CHAPTERS: CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF HOURLY

RAINFALL DATA IN INDIA

Much of the information on the rainfall climatology of a place is generally

based on monthly, seasonal or annual rainfall data, which are derived from the daily
rainfall amounts recorded at individual stations. It is important to know the climatic
features of rainfall in shorter time scales such as daily, hourly and even minutewise
rainfall, for drainage management systems, agricultural operations and soil erosion
studies etc. The mean diurnal cycle of rainfall in terms of short-duration precipitation
can provide interesting insights of the local rainfall characteristics that may have
important implications for efficient water resource management. There are many places
in India which have recorded 40 to 100% or more, of their mean annual rainfall in one
day (Dhar and Mandal, 1981). It has been observed that at some places, on an extreme
rainfall day, nearly 60 % rainfall comes from just few hours causing flood situations,
due to insufficient storage capacity of the reservoir for accommodating the excess
rainwater. Such situations are very common in north-east India and also in Indo-
Gangetic plains. Diurnal variations in the rainfall patterns have been a focus of
scientific literature since the beginning of the twentieth century. One of the earliest
comprehensive studies of the diurnal variability of rainfall was by Kincer (1916) for the
United States. Subsequently, several studies have focused on the diurnal variability of
rainfall in different parts of the world, with a majority of studies focusing on the United
States. Bleeker and Andre (1951) examined the high frequency of nocturnal rainfall
over the central US and attributed the pattern to cooling and heating processes during
the night and day that set up a large scale circulation system east of the Rocky
Mountains. Kousky (1980) examined the effect of local wind systems and orography in
producing rainfall over northeast Brazil, indicating a significant link between the local
wind-circulation systems in the form of mountain and valley breezes and observed
rainfall activity in the interior locations. Several previous studies have identified the
modulating role of orography as a major factor in the convectional process affecting the
diurnal patterns of the rainfall in the tropics (Yang and Slingo, 2001). The diurnal
variations of rainfall at Indian stations have been examined by several workers (e.g.

120
Ananthakrishnan; 1987, Haldar et al. 1991, Sen Roy and Balling 2007 and many
others). Most of the studies were focused on the summer monsoon rainfall.
Another important aspect of hourly rainfall is the distribution of rainfall
during heavy rainspells of rainfall. In chapter 4, estimation of Probable Maximum
Precipitation (PMP) has been discussed in detail. This estimation is, generally, based on
daily rainfall records over a long period, say 70 to 100 years. Along with these design
estimates, it is necessary to provide the information on the rainfall distribution during a
heavy rainspell at a place. Such information is an important component in estimating
the unit hydrograph at a place which is used to decide the spillway capacity of the
reservoir or dam etc. This distribution of rainfall or break-up of extreme rainfall
amounts into shorter time intervals requires analysis of hourly rainfall (called as time
distribution). Water balance on land surface is highly sensitive to the time distribution
of rainfall. Many available studies (Dhar and Ramachandran (1970), Dhar et al. (1982),
Harihar Iyyer and Tripathi (1974), Rakhecha et al. (1990,1996), Deshpande et al. (2003)
etc.) on time distribution analysis, are connected with certain hydraulic projects or for
certain river basins.

An attempt has been made here to study some characteristic features of

short duration rainfall over some Indian stations and also to study the temporal changes
in these features over the period of last 25-35 years. Along with the two aspects
discussed above, namely, diurnal cycle of rainfall and time distribution of rainfall
during heavy spells, other important aspects of hourly rainfall, such as probability
distribution function, spatial and temporal changes in extreme rainfall of different
durations less than 24 hour as well as in total number of rain hours etc. have also been
considered in this study. Accordingly, main objectives of hourly rainfall data analysis
are as follows;
1. Spatial and temporal variations in the number of rain hours contributing to annual
rainfall over India
2. Temporal changes in probability distribution function of hourly rainfall amounts.
3. Temporal changes in the diurnal cycle of rainfall.
4. Highest ever recorded rainfall for the duration of 1, 3, 6, 12, 18, 24 hours over India
and temporal changes in extreme rainfall of short duration (less than 24 hours)
5. Average time distribution of rainfall during heavy rainspells and adjustment factor

121
 (or clock hour correction) for converting 1-day extreme rainfall to 24-hour extreme
rainfall.

Hourly rainfall data recorded at 72 Self Recording Raingauge Stations

(SRRG) is considered over the period 1969-2006 (with variable data length). Locations
of these 72 SRRG stations have been shown in Fig. 1.11 of chapter 1. Figure indicates
that, good network of hourly rainfall stations is available for all over India except for
the Indus and the Brahmaputra basins. Network of stations is quite dense in the
peninsular India.

2010 |

2005 I I I I I I I I M I III 1 11|| rri 1 II Mill

2000 -i j -i 41 M 1- 4 f " " T

1995

1990

iw - -
1980

1975 -|- 1 ...

1970 IPM111 I I l l l l l l l l l l l l l l - -LJ- - - -- -|44- - - 4-1--HT

L965 I i i i i l i t i l i i ii i i i i ii iii ii i
2 4 6 S LO 12 14 L6 LS 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 J4 36 38 40 42 44 46 4S 52 54 S 60 62 &4 68TO72 74
Stations
Fig. 5.1: Data availability of 72 SRRG stations

Data availability of these stations is shown in Fig 5.1. From the figure, it is seen that, 3
stations (namely Gauhati, Jharsuguda and Bhubaneshwar) have data for 37 years (1969-
2006), while for the station (Imphal), data length is of 25 years (1969-1994). For all
other stations, data period ranges from 25-37 years. Quality control of the data set has
been carried out in similar way to that of daily rainfall data. Hourly rainfall data also
showed outliers in the observations. Correctness of these values has been examined by
comparing the values with daily rainfall values on the corresponding date and also by
checking their time of occurrence. Doubtful values have been considered as missing.
This quality controlled data set is used for further analysis. Spatial patterns of the results

122
are based on data of all 72 stations while results in the form of graphs such as diurnal
variations or probability distribution function are shown only for some representative
stations from eight river basins which form the main frame of the thesis. Based on
availability of data, two stations from each of the Indus basin (Srinagar and Amritsar)
and two stations from the Brahmaputra basin (Gauhati and Imphal) have been
considered. Only one station namely, Jabalpur, is available from the Narmada-Tapi
basins. For other river basins, where density of SRRG stations is quite high, five
stations per river basin have been selected. In all 30 representative stations from eight
river basins have been selected considering the length of available data and with good
spatial representation.

5.1 Number of rain hours contributing to monsoon and annual rainfall

Though rainy season at a place comprises of 3-4 months' duration, the
distribution of rainfall is highly uneven during the whole rainy season. There are some
intense rain hours, while some periods are totally dry. This depends upon the active and
break situations of the monsoon prevailing over the area. It has been shown by
Ananthakrishnan and Rajan (1987) that, in terms of rain-hours, the duration of monsoon
rainfall at Cochin, worked out to be just 24 days (24*24 hours of rainfall). However, if
the actual duration of rainfall correct to a minute is considered, the total duration is just
about 10 days (250 hours to be exact) out of the 122 days. At Minicoy, 915 mm of
summer monsoon rainfall occurs in 54 days (24*54 hours). At both of these stations,
half the monsoon rainfall is contributed by heavy showers received in 20% of the total
duration. This demonstrates the nature of the intensity of monsoon rainfall at Indian
locations, which can vary widely over different parts of the country. An attempt has
been made here to calculate average number of rain hours contributing to the annual
rainfall at different places in India. Spatial patterns, of the average number of rain
hours in monsoon season as well as in a year over India, are given in Fig 5.2. Locations
of the rainfall stations used in the study are shown in the figure.
Fig.5.2 indicates that, minimum number of rain hours (less than 100) is
observed in west Rajasthan, while maximum rain hours are seen along the West Coast,
which are of the order of 800 -1000 hours or even more. For rest of the country, it varies
between 200-600 hours. Along the West Coast, over the Krishna and Narmada-Tapi

123
basins, hardly some rain hours contributes to annual total, while for river basins like.
Indus. Mahanadi, Peninsular river basins substantial amount of rainfall is received
during non-monsoon periods. Therefore large difference is seen in the average number
of rain hours in Monsoon season and in a year.

Fig 5.2 : Total Rain hours contributing to monsoon and annual rainfall in India
Temporal changes in number of rain hours

Time series plots of number of rain hours and fitted linear trend at
representative 30 stations are shown in figures 5.3 and 5.4. From these figures, it is seen
that, out of these 30 stations, most of the stations (except some stations, namely.
Jabalpur. Satna. Allahabad. Gauhati and some stations in peninsular India such as
Hyderabad. Mangalore, Kodaikanal and Mumbai) show substantial increase in the
number of rain hours. This increase is significant at few stations such as
Mahabaleshwar. Nasik. Nellore. Kurnool and Kalingapatnam. (significant trends are
marked with '*'in the figure).

124
 600

Srjpagar
-100 -

'> 'OOP jojisrc I9S0 1990 _^- IgC 19S0 1990 2p_

\i Ul\ /vrTk
:oo
vy . . i .
if
isa las usa mi

ii , i i i i
,1970 1980 199Q 2000 1970 1980 1990 2Q00, , ^IfH LSS 122 ffl!P_
$tope=2.!7t Nasik /

1970 1980 1993 VffiL

tlope=3.15 K-alingapntnam
Aura ii S>1 bad
-100

200

1970 1980 1990 2000 1970 l^SD 1990 2000 970 1983 1990 2000

Years

Fig 5.3 Time series plots of rain hours and fitted linear trend at stations in Indus,
Ganga, Brahmaputra, Narmada-Tapi and Godavari river basins

ZY^/^X
1970 19SG 1 * a__2iioo 1970 I960 1990 2Q0_ LS& L985 1993 2033

2000 Mahjf jajeshwar Inagiri too Miuanilx

J2 LOT
'V
vA/
gicoo |.[f = 10 ~t
-1 i
200
,, i . , , i.,

200 - p
M . i Hyderabad anealote

2 0 0 --
I- 1 I . , , 1 , , . . I . .
01
ccoltij 1380. lO LSS2 1250. ML 1978 . 1930 - J B g 2ffla_

E Uajinavirarn i Mangalore Coimhaotorc

LoiniMotore
3

' li l , . , l , l ,l i. . I TO h i , . I |. , , " , , , . , i . , , , i .,
i9_aisaoLas2flD5_^ I O X 1 ? ^ i9so i99o aoa IpB 1980 . LiSi 2000

800
h,ty Kodaikanat'

405 !..,,!.
1970 IIS) l3 2OD0 19"0 1983 1990 2000 1970 I9S0 1990 !000
Years

Fig 5.4: Time series plots of rain hours and fitted linear trend at stations in
Krishna river basin, along West Coast and in peninsular river basins.

125
5.2 Temporal changes in probability distribution function of hourly rainfall
amounts.
Empirical distribution function of hourly rainfall is studied here, to
characterise the nature of rainfall at a place in India as well as to study the temporal
variations in the rainfall distribution. Empirical Cumulative Distribution Functions
(CDF) of hourly rainfall at 30 representative stations from the eight major river basin in
India, have been shown in the following figures. To study temporal changes in the
patterns. Data sets have been dividecd into 2 parts and for each. Empirical CDF has
been calculated and shown in the following figures using logarithmic scales on both X
and Y axes.

Fig 5.5: CDF of hourly rainfall (monsoon season) at some stations in the Indus,
Ganga, Brahmaputra, Naramda-Tapi and Godavari-Mahanadi basins in India

126
 Rainfall l l l l l l l f 1969-1985 ~EW6J006

Fiji 5.6: CDF of hourly rainfall (monsoon season) at sonic stations in the Krishna,
along West Coast and peninsular river basins in India

From the figure, it is seen that, for most of the stations, probability curve for both the
time periods (prior to 1986 and after 1986) are overlapping upto the rainfall value of 10
mm. Then they start deviating from each other. Deviation is large for the stations from
peninsular India, which indicates increase in the frequency of high rainfall events >
30mm/hr. in recent years.

5.3 Diurnal cycle of rainfall at some selected stations in major river basins of India

Diurnal cycle of the rainfall at a place is the average pattern of hourly

rainfall over the period of 24 hours of a day representing a specified period of time say
a month or a season. Location of the station and the time of the year or season affect the
diurnal variations of the rainfall. Ananthakrishnan and Raj an (1987) carried out
detailed analysis of hourly and minute-wise rainfall at Cochin (a west coast station;
958'N. 7641'E) and Minicoy (an Arabian Sea island station; 818'N. 7300'E) and
stated some interesting aspects of the summer monsoon rainfall. It is generally observed

127
that, the diurnal variation of rainfall at individual stations depends on the location of the
station and also, in some cases, on the season also. Pathan (1994) studied the diurnal
variations of southwest monsoon rainfall at some selected Indian stations. It is
mentioned that, in general, at coastal and island stations, the summer monsoon rainfall
is characterized by enhanced rainfall activity from mid-night to forenoon hours and
decreased activity from afternoon to mid-night hours. The inland stations show
opposite behaviour with more rainfall during the afternoon and evening hours. Possible
physical mechanisms responsible for the diurnal variation of the rainfall at stations.
under different categories, have been briefly discussed in the paper.
The diurnal variations in different parts of the country in different seasons
are examined here. All the time series have been smoothed out by taking 3 hourly
running mean so as to avoid noise in the series. Temporal changes in the diurnal
patterns over these stations have been studied by dividing the total data period of 30-35
years into 2 parts, first for the period 1969-1985 and second time period taken as 1986
onwards. Then seasonal diurnal cycle have been plotted separately for these 2 time
periods.

Srinngar Anuitsai Gauliati linplial Jabalpui

IF IF
0O4

_i i i ; i i I
tw^'
MAM
:
vy
j i i i t

JJAS
* ^

j i i i i i L. _i i i i i_

OND

A i : V^S^-
5 6 9 12 15 IS 21 24 3 6 9 12 15 IS 2 L 24 ^ ft * I : L M S : L M 3 6 9 L2 15 LS21 2-1 "^ to *5 12 15 IS 21 24
Hours _1.jbg.1985 losA-ioo;;

Fig 5.7: Diurnal cycle of rainfall for stations in the Indus (Srinagar and
Amritasar), Brahmaputra (Gauhati and Imphal) and Narmada-Tapi (Jabalpur)
river basins

128
 From the figure, it is seen that, for Srinagar station evening hours
contributes substantially to the daily total in winter season, but for other seasons,
morning and evening hours contribute equally to the daily total, maximum contribution
being by morning hours. No change in the diurnal cycle in monsoon season but
decrease in hourly intensity is observed from the figure. In case of Amritsar. maximum
intensity has been seen in summer monsoon season. Morning hours contributes to daily
total, while for pre-monsoon and post-monsoon season all 24 hours contribute equally
to the daily total. No change in the diurnal cycle of two time periods at Amritsar has
been noticed. For stations in Brahmaputra basin, very little rainfall activity in winter
season and that occurs in morning and evening hours. During pre-monsoon and
monsoon season, morning hours contribute more than afternoon hours. During post-
monsoon season all hours contribute equally. No change in monsoon diurnal cycle but
increase in hourly intensity in pre-monsoon and post monsoon season is noticed. At
Jabalpur in Narmada-Tapi basin, chief rainfall activity in summer monsoon season
occurs in the afternoon due to convective heating. Recent period (1986-2005) shows
intencification of winter and premonsoon rainfall activity. Diurnal pattern during SW
monsoon does not show any change.

Dchradun Delhi Lncknow Allahabad Satna

IF JF JF

J^>^
_J I I 1_

Hours 1W.9-1QS5 - 1986-2005

Fig 5.8 : Diurnal cycle of rainfall for stations in the Ganga Basin

129
From the figure it is clearly seen that, winter season rainfall activity is intensified in
recent years. Double maxima are seen in summer monsoon season for the stations
Dehradun. Allahabad and Satna. Diurnal pattern of rainfall in summer monsoon season
remains unchanged for stations in the Ganga basin. However, a substantial increase in
the magnitude of diurnal cycle in the recent period during OND is noteworthy.

Nagpur Nasik Aurangabad Nizamabad Kalingapatnam

-IF It IF JP
J.05

0
^H^ =^-^ ^V ArvA ~^>^A^
0 I
MAM MAM MAM MAM

1 0.051-

^LA:L^
1 0:

.ts o
1/1

.= o:

3 6 9 U 15 182114 3 6 9 U 15 18 21 24 3 6 9 1215182124 3 6 9 12 15 1821 24 3 0 9 12 15 IS 21 24

Hours 1%9-1Q&5 1986-2005

Fig 5.9 : Diurnal cycle of rainfall for stations in the Godavari- Mahanadi basins
No change in the diurnal cycle of summer monsoon season but increase in
afternoon hour contribution to daily total, is seen for pre-monsoon and post-monsoon
season for all stations except Nasik. Afternoon maxima due to convective activity is
seen in all the seasons except winter.

130
 Krishna Basin : Seasonal Diurnal cycle of rainfall
Pane Mahabaleshv, at Hyderabad Galilia\aiam Kimwol
CCS

Fig 5.10 : Diurnal cycle of rainfall for stations in the Krishna basin

For the stations Pune and Mahabaleshwar rainfall occurs mainly in the afternoon hours,
due to con\ective heating. For stations located in the eastern peninsular India such as
Hyderabad. Gannavaram and Kurnnol. rainfall starts in the evening and continues till
early morning hours. Winter and post-monsoon rainfall intensity is increasing in recent
years.

131
 West Coast Basins : Seasonal D i u r n a l cycle o f r a i n f a l l
Mumbai Ratnagiti Paniiiti Mangalorc Thiiinanthapuiam

Fig 5.11 : Diurnal cycle of rainfall for stations in West Coast basins

West Coast stations shows no rainfall activity in winter season. Rainfall

maximum is seen during late evening hours to early morning hours. This is due to
interaction between sea breeze and land breeze which causes lifting of warm air from
sea by cold breeze from land causing rainfall early in the morning. For Mumbai station.
early morning maximum has been shifted to later hours in recent years, with decrease in
the Intensity. For Thiruvananthapuram, during monsoon season, intensity of rainfall is
maximum in the morning than the afternoon hours. Post-monsoon rainfall activity is
observed to increase in recent years (1986 onwards).

132
 Ncllotr MjnambakktBpcH Bangalore Coimbatore Kodaikaiial

tf5
004 0 04

oo:

. , i , . ; 1 o

0.4
-IMS

0.1

I I I I L

OND OND OND OND J*

^<S\-J

3 6 9 12 15 IS:124
J i I I
3 6 9L2151S2L24
I I L_
J 6 9 12 15182124
Honrs
\f. 0)

3 c g 12 15 IS :i :4
1%9-19S5
n
3 6 9 U 15 IS2124
W86-M0S

Fig 5.12 : Diurnal cycle of rainfall for stations in Peninsular basins

For stations in peninsular India, no substantial change has been noticed in the diurnal
cycle of rainfall in monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. For stations Nellore.
Minambakkam and Coimbatore rainfall starts in the evening and continues till early
morning hours but for Bangalore and Kodaikanal stations only evening hours contribute
to the daily rainfall total.

5.4 Extreme rainfall for the various durations less than 24 hours

Based on the hourly rainfall data at 72 stations during the period 1969-2006.
highest ever recorded rainfall amount for different durations of 1. 3. 6. 12.18 and 24
hours at each station, have been picked up and these values are given in fable 5.1.
Spatial patterns of these extreme rainfall amounts based on data of 72 stations are
shown in Fig. 5.13

1 JJ
Table 5.1: Extreme rainfall (cm) for different durations (in hours) for 72 stations
EXTREME RAINFALL (cm)
WMONo STATION
1-hr 3-hr 6-hr 12-hr I8hr 24-hr

42027 SRINAGAR 4.00 6.46 9.05 11.07 13.02 13.78

42071 AMRITSAR 9.9 14.07 16.06 16.15 16.25 16.25

42111 DEHRADUN 10.11 24.45 27.91 28.92 29.65 33.15

42131 HISSAR 9 18.66 23.02 25.26 27.66 29.49

42170 CHURU 6.03 13.88 16.52 17.30 17.34 17.36

42182 N.DELHI 11.17 13.71 17 18.09 19.14 19.44

42189 BAREILLY 8.7 13.7 19.4 26.63 27.52 29.4

42328 JAISALMER 5.8 9.23 9.64 12.87 17.27 21.82

42339 JODHPUR 8.27 14.75 17.55 29.66 33.55 35.03

42343 AJMER 8 17.15 24.19 26.62 27.98 28.97

42348 JAIPUR 7 14.65 23.3 26.86 31.88 34.9

42369 LUCKNOW 7.25 12.2 19.58 20.43 21.96 25.53

42379 GORAK.HPUR 8 16.4 19.4 21.07 23.89 24.81

42410 GUWAHATI 8.5. 16.3 17.9 18.6 18.7 18.75

42475 ALLAHABAD 11 2\ 21.7 22.7 23.42 27.17

42479 VARANASI 10 - 20.22 21.9 23.11 23.3 23.48

42559 GUNA 13.38 16.1 21.55 25.05 26.13 26.47

42571 SATNA 7.5 13.25 19.44 26.17 35.42 45.57

42623 IMPHAL 6 9.2 10.4 11.45 11.48 11.62

42634 BHUJ 9.44 13.01 17.18 22.46 29.69 31.72

42647 AHMEDABAD 9 21.35 28.3 31.8 33.22 36.32
42667 BHOPAL 8.98 13.18 17.15 28.05 39.14 45.08
42675 JABALPUR 9 15.54 24.27 30.67 33.05 33.66
42730 OKHA 13.48 22.23 25.64 27.58 28.85 29.19
42737 RAJKOT 11.61 17.15 24.05 25.94 26.52 31.7
42830 PORBANDAR 8.71 16.71 31.12 40.08 44.89 45.19
42867 NAGPUR 7.9 16.3 21.78 25.75 29.42 35.34
42886 JHARSUGUDA 8.95 14.1 17.35 19.36 21.74 22.54
42909 VERAVAL 13 16.74 23.14 28.00 29.27 31.98
42920 OZAR 8.06 17.14 18.08 18.49 20.24 22.44

134
42971 BHUBANESHWAR 12 24 29.66 31.8 38.64 45.64

43001 DAI 1 AND 9.8 16 19.7 26.18 27.33 33.83

43014 AURANGABAD 7.76 II 15 15.52 19.95 23.2

43057 MUMBAJ (COLABA) 11.3 24.96 39.36 49.63 57.02 57.56

43063 PUNE 6.6 10 10.08 11.34 11.54 12

43081 NIZAMABAD 6.03 12.14 20.2 31.35 35.15 36.33

43086 RAMAGUNDAM 9.3 16.8 17.5 17.73 21.65 24.01

43105 KALINGAPATNAM 9.85 18.4 20.98 25.12 26.96 28.53

43110 RATNAGIR1 7.95 13.67 21.93 29.67 34.67 36.65

43111 MAHABALESHWAR 7.08 11.5 19.7 31.91 40.87 54.08

43117 SOLAPUR 7 10.08 11.13 13.98 14.26 14.52

43128 HYDERABAD 10.03 24.13 34.25 40.53 40.53 40.53

43181 GANNAVARAM 7.25 12.26 14.75 19.45 20.16 21.2

43185 MACHIL1PATNAM 9 16 19.67 24.28 26.56 26.95

43189 KAKINADA 9.12 14.1 18.35 30.25 39.34 43.55

43192 PAN.11M 12.95 19.74 24.23 30.88 41.31 42.26

43196 MORMUGAO 12.55 19.8 21 30.6 32.47 36.94

43198 BEEGAUM 7.65 1 1.43 12.21 12.5 16.7 22.45

43201 GADAG 7.48 8.87 10.51 12.25 15.19 17.37

43213 KURNOOL 7.1 13.73 13.9 13.9 14.3 16.91

43221 ONGOLE 8 19.38 23.15 27.79 29.19 29.28

43225 KARWAR 10.5 15.2 19.03 23.61 28.78 36.93

43226 HONAVER 9.75 14.2 19.49 26.18 28.31 35.58

43233 CHITRADURG 7.52 8.9 9.75 11.98 14.4 15.91

43237 ANANTAPUR 7.83 13.48 16.33 16.55 16.55 16.55

43245 NELLORE 9.15 14.3 19.5 25.12 29.9 33.93

43257 AGUMBE 8.88 16.02 24.23 32.02 41.02 48.95
43279 MINAMBAKKAM 8.7 13 18.94 25.27 30.6 34.87
43284 MANGALORE 9.3 13.2 16.45 23.57 27.52 35.44

43295 BANGALORE 7.21 14.48 16.28 18.23 18.52 19.13

43311 AM1NI 9 14.68 21.27 27.46 30.37 31.46
43314 CALICUT 8.7 12.9 18.4 24.07 27.54 29.56
43321 COIMBATORE 7.6 14.4 15.3 16.6 17.87 19.22
 43329 CUDDALORE 7.7 12.83 17.43 28.8 34.05 35.35

43333 PORT BLAIR 12.2 24.92 27.21 28.57 34.2 40.48

43339 KODAIKANAI. 10 13.31 13.31 16.42 18.91 20.97

43344 TIRUCH1RAPALL1 9.6 15.45 17.39 26.71 29.74 31.88

43346 KARAIKAL 7.4 14.37 24.5 30.9 41.4 44.65

43347 NAGAPATTINAM 8.35 16 21.85 29.5 36 42.01

43363 PAMBAN 8.01 11.9 15.1 20.47 22.68 23.77

43369 MIN1COY 8 17.8 23.4 26.28 26.94 27.59

43371 THIRUVANANTAPURAM 7.7 17.5 20 23.64 24.49 25.73

Hourly Extreme Rainfall(cm) in India

._. r'V^
03-hr
J .

MU

vteft
^ M
-, r , r^ ,

65E 70E 75E 80E 65E 90E 95E 100E 65E 70E 75E 80E S5E 90E 9SE 100E 65E 70E 75E 0E B5E 90E J5E 100E

12
cm

- ^
35N
J H V 24^hr
30N

25N

Z0N

ISN
\ f U
L
\
!0N
6
6E ?0 7SE B0E B5E 90E SSE 100E 65E 70E 75E flOE 85E 90E 95E 100E 65E 70E 75E 80E BSE 90E 95E 100E

30 35
cm
Fig 5.13 : Spatial Patterns of extreme rainfall events for the duration of 1, 3, 6, 12,
18 and 24 hours

136
 From the table, it is observed that, the station Okha in Gujarath state, received
13.48 cm in 1-hour duration on 10.7.1973 corresponding to a cyclonic circulation
formed over the Arabian Sea near Gujarath coast. From this table and Fig 5.13, it is
seen that, some stations, namely Panjim. Mormugao. Rajkot. Okha have recorded more
than 10 cm of rainfall in just one hour. Most of these stations are located along the west
Coast of India. Stations near the Orissa coast that are located along the monsoon trough
and also some stations in the foot hills of Himalayas have recorded extreme rainfall of
10 cm or more in one hour due to the passage of monsoon disturbances. Stations from
peninsular India that lies in the rain-shadow region of the Western Ghats, have never
recorded more than 8 cm of rainfall in one hour. Highest rainfall for the duration of 3-6
hours, over India, ranges from 14cm to more than 20cm. except for the rain-shadow
region of peninsular India. West Rajasthan and some parts in north-east India. Rainfall
amount corresponding to 24 hour duration exceeds 40 cm. at many places along the
west coast stations as well as at hill stations such as Mahabaleshwar and Agumbe due to
orographic effect, where the Western Ghats acts as barrier to the monsoon winds from
Arabian sea. Such maps give the idea of the spatial variation of rainfall intensity in
India.

5.5 Temporal Changes in the extreme short duration rainfall

Temporal changes in the extreme rainfall time series of different durations of

less than 24 hours (such as lhr. 3hr. 6hr and 12hrs) during last 30-37 years, have been
examined over India. For each station, these extreme rainfall series have been subjected
to trend analysis. Linear trends (per year) have been plotted on the map of India and
shown in the Fig. 5.14

137
 Trends in e x t r e m e hourly rainfall in India

^SE 70E 75 E ME SE 90C BSE IGDE ^ S t 70E 75t WE 6S 1$E 9S 10C

Fig 5.14 : Linear trend (per year) in short duration (<24hr) extreme rainfall over
India

Fig.5.14 shows that, over most of the parts of peninsulr India (except Kerala coast and
Andhra coast) and central parts of the Ganga basin, extreme rainfall of short duration is
increasing, while the Brahmaputra river basin shows decreasing trends in extreme
hourly rainfall series. These results are in good agreement with that of Sen Roy (2008).
The author has used station data for the period of 1980-2002. to study trends in extreme
hourly rainfall over different seasons in India. It is observed by the author that, along
the west coast, the southern part experienced a declining trend, while the northern part
of the coast experienced an increasing trend in the extreme precipitation events. Most of
the Deccan Plateau extending towards south central coastal regions of the subcontinent
also experienced a positive trend in the occurrence of extreme heavy precipitation
events.

138
5.6 Time Distribution of heavy rainspells and Clock hour correction

As mentioned above, along with the PMP estimates, break up of extreme

1-day rainfall or the evolution of hourly maximum rainfall to contribute 24 hour
maximum rainfall (time distribution ) is an important component in Hydrometeorology.
The same has been estimated for the 30 representative stations of eight major river
basins in India. The following criterion has been adopted for the selection of heavy
rain spells at a station for carrying out the time distribution analysis:
A rainspell is defined here, as the continuous rainfall process without any
break in the rainfall or a spell of rainfall without any hour of zero rainfall. A heavy
rainspell is a spell of rainfall exceeding certain threshold. Here the threshold has been
taken as the 10% of the seasonal rainfall at a place. Two rain spells are separated by an
hour of zero rainfall. It has been observed that, for some stations in arid or semiarid
region in India, there are very few rain spells of continuous 24 hours rainfall (without
zero rainfall hours). In such cases, to carry out time distribution, condition of an hour
with zero rainfall to separate two rainspells, has been relaxed and 2-3 hours of zero
rainfall are allowed within a rain spell. Three severe most rain spells of 24 hour duration
are then taken from these selected heavy rainspells, at each of the representative
stations. These heavy spells of 24 hour duration are different from 24 hour maximum
rainfall amount selected in the previous section 5.4. These maximum value may arise
from the local rainfall activity such as thunderstorm which causes intense rainfall of few
hours over a small area of few square kilometers. For each of these 3 rainspells,
percentage contribution of lhr, 3hr, ... , 18hr rainfall to 24 hr rainfall is calculated.
Average time distribution is then obtained by averaging the contribution of 3 heavy
rainspells at a station. Table 5.2 gives time distribution at 30 representative stations
from different river basins in India.

As discussed in the previous chapter, estimation of PMP uses the

observated rainfall data, recorded at a fixed hour of the day. Therefore, extreme 1-day
rainfall values based on these observed data sets may not necessarily be the indicator of
maximum rainfall of any 24 hours, which may be higher than observed in one day.
Therefore, estimates of extreme rainfall based on these observational days' rainfall

139
values need to be raised by an appropriate factor to obtain maximum 24-hour rainfall
values. These adjustment factors have been estimated based on heavy rainspells chosen
for the 30 stations. During the heavy rain spells, ratio of maximum 24-hr rainfall and
daily maximum rainfall, have been calculated. These two events have some overlapping
period of observation. The average of these ratios yield, the clock hour correction or the
adjustment factor for converting the observed 1-day rainfall to any maximum 24-hr
rainfall for that station. These adjustment factors are also given in table 5.2 .
From this table it is seen that, contribution from 1 hour varies from 9% to
25 %, while contribution from 12 hours ranges from 62% to 86%, which shows the
spatial variability in the rainfall patterns over different regions in India. It also indicates
that, nearly 3/4th of rainfall, occurs in 12 hours and the remaining '/4th is contributed by
the other 12 hours. Such information is required for reservoir management such as,
how much water to be released from the reservoir at the time of heavy rainfall
occurring in the upstream of the structure. Contribution from 1-3 hours to the daily total
is maximum in Northern India, while maximum contribution from 12 hours and more is
seen in peninsular India. Clock hour correction factor ranges from 1.00 to 1.38 in India,
which indicate that over the semi arid region of peninsular India where rainspells do not
lasts for longer period, 24 hour extreme rainfall value can be taken as 1 -day extreme
rainfall. On the other hand,at a station like Imphal, 38 % rise in 1-day extreme rainfall is
required to get 24 hour maximum rainfall.
Table 5.2 : Percentage time distribution of heavy rainfall of 24 hour duration and
clock hour correction.
Correcti
WMO Time Distribution on
STATION
no Factor

1-hr 3-hr 6-hr 12-hr 18hr 24-hr

342027 SRINAGAR 9 26 44 70 89 100 1.13

1.17
342071 AMRITSAR 25 45 66 84 89 100
342111 DEHRADUN 22 41 56 73 87 100 1.12
342182 N.DELHI 19 46 62 70 82 100 1.25
342369 LUCKNOW 24 45 59 74 89 100 1.19
342475 ALLAHABAD 24 42 51 68 82 100 1.32
342571 SATNA 25 44 57 75 88 100 1.19
342410 GAUHATI 16 31 45 68 86 100 1.2

140
 342623 IMPHAL 14 30 42 62 82 100 1.38
342675 JABALPUR 17 36 53 73 87 100 1.08
342867 NAGPUR 17 34 53 73 86 100 1.21
342920 NAS1K 17 36 50 74 88 100 1.14
343014 AURANGABAD 24 41 50 70 87 100 1
343081 NIZAMABAD 18 34 48 71 85 100 1.2
343105 KALINGAPATNAM 22 39 54 71 87 100 1.13
343063 PUNE 16 32 53 76 87 100 1.16
343111 MAHABALESHWAR 14 28 43 64 81 100 1.14
343128 HYDERABAD 19 39 55 70 89 100 1.19
343181 GANNAVARAM 20 41 56 75 87 100 1.21
343213 KURNOOL 15 37 49 70 84 100 1.37
343057 MUMBAI 22 40 56 74 88 100 1.1
343110 RATNAGIRI 20 37 52 70 86 100 1.07
343192 PANJIM 19 37 51 70 85 100 1.09
343284 MANGALORE 20 34 48 68 84 100 1.2
343371 THIRUVANATHAPURAM 21 37 64 86 95 100 1.11
343245 NELLORE 22 45 69 81 90 100 1.15
343279 M1NAMBAKAM 21 39 53 74 87 100 1.14
343295 BANGALORE 16 33 55 76 86 100 1.11
343321 COIMBATORE 18 35 68 86 92 100 1
343339 KODAIKANAL 17 35 52 72 86 100 1.26

Such information is essential for design flood estimation, which is nothing

but the peak flood discharge that can be pass safely from the hydraulic structure during
heavy rainspell. This criteria varies according to the importance of the structure. One of
the most important factors affecting the peak discharge is the variability of rainfall in
time. If the rainfall is distributed uniformly over a period say 24hours, the peak rate will
be much less than if the same rain occurs during 2-3 hours. In such cases, information
given in the table is important.

141