Present continuous

Form
Affirmative
I am
he/ she/ i t is workirig
n i '
we/ y o u / the\ are

Negative
Present simple
1 am
Form
he/ she/ i t is notjV')ikin>j
Affirmative we/ v o u / t h e y are
vvork
he/ she/ i t works Questions
we/ y o u / t h e v work
am - !
is lie/ she/ i t workiiTg?
Negative are we/ y o u / t h e y .
doirt
he/ she/ it doesn't work
we y o u / t h e y Uses
don't
T h e present c o n t i n u o u s is used:
1 t o t a l k a b o u t w h a t is h a p p e n i n g n o w , at t h i s m o m e n t .
Questions
James, what are you dolng?
do ! 2 t o talk about a t e m p o r a r y s i t u a t i o n , or a c t i v i t y h a p p e n i n g
does he/ she/ i t work? around now.
do we/ y o u / t h e y He's learning English.
3 to talk a b o u t future plans or arrangements.
I'm seeing her tonight.
Uses 4 t o t a l k a b o u t c h a n g e i n progress.
My father's becoming very bad-tempered.
T h e p r e s e n t s i m p l e is u s e d :
1 to talk a b o u t a h a b i t or s o m e t h i n g t h a t happens regularly. V e r b s n o t n o r m a l l y used in t h e c o n t i n u o u s f o r m
How often do you see your grandparents?
Some g r o u p s o f verbs are n o t n o r m a l l y used i n t h e
2 t o t a l k a b o u t a state.
continuous form. They include:
She doesn't like coffee.
V e r b s o f t h i n k i n g a n d o p i n i n : believe. doubt, feel, forget,
3 t o t a l k a b o u t s o m e t h i n g w h i c h is always t r u c
guess, imagine, know, mean, realise, recognise, remember, see 1=
Babies cry when they're hungry.
understand), suppose, think, understand
4 t o talk a b o u t a f u t u r e , t i m e t a b l e d event.
V e r b s o f e m o t i o n : dislike, hate, like, love, prefer, want, wish
The train leaves at 930 tonight.
V e r b s o f p o s s e s s i o n a n d b e i n g : be, belong, consist of, contain,
A d v e r b s of f r e q u e n c y have (= possess), include, nvolve, need, own, possess
V e r b s o f t h e senses: hear, see, smell, sound, taste
1 A d v e r b s o f f r e q u e n c y are o f t e n used w i t h t h e . p r e s e n t
s i m p l e t o t a l k a b o u t h a b i t u a l o r repeated a c t i o n s .
C o m m o n adverbs o f f r e q u e n c y i n c l u d e :
Forming questions
always usually.often sometimes occasionally seldom rarely
never 1 To f o r m a q u e s t i o n , we p u t t h e a u x i l i a r y v e r b (is, have, can,
2 They normally comer would, etc.) b e f o r e t h e subject.
after t h e v e r b be. Is it raining?
He's always late. Can you remember his ame?
after an a u x i l i a r y v e r b . Would your friend like a drink?
They've often talked about you. I W t y > * M OJT/ nUKfci?. 2 I n t h e p r e s e n t s i m p l e w e use do/ does t o m a k e q u e s t i o n s .
before o t h e r verbs. What does she want?
She never wears Jeans. 3 I n t h e past s i m p l e we use did t o m a k e q u e s t i o n s .
3 T h e adverbs always, never, rarely, seldom, hardly ever d o n ' t Did you win?
n o r m a l l y c o m e at t h e b e g i n n i n g or e n d o f a s e n t e n c e . 4 W h e n who, what o r which is t h e subject o f a q u e s t i o n , we
He always drives to work. ( N O T A l w a y s he d r i v o s t o w o r k . ) d o n o t use do, does or did.
Who Uves in that hou'se? (NOT Who does Uve m that house?)
5 N o t e t h c p o s i t i o n of prepositions i n questions.
What are you listening to?

Crammar 95
Uoit 2 Past p e r f e c t s i m p l e
Form
A f f i r m a t i v e a n d negative
Past simple 1/ he, she/ it liad
left
Form we/ v o u / t h e v hadn't

Affirmative a n d negative
1/ he/ she/ i t vvqi'ked Questions

we/ v o u / t h e y didn't work [/ lie/ she/ i

had left
we/ vou/ t h e v

Questions
,. , 1/ 1lie/ she/ i t Uses
did work?
we/' y o u / t h e y
T h e past p e r f e c t is used:
1 for an action that happened before another action i n the
Regular verbs f o r m t h e past s i m p l e a f f i r m a t i v e b y a d d i n g past.
-ed?live > lived visit > vsited When we got to the station, the train had already left.
M a n y c o m m o n verbs are i r r e g u l a r . See t h e list of i r r e g u l a r 2 for a n a c t i o n t h a t h a p p e n e d before a certain t i m e i n the
verbs o n page 112. past.
Bv 4.00 thev liad waiked almost twenty kilometres.
Use
T h e past s i m p l e is u s e d :
1 t o t a l k a b o u t a finished a c t i o n i n t h e past, o f t e n w i t h a i n f i n i t i v e w i t h to a n d ing f o r m
time adverbial.
I n f i n i t i v e w i t h ftt
He leftschool in 1994.
2 to talk about s o m e t h i n g that happened regularly i n the 1 T h e i n f i n i t i v e w i t h to is used after c e r t a i n verbs. T h e y
past. include:
She went out every night. afford, agree, appear, arrange, ask, attempt, choose, decide,
3 t o t a l k a b o u t a past s i t u a t i o n demand, deserve, expect, help, hope, intend, learn, manage,
/ went to Oxford University. need, offer, plan, pretend, promise, refuse, seem, threaten,
want, wish, would like, would love, woidd hate, would prefer
We decided to leave.
Past continuous 2 Note the negative f o r m of the i n f i n i t i v e :
He seemed not to care.
Form 3 T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n v e r b + o b j e c t + i n f i n i t i v e c a n b used
Affirmative and negative w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g verbs:
was advise, allow, ask, encourqge, expect, forc, get, help, invite,
persuade, rentind, teaCh, tell, wam, would like, would love,
1/ he/ she/ i t wasn't
would hate, would prefer.
we/ y o u / t h e y were He helpedher to pass the exam.
,. . weren't
-ing form
Questions T h e -ing f o r m is used:
was 1/ he/ she/ i t 1 after c e r t a i n verbs a n d e x p r e s s i o n s . T h e y i n c l u d e :
working.' admit, avoid, be used to, can't help, can't stand, consider, deny,
were we/ y o u / t h e y
dislike, don't mind, enjoy, finish, imagine, keep, look forward
to, miss, practise, regret, suggest
Uses He avoided speaking to me.
T h e past c o n t i n u o u s is u s e d : 2 after p r e p o s i t i o n s .
1 t o t a l k a b o u t a n a c t i o n w h i c h was i n progress at a He left-without paying.
. p a r t i c u l a r m o m e n t i n t h e past. 3 as a n o u n .
/ was watching televisin at 9.30. Smoking is bad for you.
2 t o describe a s i t u a t i o n p r t h e b a c k g r o u n d t o a scene. V e r b s f o l l o w e d b y to o r -ing
It was raining and he was carrying an umbrella.
1 A f e w verbs c a n be f o l l o w e d b y t h e -ing f o r m or t h e
3 t o describe a n i n t e r r u p t e d a c t i o n i n t h e past.
i n f i n i t i v e w i t h to. T h e m e a n i n g is u s u a i l y s i m i l a r . T h e y
We were watching the news when you rang.
i n c l u d e : begin, continu, hate, like, love, start.
4 T h e past c o n t i n u o u s is o f t e n used after while a n d as. (NOT
She loves dancing. OR She loves to dance.
during)
2 S o m e verbs c a n be f o l l o w e d b y t h e i n f i n i t i v e w i t h to or t h e
While we were playing, it started to rain.
-ing f o r m . B u t t h e m e a n i n g is n o t t h e same. T h e y i n c l u d e :
forget, go on, remember, stop, try
N o t e : t h e past c o n t i n u o u s is n o t used a b o u t regular a c t i o n s
He went on talking. (= H e c o n t i n u e d d o i n g t h e same t h i n g . )
or h a b i t s i n t h e past.
He wenton to become a famous actor. (= Later he b e c a m e a
He rang her every evening. (NOT He was ringing her avery
f a m o u s actor.)
ovening.)

96 Grammar
Unit 3 Present perfect continuous
Affirmative
1 have
Present perfect simple he/ she /it has been p l a v i n c
we/ y o u / t h e v have
Form
Affirmative
Negative
I have
he/ she/ i t has piayed have

we/ y o u / t h e y have
he/ she /it has n o t been plaving
we/ v o u / t h e v have

Negative
Questions
i have
h e / she / i t not piayed have 1
has
we/ v o u / t h e v has he/ she/ i t been playing?
have
have we/ y o u / t h e v

Questions
have I Uses
has h e ; she/ i t piayed? T h e p r e s e n t p e r f e c t c o n t i n u o u s is used:
have we / v o u / thev 1 like t h e present perfect s i m p l e , t o t a l k a b o u t an a c t i o n
w h i c h b e g a n i n t h e past a n d w h i c h c o n t i n e s i n t h e
p r e s e n t . It is o f t e n used f o r t e m p o r a r y a c t i o n s a n d
Regular verbs f o r m t h e past p a r t i c i p l e b y a d d i n g -ed. play >
situations.
piayed Uve > lived vislt > visited.
She's been working here since June.
M a n y c o m m o n verbs are i r r e g u l a r . See t h e list o f i r r e g u l a r
2 t o e m p h a s i s e t h a t a n a c t i v i t y is u n f i n i s h e d . C o m p a r e t h i s
verbs o n page 112.
w i t h t h e p r e s e n t perfect s i m p l e w h i c h o f t e n i n d i c a t e s a
Uses finished action.
T h e present p e r f e c t c o n n e c t s t h e past a n d t h e p r e s e n t . i t is l've been readingDon Quijote. (= I h a v e n ' t finished i t . )
used: l've read Don Qiiijote. (= l ' v e finished i t . )
1 t o t a l k a b o u t e x p e r i e n c e s i n one's Ufe.
Have you ever been to America?
Uve never flown.
2 t o t a l k a b o u t t h e p r e s e n t result o f a past a c t i o n .
Aun has gone out. (= She's n o t here n o w . )
3 t o t a l k a b o u t a n a c t i o n w h i c h began i n t h e past a n d w h i c h
contines i n the present.
[ h.ave lived in London for ten years.
She has had the same car since 1993.

W e use for w i t h a p e r i o d o f t i m e (for three weeks, for two years,

for a long time, etc.).
W e use since w i t h a p o i n t o f t i m e i n t h e past (since August,
since 1993, since Christrnas, etc.)

T o i n d c a t e a r e c e n t l y finished a c t i o n , t h e p r e s e n t perfect is
o f t e n used w i t h just.
James lias just left. (= H e w e n t o u t a few m o m e n t s ago.)

Crammar 97
Unit 4 Going to is used:
1 t o m a k e a p r e d i c t i o n w h e r e t h e r e is s o m e e v i d e n c e n o w .
Look at those black clouds. It's going to rain.
2 t o t a l k a b o u t p l a n s w h e r e t h e d e c i s i n has been m a d e
Future tenses before s p e a k i n g . I t n o r m a l l y expresses a degree o f
intention.
T h e r e are several v e r b f o r m s t h a t can be used t o t a l k a b o u t She's going to stady French.
t h e f u t u r e . T h e y i n c l u d e will, t h e present c o n t i n u o u s , a n d
going to.
Future continuous
F o r m : will
Affirmative and negative Form
1/ he/ she /it will T A f f i r m a t i v e a n d negative
we/ v o u / t h e v won't 1/ he/ she/ it will
be v v a i t i n g
we/ y o u / t h e y won'

Questions
1/ he/ she/ i t Questions
will
we/ v o u / t h e y 1/ he/ she/ i t
be w a i t i n
we/ v o u / t h e v

N o t e : sha.ll is s o m e t i m e s used i n s t e a d of will i n t h e first

p e r s o n s i n g u l a r a n d p l u r a l (/ a n d w e ) , especially i n questions.- T h e f u t u r e c o n t i n u o u s is used t o i n d c a t e t h a t an a c t i o n w i l l
Where shall we ineet? be i n progress at a p a r t i c u l a r m o m e n t i n t h e f u t u r e .
What shall I do? / will be working all day tonwrrow.
When yon get home, will your mother be waiting for you?
Form: present continuous
See page 95 f o r t h e f o r m o f t h e present c o n t i n u o u s .

F o r m : going to
F u t u r e p e r f e c t (will have -f-past p a r t i c i p l e )

Affirmative and negative Form

I am/ a m n o t A f f i r m a t i v e a n d negative
he/ she/ i t is/ is n o t g o i n g to play 1/ he/ she/ it will- , ,. . . ,
have h m s h e a
we/ y o u / t h e v are/ are n o t we/ v o u / t h e v won't

Questions Questions
am I .,, 1/ he/ she/ it , , . , ,
will have finished?
is he/ she/ i t g o i n g t o play? we/ y o u / t h e y
are we/ y o u / t h e y

Uses
Uses T h e f u t u r e perfect is used t o say t h a t a n a c t i o n w i l l be
Will is u s e d : finished b y a c e r t a i n t i m e i n t h e f u t u r e .
1 to make a p r e d i c t i o n about the future. By next spring l'll have bought a new car.
/ think it will rain tomorrow. They'll have known each other for twenty years in [une.
I won't see you again.
2 t o t a l k a b o u t a d e c i s i n m a d e at t h e m o m e n t o f s p e a k i n g .
I'm tired. I think l'll go to bed. T h e d e f i n i t e a r t i c i e : the
3 t o m a k e a n offer. 1 T o t a l k a b o u t t h i n g s i n g e n e r a l , w e n o r m a l l y use a p l u r a l i
"I'm hungry." - "Vil get you something to eat." or u n c o u n t a b l e n o u n w i t h o u t t h e d e f i n i t e a r t i c i e .
Potatoes are cheap. (NOT The potatoes are clwap.)
T h e p r e s e n t c o n t i n u o u s is used t o t a l k a b o u t p l a n s t h a t have Gold is expensive. (NOT The gold is expansiva.)
a l r e a d y b e e n m a d e . A n a d v e r b e x p r e s s i n g t h e f u t u r e (this 2 T h e d e f i n i t e a r t i c i e is o n l y used b e f o r e a p l u r a l or
summer, tomorrow, next Friday etc.) is n o r m a l l y i n c l u d e d i n u n c o u n t a b l e n o u n w h e n w e w a n t t o t a l k a b o u t specific
t h e s e n t e n c e or i m p l i e d . things.
I'm meeting Tom tomorrow. The potatoes we ate last night were delicious.
"What are you doing tonight?" - "I'm staying in." The gold in Fort Knox is lieavily guarded.

98 Crammar
Unit 5 T h e f o l l o w i n g sentences Ilstrate t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n m e a n i n g
b e t w e e n t h e t h r e e types o f c o n d i t i o n a l sentences:
first c o n d i t i o n a l : Ifthey offer me drugs, I won't take them.
T h e speaker believes i t is p r o b a b l e o r l i k e l y t h a t he/ she w i l l
Conditional sentences be o f f e r e d d r u g s i n t h e f u t u r e .
s e c o n d c o n d i t i o n a l : Ifthey offered me drugs, I wouldn't take
Form: first conditional them. \
If + p r e s e n t s i m p l e , + will T h e speaker believes i t is i m p r o b a b l e or u n l i k e l y t h a t he/ she
Ifyou go to the party, you'il enjoy it. w i l l be o f f e r e d d r u g s i n t h e f u t u r e .
t h i r d c o n d i t i o n a l : If they'd offered me drugs, I wouldn't have
1 A f u t u r e tense is n o t used i n t h e i f clause. taken them.
(NOT If you'il go to the party, you'il enjoy it.)
T h e speaker is t a l k i n g a b o u t a n i m a g i n a r y s i t u a t i o n i n t h e
2 O t h e r m o d a l verbs (can, may, should, must, etc.) can past. I t d i d n o t h a p p e n .
replace will.
Ifyou go to the party, you may enjoy it.
N o t e : these w o r d s / phrases c a n also be used i n first a n d
3 Will c a n also be r e p l a c e d b y a n i m p e r a t i v e . s e c o n d c o n d i t i o n a l sentences.
Ifyou go to the party, take a taxi horne. 1 unless (= i f ... n o t )
4 Should c a n be used t o t a l k a b o u t a f u t u r e p o s s i b i l i t y . I n
He'll die unless we get him to hospital. (= H e ' l l d i e i f w e d o n ' t
f o r m a l E n g l i s h , i n v e r s i n o f subject a n d v e r b c a n be used
get h i m t o h o s p i t a l . )
w i t h should. W h e n i n v e r s i n is used,(7)is o m i t t e d .
2 as long as, providing, on cafidition that (= b u t o n l y - i f ...)
Ifyou should go to the party, don't forget to take a bottle of
/'// win as long as I play well.
wine. - , rin-< I Vn---
I'd lend you my car providing you agreed to look after it.
;

Should you go to the party, give my regards to Peter. You can go out on conditon that you come lime before
5 B o t h verbs can be i n t h e p r e s e n t i f y o u are t a l k i n g a b o u t midnight.
situations i n general.

Ifyou go to a lot ofparties, you meet a lot ofpeople.

Should/ ought to
Form: second conditional
If+ p a s t s i m p l e , + would Should a n d ought to are used:
Ifyou went to the party, you'd enj'oy it. 1 to give advice.
You look ill. You should/ ought to go to bed.
1 A f t e r If, w e n o r m a l l y use were ( n o t was) w i t h / a n d he,
2 t o m a k e suggestions.
she, it.
You should/ ought to see that film.
Ifl were you, I'd go to the party
3 t o t a l k a b o u t w h a t is a g o o d o r t h e c o r r e c t t h i n g t o d o .
2 O t h e r m o d a l verbs (could, might, etc.) can replace would.
You should/ ought to go to the dentist twice a year.
Ifyou went to the party, you might enjoy it.
People shouldn't drive so fast.
Form: third conditional 4 t o express a f u t u r e p o s s i b i l i t y .
They should be here soon.
If+ p a s t p e r f e c t + would have
If you'd (had) gone to the party, you'd (would) have enjoyed it.

1 Would a n d had are b o t h o f t e n c o n t r a c t e d t o 'd, p a r t i c u l a r l y Should have/ ought to have

after p r o n o u n s .
Should have a n d ought to have are used t o say t h a t s o m e t h i n g
2 O t h e r m o d a l verbs (might have, could have, etc.) can
i n t h e past was a m i s t a k e o r w r o n g .
replace would have.
/ ought to have told the truth. I shouldn't have lied.
If you'd gone to the party, you might have enjoyed it.
You shouldn't have been so rude. You ought to have apologised.
3 I n v e r s i n o f t h e s u b j e c t a n d v e r b can be used i n t h i r d
c o n d i t i o n a l sentences i n f o r m a l E n g l i s h . W h e n i n v e r s i n
is used,6/is o m i t t e d .

Had you gone to the party, you might have enjoyed it.

Uses
u
1 T h e first c o n d i t i o n a l is used t o t a l k a b o u t a s i t u a t i o n t h a t
is t r u e o r m a y b e c b m e t r u e . I t is l i k e l y t o h a p p e n .
Ifthey win the match, l'll buy you a drink. (= It is p r o b a b l e
that they will w i n the match.)
2 T h e s e c o n d c o n d i t i o n a l is used t o t a l k a b o u t a s i t u a t i o n
t h a t is u n r e a l or u n l i k e l y t o h a p p e n .
Ifjane went to the party, she'd enjoy it. (= I t is u n l i k e l y t h a t
Jane w i l l go t o t h e p a r t y . )
If I were you, I'd go to bed. ( T h i s is a n u n r e a l s i t u a t i o n . Y o u
c a n n o t 'become' a n o t h e r person.)
3 T h e t h i r d c o n d i t i o n a l is used t o describe a n i m a g i n a r y
e v e n t o r s i t u a t i o n i n t h e past. I t d i d n ' t h a p p e n or exist.
Ifhe'd scored that goal, they'd have won the match. (= He
d i d n ' t score t h e g o a l a n d t h e y d i d n ' t w i n t h e m a t c h .

Grammar 99
 Reported questions
Unit 6
1 I n d i r e c t q u e s t i o n s t h e w o r d o r d e r is v e r b + subject.
What is the time?
Reported statements p a P i
Why are you crying?
I n r e p o r t e d q u e s t i o n s t h e w o r d o r d e r is subject + v e r b .
Direct speech Reported speech T h e r e is n o q u e s t i o n m a r k w i t h r e p o r t e d q u e s t i o n s .
I love her." f - f" '"
, f f S f ; 1 1 He said t h a t he l o v e d her. i'o r
She as.ked what the time was.
I m e t her at a p a r t y . " He said t h a t h e h a d m e t her at She asked why they were crying.
Y : tlDP.L a party. ' " i 2 If t h e r e is n o q u e s t i o n w o r d ( What/ Why/ When/How, etc.)
l ' v e a l w a y s l o v e d her. He said t h a t he h a d alwavs i n t h e d i r e c t q u e s t i o n . i fot whether are used i n t h e
l o v e d her. i'Wi "f*U< reported question.
l ' l l a l w a y s love h e r . " H e said t h a t he w o u l d a l w a y s
F L.iuRe l o v e her. f O M J r r ; ( i,ri "Are you English'.'" She asked if whether we were English.
1 c a n ' t leave h e r . " H e said t h a t he c o u l d n ' t leave
her. o i . . j >

I m a y m a r r y her." H e said t h a t he m i g h t m a r r y e n Reported commands

Vi
1 I n d i r e c t c o m m a n d s t h e i m p e r a t i v e is used. I n r e p o r t e d
R'in r t i - f e l , < " . < ' <
c o m m a n d s t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n is used:
1 If t h e r e p o r t i n g v e r b is i n t h e past (said, told, etc.), t h e v e r b subject + v e r b + o b j e c t - i n f i n i t i v e w i t h to
i n t h e r e p o r t e d s t a t e m e n t m o v e s back a tense i n t o t h e "Sit dowu." He told her to sit down.
past. "Picase help me." Siie asked them to help hei:
2 T h e m o d a l verbs should, could, would, might a n d ought to 2 T h e r o l l o w i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n is used t o r e p o r t n e g a t i v e
do n o t change. commands:
3 P r o n o u n s (I, me, mine, etc.) a n d possessive adjectives (my, subject + v e r b + o b j e c t + not + i n f i n i t i v e w i t h to
etc.) also c h a n g e . "Don't'shout at me." She told him not to shout ather.
"She loves me. He said that he loved her. 3 O t h e r r e p o r t i n g verbs can be used. T h e y i n c l u d e :
"We want to marry." He said that they wanted to advise, encourage, invite, persuade, remitid, want
marry. "Don't buy these shoes." She advised him not to biiy
"We've told mi parents. He said that they'd told their those shoes.
parents. t >T)ir
T h e f o l l o w i n g w o r d s also c h a n g e :
this > that, these > those, now> then, next week > the next
weekftoday > that day, tomorrow > the next doy, yesterday >
the day before, last week >~the week before.
T h e t w o m o s t c o m m o n r e p o r t i n g verbs are sfly a n d fe//.
Say i n t r o d u c e s a s t a t e m e n t ; i t i s n ' t necessary t o use t h e
a m e o f t h e p e r s o n b e i n g addressed (or an o b j e c t
p r o n o u n ) w i t h say. T h e a m e o f t h e p e r s o n ( o r a
p r o n o u n ) m u s t f o l l o w re/i.
He said he was sorry.
He told his girlfriend/ her he was sorry.
T h e c o n j u n c t i o r f t / w f c a n be o m i t t e d after say a n d fe//.
He said (that) he loved her.
He told his girlfriend (that) he was sorry.
O t h e r r e p o r t i n g verbs c a n be used. T h e y i n c l u d e :
announce, answer, declare, exclaim, protest, reply, swear
"I love you." He declared that he loved her.

100 Crammar
 '1 fr

Unit 7 Relative clauses

Defining relative clauses
1 D e f i n i n g relative-clauses s p e c f y o r d e f i n e w h a t i s b e i n g
:

Passive talked about.

A woman caused the accident. She went to prson. > The
Infinitive to be repaired woman who caused the accident went to prison.
Present s i m p l e it.is/ t h e y are r e p a i r e d 2 T h e r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s wh ( a n d s o m e t i m e s that) are used
Present c o n t i n u o u s it is/ t h e y are b e i n g r e p a i r e d t o s p e c i f y p e o p l e ; which a n d that are used t o specify
Past s i m p l e it was/ t h e y were r e p a i r e d things. *
This is the gun which/ that was found. " -
Past c o n t i n u o u s it was/ t h e y were b e i n g r e p a i r e d
Where s the man who found it?
Present perfect it has/ t h e y have b e e n r e p a i r e d
3 R e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s m u s t be u s e d w h e n t h e p e r s o n or t h i n g
Past p e r f e c t i t h a d / t h e y h a d been r e p a i r e d t o w h i c h t h e y refer is t h e s u b j e c t of t h e v e r b i n t h e
Future simple it/ t h e y w i l l b e r e p a i r e d relative c k p s e :
Future perfect it/ the-y w i l l h a v e been r e p a i r e d The burglar who broke into the bank was arrested later. (NOT
Second c o n d i t i o n a l The burglar broke into the bank was arrested later.l
it/ t h e y w o u l d be r e p a i r e d
Witnesses saw someone who looked suspicious. iNOT
Third conditional i t / t h e y w o u l d h a v e been r e p a i r e d
Witncsscs saw sotncone looked suspicious.)
4 Relative p r o n o u n s c a n be o m i t t e d w h e n t h e p e r s o n or
1 T h e passive is f o r m e d w i t h t h e v e r b be + past p a r t i c i p l e .
t h i n g t o w h i c h t h e y refer is t h e o b j e c t of t h e v e r b i n t h e
2 T h e passive is used i n f o r m a l t e x t s . It is used w h e n the- r e l a t i v e clause.
emphasiS is o n t h e a c t i o n r a t h e r t h a r o n t h e p e r s o n or
This is the weapon (which/ that) the attacker used. (= T h i s is a
people w h o d i d the action.
w e a p o n . T h e attacker used t h i s w e a p o n . )
New Year is celebrated throughout the world.
5 T h e r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s whose a n d where c a n n o t be o m i t t e d .
In 1996 the Olympic Gameswere held in Atlanta.
I t is possible t o use in which i n s t e d o f where. "
3 I t is n o t necessary t o m e n t i o n w h o d i d t h e a c t i o n w h e n
This is the man whose arm was broken in the attack. '' -;
t h i s is u n d e r s t o o d o r n o t i m p o r t a n t . I n t h e o t h e r cases, by >
The plice have closed off the street where the crime was
is used t o i d e n t i f y t h e p e r s o n or p e o p l e w h o d i d t h e
committed.
action*
The house in which the body was found has been sealed off.
A man was arrested lastnight. (by the plice is u n d e r s t o o d . )
6 P r e p o s i t i o n s - U s u a l l y c o m e at t h e e n d o f t h e r e l a t i v e clause *
David Copperfield was written by Citarles Dickens.
r a t h e r t h a n before t h e r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n (if there is one>.
4 M o d a l verbs (can, could, might, etc.) can also be used i n t h e
T h i s is less f o r m a l t h a n p u t t i n g t h e m b e f o r e t h e r e l a t i v e
passive:
pronoun.
The passive may be found in many newspaper articles.
The boy rari off with sweets (wliich/ thatf he Itadn't paid for.
Passive w i t h reporting verbs
Non-defining relative clauses
1 T h e passive is used w i t h r e p o r t i n g verbs t o t a l k a b o u t w h a t
1 N o n - d e f i n i n g r e l a t i v e clauses c o n t a i n a d d i t i o n a l
is g e n e r a l l y t h o u g h t or said.The c o n s t r u c t i o n is f o r m e d
i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h is n o t c r u c i a l t o t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e
w i t h t h e passive r e p o r t i n g v e r b + to + i n f i n i t i v e / perfect
s e n t e n c e . C o m m a s are used t o s e p r a t e n o n - d e f i n i n g
infinitive.
r e l a t i v e clauses f r o m t h e rest o f t h e sentence.
Crime is thought to be linked to poverty.
Lord Lucan, who disappeared in 1974, is said to have killed his
Robi Hood is said to have robbed onlv the rich.
wife.
2 O t h e r r e p o r t i n g verbs i n c l u d e :
He is also thought to have killed the nanny, who lived with the
believe, claim, consider, expect, know, prove, suppose
family.
1

The escaped prisoners are bfilieved to be Iteading fot the port of

2 Relative p r o n o u n s m u s t a l w a y s be used i n n o n - d e f i n i n g
Dover.
r e l a t i v e clauses. T h e y c a n n o t be o m i t t e d . .
3 T h e r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n whom c a n be used i n s t e a d vi who
w h e n t h e p e r s o n t o w h i c h i t refers is t h e o b j e c t o f t h e
r e l a t i v e clause. T h e use o f whom is r a t h e r f o r m a l .
The accusa, whom the judge treated harshly, had spent ntost
ofhis Ufe in prison. (= T h e j u d g e t r e a t e d t h e accused
h a r s h l y . T h e accused h a d s p e n t m o s t o f his Ufe b e h i n d
bars.)
fiU>-i-.
The man, who the plice were watching, managed to get away.
(= T h e p l i c e w e r e w a t c h i n g t h e m a n . He m a n a g e d to get
away.)
4 What c a n be used as a p r o n o u n , b u t n o t as a r e l a t i v e
p r o n o u n . I t is used t o m e a n ' t h e t h i n g ( s ) t h a t ' . Which o r
that m u s t ' a l w a y s be used i n non-defining-clauses':'
Witnesses saw what happened.
What is needed is a reduction in poverty.
(NOT Unmployment is rising, what is vcry worrying.)

Grammar 101
 v e r b + object + infinitive
Unit 8 1 T h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n is used w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g verbs:
ask, beg, enable, expect, forc, get, help, invite, mean,(=
intend), order, persuade, remind, teach, tell, train, want, warn,
/ wish/ if oniy
would hate, would like, would love
Present situations l want you to take my photo. (NOT I want that you take my
photo.) \, * "*
/ wish/ Ifonly + past s i m p l e
vAft/ > ;

They would like us to stay here. ,,.,,, ,^,

H ., .,
t> < <.
T h e past s i m p l e is used w i t h / wish/ Ifonly t o t a l k a b o u t a
She asked the children to be quiet.
desire f o r s o m e t h i n g t o c h a n g e i n the present.
2 T h e n e g a t i v e is f o r m e d w i t h not + i n f i n i t i v e .
/ wish I lived in Hollywood. (= 1 d o n ' t Uve i n H o l l y w o o d . )
She told me not to say anything.
Ifonly I was better-looking. (= 1 a m n o t v e r y g o o d - l o o k i n g . )
3 Make a n d let c a n be used i n t h e same c o n s t r u c t i o n b u t
I wish/ If only + could w i t h t h e i n f i n i t i v e w i t h o u t to.
He made them wait. (NOT He made them to wait.)
Could c a n also be used w i t h / wish/Ifonly to talk about a
She'll let us stay here. (NOTShe'll let us to stay here.)
desire f o r s o m e t h i n g t o c h a n g e i n the present.
/ wish we could get some tickets. (= We c a n ' t get a n y tickets.)
Ifonly he could come this evening. (= He c a n ' t c o m e t h i s
have (something) + past participle
evening.)
T h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n is used t o say t h a t s o m e b o d y else is
/ wish/ Ifonly + would
e m p l o y e d to do s o m e t h i n g for someone.
Woidd is used w i t h I wish/ If only t o c o m p l a i n a b o u t o t h e r I have my hair cut once a week. (= I e m p l o y s o m e b o d y t o c u t
p e o p l e i n p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n s . I t is n o t possible t o c o m p l a i n m y hair once a week.)
about yourself i n this way! She had the house cteaned last week. (= She e m p l o v e d
s o m e b o d y t o c l e a n t h e house.)
/ wish you would stop doing that. (NOT I wish l would stop doing

Ifonly the film would end.

N o t e : wish is n o t n o r m a l l y used t o t a l k a b o u t t h e f u t u r e . T o
express a w i s h f o r t h e f u t u r e , t h e v e r b hope is u s e d .
f hope my team wins on Saturday. (NOT I wish my team wins on
Saturday.)
Past situations
/ wish/ Ifonly + past perfect
T h e past p e r f e c t is us ed w i t h / wish/Ifonly to talk about a
regret a b o u t t h e past.
/ wish I had seen the film. (= I d i d n ' t see t h e film.)
Ifonly we hadn't broken the CD player. (= We b r o k e m y C D
player.)

102 Crammar
Unit 9
must is used t o t a l k a b o u t :
1 o b l i g a t i o n / p r o h i b i t i o n : You must pay for the damage. You
mustn't drive so fast.
2 necessity: / mustgo now. We must get up early tomorrow.
Modal verbs 3 c e r t a i n t y / p r e d i c t i o n s : Look at their house - they must be
rich. She's crying - she must be unhappy.
Form
have to is used t o t a l k a b o u t :
1 M e d a l . v e r b s . o r m o d a l a u x i l i a r l e s (can, must, should, may,
1 o b l i g a t i o n / d u t y : She has to wear a uniform. I have to write
etc.) are a l w a y s u s e d w i t h t h e base f o r m o f a n o t h e r v e r b
three essays a week.
w i t h o u t to.
2 past/ f u t u r e necessity: We had to walk home. You'il have to
Imustgo. (NOT l must to go.)
buy some new clothes.
2 T h e y d o n o t a d d -s i n t h e 3 r d p e r s o n s i n g u l a r .
She can drive. (NOT She cans drive) may/ might is u s e d t o t a l k a b o u t :
3 Q u e s t i o n s are f o r m e d b y i n v e r t i n g t h e w o r d order. 1 f u t u r e p o s s i b i l i t y : It might/ may break. He may/ might not
May I come in? pass the exam.
4 N e g a t i v e s are f o r m e d b y a d d i n g not or n't. 2 p o l i t e requests: May I come in? May we go now?
I can't understand. 3 p e r m i s s i o n : You may smoke ifyou want to. You may not leave
You shouldn't swear. without permission.

Uses need is used t o t a l k a b o u t a lack o f necessity. You needn't

shout. I can hear you.
T h e f o l l o w i n g m o d a l a u x i l i a r y verbs h a v e d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s .

can is u s e d t o t a l k a b o u t :
1 a b i l i t y : / can drive. She can't swm. Can you ski? Moda! verbs w i t h perfect infinitives
2 p o s s i b i l i t y / i m p o s s i b i l i t y : I can't come. When can you start
Form
work? I can meet you at nine.
3 p e r m i s s i o n : You can come in now. Can I use your phone? You M o d a l verbs u s u a l l y refer t o t h e p r e s e n t o r t h e f u t u r e . M o s t
can't smoke here. m o d a l verbs c a n be used w i t h p e r f e c t i n f i n i t i v e s t o t a l k a b o u t
4 requests: Can you help me? Can you carry this sutcase? t h e past. T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n is:
subject + m o d a l v e r b + have + past p a r t i c i p l e
could is used t o t a l k a b o u t :
They must have left.
1 g e n e r a l a b i l i t y i n t h e past: I could read when I was three. My
parents couldn't speak English. Use
2 p o s s i b i l i t y / i m p o s s i b i l i t y : It could be true. M o d a l verbs w i t h p e r f e c t i n f i n i t i v e s are u s e d t o t a l k a b o u t
3 requests: Coidd you post this letter for me? Could you shut the h o w t h i n g s i n t h e past c o u l d h a v e b e e n d i f f e r e n t . T h e
door, please? f o l l o w i n g m o d a l a u x i l i a r y verbs h a v e d i f f e r e n t _ m e a n i n g s .
4 suggestions/ a d v i c e : You could go to bed early. We could go
for a walk. might/ may/ could have f o r past p o s s i b i l i t y :
Tve lost my cheque book. Somebody could have stolen it.
will/ shall is u s e d t o : It's not very late. They may not have gone to bed.
1 m a k e p r e d i c t i o n s : You'il be famous. There will be a new ice
age. must have f o r past d e d u c t i o n s / c e r t a i n t y :
2 m a k e offers: l'll carry that for you. Shall I pay for it? They're late. They must have missed the bus.
3 m a k e requests: Will you pass the salt please? Will you shut He's not here. He must have gone.
the window, please?
can't have f o r past i m p o s s i b i l i t y :
would is used t o : It's early. They can't have gone to bed.
1 m a k e offers: Would you like a drink? Would you like to come The exam was easy. She can't have failed it.
to a party?
should have/shouldn't have f o r past m i s t a k e s :
2 m a k e requests: Would you give me a lift? Would you carry
We should have left eariier. I shouldn't have driven so fast.
this for me?
3 t a l k a b o u t past h a b i t s : When I was young, I would go out needn't have f o r l a c k o f necessity i n t h e past:
every night. He's OK. We needn't have worried.
You needn't have run. You're not late.
should/ ought to is used t o :
N o t e t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n m e a n i n g b e t w e e n needn't have a n d
1 t a l k a b o u t o b l i g a t i o n / d u t y : You should/ ought to tell the
didn't need to:
plice. You shouldn't smoke in here.
He needn't have done it. (= I t w a s n ' t necessary f o r h i m t o d o i t ,
2 g i v e a d v i c e : You should/ ought to go to bed. You shouldn't/
b u t he d i d . )
oughtn't to worry so much.
He didn't need to do it. (= I t w a s n ' t necessary f o r h i m t o d o i t .
3 m a k e p r e d i c t i o n s : They should be here soon. He should win
Perhaps he d i d i t , p e r h a p s he d i d n ' t . )
the match easily.
She needn't have arrived at 8.00. The meeting didn't start till
8.30. (= I t w a s n ' t necessary f o r h e r t o a r r i v e at 8.00 b u t she
did.)
He didn't need to stop forpetrol. There was plenty left in the tank.
(= I t is n o t clear w h e t h e r he s t o p p e d o r n o t . )

Crammar 103
Used to Cet used to/ be used to

Form Form

Affirmative Affirmative
I am
1/you/he/she/it/we/they used to work he/ she is ( g e t t i n g ) used t o doing
we/ v o u / t h e y are

Negative
1/ v o u / he/ she/ i t / we/ t h e y d i d n ' t use t o work Negative
I am
Questions
he/ she is not ( g e t t i n g ) used to do
Did 1/ v o u / he/ she/ we/ t h e y use to work.
we/ v o u / t h e y are

Use Questions
Used to is used t o t a l k a b o u t a b o u t a h a b i t , regular a c t i v i t y o r
s i t u a t i o n i n t h e past.
ls he/ she ( g e t t i n g ) used t o doing?
/ used to play video games.
Are we/ y o u / t h e y
He didn't use to get up so early.
Where did they use to Uve?
I n f i n i t i v e s are n o t used after get/ be used to. To here is a
p r e p o s i t i o n , so i t is f o l l o w e d b y t h e -ing f o r m o f t h e v e r b .

Uses
1 W e use get used to something o r get used to doing something
w n e n * w e t a l k a b o u t t h e process o f b e c o m i n g a c c u s t o m e d
t o e r n e t h i n g . S o m e t h i n g t h a t was strange o r u n f a m i l i a r ,
at first, b e c o m e s m o r e f a m i l i a r a n d n o r m a l . A n v tense o f
t h e v e r b get c a n be used.
Tve got used to living here.
She'll get used to working on her own.
2 W e used be used to (doing) something w h e n w e m e a n t h a t
s o m e t h i n g w h i c h was u n f a m i l i a r is n o w f a m i l i a r o r
normal.
I wasn't used to driving on tlie left at first but now I'm used to
it.
She wasn't used to getting up early when she first started work
but now she's used to it.

N o t e : these t w o sentences have c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t

meanings:
/ used to eat ineat. (= It was m y h a b i t i n t h e past b u t i t isn't
now.)
I'm used to eating meat. (= I a m a c c u s t o m e d t o e a t i n g meat
now.)

104 Grammar
Infinitive Past tense Past p a r t i c i p l e Infinitive Past tense Past participle

be was/ w e r e been run ra n run

become became become say said said
bcgin began begun see saw seen
bite bit bitten sell sokl sokl
blqw blew blown sent sent sent
breiik froke broken set set set
bring brought brought shake shook shaken
b u i Id built built shine shoni shone
buy bought bought shoot shot shot
catch caught caught show show ed siiovvn
chotee chose chose n shut shut shut
come carne come sing sang sung
cost cost cost sink sank sunk
cut cut cut sit sat sat
do did done sleep slept slept
dravv drew d fawn speak sp< )ke spoken
drink drank d ruiik spend spent spent
drive drove elriven spread spread spread
eat ate caten stand stood stood
fall fell fallen steal stole stolen
feed fed fed stick stuck stuck
teei felt felt swim swam swum
fight fought fought swing swung swung
find found found take took taken
fly flew flown teacly taught taug'ht'
forget forgot forgotten tear ture torn
forgive forgtrve forgiven tell ,' told told
freeze roze frozen think thought thought I
get got got throw threw thrown
give gave given wake woke woken
go went gone wear wore worn
grow grew grown win won won
hang hung hung write wrote written
have had had
hear heard heard
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
keep kept kept
knovv knew known
lead led led
leave left left
lend lent lent
let let let
lose lost lost
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
pay paid paid
put put put
read read read
ride rod ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen

112 Irregular verbs

 PRONUNCIACIN INGLESA SPANISH PRONUNCIATION
Ejemplo ingls Ejemplo espaol/explicacin
mended [aj pata
Como en conde, andar not as long as
3

20, jet, blf Como engrande, go\ followed by a

Como en la II andaluza y en Generatat syllable (i.e. n a ctasec a

(catatn) m ca|a c before a, o or u fs pronounced as In amante, the a is shon. a ir. ^ r :

Vocales y diptongos Como en vinculo e
e fe|
Uke e Ln they. In a dosed i r - " * ^ ^
Jiouse, he Como la Jota hispanoamericana ce, el [Be, 91] cero e before e or i Is pronounced as in in gente, the is shcrt a
Ejemplo espaol/explicacin W pino as ln mean or machine
young,yes Como en ya dlo thln
1

E/empto ingls
Como en caa, Escocia ch o oj lo as in local, ln a closed sv-Zai* - -
Entre a de padre y o de noche !tj] chiste ch is pronounced as ch in cha Ir
o: iailier red, tread Se pronuncia con la punta de la lengua hada control, the o s short as la am
A but, come amuybreve
atrs y sin hacerla vibrar
d [4 ai dans at the beginnlng of a phr tse or after / [u asinrule-ltlssilcntafteij s -
Se mantienen los labios en la posldn de e dudad or n, is pronounced as In English. in gue. jui, unless marked -U \
s mon,cot sand, yes Como en casa, sesin
en pena y luego se pronuncia el sonido a any other positlon it is pronounced antlyuedad '
Como en desde, mismo like th in the
a father, ago Sonido indistinto parecido i una e u o casi she, machine Como en chambre (francs),roao
mudas (portugus)
8 It *] ja fas g before a, o or u is pronounced as In
paja j-ap, ifat the beginnlng of a phraseor Diphthongs
bfrd, heard Entre e abierta, y o cerrada, sonido alaigado chin, r k h Como en chocolate after n. In other positlons the sound
t get, bed como en peno Como en f, pero se retiran los dientes is softened aUy {ai} baile as ln rde
i It, Wg Mis breve que en si superiores vibrndolos contra el labio ixe.xij ente i before e or f is pronounced similar
g' *u [au auto
h tea, see Como en fino inferior as ou ln show
irar to ch in Scottlsh loen 4ey [e] buey
hot, wastl Como en tone water, w-Mch Como en la u de huevo, puede asylngrey
h haber h is always sllent In Spanish
3 saw.all Como en por Como en /oumal (Francs) eu [eu] deuda
3 both eiements pronounced
11 p u t book Sonido breve, mis cerrado que butio
think, myth Como en receta, zapato i M yugar / Is pronounced similar tochin
independen tly [ej+(u]
Sonido largo, como en uno Scortish loch ol. oy [ol] hoy
too, you this, the Como en la d de hablado, verdad a* oy ln xoy
y.Mgh Como en fraile a Ifl ta/Je 11 is pronounced like the lli in ralfion
Como en pausa n n] niflo is pronounced like the ni in onfon
bow, house
Casi como en vea, pero el sonido a se mezcla aue q is pronounced as k in (ring
Stress
there, bear b, p, C in, II, 1, t iguales que en espaol q M
con el indistinto {al
El signo * indica que la r final escrita apenas se pronunda en Ingles r, rr ii. m quitar t is always pronounced In Spanish, The rules of stress ln Spanish are as follows-
day, obey e cerrada seguida por una i dbil
britnico cuando la palabra siguiente empieza con vocal. garra unllke the sent r In dancer. rr is
Como en mana, mezclndose el sonido a
here, hear El signo H indica la slaba acentuada. tril led, like a Scottlsh r
con el Indistinto (a)
s quizs is usually pronounced as ln pass,
go, note [a] seguido por una breve u
isla but before b, d, /, l, m or n it Ls
DI boy, ol Como en voy , pronounced as in rose W when the rules set out l n a and b are not appljed .
a n a c u l (

U9 poor, sur* ir bstanle larga mas el sonido indistinto [a] V (b, fi] Vii v Is pronounced something like b. At appears over the suessed vowei: comn! SS-J'
dividir the beginnlng of a phrase or after m
ln the phonetic transcrlptior
or n it is pronounced as b n boy. ln i, the symbo (* precedes the syiLa
any other positlon the sound Is "hlch the stress falls.
softened
[91 tenaz z Is pronounced as th In Chin
z
b, , k. 1, m, n, p, t and x are pronounced as in English.

VERBOS IRREGULARES EN INGLES present Pt PP present Pt PP LOS NUMEROS

present pt PP present pt PP
hit hit hit saak sought sought un, uno(a) 1
steal stole stolen tell told told 2
boid held held Mi! sold sold
pp present pt PP hurt hur hurt
stlck stuck stuck think thought thought tres 3
stung throw thrcw thrown cuatro 4
kept kept sat set stlnk stank thrust thrust thrust
arlscn dig dug dug S
knaal kneit, knelt. shook shaken trida Strldden tread trod trodden seis
awakcd do(3rd did done kneeled shail should ttrike struck. wake woke, siete 6
been
stricken 87
ho/she/ lay lald lald
t/doesl
drawn
laad led led shad shed shed
swom
diez 9
10
bom{e) drew lean leant, leant. once 11
beat dreamed, dreamed, sweep jwept swept weaved weaved
shot shot 12
become become die a mi swollen, wed wedded, 13 t flirteen
leap leapt, leapt, show showed shown swellcd ved wed
bagln begun drink drank drunk leaped shrank catorce 14 fourteen
behold bcheld beheld drive driven swim swam swum weep wept wept 15 fteen
learnt, leamt. shut shut shut
bent bent dwell dwelt dwelt learned leamed sang sung diecisis 16 stxteen
beset beset beset ate taha took taken wind wound wound diecisiete 17
left left sink sank taught wrlng wrung
bet bet, betted bet, betted fall fell fallen dieciocho 18 etghteen
land lent lent H sat
bld, raed fed fed tear torn write wrote wrltten diecinueve 19 nineteen
bld lat let let slew slaln
bidden leal felt felt veinte 20
lia (fyingl lay lain slept slept veintiuno 21
blnd bound fight fought fought twenty-one
ilght lit, tighted lit, lighted sllda slid slid veintids 22 twenty-two
bits bit bitten flnd lost lost ilung treinta 30 thrty
bleed bled bled flea Bed Red made sttt sllt sllt treinta y uno(a) 31 thirty-one
fling Hung flung may might smelt. 32 thirty-two
treinta y dos
braak tlv Ifllesl flew meant smelled smelled 40 forty
bied bred forbid forbade forbid den sown. cincuenta 50 fifty
brought brought forecast mistako mlstook mstaken 60 sixty
bulld butlt buiit forget forgot forgotten mow mowed mown, spaak spoke spoken 70 seventy
hurn forgave forgiven mowed spead sped. sped, 80 elghty
burned burned forsske forsakcn (had to) (had to) 90 nlnety
froze pay pafd spall spelt,, spelt. cien, ciento 100 a hundred, or>e
bought bought get got got, (/Sl ciento uno{a) 101 a hundred and ~
put spelled spelled 200 two hundred
(been doscientos! as)
quit quit. quit, spent spent dosel entos( as) uno(a) 201 two hundred i - :
able) give gave glven quitted quitted splll spilt. spilt, trescientos (as) 300 three hundred
casi cast go fgoflsl spilled cuatrocientos! as) 400 four hundred
caten g round ground rid rid rid spun five hundred
quinientos! as) 500
grew grown ride sptt spat spat slx hundred
seiscientosi; as) 600
hung. ring rang rung plit Spilt split 700 seven hundred
setecientos (as)
comf hanged hanged ri*a rlsen spolled, spolled, 800 elght hundred
ochoc)entos(as)
havo (has had had spoilt spoilt novedenlos(as) 900 nlne hundred
crept havlng) sawn spread spread mil 1 000 a thousand
cut heard mil dos 1002 a thousand and -
P
say said said sprang sprung
dealt dealt hide hd hldden dnco mil 5000 ve thousand
saw seen stand stood stood a mi Ilion
un milln 1000000

17

LA FECHA DATES LA FECHA

DATES LOS NUMEROS
todos los das hoyes 13, estamos a quince
every day
ayer
yesterday first, Ist qu hora es?
esta maana
this morning mil novecientos ochenta y ocho primer, prlmero(a), I , 1 * M I 1 )
o , 1 r a
second, 2nd
what time is it?
macana por la noche segundo(a) 2"(2>)
tomorrow night third, 3rd es/son
anteanoche; antes de ayer por la
the night before last
hoy hace 10 anos tercer, tercerola), 3 (3")
fourth, 4th it'soitis
noche a final de mes 10 years to the day cuartcna), 4 (*')
o
fifth, Sth medianoche, las doce (de la midnight, twelve p.m.
antes de ayer; anteayer a final de mes i t theendofthe month qulnto(a), 5" (5)
the day befte yesterday ixth, 6th
anoche dlarianeme/semanalmente/ at the month end (Accoums) sexto(a), 6"(6>) one o'clock(ln the morning),
last night seven th la una (de la madrugada)
hace dos das/sels aos mensual mente dally/weekly/monthly sptlmo(a)
2days/slxyearsago anualmente eighth
maana por la tarde octavo{a) nlnth five past one
tomorrow afternoon annualty noveno(a) la una y cinco ten p u t one
pasado maana ^ ' M a l tenth
the day after tomorrow d M a a S e m a n a / d c v
twicea weck/month/year dcimofa) la una y diez
todos los jueves, el jueves mes/dos veces al ao eleven th a quarter past one, one ftfteen
va los viernes every Thursday.onThursday dos veces al mes unddmo(a) ia una y cuarto or quince twenty-five past one, one
he goes on Fridays twelfth
bi-month y
"mircoles cerrado"
de lunes a viernes "closed on Wedncsdays" f f?
a c l d ( 2006 ( M mil seis) d
in the year 2006
duodcimo(a)
dedmoterclo(a)
thtrteenth la una y veinticinco
la una y media or treinta
twenty-ive
half-past one, one thrty
from Monday to Friday 79 d. de C. fourteenth
para el jueves * B.C., B.C 4 deciroocuartola) las dos menos veinticinco, la una twenty-five to two, one thirty-
un sbado de marzo byThursday en ei siglo XIII J9
A.D., A.D. 79 decimoqulnto(a)
fifieenth
sixteenth treinta y cinco five
dentro de una semana one Saturday l n March en o durante slanos) 80 n the 13thcentury declmosexto(a) las dos menos veinte, la una twenty to two, one forty
dentro de dos martes Inaweek'stime a mediados de a dcada de Jos 70 Inwduringthel980s twentieth
vlgsimcKa)
a week next/on Tuesday/Tuesday en mil novecientos noventa y ln the mid sevcntles vlgslmo(a) priraero(a) twenty-first las dos menos cuarto, la una a quarter to two, one lorry-fi ve
tantos ' in I990something thlrtleth cuarenta y cinco
el domingo que viene trigslmo(a)
hundred th las dos menos diez, la una
esta semana/la semana que viene/ centsimoa) ten to two, one fifty
hundred-and-first cincuenta
centslmo(a) prtmero(a)
la semana pasada
dentro de dos semanas 212 K 5 1 N I S O F 1 - sE
mllslmoia)
thousandth medioda, tas doce (de la tarde) twelve o'clock, mldday, neo n
dentro de tres lunes ln 2 weeks ora fortnight S de octubre de 1995 launa (dela tarde) one o'clock (ln the afternoonj,
el primer/ltimo viernes del mes two weeks on Monday one (p.m.)
el mes que viene the 6rst/last Frlday of the month Nmeros Quebrados etc Fractions etc las si e (de la tarde) seven o'clock (in the evening),
el ao pasado next month ahalf seven (p.m.)
last year a third
el uno de junio, el primero de
the lstofjune, june first a quaner
junio (Uwi
el dos de octubre a fifth a qu hora? (at) what time?
the 2nd of October, October 2nd un quinto (nought) potnt five, 0.5 a medianoche
nac en 1987 at midnight
1 was born l n 1987 cero coma cinco, 0,5 ten per cent a las siete al seven o'clock
su cumpleaos es el S de junio his birthday is on June 5th (BRT) or ;zporden(to)
Sth June tus}
on I8th August (Bvn or Aueust N.B. ln Sranllk th. ortliul numbeti tam t to 10 m . ' ~ *
el 18 de agosto
18th (us) fHim 11 to 20 rather le; above 21 they are rarely wntten and almost
en el 96 ln '96 S e , h^ri 1. to place t h . torma or 21 and
ln theSprlng of '94 above by the cardinal number.
en la primavera del 94
del 19 al 3 from t h e l 9 t h t o t h e 3 r d
qu fecha es hoy?, a cuanto what's the date?, what date is it
estamos? today?

618
Letter Letter ame Pronuneiation Letter Letter ame Pronuneiation

A a /'ra/ O o /'su/
M /'em/

B bee /'bi:/ P pee /'pi:/

N en /"en/

C cee /'si:/ Q cue /'kju:/

D dee /'di:/ ar /'a:/

R
E e /'i:/ ar /'ar/

F ef /'ef/ S ess (es-) /'es/

G gee /'<%;/ T tee /'t:/

aitch /'ertj7 U u /'ju:/

H haitch /'heitJ7 V vee /'vi:/

hetch /'hetf/ W double-u /'d\bal.ju:/

I i /'ai/ X ex /'eks/

jay /'d3ei/ Y wy or wye /'wai/

J
jy /'d3ai/ zed /'zed/

K hay /'fcei/ Z zee /'zi:/

L el or ell /'eI/J'e] izzard /'izardV

 Possesslve Possessive
Nominative Oblique Reflexive
determlner pronoun Personal pronouns in standard Modern English

1st Singular Plural

pers. / me myself my mine
sing.
Poss
Posses Posses esslv Posses
Subj Obj sive sive Reftexl Subj Objec e sive Reflex
2nd ect ect determ pronou ve ect t deter pronou Ive
pers.
. - . ..
Iner n mine n
you you/y'all yourseif/yourselves your yours r
sing./
~~ ~~
Pl-

ourselv
First I me my mine myself we us our ours
es
3rd
she, he, the her, him, the herself, himself, themself, her, his, their, hers, his, the
pers.
y.it itself its irs, (rare: its)
sing.
yoursel
Second you your yours yourself you your yours
ves

1st
.............p.
pers. we US ourselves our ours
Mascul
he him his himself
pl.
Ine

3rd
Femlnl
they them themselves their theirs she her hers herself
pers. ne
Pl.
Thl thems
they them their theirs
elves
r d Neuter H its itself

themsel
Nonsp the f
they their theirs
eclflc m (themse
Ivs)

I . : : . : ffV :
: