ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACTS OF STONE QUARRYING: IN DIRE

DAWA ADMINISTRATION

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the study

All over the world there is a realization that quarrying activities has evolved over time to mining
industry that has the potential to provide hither to unparalleled services to management in their
efforts to reduce effects of quarrying risks to the human being and the surroundings. This
potentially has been turned into a challenge and embodied in the new definition of quarrying
from the committee of sponsoring organization of the tread way commission on quarrying
activities. Quarries are generally used for extracting construction materials, such as dimension
stone, ornamental stones and road, building and industrial raw materials. A quarry is a type of
open-pit surface mining from which rock or minerals are extracted. However, mining and
quarrying are destructive enterprises (Sinha, et al., 2000) and involve the complete destruction of
the habitat of an area where they take place (Martnez-Ruiz et.al., 2007). The destruction and
fragmentation of habitat is the greatest threat to biodiversity and the primary cause of species
extinction (Aronson et al., 1993).

In most Africans nations and others nations, quarrying is not well managed for environmental
sustainability (Darwish et al). The methods used are very poor and there is no order in resource
exploitation. Most of the quarries do collapse and there is no measures taken to rehabilitation to
such quarries since most of them are left open. Therefore, the need for detailed study on the
significance of quarrying management on mining industries has become inevitable. Since the
effects of quarrying cover all tenants of effective strategic management, ethical corporate
governance and ensures quarrying are managed in an integrated and structured manner that
boosts institutions in quarrying perform (Nyakeniga, 2009). One of the biggest negative impacts
of quarrying on the environment is the damage to biodiversity (Anand, 2006). Quarrying carries
the potential of destroying habitats and the species they support (Mabogunje, 2008). Even if the
habitats are not directly removed by excavation, they can be indirectly affected and damaged by
environmental impacts such as changes to ground water or surface water that causes some
habitats to dry out or others to become flooded. Even noise pollution can have a significant
impact on some species and affect their successful reproduction. Nevertheless, with careful
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planning and management, it is possible to minimize the effect on biodiversity and in fact,
quarries can also provide a good opportunity to create new habitats or to restore existing ones
(Tanko, 2007).Again, like many other man-made activities, quarrying, involves the production of
significant amounts of waste. Some types of quarries do not produce large amounts of permanent
waste, such as sand and gravel quarries, whereas others will produce significant amounts of
waste material such as clay and silt (Wang, 2007). The good news is that they are generally inert
and non-hazardous, unlike the waste from many other processes. However, there is still potential
for damage to the environment particularly with water contamination. Plants are major
components of the ecosystem a complex interaction between the biotic and a biotic entity of the
environment.
While quarries can cause significant impact to the environment, with the right planning and
management, many of the negative effects can be minimized or controlled and in many cases,
there is great opportunity to protect and enhance the environment, such as with the translocation
of existing habitats or the creation of new ones. Therefore to achieve the equilibrium between
natural ecosystems, project planning, formulation and implementation is needed to avoid the
impact of stone quarry on the environment and living community. In this study, the investigators
assess the environmental and the social impact of quarry activity at Dire Dawa suburb kebeles.

1.2. Statement of the problem

Mining and processing of cobblestone have a considerable impact on land, water, air, and
biological resources if the operation and post operation issues are not handled properly. Even
though the impact is part of the price we bear for the benefits of mineral consumption, the
unregulated destruction of the natural environment is not compatible with sustainable
development (Nyakeniga, 2009).
Some of the research works in Kenya that have been done on the issue related to the impact of
stone quarrying on the environment and community focus on national level and create a gap for
decision making in different geographical location. In addition, the participation of the different
cobble stone union on the site for the production of stone for the road construction leads a given
environment and society to be susceptible to damage. Quarrying negatively affects the
environment and the society in a variety of ways from exploration, blasting, transport and
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disposal of waste rocks. Major environmental effects are destruction of vegetation, disruption of
animal habitats, diversion and blockage of natural drainage systems, soil erosions, river siltation,
noise, vibration, dust pollution and health problem (Maponga and Munyanduri, 2001). The range
of negative environmental and social impacts associated with extractive industries widely spread
in the living environment. This is especially true of opencast mining of the sort used in extracting
construction materials (Bauer, 1991). The greatest problem is the destruction of the habitat where
the quarrying occurs (Walker and del Moral, 2003).

Study conducted on Augusta quarry site in Addis Ababa revealed that quarrying causes various
environmental and social impacts. The operation of land clearing led to loss of vegetation cover,
soil removal, spring eye spot extinction, scenic quality loss, formation of ugly scenery,
susceptible geomorphology for erosion, land stability problem where the rock fall on the slope
foot can be seen easily creation of deep well and pond, land degradation and Social challenges
related to the increase in quarrying activities in general include: threats to health and safety,
displacement of communities and damage of cultural sites (Enatfenta, 2007).

In Dire Dawa, demand for housing materials and physical infrastructure maintenance such as
cobblestones and sand are increasing. There are a number of individuals and unions involved in
stone quarrying legally and illegally to generate income. However, there are challenges stand in
the way, first over the past few years; stone quarrying in Dire Dawa has led to environmental
degradation and second, overexploitation of the resources and poor methods of technology in
quarrying has left the landscape rugged and leaving a lot to desire.The magnitude of the
problems can be explained in terms of social conflict, vulnerability of soil to water and wind
erosion, deforestation, and disposal of waste to open places. Hence, the extent of those problems
and their effect on society and environment needs attentions of the stake holders. So, this study
tried to investigate the impacts of stone quarrying on the society and environment in Adega
Felema, Ija Aneni and Jelo Belina of Dire Dawa suburbs area.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study is to investigate the impact of stone quarry operation on the
environment and the surrounding community in Zenzelma Kebele.
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The specific objectives of the study are:

1. To identify the negative impacts of quarry activities on the local environment of the study areas.
2. To assess the views and awareness of communities on the impact of stone quarry.
3. To examine the health impact of stone quarry on site residents.

1.5. Significance of the study

The findings of the study were useful to stakeholders in a number of ways. The information
generated by this research is expected to contribute to the existing body of knowledge about the
impact of stone quarrying on the environment and the communities of the suburbs kebele of
Dire Dawa Administration. It can be used by the government to justify need for additional
budgetary allocation to the town in general and to improve on ways of stone quarrying and,
other alternatives in the local areas in particular. The study also brought for how stone
quarrying and the immediate impact to the environment can be improved for sustainable
development and how may be short changed knowingly or unknowingly to other projects .In
addition analysis of the rock mass provides information on mitigation and possible decision of
remedial measures. The study will also help to create awareness on how a quarry can impact the
environment and the local residences especially when the quarry planted in rural centers. Thus,
planners and decision makers can use the result for proper planning and management of
abandoned quarry and to return the quarry site to a safe and secure area. And also provide a
proper procedure for proper environmentally friendly quarrying practices and it can also be used
as a reference for those who need to conduct further study.
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1.6. Scope of the study

The study will aimed to investigate the impacts of stone quarrying on the environment and the
societies in Zenzelma kebele. The findings of this study could be useful as a base to solve some of
the effects of stone quarrying on the environment and the community health if it is conducted
widely all suburbs kebeles of the areas. But, because of wide geographical coverage of rural
kebeles as well as for its manageability, the investigator delimited the study to the impacts of the
stone quarrying on the environment and the community in three suburb kebeles of Adega Felema,
Ija Aneni and Jelo Belina ,Dire Dawa Administration.

1.7. Limitations of the study

This study has some limitations. These include shortage of time, financial constraints, lack of
organized secondary data due to the lack of adequate documentation and organized database
system in the study area. Moreover, there were absence of officials and some experts from office
during data collection and their reluctance to give data freely. In spite of these short comings,
attempts were made to make the study as complete as possible. These attempts were arranging
appropriate time schedule for every activity and paying tolerance to get the officers for the
required data.
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1.9. Organization of the Thesis

The research is outlined into seven chapters these are as follow: The first chapter deals with
background of the study, statement of the problem, objective of the study, research questions,
and significance of the study, scope of the study and limitation of the study. The second chapter
review of related literature. The third chapter contains research methodology adopted for the
study. In this chapter research design, sources of data collection, sampling size and procedure,
data collection techniques and tools and method of data analysis are included. Chapter four
contains results and discussions from study area on the impact of stone quarry on the
environment and societies. Chapter five presents summary and conclusion of the study. After
that some necessary recommendations are presented. Finally, chapter six and seven provides
references and appendices respectively.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Historical Development of Stone Quarry

Quarrying activities dates back to the beginning of the 20th century, and are conducted not in
isolated areas but near water bodies, farmland and human settlement (Kakulu and Chrysanthus,
2003). Quarrying is a form of land use method concerned with the extraction of non-fuel and
non-metal minerals from rock. Sand, gravels and limestone are obtained from the earth through
quarrying for building houses and other civil construction. Keeper man (2000) defined quarrying
as an act of exploring and exploiting stone from rocks. Metal ores are extracted by mining which
involves removal of rock from the ground. The difference between mining and quarrying is that
quarrying extracts nonmetallic rocks and aggregates while mining excavates the site for metallic
mineral deposits (Banez, et al., 2010).

In the beginning, the quarries would have been very small and probably only been used by the
inhabitants living in the locality; but over time the demand for differing types of stone grew and
with it came the improvement of the transport facilities and the quarry equipment. As a result of
these changes, the quarries underwent inevitable expansion. The history of the quarrying industry
can be traced back even further than the history of farming. This is because the tools needed with
which to hunt and to clear forests for livestock and crops had to be made from stone. In fact,
quarried stone has been used throughout history to provide the building material for some of the
most well-known national monuments in Britain. However, quarrying is a short-term activity
with long term effects. It comes along with the promises of wealth and jobs but it brings high
environmental cost too (Mahmud, 2009). Quarrying is normally associated with the extraction of
rock using opencast techniques and leaving large holes in the ground. 1km of motorway requires
125,000 tones of crushed stone. (Dvid,2014,www.beep.ac.uk/content/231.o.html). To this end
one should understand that no quarrying ever took place without leaving a scar on the
environment (Danazumi, 1996 and Buker, 1997).
2.2. Quarrying and Environment
There is a wide range of potential environmental effects caused by quarries and
inevitably creates negative externalities. A report by the World Bank working group on
environment sustainability reveals that occupations such as lumbering, mining, quarrying,
and sandblasting degrade the environmental and worsen the plight of the poor (IEG,
World Bank, 2008). Maponga and Munyanduri (1998) also argued that quarrying
negatively affects the environment in a variety of ways during exploration and blasting,
transportation and disposal of waste rocks. Major environmental effects are destruction of
vegetation, disruption of animal habitats, diversion and blockage of natural drainage
systems, soil erosion and river siltation, noise and vibration; and dust pollution.
Furthermore quarries may also damage or destroy sites of scientific, archaeological, and
cultural interest and can negatively affect the local tourism industry. These adverse
impacts created by quarrying vary in their frequency and longevity from occasional short-
term low-levels of nuisance to daily ever-present disruptions with cumulative or long-
term effects and instances of irreparable damage. The scale of these externalities also
varies by aggregate type with dust, blasting and traffic impacts generally being greater at
hard rock quarries (DETR,1998).

2.3. Impact of Stone Quarrying at Global Level

Human activities throughout the world are resulting in severe damages to the environment. To
cite just a few are wildfires, flooding, tsunami and drought due to global warming, rising of sea
level, depletion of the ozone layer causing increasing threats of cancer and land loss due to
contamination of soil are among the damages. The Construction industry is one of the major
industries contributing to these environmental threats. It is not uncommon to see so many natural
resources being depleted due to extensive use of these resources used in the construction industry
(US Geological Survey, 2012).The Great Wall of China, constructed over 2,000 years ago,
consumed staggering quantities of stone that was provided by the quarry industry in that region.
Stone is an essential component used in the construction of homes, factories, schools, hospitals
and shopping centers (AEQ, 2011, .Enatfenta, 2007).
Europe is currently importing natural stone from developing countries in increasing amounts.
Natural stone is commonly used in the building sector (including for garden ornaments) and in
the funeral industry. India is an important developing country supplier of natural stone products.
Indian granite is widely used for tombstones throughout Europe (The India Committee of the
Netherlands and the Netherlands Society Report for Nature and Environment, 2006). According
to Stehouwer et al, (2006), quarrying activities exert tremendous pressure on limited soil and
water resources, thus increasing the rate of erosion processes and subsequent damage of existing
arable lands. Quarrying operations can intensely modify preexisting ecosystems and disturb
hydro-geological and hydrological regimes.

Environmental disturbances as a result of mining and processing activities constitute a major

threat to public health and environmental quality (Adepoju, 2002).They can strongly modify the
substratum, transform landscape patterns and integrity, destruct natural habitat and disrupt
natural succession, as well as change genetic resources. In addition, mineral extraction can
aggravate dust emission, noise pollution, and disturbance due to increased traffic. Also dumping
of waste rock in open areas disrupts drainage and cause diversion of rivers and streams into
farming areas and results into flooding of crop fields.

2.4. Stone Quarrying in Africa

Mining and quarrying are one of a major economic activity in many Africa countries. The
largest quarry in West Africa in the Brong-Ahafo Region of Ghana on 29 May 2009, the minister
for Lands and Natural Resources reiterated that the Ministry was mindful of the legitimate
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concerns of the surrounding communities of the potential impacts usually associated with quarry
operations such as blasting vibrations, noise, fly rocks, and dust among others (Ghanaian
Chronicle, 2009). Quarrying has land use policy implications it is either agriculture vs quarrying
or a coexistence of agriculture, often a source of conflict over traditional uses of land. Also the
clearing of land to develop access roads and to open up mining sites destroys habitats for wild
animals, reduces grazing areas for cattle, sheep and goats and reduces sources of plant life for
human beings and animals (Chizoro, et al., 1997). Besides affecting the locals, the noise from
blasting and transport activities has caused migration from the surrounding areas, affecting
ecological balance by disrupting the food chain (Maponga,et al.,2001).

Abandoned quarries can cause surface run-off and decrease natural recharge. Mining activity
often leaves long-term social, economic and environmental footprints (Lad and Samant, 2013).
Social challenges related to the increase in quarrying activities in general include: threats to
health and safety, displacement of communities, damage of cultural sites, and the formation of
mining villages. Increasing cases regarding the negative environmental impacts of quarrying
were being reported in many African countries (Honorable Supreme Court Order, Deepak
Kumar vs State of Haryana, 2012).

2.5. Stone Quarrying in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is the place on earth in which humanoids made the first stone tools, and the
sophisticated use of stone in the construction of building dates much earlier 3.5 million years
back. The country hosts some of the worlds most impressive stone works from Antiquity and
the Middle Ages in the world. Thus, the present fast growing stone industry had deep roots in
history and local tradition (ULGDP, 2011).

The nascent cobblestone construction industry in Ethiopia is proving to be a major boost in the
countrys efforts to create additional employment opportunities and produce alternative road
construction material. It has also raised concerns over the lack of a regulatory framework to
govern the management of quarries across the country. Although road construction with
cobblestones is limited to intra-city roads, walkways, car parks and inter-community links, the
reduced construction costs and involvement of communities has brought to the fore the
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increasing importance of cobblestone quarries in Ethiopia and concerns over the haphazard
manner many of these mines are operated (Command Alkon Mclanahan
www.aggbussiness.com,2016). The quarries are posing a safety risk because they have been
neglected and there is no legislation to govern their opening, mining, rehabilitation and closure.
Like that of sand and coarse aggregate mining areas, cobblestone quarries are neglected and are
not rehabilitated, says Professor Abebe Dinku, the chair at the Construction Materials and
Management Department in the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the Addis
Ababa Universitys Institute of Technology. The cobblestone quarry sites should be
environmentally compliant by having them registered and documented by the respective city
administration to enable planning for their future development (SAMAC mining and
construction machinery, aggregate business international in 2016).

2.6. Stone Quarrying in Zenzelma

In brief, cobblestones meet Dire Dawa city road needs. Cobblestone paving is labor-intensive,
creates jobs and opportunities for construction entrepreneurs; uses natural and local materials in
the city a suburb areas. Such extractions alter the normal occurrences of nature and earth hauled
from mountains affects the watershed. Gravel and sand extractions widen the river banks, lower
its elevation, and weaken soil cohesion (DDMER, 2013).

2.7. Impacts of Stone Quarry on Environments

There are several types of impacts which affect the natural as well as human environment; some
of them are listed below.

2.7.1. Land degradation

Land degradation is one of the significant impacts arising out of mining and quarrying activity
which is mainly in the form of alteration of land structure due to excavation, stacking of top soil
and loss of land due to dumping of mine waste and overburden soil. Stone and sand quarrying
causes damage to property, depletion of ground water, loss of fertile top soil, degradation of
forest land, adverse effect on the aquatic biodiversity and public health (State of The
Environment Report, 2003). The impacts include soil, water, air, vegetation, landscape and the
effects can be of different entity, depending on several factors. A number of effects on the
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environment must be considered, such as noise and vibration, dust traffic, and so on. In the area
involved in the quarry the vegetation coverage and the soil are replaced by wide holes
surrounded by some big accumulations of waste materials. In this way a sort of accelerated
erosion can start whose consequences are not only the quick degradation of the landscape, but
also the introduction in the natural cycle of harmful substances causing pollution to the surface
waters and to the aquifer. In the extraction areas, the dusts of some harmful mineral reach high
contraction in the air and their inhalation provokes some serious illnesses such as the silicosis
(from quartz) and the asbestosis (from asbestos fiber) (Corkery, 2004).

2.7.2. deforestation

Gravel and stone quarrying from hills is one of the major causes of deforestation and forest
degradation, as commercially valuable stones are often found in the ground beneath hill forests
(Melton, 2009).

2.7.3. Wildlife loss

The excessive increased rate of quarrying sets in motion the loss of habitat and territory, and loss
of food supply for wildlife animals. Besides, the extreme noise resulted from the heavy quarrying
machines and stone crushers may cause significant effects on surrounding wildlife population.
These impacts may include: behavioral changes in mating predation and migration, and changes
in interspecies relationships, altered predator-prey balance, increased competition for food and
shelter (Davis, 1994).

2.7.4. Biodiversity loss

One of the biggest negative impacts of quarrying on the environment is the damage to
biodiversity. Biodiversity essentially refers to the range of living species, including fish, insects,
invertebrates, reptiles, birds, mammals, plants, fungi and even micro-organisms. Biodiversity
conservation is important as all species are interlinked, even if this is not immediately visible or
even known, and our survival depends on this fine balance that exists within nature. Quarrying
carries the potential of destroying habitats and the species they support. Even if the habitats are
not directly removed by excavation, they can be indirectly affected and damaged by
environmental impacts such as changes to ground water or surface water that causes some
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habitats to dry out or others to become flooded. Even noise pollution can have a significant
impact on some species and affect their successful reproduction. Nevertheless, with careful
planning and management, it is possible to minimize the effect on biodiversity and in fact,
quarries can also provide a good opportunity to create new habitats or to restore existing ones
(Cohen, 2015).

2.7.5. Dust pollution

Quarrying not only pollutes human bodies especially of those working in there but also pollutes
environment on large scale. It lays extensive dust on land and water resources, leading to
fundamental change in local environments and biodiversity. Dust pollution from quarrying
operation, tends to affect local air quality(particulate matter).A quarry not only pollutes the air,
but may also lead to serious health problems. Dust emissions tend to affect animals, vegetation,
and agricultural land (Netherlands Committee for IUCN, 1996). However incidences of animals
inhaling dust containing dangerous (silica) substances have been recorded as well as oxygen
deprivation of plants and trees which may lead to a plant disease called asphyxia(world
rainforest movement,2004) An Indian study observed that, dust falling on agricultural crops or
trees leaves affected their growth and reduced the plants capacity for photosynthesis (Bergin et
al,2001).Dust particles produced from quarrying activities as well as the vehicular movement
have a resulting impact on the nearby plants and vegetation particularly on betel-leaf, orange, tea
garden. Dust spread over the surroundings during dry weather, leach into the soil during storms,
and create harmful conditions for the flora and fauna. When dust carried by wind settle on and
smothers leaf surfaces, vegetation of neighboring forest can be damaged through the blocking of
leaf stomata, thus inhibiting gas exchange and reducing photosynthesis. In general, the extraction
of material does not cause direct biological impacts but are typically mediated through the
physical and water impacts. These may cause changes in nature and diversity of fauna and flora
in, or downstream of, the extraction area (Hill and Kleynhans ,1999)

2.8. Impact on water resource

Water is used in a lot of phases of the mining activity such as cutting, washing, separating out of
stone and mud, transporter dust controlling system. This naturally involves water pollution due
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to the transport of suspended solid particles, involving both surface and ground waters.
Concerning the surface waters, the impact is mainly caused by the introduction inside the
drainage net of the waste products coming from the stone production the increasing the water
turbidity and compromise the water net, moreover, the vegetation reduction due to the removal
of the ground coverage provokes the increasing in the speed of surface slide (Gunn,1993).

2.8.1. Soil contamination and characteristic alteration

Soil contamination around the quarrying site is mainly caused by oil spills by trucks and
machinery used to extract sand. Thus stone and sand quarrying also causes serious disturbance to
soil, severe soil erosion, and loss of topsoil and removal of top cover. Soil in that area might get
compacted because of the transportation of machines and materials (Crawford et al., 1986).

2.8.2. Impact on ecology and agriculture

Dust may have physical effects on plants such as blockage and damage to stomata, shading,
abrasion of leaf surface or cuticle, and cumulative effects such as drought stress on already
stressed species. The chemical effects of dust, either directly on the plant surface or on the soil,
are likely to be more important than any physical effects. Dust deposited on the ground may
produce changes in soil chemistry, which may in the longer-term result in changes in plant
chemistry, species competition and community structure. However, the soil type surrounding a
mineral site will probably reflect the mineral being worked, so this is unlikely to be a common
problem (Holcim Group Company, www.sustainableaggregates.com).Many rock materials such
as chalk and limestone have traditionally been used in agriculture to increase crop sensitivity.
Dust deposition levels are likely to be well below the level of agricultural applications, and
therefore effects on agricultural crops are likely to be minimal. Areas of high ecological value
(designated nature conservation areas) or agricultural resources (intensive horticultural areas and
fruit growing areas) may be more sensitive to dusts than other areas.

2.8. 3. Aesthetic

Tourist attraction of a country with a nice landscape view and natural beauty, this idyllic picture
has been ruined by the careless and unregulated extraction of stone that has been going on for
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decades. The attractive tourist destination is in danger of becoming a barren wasteland.

Indiscriminate cutting of plants and vegetation is not only changing the landscape, but also
threatening the delicate ecosystem (Gillieson and Houshold, 1999).

2.9. Impact of Stone Quarry on Societies

2.9.1. Health Impacts

Human health impacts are typically mediated through physical and water impacts. Changes in
water flow may increase the prevalence of certain illness or disease via vectors such as
mosquitoes, or may cause health problems due to deterioration of the water used for drinking,
bathing and other domestic purposes. During the extraction of stone the workers often hurt their
fingers and nails. Some of them have no nails on their finger (Hill and Kleynhans, 1999 and
Hilson, 2003).

During activities of cobblestone work, dust is produced and workers are exposed to dust
resulting in risk on health. The cobblestone workers are exposed to dust during excavating,
cutting, drilling, handling loading, transporting, chiseling and paving. The effects of Stone dust
exposure on the cardio-respiratory function, liver and kidney has been well documented. Many
studies show occupations involving stone materials that increase the chance of stone dusts
exposure which has adverse effects on health. New research published in Environmental Science
and Technology explained that, the dust particle in the ground is quite different from the dust
that we mostly breathe. The fine dust in the underground and that from stone could have metals
and other substances that are risky for human health. Therefore, health survey and study on stone
dust effects has been highly useful in understanding the risks of working with ground materials
and the prevalence of cardio-respiratory symptoms involved in the cobble stone works( US
Geological Survey ,2012).

2.9.1.1. Impact of noise

The visual effect rock quarrying has on the environment however temporary; the most
complained about consequence is noise according to Good Quarry. Blasting is a common
technique used by miners to loosen stone for quarrying. Blasting involves the use of heavy
explosives and has drastic impacts on the immediate environment. The noise and vibration is
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annoying to human residents in the area and can be detrimental to wildlife. Blasting also releases
a lot of dust and fumes into the air, which adds to air pollution and settles on the surrounding
area (Omosanya and Ajibade, 2011).

2.9.1.2. Impact of quarry waste

Many other man-made activities, quarrying involves the production of significant amounts of
waste. Some types of quarries do not produce large amounts of permanent waste, such as sand
and gravel quarries, whereas others will produce significant amounts of waste material such as
clay and silt. The good news is that they are generally inert and non-hazardous, unlike the waste
from many other processes. However, there is still potential for damage to the environment,
particularly with water contamination (Cohen, 2015).