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where Dco is the material resistivity at the reference temperature To and "
is the temperature coefficient for the material. Certain conductors and
oxides exhibit superconductivity at temperatures near absolute zero (0K =
!273oC) where the resistivity of the material drops abruptly to zero.
Examples (Conductivity in S/m at T = 20oC)
Insulators Semiconductors Conductors
Porcelain (10!12) Silicon (4.410!4 ) Silver (6.1107 )
Glass (10!12) Germanium (2.2) Copper (5.8107 )
Mica (10!15) Gold (4.1107 )
Wax (10!17 ) Aluminum (3.5107 )
Carbon (3104 )
Ideal Models
Perfect Insulator (F = 0) Perfect conductor (F = 4)
Current Types
Currents that flow in conductors are only one of three different types
of currents. The three types of currents are:
where A is the total area of the surface S. The total current in Amperes
(Coulomb/second) represents the amount of charge passing through the
surface per second. A total current of 1 mA means that a net charge of 1
mC is passing through the surface each second.
Convection Current
The potential difference between the ends of the conductor means that an
electric field exists within the conductor (pointing from the region of
higher potential to the region of lower potential). The conduction current
can be defined in the same way as convection current using the free charge
density (DV) and the vector drift velocity (u).
Thus, the voltage and the uniform electric field may be written as
where
Resistance of a cylinder (length = l, cross-
sectional area = A, conductivity = F) carrying
a uniform current density
If the current density is not uniform, the resistance formula becomes
The power density inside the conductor is found by forming the dot
product of the vector electric field and the vector current density.
R=0
Equipotential volume
E=0 @
Perfect Insulator (F = 0)
R=4
J=0
Polarization in Dielectrics
The polarization P is defined as the dipole moment per unit volume such
that
Note that the electric susceptibility Pe and the relative permittivity ,r are
both measures of the polarization within a given material. The larger the
value of Pe or ,r for the material, the more polarization within the material.
For free space (vacuum), there is no polarization such that
P=0 Y Pe = 0 or ,r = 1
Mica 70 MV/m
Glass 35 MV/m
Air 3 MV/m
The total charge density (DT) in an insulating material consists of the
free conduction charge density (Dv) plus the bound polarization charge
density (Dvp).
If we insert the expression for the electric flux density in terms of the
polarization and the free charge density in terms of the total charge density,
we find
The divergence of the polarization vector gives the negative of the bound
polarization charge density.
Media Classifications
The previous equation is the integral form of the continuity equation. The
differential form of the continuity equation can be found by applying the
divergence theorem to the surface integral and expressing the total charge
in terms of the charge density.
The second and last terms in the equation above yield integrals that are
valid for any volume V that we may choose.
Since the previous equation is valid for any volume V, we may equate the
integrands of the integrals (the only way for the integrals to yield the same
value for any volume V is for the integrands to be equal). This yields the
continuity equation.
The continuity equation is given in differential form and relates the current
density at a given point to the charge density at that point. For steady
currents (DC currents), the charge density does not change with time so
that
the divergence of the current density is always zero.
The integral form of the continuity equation (and thus Kirchhoffs current
law) also holds true for time-varying (AC) currents if we let the surface S
shrink to zero around the node.
Electric Field Boundary Conditions
The closed line integral of the electric field yields a result of zero such that
where the electric field components are assumed to be constant over the
paths of length )x. Dividing the result by )x gives
or
where the electric flux density is assumed to be constant over the upper and
lower incremental surfaces. Evaluation of the surface integrals yields
Dividing by )x )y gives
(a.)
(b.)
Example (Boundary conditions)
The electric field and electric flux density boundary conditions on the
charge-free boundary are
such that
Given both media characteristics and the direction of the field in one of the
regions, the direction of the field in the other region can be determined
using this formula.