given in Table 1. Once
in rectangular notation, they are added/subtracted by combining the real parts together
and combining the imaginary parts together, i.e.:

V1 + V2 = (a1 + jb1 ) + (a 2 + jb2 ) = (a1 + a 2 ) + j (b1 + b2 )

(1)
V1 V2 = (a1 + jb1 ) (a 2 + jb2 ) = (a1 a 2 ) + j (b1 b2 )

Multiplying Complex Numbers: Complex numbers can be multiplied in any of

the three forms (rectangular, polar, and exponential). If the complex numbers are written
in rectangular form, then:

V1 V2 = (a1 + jb1 ) (a 2 + jb2 ) = a1 a 2 + a1 ( jb2 ) + ( jb1 ) a 2 + ( jb1 ) ( jb2 )

(2)
= (a1 a 2 b1 b2 ) + j (a1 b2 + b1 a 2 )

Notice that in multiplying out the complex numbers, we made use of the fact that
j 2 = 1 .
If the complex numbers are written in polar/exponential form, then:

( )( )
V1 V2 = V1e j1 V2 e j 2 = V1 V2 e j (1 + 2 )
(3)
= (V1 1 ) (V2 2 ) = V1 V2 (1 + 2 )

Dividing Complex Numbers: As with multiplication, complex numbers can be

divided in any of the three forms (rectangular, polar, and exponential). If the complex
numbers are written in rectangular form, then dividing them simply yields their ratio, i.e.:

V1 a1 + jb1
= (4)
V2 a 2 + jb2

And when complex numbers are written in polar/exponential form, division results in a
subtraction of angles:

V1 V1e j1 V1 j (1 2 )
= = e
V2 V2 e j 2 V2
(5)
V V
= 1 1 = 1 (1 2 )
V2 2 V2

Complex Conjugates: Whenever there is a complex number in a denominator, as in

Equation (4), it is usually necessary to real-ize the denominator by multiplying both the
numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of the denominator. When a
complex number is multiplied by its conjugate, the result is a real number whose value
equals the square of the magnitude. The complex conjugate of a complex number, which
is denoted with a * superscript, is the original number with the sign changed on the
imaginary component, i.e.:

if : V = a + jb, then : V * = a jb V V * = a 2 + b 2 = Vo
2

if : V = Vo e j , then : V * = Vo e j V V * = Vo
2
(6)

if : V = Vo , then : V = Vo V V = Vo
* * 2

The complex conjugate of the polar/exponential forms is easy to derive by noticing that
the magnitude of the complex number, Vo = a 2 + b 2 , will not change with the sign of
b , but the angle changes sign since tan 1 ( b a ) = tan 1 (b a ) . (You should use the
multiplication rules given in Equations (2) & (3) to verify that V V * = Vo for all three
2

forms.)
Now, multiplying both the top and bottom of Equation (4) by the complex conjugate of
the denominator yields:

V1 a1 + jb1 a 2 jb2 (a1 a 2 + b1 b2 ) + j (b1 a 2 a1 b2 )

= =
V2 a 2 + jb2 a 2 jb2
(7)
a 2 + b2
2 2

Useful Identities: Table 2 shows a list of values for the different powers of j and the
standard axis angles, which are 90 apart.

Rectangular Values Polar Values

j 1 90 = 270 = j
j 2 = j j = 1 180 = 180 = 1
j3 = j j2 = j 270 = 90 = j
j4 = j j3 = 1 360 = 0 = 1
j 1 = 1 j = j 90 = 270 = j

Table 2: Values for the Powers of j and the Standard Axis Angles

Notice that the values of the angles are consistent with the x-axis representing real values
while the y-axis representing imaginary values and the angle is measured
counterclockwise from the positive x-axis. For powers of j greater than 4, the pattern
repeats itself. Also notice that multiplying a number by j is equivalent to rotating the
vector by 90, i.e., jV = Vo ( + 90) . This and some other angle relationships are
given in Table 3.

Polar Identities
( )* =
(1 )( 2 ) = (1 + 2 )
1 =
1 2 = ( 1 2 )
= ( 180)
( 90) = ( 90 )
j = ( 90)
( )n = n
Table 3: Identities for Complex Numbers in Polar Form

All of these relationships can easily be proved using the exponential form for the
complex angles, i.e. e j .
Helpful Hints: In general, multiplication and division are much easier with polar/
exponential notation than with rectangular notation. However, for any addition or
subtraction, the complex number must be in rectangular notation. Most circuit analysis
problems will require both addition/subtraction and multiplication/division of complex
numbers. It is usually not beneficial to convert the numbers back and forth between polar
and rectangular notation just to simplify the multiplication and division. Therefore,
unless only multiplication or division is required, it is often easiest to go ahead and do all
of the calculations in rectangular form.

Also, when dividing two complex numbers in rectangular form, you must always give
your answers with the denominator realized. This is necessary in circuit problems to
convert back from the phasor domain to the time domain. However, if the complex
number division is only an intermediate step in finding the solution to a problem, there is
no sense in realizing the denominator until the final solution is found. Often terms will
cancel each other out and no complex denominators ever need to be realized.