Beruflich Dokumente
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Emerging Technologies in
Tunnel Engineering, Modeling,
Design, Construction, Repair,
and Rehabilitation
Edited by
James C. Ni, Ph.D., P.E.
Junsheng Yang, Ph.D., P.E.
Shong-loong Chen, Ph.D., P.E.
Tong Qiu, Ph.D., P.E.
GEOTECHNICAL SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 260
GEO
O-CHINA
H A 2016
EMERGIN
M NG TECHHNOLOGIIES IN TUNNEL ENGINEEERING,
MODELIING, DESIGN
E , CONSTRU
UCTION, REPAIR
R, AND
REHABBILITATI
TION
SE
ELECTED PAPERS FROM THHE PROCE
EEDINGS OF THE F
FOURTH
GE
EO-CHINAA INTERN
NATIONAAL CONFE
ERENCE
July 2527,
2 20116
Shandong, Chinna
SPON
NSORED BY
Y
Shando
ong Univerrsity
Shando
ong Deparrtment of T
Transportattion
University of Oklahhoma
Chineese Nation
nal Sciencee Foundatioon
Geo--Institute of
o the American Socieety of Civiil Engineerrs
ED
DITED BY
James C.. Ni, Ph.D.., P.E.
Junsheng
J Yang,
Y Ph.D
D., P.E.
Sh
hong-loong
g Chen, Phh.D., P.E.
Q Ph.D., P.E.
Tong Qiu,
Published
P by
b the Amerrican Societyy of Civil En
ngineers
Published by American Society of Civil Engineers
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Preface
This Geotechnical Special Publication contains 34 peer-reviewed technical papers
presented at the 4th GeoChina International Conference: Sustainable Civil
Infrastructures: Innovative Technologies for Severe Weathers and Climate Changes,
which took place in Shandong, China, from July 25 to 27, 2016. This proceeding
examines topics such as:
Acknowledgements
The following individuals have assisted in reviewing the papers:
Wen-Chieh Cheng, Ph.D. (Ove Arup & Partners HK Ltd.), Cheng-Tao Ho, Ph.D.
(Supertek Counsltant Co.), Shen-Chung Lee, Ph.D. (National Taipei University of
Technology), Xin Kang, Ph.D. (Missouri University of Science and Technology),
Omid Ghasemi Fare, Ph.D. (University of Louisville), and Ali Naeimipour (Ph.D.
Candidate, Penn State)
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Geo-China 2016 GSP 260 iv
Contents
A Jet-Grouted Wall in Mitigating Tunnelling Effects on Adjacent
Structures .................................................................................................................... 1
Jinyang Fu, Junsheng Yang, and Shuangting Zhu
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Variation of Slurry Pipe Jacking Force in Coarse and Fine Soils ..................... 182
James C. Ni, Louis Ge, and Wen-Chieh Cheng
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1 INTRODUCTION
Tunnelling in urban areas may cause damage to buildings founded adjacent. Underground
partition wall installed between the buildings and the tunnel was expected to cut off the
displacement induced by tunnelling so that the nearby buildings can be protected. Some
researches have been carried out to study the mechanism of underground partition wall
in reducing the damage impact of tunnelling to adjacent structures.
Harris et al. (1994) presented that the compensation grouting could effectively
reduce the ground settlement and nearby building distortion. Bilotta and Taylor (2005)
carried out centrifuge tests to study how the diaphragm wall reduces the tunnelling
induced movements at the two side of the wall. Kirsch and Piazzi (2009) also identified
the influential parameters of bored pile wall to protect sensitive buildings from
settlement resulting from tunnelling using numerical simulations. They concluded fully
mobilized friction between soil and wall leads to no significant reduction of settlement
on the far side of the wall. Bilotta (2008) performed a series of centrifuge tests and
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Geo-China 2016 GSP 260 2
numerical analyses to investigate the effects of a diaphragm wall. They found length and
thickness of the wall, and the roughness of the soil-wall interface, the length of the wall
plays the main role in the effectiveness of reducing ground movements. Wu et al. (2012)
studied the pile wall in controlling the tunnelling effects on the nearby wood piles of a
church through a numerical analysis. Zou and Xu (2013) carried out three-dimensional
numerical simulation to investigate the mitigation effects of the separation pile and
diaphragm wall to tunnel induced ground movements, considering the effects of soil at
small strain stiffness.
In this paper, the performance of underground jet-grouted partition wall in
mitigating the effects of shield tunnel construction on existing pier of Xin-Zhong road
viaduct in the project of Changsha Subway Line 1 was examined based on field
measurements and numerical analysis. The performance of the jet-grouted partition wall
in reducing the tunnelling influence on the adjacent pier is illustrated by a comparison
between the field measurement and numerical results. The effectiveness of using
jet-grouted underground partition wall in reducing tunnelling induced displacement was
testified and discussed.
2 PROJECT OVERVIEW
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Geo-China 2016 GSP 260 3
column body interlocked with the adjacent one. As a result, the jet-grouted columns can
act as an underground wall to partition the soil movements off. Since the piles of pier
L04# are founding above the tunnel invert level, this paper focuses on the analysis of
using jet-grouted column wall to mitigate the influence of tunnelling on the piled-pier
L04#.
Tunnelling direction
North
DK24+400
mileage
DK24+340
DK24+330
mileage
mileage
d tu nnel L01#
West bo un L02#
L03#
L04#
L05#
L06#
scale 1 0 m
ground surface
Figure 1 plane view and geologic profile of the Changsha Subway Line 1 pass
through the L-off-ramp of Xinzhong-Road viaduct
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Geo-China 2016 GSP 260 4
excavated in a gap-graded soil. The ground water table was measured approximately 7~8
m below the surface level in this area.
Spoil taking from the screw conveyor, after flushed, shows that the gravel and sand
were not well graded. In-situ pump test results indicate that the coefficient of permeability
of the clayey sandy gravel ground is about 1.73610-4 cm/s while the above silt clay
results in a relatively low coefficient of permeability about 5.79010-8 cm/s. Table 1
shows the geotechnical properties of each soil layers used for analysis in this study.
3 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
A 3D numerical model was built using the commercial code ANSYS to investigate the
field performance of jet-grouted partition wall in protecting the pile-supported pier #L04
in the studied project. The finite element mesh is shown in Figure 3 (a). The model had
100 m in transverse direction and 60 m in the longitudinal direction. The bottom of the
model was 46 m down below the surface. All the subjects were modelled with 202400
quadratic volume elements with the dimension described in section 2. The three soil layers
were modelled to follow the Druck-Prager failure criterion in ANSYS while the
pile-supported pier and jet-grouted partition wall were modelled as elastic. The tunnelling
process was simulated based on the method presented by Cheng et al. (2007). The
mechanical parameters for all materials in the analysis are listed in Table 1.
The relative positions of the tunnel, the pile-supported pier and the partition wall are
shown in Figure 2 (b). The pier was simplified at the ground surface level supported by
four piles and it was loaded at the up surface with a distributed load of 1080 kN which was
computed from the actual weight multiply a safety factor. The interfaces between the pile
and the soil and between the partition wall and the soil were modelled with
surface-to-surface contact. The behavior of the interfaces follows the coulomb friction
criterion with the friction coefficient of 0.5 and 0.6 for the pile-soil interface and wall-soil
interface, respectively. The jet-grouted columns were assumed to be interlock with each
other tightly and uniformly. Hence they were simplified as a wall between the tunnel and
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Geo-China 2016 GSP 260 5
the piled
p pier. Th
he mechaniccal propertiess of the jet-ggrouted partiition wall weere evaluated
basedd on the prin
nciple presennted in Pavlo
ovic et al. (2010).
Since the prresent paper most concerrn of the worrking mechaanism of the underground
partition wall, th
he tunnel waas simulated d by the sim mple displaceement controolled method
with a given grouund volume loss
l of 1.1%. A similar an analysis withhout the partition wall waas
carried out to maake a compaarison of the pile responnse to tunnellling. Only thhe short term m
ground movemen nts were connsidered in this
t study, hhence the num merical anallyses were inn
undrained condittion.
Figgure 2 Num
merical modeel for simula
ating tunne l near piledd pier with jet-grouted
collumn wall: (a)
( numericcal model, (b
b) piled pierr, partition w
wall and shield tunnel
4 FIELD
F MO
ONITORING
G
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Geo-China 2016 GSP 260 6
Fence
DK24+330 C1 C2 Section SA
A4 A3 A2 A1 A0 A6 A7 A8
Pile L04#
DK24+340 Section SB
Temporary panel house
B5 B4 B3 B2 B1
Meanwhile, horizontal displacement were measured with the two inclinometer tubes
installed at the two sides of the jet-grouted partition wall (see Fig. 3). The inclinometer
tubes were placed as deep as the partition wall which is enough for a fixed ending.
Furthermore, the groundwater drawdown was recorded using a water level meter at the
same inclinometer tubes where special filtering hole was placed at the deep end of the
tubes before the installation (see Fig. 3).
5 GROUND RESPONSE
Figure 4 compares the ground horizontal displacement measured and that computed
from the numerical analysis. Reasonably good agreement was found between the
measured and calculated horizontal displacements at tube C2, while the measured
horizontal displacements at tube C1 are significantly less than computed. This is because
during the field monitoring the displacement sensor cannot be lowered more than 16 m
down in tube C1. However, deformation trend shows that more horizontal displacement
would be experienced close to the surface level. A fact is that the jet-grouted column wall
was not extended to the ground surface but below the surface at a certain level. Hence the
ground deformation close to the surface level therefore cannot be effectively partitioned
off.
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Figure 5 shows both the measured and computed surface settlements. The
effectiveness of the jet-grouted partition wall was illustrated by a significant discontinuity
in settlements at the two sides of the position. On the side of the wall close to the tunnel,
the ground has experienced much more settlement than on the natural ground surface
while on the side where structures located on the ground has experienced significant less
differential settlement than on the natural ground surface.
The numerical results have revealed the discontinuity in the settlement curve, but it
shows a shallow and wide curve if comparing with measured data. It should be pointed out
that the calculated settlement trough is relatively shallow and wide compared with the
measured results. Such differences should be ascribable to the relative simple soil
constitutive model used in this study (Addenbrooke et al., 1997; Hejazi et al., 2008),
hence it is suggested that further detailed investigation of this problem should be
evaluated with advanced soil constitutive model.
Since the coefficient of permeability of the clayey sandy gravel with pebble ground is
relatively high. The shield tunnel driving would lead to variation of groundwater and
consequently induce further ground deformation. It is of great interest to monitor the
influence of the jet-grouted partition wall to the groundwater level. Figure 6 shows the
variation of groundwater level at C1 and C2 tubes with the advance of the shield tunnel
construction. The results show that when the tunnel face approaches the monitoring
section, as results of the shield extrusion, the groundwater level raised quickly about 0.25
m and 0.7 m in tube C1 and tube C2, respectively. After the tunnel face passed there were
significant groundwater drawdown about 0.5 m and 1 m for tube C1 and tube C2,
respectively, and then back to the original groundwater level. It should be emphasized that
the groundwater variation in tube C2 is always larger than in tube C1, which highlights the
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effect of the jet-grouted partition wall. That means the jet-grouted column wall can also
partition some groundwater variation off.
-3.0
position
Settlement (mm)
-6.0
-9.0
monitoring section
C2 tube
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
A relatively small number of case histories are available on the topic of using
underground partition wall to mitigate the possible ground movements. In this paper,
field measurements and numerical analysis were carried out to investigate the
performance of jet-grouted partition wall in mitigating the effects of shield tunnel
construction on adjacent pile-supported pier.
The underground partition wall can work effectively to improve the mechanical
performance of tunnelling-pile-pier interaction. The presence of the partition wall can
relieve the piles behind the wall suffering from differential displacement. In front of the
wall at the tunnel side, the ground would experience an increase in displacements.
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REFERENCES
Addenbrooke, T.I., Potts, D.M. and Puzrin, A.M. (1997). The influence of pre-failure
soil stiffness on the numerical analysis of tunnel construction. Gotechnique, 47, 3,
693-712.
Bilotta, E. (2008). Use of diaphragm walls to mitigate ground movements induced by
tunnelling. Gotechnique, 58, 2, 143-155.
Bilotta, E. and Taylor, R. (2005). Centrifuge modelling of tunnelling close to a
diaphragm wall. International Journal of Physical Modelling in Geotechnics, 5, 1,
27-41.
Harris, D., Mair, R., Love, J., Taylor, R. and Henderson, T. (1994). Observations of
ground and structure movements for compensation grouting during tunnel
construction at Waterloo station. Gotechnique, 44, 4, 691-713.
Hejazi, Y., Dias, D. and Kastner, R. (2008). Impact of constitutive models on the
numerical analysis of underground constructions. Acta Geotechnica, 3, 4, 251-258.
Kirsch, A. and Piazzi, L. (2009). Numerical investigation of the effectiveness of a bored
pile wall for the minimisation of settlement resulting from tunnel driving.
Geomechanik und Tunnelbau, 2, 6, 753-765 10.1002/geot.200900063.
Pavlovic, M.N., Cotsovos, D.M., Dedic, M.M. and Savidu, A. (2010). Reinforced
jet-grouted piles. Part 1: analysis and design. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers - Structures and Buildings, 163, SB5, 229-308.
Wu, C.J., Zhang, Z.X., Ding, W.Q. and Zhang, D.Y. (2012). Influences of construction
of side-crossing shield tunnel on adjacent ancient architectures and reinforcement
effect of protection measures. Chinese Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 34, 1,
158-165. (In Chinese)
Zou, W.H. and Xu, M. (2013). 3D numerical analysis of mitigation effect of separation
pile and diaphragm wall considering small strain stiffness of soils. Chinese Journal
of Geotechnical Engineering, 1, s1, 203-209. (In Chinese)
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Abstract: With the rapid development of urban construction and the traffic congestion
problems arise, underground engineering has developing rapidly throughout the
country. The form of underground engineering is also more and more diverse.
Numerical simulation method has become increasingly widely used in geotechnical
engineering. However, when there are multiple excavation areas or channels and even
intersections in a model, it will cause great inconvenience for modeling and
calculation. To solve the modeling and calculation problem of complex models,
Kriging interpolation method is improved to be suitable for geotechnical engineering.
Kriging overlapping method of numerical simulation for complex models means that
model is divided into a global model and a local model. Using Kriging interpolation
method, the displacement of local model is lead to the global model as initial
displacement field. And then further excavation for global model is carried out to get
the final displacement field. Compared the results of numerical simulation and
monitoring data, the results show that Kriging can consider spatial structure
characteristics of the displacement field in underground engineering, and it has high
reliability. As expected, the results of numerical simulation and measurement come to
an agreement, which confirming the feasibility of Kriging overlapping method.
INTRODUCTION
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Geo-China 2016 GSP 260 11
conditions, and so on, which make underground engineering problems often cannot
simply be solved by analytic methods. In contrast, numerical analysis method can
simulate complex mechanical behavior and structural properties of rock, and it can
also analyze complex boundary value problems and the construction process easily
(Kumar, 2000; Li J. Y., 2012; Zhang L. M., 2007; Zhou J. W., 2009; Zhou Y., 2012).
Subway construction process may consider tunnel excavation, transfer station
excavation, as well as interaction of open cut pit and bored tunnel. With the
development of subway construction and appearance of diverse design form of
subway construction, numerical calculation method encounters problems. It is difficult
to build complex model and compute effectively.
Zhu Weishen put forward the concept of construction process mechanics. Base on
mechanics analysis, he thinks that underground construction and support process is
actually a repeated loading apply to surrounding rock in space and time. This concept
provides a powerful rationality basis (Zhu W. S., 2003). Xu Bangshu come up with
displacement overlapping method of numerical analysis for deformation influence on
the adjacent buildings in complicated subway station construction. The inverse
distance weighted method and elementary interpolation method are compared. Study
results indicate that inverse distance weighted method has higher precision (Xu B. S.,
2014).Currently, It is rarely reported that acquiring final displacement by
superimposing construction information using Kriging interpolation.
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Geo-China 2016 GSP 260 12
n
D* ( P0 ) = i D ( Pi )
i =1
wherei are the unknown weights assigned to the data samples, and are determined
by unbiased condition and minimum estimation variance.
Based on unbiased requirements
E D* ( P0 ) -D ( P0 ) = 0
i =1
i =1
{ }
Var D * ( P0 ) D ( P0 ) = E ( D * ( P0 ) D ( P0 ) ) E D * ( P0 ) D ( P0 )
2 2
= E ( D * ( P0 ) D ( P0 ) )
2
= min
Conditional extreme value can be obtain by Lagrange multiplier method
* 2 = 0, j = 1, , n
n
( )
2
E
D ( P0 ) D ( P0 ) i
j i =1
where, is Lagrange multiplier.
Further derivation obtain n+1 order linear equations, namely Kriging equations:
n
C ( Pi Pj ) i = C ( P0 Pj )
i =1
n ( j = 1, , n )
=1
i =1
i
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fitting can be performed for selecteed theoreticaal model. T This processs is calledd
strructural analy
ysis. Variog
gram parameters used too describe thheoretical moodel includee
coddomain, abuttment, sagittaa and nuggeet constant. M
Model param meter diagraam shown inn
Figu ure 1.
The
T diagram illustrate thaat curve is in n a horizontaal position w
when distancce exceeds a
certtain threshoold. This sp pecific disttance calledd codomainn when currve reachess
horiizontal posittion for the first time. Two
T points aare correlativve in spatiall when theirr
disttance is less than codommain value, otherwise
o be uncorrelateed. The varioogram valuee
at codomain position is callled abutmentt. Abutment minus nuggget is equal too sagitta.
Theeoretical mod
del of variog
gram
Theoretical
T models
m of variogram mainly
m incllude sphericcal model, exponentiall
mod
del and Gau ussian modell. One of thee most comm monly used is the spherrical model.
Sph
herical modeel equation iss:
0 h=0
3 h 1 h 3
( h ) = C0 + C ha
2 a 2 a
C + C ha
0
PRO
OJECT CA
ASE
Pro
oject profile
The
T pillar typ pe station, lo
ocated near the
t road intersection, is uundergroundd excavationn
of double
d hole.. Station linne is from north
n to sout
uth. Buildinggs upon subbway stationn
maiinly include residential buildings, hospitals,
h gaas stations aand commeercial shops.
Stattion is locateed in core areea of business and with developed trransport. Tottal length off
maiin station is 145.55m, wh hile total wid
dth is 33.9m
m. The main station incluude platform
m
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Geo-China 2016 GSP 260 14
FIG. 2.
2 Internal structure
s moodel of statiion
T subway station include platforrm tunnel ffor left and right line, three crosss
The
tunnnels, two up plinks, tow station hallls and one w wind tunnell. Southern station halll
connstruct at thee same timee with end wind tunnell. Model is big and coomplex. Thee
who ole model is divided intoo one global model and oone local moodel, where local modell
connsiders only transverse channels excavation
e aand global model connsiders onlyy
longgitudinal channels excavation. Com mputing locaal model andd lead its ddisplacementt
field
d to global model
m and excavate
e nex
xt step. Buillding two models solvess difficultiess
in three-dimens
t sional modeeling and meshing.
m Groound surfacee settlementt caused byy
excavation is sttudied. Dim mensions of two
t models are all 100m m84m2000m, and thee
surfface has a certain
c slopee. Numericaal models arre built by finite elemeent softwaree
FLAAC3D and co omputed by finite
f difference softwaree.
The
T bottom of o the model is fixed. The
T upper booundary of ccalculation m model is thee
und, which is free. And
grou A unidirecctional consstraints are applied on the laterall
bou
undaries of model.
m The constitutive model of ssoil is the cllassical Mohhr-Coulombb
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Geo-China 2016 GSP 260 15
Table 1 Physico-mech
hanical paraameters of th
he soil
Deformattion Friction
nal
Densiity Cohesioon Poisson
Soil modulu us angle
m3)
(kN/m (kPa)) ratio
(MPa)) ()
Miscellaneeous fill 1.5 20 19 14 0.38
Highly
H weatheered granite 80 20 300 31 0.3
Modderately weatthered granitee 800 20 500 42 0.25
slightly weatheered granite 1500 20 1000 45 0.25
Ana
alysis of calculation ressults
After
A calculaating transveerse channelss excavationn of local moodel, lead thhe results off
disp
placement field
f to gloobal model by Krigingg interpolattion methodd as initiall
disp
placement field. Excavatte longitudin nal channels on this basiis to obtain ffinal results.
A number
n of keey points inn the surfacee are taken aand compareed with site monitoringg
dataa.
Results of numeerical simula
ation
Results
R of loocal model and global model are shown in F
Figure 3 annd Figure 4,,
resp
pectively. Fig
gure 4 show
ws the final reesults.
FIG. 3. Results of
o transverse channels eexcavation (local modeel)
Fig. 4. Final
F resultts by Krigin
ng overlappiing method (global mod
del)
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Geo-China 2016 GSP 260 16
Fig. 5. Arrangem
ment of moniitoring poin
nts
Adding
A calcu
ulation resultts of two mo
odels individdually and coomparing wiith results off
Krigging overlaapping meth hod, as shown in Figuure 6(a). Positive valuues indicatee
settllement, negaative values indicate upllift. Results comparison of Kriging overlappingg
metthod with mo onitoring aree shown in Figure
F 6(b).
(a) (b)
FIG. 6.
6 Final resu
ults
(a) Results
R of num
merical simullation; (b) Co
omparison of nnumerical ressults and monnitoring data
The
T results are a basically the same ob btained by ccalculating inndividually aand Krigingg
overlapping meethod accord ding to figurre 6(a). Andd through sim mple modell tests usingg
Krigging interpo olation methhod, it was found Krigging can sim mulate spatiial structuree
charracteristics of
o displacem ment field annd predict unnknown dispplacement acccurately. Inn
the calculation results
r of glo
obal model, all monitoriing points mmove up exceept point J3.
Beccause the trransverse channels
c is deep and has strongg stiffness, the middlee
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Geo-China 2016 GSP 260 17
excavation of the model cause slight bulge on both sides. After longitudinal channels
construct, station hall generates maximum displacement, which with shallowest depth.
Therefore, surface settlement caused by shallow tunnel excavation might be more
obvious. This conclusion match the former study obtained (Liang R., 2006; Liu J. F. et
al, 2009).
Comparison shows that Kriging overlapping method results are in good agreement
with experimental results according to figure 6(b). Although there are some
differences in the two curves on the value, the trend of deformation is the same and the
differences are within allowable range. The results acquired by Kriging are ideal. It
confirmed the feasibility of Kriging overlapping method.
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Financial supports for this paper provided by National Science Foundation of China
(No.50909056), Provincial Science Foundation of Shandong Province
(No.ZR2014EEM014, ZR2014EEM029), and Science and Technology Project Plan in
2015. Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of China (No. 2015-K5-004)
are gratefully acknowledged.
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Geo-China 2016 GSP 260 18
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tunneling at shallow depth of urban subways" J. Rock and Soil Mechanics, Vol. 23
(2): 208-212.
Xu B. S., Ding W.T., and Liu L. J. (2014). "Displacement superposition method of
numerical analysis for determining influence of complex metro station construction
on deformation of adjacent buildings" J. Rock and Soil Mechanics, (S2): 619-625.
Zhang L. M., Zheng Y. R., and Wang Z. Q. (2007). "Application of strength reduction
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101.
Zhou J. W., and Xu W. Y. (2009). "Application of rock strain softening model to
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Engineering, Vol. 28 (6): 1116-1127.
Zhou S. H., and Zhang X. F. (2005). "Study on excavation method under shallow
overburden of soft-flow ground" J. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Engineering, 24 (3): 526-531.
Zhou Y., and Wang T. (2012). "Strain softening model of rock based on FLAC3D" J.
Journal of Yangtze River Scientific Research Institute, Vol. 29 (5): 51-56,61.
Zhu W. S., and Li S. C. (2003). "Some developments of principles for construction
process mechanics and some case history studies" J. Chinese Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Engineering, Vol. 22 (10): 1586-1591.
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Geo-China 2016 GSP 260 19
1
State Key Laboratory of Geomechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Institute of Rock and Soil
Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, China. E-mail:
wang831yong@163.com
2
Key Laboratory of Geotechnical Mechanics and Engineering of the Ministry of Water Resources,
Yangtze River Scientific Research Institute, Wuhan, Hubei 430010, China. E-mail: wyldhh@126.com
INTRODUCTION
Underground pipeline is the lifeline of the city, which is an important support for its
survival and development. It is almost inevitable for city tunnel engineering to traverse
kinds of existed underground pipelines, especially for the urban pedestrian underpass
crossing municipal roads. Compared with the metro tunnel, the depth of urban
pedestrian underpass is mainly determined by the buried depth of above existed
underground pipelines. Moreover, in terms of tunnel design and choice of the
excavation method, effects induced by tunnelling on the safety of above underground
pipeline need to be paid more attention. It is necessary to properly handle the
contradiction between tunnelling and the protection of underground pipeline. If not, it
would lead to the pipeline strength failure or structural damage, causing the sudden
accident so as to affect the normal daily life, and even other major disasters. The
accidents of pipeline leakage, pipe bursting, nature gas explosion, cable breaking and
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others caused by tunnelling in urban city are often reported in newspapers. According
to an incomplete statistics, accidents of pipelines and cables occur more than ten
thousand cases annually in China, causing direct economic losses of about 100 million
dollars (Wang et al. 2006).
The types of underground pipelines mainly include the water supply pipe, drainage
pipe, gas pipe, thermodynamic pipe, cable of telecommunication and television, and so
on. Various type of pipeline has different sensitivity and tolerance to the stratum
deformation due to the differences of its working pressure, material, connection mode,
usage status, construction quality, and service life (Moser 2003). Domestic and foreign
researchers have done a lot of works on the safety evaluation of underground pipeline,
in which main methods include the theoretical calculation, model test, and numerical
simulation. Based on the theory of elastic foundation beam, Attewell et al. (1986)
firstly proposed analysis method of the effects of tunnelling on underground pipelines.
Using an elastic continuum model, Klar et al. (2005) analyzed the deformation of the
adjacent underground pipeline induced by tunnelling, and established a strict elastic
solution of pipeline deformation. Further on, Vorster et al. (2005) evaluated the
bending deformation of pipelines by the elastic continuous solution, and verified it
through the centrifugal simulation test. Xiang et al. (2010) based on the Peck empirical
formula and the theory of elastic continuous solution of interactions between the pipe
and soil, established an internal connection between the ground settlement and
deformation of pipeline. Liu & Hou (1997) suggested the deformation curvature radius
of pipeline as criteria of damage evaluation with the hypothesis of the same curvature
of joint and pipe section. By means of mathematical statistic analysis, Tian et al. (2012)
discussed the deformation controlling standard that the construction of urban
underground engineering affects the pipeline. In terms of limiting the section
deformation rate to ensure serviceability of pipes, Huang et al. (2013) studied the
control criterion of section deformation for the flexible pipelines. In a word, most
studies used the analytical theory of elastic foundation beam or the numerical
simulation method to quantitatively evaluate influences of tunnel excavation on above
pipelines (Wei et al. 2009). However, which method is more suitable or closed to the
truth has not reached a definitive conclusion yet.
By means of the mathematical model of settlement curve suggested by Attewell &
Yeates (1986), based on the fact that there is no unified method for safety evaluation
of underground pipelines at present, this paper proposes a simple method on safety
prediction for the flexible pipelines affected by tunnelling, and gives a reference for
the practical engineering.
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(a) Pipeline vertical above the tunnel (b) Pipeline parallel above the tunnel
Underground pipelines can be generally divided into two types: the jointed ductile
pipeline, also known as the flexible pipeline, and the rigid pipeline. Generally, the
flexible pipe refers to the non-integral section-coupling pipe, with obvious joints
between pipe sections and a small amount of allowed rotation. Namely, after the
mechanical deformation, the pipe can still work normally under a condition that the
joint rotation angle and additional stress do not exceed their allowed values, such as
concrete sewage pipe with spigot and socket, cast iron pipe, flexible joint pipe and etc.
However, the rigid pipe is often integral and continuous. Its joints is not obvious,
usually the welding. The pipe does not allow large distortion; otherwise it would lead
to fracture failure for excessive bending stress, such as welded pipe, gas line and etc.
To judge whether the tunnel construction affects the safety of above underground
pipelines, first of all is to determine the safety control stanards of pipelines, then to
adopt an appropriate method to predict their additional deformations induced by
construction. They are safe if the amount of deformation is less than the control
standard; otherwise it is not. In practice, the joint rotation angle, the joint displacement,
and the additional stress are generally selected as the safety control index of pipelines.
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z n
iz = i (1
) (5)
zt
where exponent n from -0.45 to -0.2, general value is -0.3.
Mostly, joints of the flexible pipe are provided with joint fillers to adapt a certain
degree of joint open under conditions of small deformation of stratum. In this paper,
the pipeline is assumed not to separate from surrounding soil, thus the deformation
curve of pipeline can be approximately replaced by soil settlement trough curve in the
depth which pipelines lie in.
Wp
R
Wpmax
D
h
l
In Figure 2, l is assumed to the length of pipe section with the diameter of D , and
the depth of pipe is z p . Pipe sections after deformation induced by tunnelling are
symmetrical along the vertical plane of tunnel axis, being located in a circular curve
with radius of R . If the maximum deformation of pipe sections is Wp, max , ignoring the
rise of arch curve at place of open joints, Eq. (6) and Eq. (7) can be given
( / 2 + l cos )2
2i p2
Wp = Wp,max h = Wp.max e (6)
h = l sin( / 2) = l (7)
2D
where i p is the soil settlement trough width coefficient in depth of pipe. Depending on
the relationship between the pipe joint rotation angle and the joint displacement,
approximatively, / 2 + l cos / 2 l , the following formula can be derived
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l2
Wp,max D
2i p 2
=2 (1 e ) (8)
l
Substituting Eq. (8) into Eq. (4) and Eq. (5), and considering D and
Wp, max = Wz, max , the pipe joint rotation angle becomes
2Wmax l2
= [1 exp( )] (9)
l (1 z p / zt )0.3 2i 2 (1 z p /z t )0.6
where z p is the depth of pipe. Obviously, if given in advance the allowed pipeline
joint rotation angle , the allowed maximum ground settlement Wmax can be easily
calculated by Eq. (9), thus providing a basis for determining the limit alarming value
of ground settlement in practice.
Wmax S2
Si
S1
By this time, ground settlements at the locations of the dangerous pipe joint and
adjacent joints are Si , S1 and S2 , respectively. Considering the fact that allowed joint
rotation angle of the flexible pipeline is very small in actual engineering, its
calculation can be given as the following equation:
S1 -Si S -S S -2S + S2
= sin -1 ( )-sin -1 ( i 2 ) 1 i (10)
l l l
Through Eq. (10), the pipeline joint displacement can also be obtained D .
Further considering the effect of horizontal displacement of soil on pipeline joints
deformation, the soil movement induced by tunnelling is the vectorial sum of the
vertical displacement W and lateral horizontal displacement vector and V , namely:
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S = 1 + [y p / ( zt zp )]2 Wp (11)
ENGINEERING APPLICATION
An urban pedestrian underpass was excavated to pass through a cast iron water
supply pipe with the socket and spigot joint, those buried depth is 8m and radius is 3m
And the pipe is vertical above the tunnel, with radius of 0.6m, depth of 3m and
section length of 5m. Internal friction angle of the soil around the pipeline is 30o, and
ground loss ratio of excavation is 5%. According to the criteria of socket and spigot
connected cast iron pipe (Attewell et al. 1986), an allowed joint rotation angle is
taken 1.5o as the safety evaluation criterion of pipeline deformation induced by
tunnelling. Through the above method in paragraph 4.2, the pipe joint deformation is
calculated as follows:
3 zt
V = r 2 5% =1.41m where V is the groud loss; i = =5.54m
2 tg (45 / 2)
where i is the ground settlement trough width coefficient; thus the maximum ground
V
settlemtment Wmax = =0.10m.
2 i
Due to z = 3m , zt = 8m , D = 0.6m , l = 5m , it can be derived iz = 4.8m ; subtituting to
Eq. (4), Wz ,max is gived by Wz ,max = 0.115m .
Considering Wz, max = Wp, max , =0.0115m; through Eq. (9), joint rotation angle of
the pipe is caculated =1.1o, which is less than 1.5o. Therefore, it can be initially
conclued that the pipe is safe under conditions of the case.
If the pipeline is parallel above the tunnel with horizontal distance of 2m, and
ceteris paribus, the joint rotation angle can be caculated by above method in
paragraph 4.3. According to Eq. (11), the result can be given by S = 1 + [2 / (8 3)]2 W .
Substituting x = 4.8 , 0.2 and 9.8 , and x = 4.8 , 9.8 and 0.2 into Eq. (1), Eq.(4)
and Eq.(5), and combining with Gauss normal distribution table, through Eq. (10), the
joint rotation angle of pipeline can be derived =0.28o, which is less than 1.5o.
Similarly, it can be initially determined that the pipe is safe under this condition.
CONCLUSIONS
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REFERENCES
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Xiangxing Kong1
1
The First Highway Survey and Design Institute of China Communications Construction Company
Ltd., Xian 710075, China. E-mail: xiangxingkong8129@163.com
Abstract: For satisfying the requirements of normal running and enlarged outer
section in stabling line, parallel neighborhood metro tunnel with two different inner
sections is adopted in Xian Urban rail transit line one between North Zaoyuan Road
and Hancheng Road. Based on the characteristics of different inner sections and small
clear spacing, 2D-FEM was applied to simulate and analyze four construction
schemes, of which shield method was adopted in left tunnel with small inner section
and double-heading construction method or cross diaphragm method for right tunnel
with large inner section. The results show that compared with the construction scheme
that the tunnel with small inner section is firstly excavated, the larger tunnel by
double-heading constructed is first accomplished can evidently reduce the disturbance
effect on surrounding rock, reach better state mechanical of tunnel lining, in order to
ensure safety construction.
INTRODUCTION
As the city subway, underground tunnels are taken to two equal sections[1], only
meeting special engineering needs it is designed with two unequal sections, for
example crossover, contact lines and stop (deposit) car line and so on. The tunnel with
parallel non large section has carried out preliminary research. Through the
establishment of numerical model[2], the influence of supporting mechanical behavior
and stability of surrounding rock of unequal span highway tunnel are analysed; also,
construction mechanics and surface settlement of double line tunnel with
antisymmetric sections are also studied[3], but they are still need to further study.
In order to meet the two lane and the right line stop line section expanding
engineering function, the left line of small section tunnel with diameter 6m is
constructed by shield method, large section tunnel right line height with 9.31m width
11.24m is constructed by the new Austrian tunneling method[4]. A hole for the shield
and another hole for the new construction scheme of NATM is seldom in the domestic
Loess Area.
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In view of the novelty and atypical of large section tunnel, shield method and
NATM construction in loess area, and the small clear distance tunnel complexity, a
small section of the left line shield tunnel and the right line tunnel by double side
heading method or CRD method. The double line 4 scheme has dynamic numerical
simulation and scheme comparison and selection of construction mechanics state of
surrounding rock, focuses on the initial support, the two tunnel lining and roof lining
and segment structure sinking, surface displacement and middle soil stress were
compared and analyzed, in order to provide theoretical basis and technical support for
the best construction scheme and safe and smooth construction project. It also can
provide guidance and reference for the subway construction in Loess area.
ENGINEERING BACKGROUND
Xi'an city rail traffic engineering is the first subway tunnel construction in loess
areas, the 1st line Zao yuan Bei Lu Station - Hancheng Road station tunnel is located
in the city traffic main road Zaoyuan West below, the tunnel area is one of the hub city
of Xi'an traffic greatly, especially after the completion of the subway station and the
nearby intercity passenger transfer passenger station, its layout is shown in Figure 1.
Combined with the general linear programming, the thickness of tunnel soil covering
the range of 9~10 m, the vertical arrangement as shown in Figure 1.
8
7
Tunneling NATM tunneling 9
direction Green belt
Residential area
Fig.1 Plan view of parallel neighborhood metro tunnels with two different inner
sections
As a non-large sections of shield method and NATM small net span loess tunnel, its
difficulty and complexity are large, in order to close to the actual conditions, selection
and optimization of reasonable the dynamic numerical analysis program is set up to
simulate construction scheme.
The calculation program uses two-dimensional plane strain model. It is assumed
that the soil with Drucker-Prager strength criterion and isotropic hardening
elastoplastic constitutive model of soil, the quadrilateral element mesh division, and
the shield segment is simulated by beam element, advance grouting pipe
reinforcement effect to improve the stability of the surrounding rock of the
quadrilateral element simulation, the initial support and steel the grid element
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simulation, two lining is simulated by beam element, considering the initial lining and
lining between the two waterproof board using contact element simulation. In order to
ensure the accuracy of the dense units around the tunnel are used in the construction
scheme of finite element model as shown in Figure 2.
The left line of small section tunnel excavation diameter is 6.0m, C50 concrete
segment thickness is 0.3m, the impermeability grade of S10, specific ring lining
section shown in figure 3. Large sections of the right line of NATM tunnel excavation
is high 9.31m, width 11.24m, C25 lining thickness 0.35m, HPB335 thick 0.25m steel
grille. In addition, in the loose loess shallow subway tunnel excavation, construction
of pre grouting pipe in the tunnel arch can improve the condition of surrounding rock
to ensure the stability of the tunnel face, and it is very important for increasing the
stability of tunnel. The specific scheme is diameter 42 3.5 (thickness 3.5mm)
grouting pipe, length 2.5m, angle 15 , circumferential spacing 0.3m, vertical spacing
of 1.0m; pressure injection of cement - water glass grout, grouting pressure control in
0.6~3.5MPa.
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Because the CRD method and the double side drift method is suitable for the large
section and small spacing shallow buried loess tunnel. The total of 4 schemes of
numerical simulation comparison with analysis to determine the interval tunnel
construction scheme optimization which is the small section tunnel large section of
shield method for double side heading method or CRD method in the construction
method of construction order double successively through and large section. The
following specific construction process dynamic simulation:
(1) Small section tunnel in left line firstly, the right line of large section tunnel by
double side heading method finally.
At first, completed the small section tunnel left line, simulation step of shield
construction into 2 steps: excavation; the application of segment lining. Then
the big cross section tunnel in right line, double side heading method construction
process simulation into 13 steps: the left and right up the steps: in the application of
heading arch part of advanced small pipe grouting; excavation; the vertical steel
grille, shotcrete; both sides heading down the steps followed in the excavation of
the frame; steel grille, shotcrete; central heading up the steps in the application
of arch part advanced small pipe grouting; the excavation; the vertical steel
grille, shotcrete; central drift step sequentially during excavation, removal step
temporary bracing; the vertical steel grille, shotcrete; central drift next step is (11)
excavation ;(12) sprayed concrete; (13) applied two lining.
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(2) Small section tunnel in left line firstly, the right line of large section tunnel by
CRD method finally.
At first, completed the small section tunnel left line, simulation step of shield
construction into 2 steps: excavation; the application of segment lining. Then
the big cross section tunnel right line, simulation step construction with CRD method
into 11 steps: Step 1 right sequentially as arch advanced small pipe grouting;
excavation; the vertical steel grille, shotcrete; right down the steps in the
excavation; the vertical steel grille, shotcrete; left on the application of step
sequentially arch part of advanced small pipe grouting; the excavation; the
vertical steel grille, shotcrete; left down the steps in order to excavation; the
shotcrete lining ;(11) applied two times.
(3) Large section of double side heading method right tunnel first, shield small
section of left tunnel.
(4) CRD with large cross section tunnel right line first, shield small section of left
tunnel.
Scheme (3) and (4) respectively by the first double sidewall drift method and CRD
method through large section tunnel in right line, then the small section tunnel left line
was constructed by shield method, its construction step simulation method and scheme
(1) and (2) the same, is only has different construction step, not to repeat again.
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support axial force than the first through hole after digging a hole was too big, the
double sidewall drift method for large cross-section tunnel results in maximum.
Accordingly, scheme 3 is the maximize of the tunnel lining supporting capacity.
For the tunnel lining (lining of the two negative bending the outer surface, the inner
surface of the compression tension), scheme 3 and 4 significantly lower than scheme 1
and 2, of which 3 were minimal solution. Scheme 1, 2, 4, and 3 compared in the right
arch waist are respectively in 13.2%, 74.3%, and 8.3%. This shows that the two lining
of negative moment first through the NATM tunnel with large cross section of shield
tunnel after excavation of small section of a first through hole after digging a big hole
was small, the double side drift method is used for big hole results in minimum.
Accordingly, scheme 3 greatly increase the safety reserve of secondary lining.
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CONCLUSION
The left small section tunnel constructed by shield and the right section tunnel by
double side heading method or CRD method with small spacing parallel sequence is
researched. The total of 4 kinds of construction schemes on theory and technology
selection and optimization analysis with the numerical simulation results of the
scheme of tunnel lining, draws the following conclusion:
(1) Constructed firstly by NATM tunnel with large section and small section tunnel
boring shield method construction scheme has less disturbance to the surrounding
rock.
(2) Constructed finally the shield of small section tunnel, a CRD method is less
safety and reliable lining than the use of double side heading method first large section
tunnel. Because of the double side heading method slow construction progress and
high cost, to ensure the safety of the tunnel under the premise, the adjustment will be
optimized for the CRD method is also worth exploring and trying.
(3) Through the dynamic simulation of the construction process, the subway tunnel
construction scheme of small spacing parallel analysis and scheme comparison,
according to the complexity of the project, we should strengthen the monitoring and
protection of surface deformation, and the mentioned research will provide technical
support and practical guidance for the construction of subway tunnel of Loess Area in
the future.
REFERENCES
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Xiangxing Kong1
1
The First Highway Survey and Design Institute of China Communications Construction Company
Ltd., Xian, China. E-mail: xiangxingkong8129@163.com
Abstract: In recent years, the theory and method of wavelet analysis is widely used in
signal processing, pattern recognition, data compression, image processing, and
quantum physics. Compared with modulus maxima, wavelet packet decomposition
and coefficient shrinkage de-noising method of wavelet transform, their advantages
and disadvantages are analysed and summarized, and their respective scopes are
obtained. The Noissin chosen as the original signal with noise is analysed and de-
noised by the modulus maxima method of wavelet transform, meanwhile the usage
conditions and key computing parameters are also obtained. Finally, the modulus
maxima method of wavelet transform are successfully adopted to de-noised the
monitoring results of shield tunnel, the data revised are reliably provided for tunnel
healthy diagnosis.
INTRODUCTION
In 1910, Haar proposed the theory of wavelet orthonormal basis, which is the
earliest wavelet theory[1]. In 1936, Littlewood and Paley established binary frequency
component grouping theory for Fu Liye series, which carries on the division to the
frequency. And it is the earliest theory source of multi-scale analysis[2]. In 1981,
according to the group theory the French physicist Morlet firstly proposed the concept
of wavelet analysis in geological analysis of geological data[3-5]. As signal analysis
expert, Mallat proposed the concept of a multi-resolution analysis, and gave a general
method for constructing orthogonal wavelet basis[6]. The most commonly used multi
resolution analysis technique has two kinds: one is the analysis of time limited
resolution, and the other is spline multi-resolution analysis.
Comparative Analysis of De-noising Method
Three are a lot of signal de-noising methods based on wavelet transform, which can
be summarized as the following three categories.
(1) modulus maxima de-noising method based on the wavelet transform mainly is
suitable for the signal mixed with white noise, and contains more singular points. The
theory of signal singularity detection and the wavelet transform modulus is proposed
based on maximum principle by Mallat. It effectively uses propagation characteristics
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of different in multi-scale space in de-noising signal and white noise. In the de-noising
and singularity information, this method effectively retain signal and no excess
concussion, and is a very good estimate.
However, when reconstruction using alternating projection method, in order to
ensure the accuracy of reconstructed signal and improve the signal-to-noise ratio, it
usually is iterative dozens of times, so the calculation speed is slow. In addition, it is
important to choose the wavelet coefficients of the wavelet decomposition scale, and
small scale is easily affected by noise, and large scale could make signal loss some
important local singularity.
(2) wavelet packet decomposition de-noising method based on coefficient of
shrinkage mainly is suitable for the signal mixed with white noise case. The method
based on Donoho and Johnstone put forward discrete wavelet transform. Wavelet
packet decomposition can provide a more precise method for signal, by the signal
frequency band multi hierarchy further decomposition of the high frequency part is
without subdivision in wavelet transform. According to the analysis of the
characteristic of the signal, it is adaptive selection of frequency band, the frequency
and signal phase matching. Compared with wavelet transform, wavelet packet
decomposition can obtain more rich of the time-frequency localization information,
and more suitable for the analysis of nonstationary signal processing.
However, de-noising effect depends on ratio of the signal and noise, and is
especially suitable for high the ratio of signal and noise . In addition, in some cases,
such as the existence of discontinuous point signal, de-noising will produce Vo Gibbs
phenomenon. Also, the selection of threshold plays an important effect on the de-
noising effect.
(3) wavelet transform de-noising method based on translation invariant mainly is
suitable for the signal mixed with white noise and contains a plurality of discontinuous
point of the situation. This method is a kind of de-noising method based on Donoho
threshold method to improve the de-noising threshold method, in order to solve the
possible pseudo Gibbs phenomenon occurred in the signal the discontinuous point.
The basic idea is cyclic shifts of the original signal with noise in translation within a
certain range. In order to obtain a new signal phase difference in the time domain and
the original signal, the soft threshold function or hard threshold function of wavelet
coefficients are shrunk, which can get the signal de-noising by the inverse wavelet
transform.
The signal is contrary to the cyclic shift, which get de-noised signal and the original
signal with the same phase. Changed the translation, this process is repeated, on
average the results obtained to estimate signal noisy signal after de-noising.
However the process of de-noising in signal is convenient, and the calculation speed
is very slow.
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noising method of reconstruction signal as shown in figure 5. From the figure, the
noise of original signal is mainly concentrated in the 1,2 level, through the two level
after de-noising, and then through the decomposition of 3,4 level, signal to remove the
noise coefficient of the vast majority, to retain the integrity of the signal coefficients,
and finally through the reconstruction on the restoration of the signal after de-noising.
Wavelet transform modulus maximum de-noising method not only can effectively
suppress noise, but also can well preserve the high frequency details in the original
signal. The de-noising signal distortion is small, and the de-noising effect is very
good. At the same time, the method of de-noising signal with no excess concussion is
the original signal and a very good estimate, and is good surface quality. It is
important to choose the wavelet decomposition scale, which should be a suitable
decomposition scale wavelet transform.
It is not yet to form a unified standard of perfection in the application of theoretical
research and the methods of wavelet de-noising. There are various methods applicable
conditions and limitations in practice. Overall, due to signal the discontinuous point
can produce pseudo Gibbs phenomenon, wavelet packet decomposition coefficients
shrinkage often signal to some difficulties in the process of noise based on wavelet
transform. Translation invariant de-noising method can improve the above
shortcomings, but in practice slow computational speed and poor convenience.
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N/mm
time/s
Fig. 1 Noissin chosen as the original signal with noise
a1 d1
time/s time/s
a a
a2 d2
time/s time/s
b b
a3 d3
time/s time/s
c c
d4
a4
time/s time/s
d d
Fig. 2 Approximate coefficient Fig. 3 Detail coefficients
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M M
A A
X X
time/s time/s
(a)j=1 (b)j=2
M M
A A
X X
time/s
time/s
(c)j=3 (d)j=4
Fig. 4 Modulus maximum of wavelet transform after signal de-noising
N/mm
time/s
Fig. 5 Compared with health monitoring results and de-noising and reconstruction of tunnel lining stress
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Conclusion
References
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Geo-China 2016 GSP 260 40
1
The First Highway Survey and Design Institute of China Communications
Construction Company Ltd., Xian, China. E-mail: 117021654@qq.com
2
The First Highway Survey and Design Institute of China Communications
Construction Company Ltd., Xian, China. E-mail: xiangxingkong8129@163.com
Abstract: With more and more shield tunnels are constructed in highways and metro,
the tunnel structure damages become a key problem that has important effect on the
safe operation of the tunnels. In this paper, the possible damages of the shield tunnels
during its service life are summarized based on the analyses of the influencing factors.
The main damages of the shield tunnel include cracking and spalling of concrete, steel
corrosion, deformation of tunnel linings collar joint or juncture-open and the leakage
at segment, lining joint. On this bases, the reasons for these damages are discussed
detailedly.
INTRODUCTION
The shield tunnel is a kind of underground structure widely used in metros in China.
The safety and durability of shield tunnels will decrease with its operation time and
the damages of the shield tunnels appear gradually during the service life. Although
many researches on the damages of mountain tunnels and railway tunnels have been
performed, only a few researches on the damage of the shield tunnel have been
reported in the literatures.
As the shield tunnel used in metros usually locates in soft soil areas such as
Shanghai and Hangzhou, where the groundwater is very rich, the damages of the
shield tunnel are mainly caused by the groundwater. In this paper, the main diseases of
the shield tunnel are firstly summarized, then the reasons for these diseases are
explained. Finally, the treatments of the diseases of the shield tunnel are introduced
briefly.
According to the field investigations of many shield tunnel used in metro, the main
diseases of shield tunnels are shown as following:
Cracking and Spalling of Concrete
Cracks in the concrete are the most common disease in railway tunnel and shield
tunnel. Generally, the concrete often works with cracks. The effects of cracks on
shield tunnel are firstly characterized by the safety and durability of the structure.
Furthermore, cracks will also influence the performance of the structure. For example,
the groundwater will seep through the cracks, which will result in the spalling of the
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lining concrete. Fig.1 shows the typical cracks and spalling of lining concrete in a
metro shield tunnel constructed in soft soil area, among which fig.1a indicates the
micro-cracks existing in the segment, and fig1b indicates circumferential cracks in one
of the segments that have become the flow channel of groundwater and slurry, while
fig.1c and fig.1d indicate the longitudinal cracks in the segment, which may be caused
by the erosion and deterioration of concrete. Although the cracks shown in fig.1 are
near the surface, it will develop inward and result in the erosion of the steel bars if
nothing is done to the existing cracks.
(a)
(b)
(c)
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(d)
Figure 1 Typical cracks in the segment of shield tunnel
Steel Corrosion
The steel corrosion relates closely to the protection thickness of concrete, the degree
of cracks development and the chloride content of groundwater. The corrosion of the
steels will result in the decrease of the lining bearing capacity. Furthermore, the
chloride in the ground water will also corrode the concrete, which leads to the
decrease of the concrete strength and the development of macro-cracks in the segment.
So, the steel corrosion have important effect on the stability of the lining structure,
which is not permitted to happen in practices. Regular inspections of the concrete of
the lining are usually employed to prevent the corrosion of steel.
Deformation of Linings
The deformation of lining includes the deformation of tunnel cross-section,
staggered dislocation of segment and the subsidence of side wall, among which the
deformation of tunnel cross-section contains the lateral and longitudinal deformation
and the former is the main component.
The staggered dislocation of the segment often occurs at the tunnel arch wires or the
construction joint, which includes convex staggered dislocation and concave staggered
dislocation. The reason for the staggered dislocation is that the tunnel arch wires or the
construction joint are the relatively weak places in the tunnel, the staggered dislocation
will occur when the tunnel is subjected to shear stress.
The subsidence of side wall is usually accompanied by the deformation of the
tunnel bottom, which will cause the uplift and sink of the tunnel bottom. However, the
deformation of tunnel cross-section and subsidence of side wall are very common in
highway tunnels, while staggered dislocation of the segment is usually found in shield
tunnel. Fig.2 shows the staggered dislocation in different positions of the segment in a
shield tunnel.
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(f) conjunction
Figure 3 Leakage in different parts of a shield tunnel
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Abstract: This paper describes a method for modelling the simulated transversely
isotropic rocks. Series of physical and mechanical experiments have been used to obtain
two materials A and B, which are chose to simulate rocks. Then the reasonableness of
two materials are verified by comparing their properties to typical natural rocks. Based
on this, a set of experimental apparatus has been developed for preparing the simulated
transversely isotropic rocks. Uniaxial compressive tests are carried out to study the
failure mode of the simulated rocks preliminarily. The results can provide a reference for
researches in study of transversely isotropic rocks.
Keywords: Transversely isotropic rock; Simulated material; Failure mode; Uniaxial
compressive test.
INTRODUCTION
Bedded rock is a typical rock with complex physical and mechanical properties.
Usually it has a characteristic of orthotropic or transversely isotropic properties.
Composition, physical and mechanical properties of the rock which parallel to
discontinuities are basically the same, but their properties are completely different in the
perpendicular orientations [1]. Anisotropic, as one of the important properties of rocks
which have a great effect on its engineering performance. Especially in large-scale
geotechnical engineering, ignoring the anisotropic properties may bring about
incalculable accident.
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Selection principle
For artificially prepared layered rock, the raw material needs to have similar physical
and mechanical properties with typical natural layered rocks. So the following
requirements should be satisfied during the selection of materials:1) Composition
requirement; 2characteristics of natural rocks can be satisfied; 3) Physical and
mechanical properties is stable and can be easily controlled; 4) Preparation process is
simple; 5) Material has wide variety of sources and low cost.
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Material A has a relatively higher water to soil ratio which forms relatively higher
strength and stiffness. Material B has a relatively lower water to soil ratio so that the
simulated rocks have relatively lower strength and stiffness. This experiment use 20%
amount of cement and 40% amount of kaolin and consequently to calculate the amount
of water.
Table 3 shows the typical range of physical parameters of natural rock [4]. It is clear
that material A and B are both in this range. After curing in the mold, material A appears
in dark gray while material B appears in white. The two materials are in contrast
significantly, which can truly reflect the characteristics of layered rocks.
Uniaxial compression test and indirect tensile test were conducted for material A and
B. By pasting strain slices on the middle surface of the samples, two kinds of
stress-strain curve and load-displacement curve of the material A and B were measured,
as shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2. In Figure 1, the solid line and the dash line represent
the results of two samples, respectively. Mechanical parameters of material A and B can
be obtained by calculation as shown in Table 4.
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FIG.1. stress-strain
s n curve
According
A to
o Deere and d Miller's [5 5] theory, nnatural rockss are divideed into threee
categ
gories depen
nd on the sttrength ratio o T. T is thhe ratio of tthe elastic m
modulus and
uniax
xial compresssive strengtth, given as
E
T=
c
When
W T>5000, the rock is
i high stren ngth ratio roock; When 200<T<5000, the rock iis
mediium strength
h ratio rock; When T<20 00, the rock iis low strenggth ratio rock. According
to the experimen
nt result, matterial A and Bs strengthh ratio are 210 and 263, respectivelyy.
Deerre and Milleers theory indicates
i thaat material A belongs too medium sstrength ratio
rock while Materrial B belong
gs to medium m strength raatio rock.
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FIG.2. Loa
ad-displacem
ment curve
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Prep
paration pro
ocess of layeered rock
(a)
( Front vieew
Th his experim ment combin nes cast irron molds and woodeen templatee to preparre
transsversely isotrropic rocks. The geomettry of the caast iron moldd is 150 150 550mm m
shaped in a cubo oid. There iss opening at the upper annd the four ssides are fassten by screw w
bolt so that it is easily
e to asssemble. Figu ure 3 shows tthe mold in a schematicc way. On thhe
otherr hand, the wooden
w tempplate is a recctangular sloot with a sizee of 15010550 mm, aas
showwn in Figure 4.
Th he process of
o modelling transversely y isotropic roocks are as ffollows:
1Mold prep paration: Cleean the inneer of the moold and spreaad oil evenlly to ensure
the separation off test block and
a the mold d.
2Material preparation:
p According tot the mixinng ratio deteermined in thhe previous
section, the amo ount of kaoliin and cemeent can be caalculated. T Then the matterials were
put into a concreete mixer an nd stirred theem uniformlyy. The mixer machine w was kept for
running for 2~3 minutes wh hile quantitattive water wwas adding sllowly. Sincee kaolin has
the property
p of water
w swellin ng, there wo ould be a veery obvious increase in tthe mixture
volum me of its conntent ratio iss higher. It is suggested that the totaal amount off material B
shouuld be reduceed about 15% %.
3A layer off handi-wrap p should be spread insidde wooden ttemplate. Thhe template
placeed on vibratting table after
a filling proper amoount materiaal A into the template.
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Material should be paved evenly to fully fill the template while the shaking table is
working.
4A single layer of material A stands for about 2 minutes in the template, then the
template should reverse to put the material into the cast iron mold and remove the
handi-wrap to complete the fitting of a single layer material. Then the same method
should be used to add material B. The two steps are repeat in turn until the iron mold is
filled.
5The filled mold should put on vibration table vibrating for 1~2 minutes to
remove holes or air bubbles caused by improper operation.
6A loading of 100KN was put on the specimen surface after the preparation is
completed for 2 hours. The mold then was removed after standing for 24 hours. The
samples should be cured indoor with wet cloth for about 28 days.
The entire process should be completed within 2 hours. Otherwise, the cement would
become hard to pave evenly. Moreover, the layer of the material may be easily broken
which would affect the results of experiments.
Samples are then prepared by drilling along different orientation angle by a drill bit
with a diameter of 50mm. The orientation angle is to be defined the angle between the
discontinuities and the horizontal direction. Then the samples were cut and polished to
make its surface smooth and flat. Parallelism of the top and bottom sides should be
controlled within 0.5mm, and the flatness of Surface should be controlled within
0.1mm. The flatness is directly related to the accuracy of measuring the Poisson's ratio;
hence it should be more stringent.
P P P
y
y
y
y
x
z
x
x
P P P
z
x
(a ) =
0 (b ) =
9 0 0 a n d 9 0
(a )
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FIG.5 The
T uniaxia
al compress ion test exp
periment
Failu
ure mode off rock materrial under uniaxial
u com
mpression sttress state
Taable 6 show
ws the failurre modes of
o simulatedd transverselly isotropic rocks undeer
uniax
xial compreession with different orrientation anngles and tthe consequuential macro
crack
ks sketch.
Table 6. Failure mo
odes under u
uniaxial com
mpression
Speecimen failu
ure modes Maacro cracks sketch
= 0
= 30
= 45
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Speecimen failu
ure modes Maacro cracks sketch
= 60
= 90
CON
NCLUSION
NS
Based on thee characteristic of tran nsversely isootropic rockk and theoryy on similaar
mateerials, new simulated
s maaterials whicch consist oof cement, kaaolin at diffferent mixingg
ratio have been modelled
m in this paper. Then with thhe given meethod layered rocks werre
artifiicially prepaared. The folllowing concclusions can be drawn:
Th hrough the experiments
e on materialls A and B, their basic pphysical andd mechanicaal
properties have beenb obtaineed. The resullts show thatt properties of the prepaared materialls
are close
c to natuural rocks. Moderate-int
M tensity or loow intensityy rocks can be simulated
with materials A or B.
Details
D of thee preparatio on process have
h been ggiven in thiss paper, inccluding mold
desiggn and tech hnological process.
p Thee standard experiment samples m made by thiis
methhod have obv viously layeered texture, and the orieentation of ttexture can bbe controlled
accurately. This method can n provide convenient annd reliable m materials for studying thhe
mech hanical perfo ormance of transversely
t isotropic roccks.
Th he failure modes
m of tran
nsversely isootropic rockss have been preliminaryy summarized
based d on the uniaxial
u commpression results
r on tthe simulatted sampless. When thhe
discoontinuities orientation
o an
ngle is with
hin the rangee 0~30, thhe rock mateerial result inn
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tension failure perpendicular the layer discontinuity surface. When the orientation angle
is within the range 30~60, the rock material results in shear failure sliding along the
discontinuities. When orientation angle is within the range 60~90, the rock material
showed inflation failure by compression or shear failure by pull with the crack
orientation parallel to the discontinuities.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERERCES
Deere, D.U., Miller R.P. (1966). Engineering classification and index properties of
intact rock. Air Force Laboratory Technical Report No. AFNL-TR-65-116,
Albuquerque, NM.
Goodman, R.E. (1989). Introduction to rock mechanics. New York: Wiley.
Goodman, R.E. (1993). Engineering geology-rock in engineering construction. New
York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., P. 293-332.
Ramamurthy, T. and Arora, V.K. (1993). A classification for intact and jointed rocks.
Geotechnical Engineering of Hard Soils-Soft Rocks [C], 235-242.
Tien, Y.M., Tsao, P.F. (2000). Preparation and mechanical properties of artificial
transversely isotropic rock. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 37:1001-12.
Tien, Y.M., Kuo, M.C. (2001). A failure criterion for transversely isotropic rocks. Int.
J. Rock Mech. & Min. Sci., 38:399-412.
Tien, Y.M., Kuo, M.C. (2006). An experimental investigation of the failure mechanism
of simulated transversely isotropic rocks. Int. J. Rock Mech. &Min. Sci., 43:
1163-1181.
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INTRODUCTION
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article 5.5.4 points out that the longitudinal spacing between the left and right
excavation face of the CRD or CD method should not be less than 15m in Technical
Specifications for Construction of Highway Tunnel (JTG F60-2009). Obviously,
construction space for multi-partition excavation tunnel is different because of
different research objects.
In order to explore the sensitivity of construction space for urban underground road
tunnel adopting partial excavation method under the weak surrounding rock conditions,
taking an urban underground road tunnel as the research object in Hangzhou, China,
reveal influence rule about surrounding rock deformation and supporting structure
stress in different construction space, and obtain the sensitivity of construction space
to different factors through the research on construction space for the CD method,
CRD method and CDS method. Then, put forward reference comments to select
reasonable construction space for multi-partition excavation tunnel, and the final
purpose is to guide the construction.
Calculating Parameters
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Sg Lg Eg
E=E c + 1
Sc L
wheere, E--elasttic moduluss of supporrting structuure after coonversion, E Ec-- elasticc
mod dulus of spraayed concrete, Eg-- elasstic moduluss of steel arcch, Sc--sectional area off
spraayed concrette, Sg--sectional area off steel arch, Lg--flange llength of steeel arch, L---
steeel arch spacin
ng.
CO
ONDITION DESIGN
D BA
ASED ON ORTHOGO
O ONAL TEST
T
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Result Analysis
In order to get sensitivity regularity of construction space for multi-partition
excavation tunnel, define function indicating influence degree of different influence
factors on crown settlement, surface subsidence and maximum principal stress of
supporting structure, calculation results are shown in Table 4.
Range analysis and variance analysis are always used to analyze orthogonal test
results, and range analysis method is adopted in this paper because of its high
visualization. Determine the effect degree of different factors on the test index by the
value of range, and the greater the value, the more important the factor. First, calculate
the average value of under different factors in different levels, shown in Fig.2.
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50
40
30
20
(
a
-
d
)
2
(
a
-
d
)
4
(
a
-
d
)
6
(
a
-
d
)
10 8
(a-b)2 (a-b)4 (a-b)6 (a-b)8 (b-c)2 (b-c)4 (b-c)6 (b-c)8 (d-e)2 (d-e)4 (d-e)6 (d-e)8 (e-f)2 (e-f)4 (e-f)6 (e-f)8
60
50
40
30
20
(a-d)2 (a-d)4 (a-d)6 (a-d)8 (a-b)2 (a-b)4 (a-b)6 (a-b)8 (b-c)2 (b-c)4 (b-c)6 (b-c)8 (d-e)2 (d-e)4 (d-e)6 (d-e)8 (e-f)2 (e-f)4 (e-f)6 (e-f)8
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
(a-d)2 (a-d)4 (a-d)6 (a-d)8 (a-b)2 (a-b)4 (a-b)6 (a-b)8 (b-c)2 (b-c)4 (b-c)6 (b-c)8 (d-e)2 (d-e)4 (d-e)6 (d-e)8 (e-f)2 (e-f)4 (e-f)6 (e-f)8
According to the above Fig.2, the value of range is calculated by formula 4 and
shown in Table 5.
R=max{2,4,6,8}min{2,4,6,8} 4
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CONCLUSIONS
(1) Influence law of construction space to vault and surface subsidence is basically
uniform for multi-partition excavation tunnel, and the smaller the construction space,
the greater the vault and surface subsidence. The vault and surface subsidence is more
sensitive to the distance between a and d, d and e, e and f, so pay more attention on
these factors under construction. But for different construction methods, the influence
degree of construction space is as follows: CDS methodCD methodCRD method.
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(2) Taking the maximum principal stress of supporting structure as the analysis
project, the sensitive of construction space is different due to the different construction
method. The CD method is sensitive to every influence factor, and the CRD method is
more sensitive to the distance between e and f, d and e, and the CDS method is more
sensitive to the distance between a and d , b and c.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors appreciate the support of China Railway Tunnel Group Science and
Technology Innovation Project.
REFERENCES
CCCC First Highway Engineering Co., Ltd (2009). Technical Specifications for
Construction of Highway Tunnel (JTG F60-2009). Communications Press, Beijing,
China.
CHEN, W.Z., WU, G.J., JIA, S.P. (2010). The application of ABAQUS in tunneling
and underground engineering. Water Power Press, Beijing, China.
China Railway First Group Co., Ltd (2009). Guide for Construction of Railway
Tunnel EngineeringTZ204-2008. China Railway Publishing House, Beijing,
China.
WANG, G.X., XIAO, L.G., WANG, Y. L. (2009). Discussion on Excavation Methods
of Shallow-covered Extra-large Cross-section Urban Tunnels. Tunnel Construction,
29 (6):658-663.
ZHOU, D.J. (2013). Research on Shallow large-span Railway Tunnel Excavation
Methods under Urban Complex Environmental Conditions. Chongqing Jiaotong
University. Chongqing, China.
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1
Zhejiang Univ., Zhejiang, Hangzhou 310058.
2
Zhejiang College of construction, Zhejiang, Hangzhou 311231.
3
CCCC Fourth Harbor Engineering Institute Co. Ltd Guangdong Guangzhou 510288.
4
Huadong Engineering Corporation Limited, Zhejiang, Hangzhou 310014.
5
Zhejiang Scientific Research Institute of Transport, Zhejiang, Hangzhou 310006.
6
Sichuan Province Univ. Key Laboratory of Bridge Non-destruction Detecting and Engineering
Computing.
Abstract: The research on the waterproof failure mechanism was conducted by the
software ABAQUS based on the project of waterproof design. The method used in the
paper was compared with the predecessor method. The results showed that not only the
predecessor method was workable but also the method in the paper was reasonable. The
waterproof failure mechanism was also revealed. The research showed that the leakage
was easier occurred on the contact surface of sealing gaskets under the condition of joint
opening. However, the leakage was easier occurred on the contact surface of sealing gasket
and concrete under the condition of joint dislocation.
INTRODUCTION
With the booming of social economy and the rapid development of construction
technology, shield tunnel has gradually become the main choice during construction of
cross-river. Since the cross-river tunnel bears higher water pressure than the subway tunnel,
waterproof design is of great importance. Failure of joint waterproof will cause water
leakage, which will also cause uneven settlement, endangering the safety of the tunnel
structure and operations. According to the field observation, shield tunnel leakage mainly
occurs in the joints (Zhu, 1995). Currently, sealing gasket is widely used in shield tunnel
waterproof design. Gaskets can be divided into elastic rubber gaskets and water swelling
rubber gaskets (Fig. 1).
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FiG.1 The diagram of elastic rubber gasket and water swelling rubber gasket
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Geo-China 2016 GSP 260 66
PROJECT BACKGROUND
The research was based on a cross-river tunnel project. The outer diameter and inner
diameter of the tunnel is separately 11.3 m and 10.3 m. The ring width is 2.0 m. C50
reinforced concrete segments are used and the design impermeability grade is S12. Thirty
six M30 oblique bolts are used to connect the tunnel rings. Between segments, two M36
oblique bolts are installed circumferentially. The deepest part of the tunnel is located in the
permeable stratum with a maximum pressure of 0.45 MPa. Dual waterproof measures
using EPDM rubber gaskets on the outside and water-swellable rubber gaskets adjacent to
it on the inside are employed
Considering the internal stress relaxation and the effects of aging of elastic gaskets
during the design life of the tunnel, the waterproof design value should be obtained from
the maximum pressure value multiplying a safety factor. According to Shield Tunnel
waterproofing Technical Specification, the actual design should withstand the pressure of
2 to 3 times the maximum water pressure. In this project, the safety factor is 2, and
therefore waterproof pressure is taken to be 0.9 MPa under maximum displacement of
opening and dislocation. The maximum opening displacement and the maximum
dislocation displacement were taken as 8 mm and 15 mm based on construction experience
and Shield Tunnel Construction and Acceptance Specification.
According to gaskets parameters and engineering experience, the cross-sectional
structure of the elastic gasket is shown in Fig.2. The hardness is taken to be 62 5 . A
compressed displacement of 20mm is required for the gasket to meet the design height.
NUMERICAL MODEL
The numerical model was completed according to section form of elastic gasket and
surrounding concrete segments, shown in Fig 3.
Boundary Conditions
The boundary conditions are described as followings.
For concrete segments C1: constraint is imposed in the x direction on the left edge and
in y direction on the upper and lower boundaries;
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For concrete segments C2: constraint is imposed in y direction on the upper and lower
boundaries; displacement or force load will be imposed on the right boundary according to
the calculating targets.
Elastic gasket
Segment C1 Segment C2
Material Parameters
Elastic constitutive model was adopted to simulate C50 concrete. The elastic modulus is
taken as 3.45 104 MPa and the Poisson's ratio as 0.167. Rubber material is typically
treated as incompressible hyperelastic isotropic materials. Super-elastic material
non-linear relationship between stress and strain is defined by strain energy function. This
calculation uses Mooney-Rivilin two-parameter model (Wang, 2004) which is widely used
in engineering. The strain energy function expression:
U = C10 ( I1 - 3 ) + C01 ( I2 - 3 )
Where: U for the strain potential energy; I1, I2 for the strain invariants; C10, C01 for the material
parameters, obtained from the experiments. C10 was taken as 0.532 and C01 as 0.131.
RESULTS ANALYSIS
Comparison between two methods
Conventional numerical methods usually analyze one side of the elastic gasket
according to the structural symmetry. The surrounding concrete is considered as rigid body.
Rigid displacement on the upper side is applied to simulate the pressure of elastic gasket as
shown in Fig. 4. Completed modeling is employed in this work. Loads are imposed on
concrete segments C2 to simulate the elastic gasket compression. Fig. 5 is a comparison of
previous method and the proposed method in simulation of contact stress. It can be seen
that proposed method and the previous method had a good agreement, which not only to
verify the feasibility of the previous simplified method but also proved the reasonableness
of the proposed method. Fig. 5 (a) is the contact stress distribution of gasket, showing that
contact stress is lager in both ends due to the stress concentration. Fig. 5 (b) shows the
contact stress between the surrounding concrete and the gasket. It can be seen from the
figure that the contact stress distributed along the length of the contact surface
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symmetrically and the value of the contact force is basically lager than the waterproof
design pressure values. Calculation method of the average contact stress was proposed by
Zhao et al. (2013).
The average contact stress = assembly force / gasket contact surface width.
Over a comparison of chart (a) and chart (b), it can be seen that contact stress between the gaskets is less
than the stress between the concrete and the gasket.
Rigid
body
3.5
4
3.0
3 2.5
2.0
2 1.5
1.0
1
0.5
0.0
0
-0.5
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 0 10 20 30 40
length along contactsurface (mm) length along contactsurface (mm)
(a) between gaskets (a) between gasket and segment
FIG.5 The relationship between the contact stress and contact length
Hardness Analysis
80
70
assembly force (kN/m)
60
o
50 70
o
67
40 o
62
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
compression (mm)
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According to the relationship between hardness and Young's modulus given by Wang et
al. (2004):
E = (15.75 + 2.15HA) / (100 - HA)
where: E for Young's modulus; HA for hardness. By changing the Young's modulus,
compression characteristics can be simulated under different hardness condition. Fig. 6 is a
numerical analysis result of compressive stress-strain relationship under different gasket
hardness. With a gasket hardness of 62, the assembly force is less than 60 kN/m to meet
the installing requirement. With the increase in hardness, the assembly force is also
increasing.
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
opening (mm)
FIG.7 Relationship between average contact stress and the opening displacement
Leakage at the
surface between
gaskets
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Based on the average contact stress, relationship between average contact stress and the
opening displacement can be obtained. As can be seen from Fig. 7, in the case of gasket
opening, the average contact stress between gaskets is always less than the stress between
gasket and the concrete. When displacement reaches 9mm, the average contact stress
between gaskets reaches design pressure 0.9 MPa firstly. Therefore, in the case of gasket
opening, according to the waterproof failure criterion, which means the contact stress is
less than the design pressure, the waterproof failure mechanism is shown in Fig. 8. It can be
seen from Fig. 8, leakage will firstly occur between the elastic gaskets.
Dislocation condition
The relationship between average contact stress and the dislocation displacement is
shown in Fig. 9. The waterproof failure mechanism is more complicated than the
mechanism under opening condition. As it can be seen from Fig. 9, dislocation
displacement has little effects on the average contact stress between gaskets. But the
contact pressure between the gasket and the concrete increases with the displacement. For
this project, it can be found that the average contact stress between the gaskets is always
greater than the design water pressure 0.9MPa. When the dislocation displacement reaches
16mm, the average contact stress between the gasket and the concrete is reduced to 0.9MPa.
Therefore, according to the waterproof failure criterion, the failure mechanism of the
waterproof case is shown in Fig. 10. Leakage occurs between the gasket and the concrete.
2.4
stress between gasket and concrete
2.1 stress between gaskets
average contact stress (MPa)
1.5
1.2
0.9
0.6
0.3
0.0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18
compression (mm)
FIG.9 Relationship between average contact stress and the dislocation displacement
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Leakage at the
surface between
gasket and concrete
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the Opening Project of Sichuan University Key Laboratory of
Bridge Non-destruction Detecting and Engineering Computing and the Foundation
FX2014160 by Education Department of Zhejiang.
REFERENCES
Deng, C.H. (2008). The waterproof design of tunnel segment. Railway construction
technology, S: 157-163.
He, T.H., Wang, B.L., Liu, J.G. (2009). Rational Determination of Elastic Gasket Contact
Stress and Closure Pressure for Shield Tunnel Segments. Urban Mass Transit, 12(12):
60-64.
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He, T.H., Zhou, G.N., Liu, X.H. (2009). An optimal design research of rubber sealing
gasket in Hangzhou Metro Line 1. Underground Engineering and Tunnel, S: 41-45.
Lei, Z.Y. (2010). An Optimal Design Approach for the Rubber Sealing Gasket in Shield
Tunneling. Chinese Journal of Underground Space and Engineering, 6(4): 361-364.
Liu, Y., Zhang, D.M., Huang, H.W. (2011). Analysis of Mechanism of Water Leakage
Induced by Longitudinal Uneven Settlement of Shield Tunnel. Journal of Railway
Engineering Society, 5: 66-70.
Lu, M., Lei, Z.Y., Zhang, Y. (2008). Waterproofing Test of Lining joint and CrossPassage
of Shanghai Yangtze River Tunnel. Underground Engineering and Tunnel, 4: 12-16.
Paul, S.L. (1978). Sealability tests of gaskets between precast concrete tunnel lining
segments. Unpublished report, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Paul, S.L., Curtis, R.H., and Heuer (1978). Load testing precast concrete tunnel liner
segments and gasket sealability tests. Unpublished report, Univ. of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign.
Tuo, Y.F., Shu, H., Guo, X.H. (2013). Design and experimental study on waterproof
gasket of large-diameter shield tunnel under ultra high water pressure. Chinese
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 35(S1): 227-231.
Code for construction and acceptance of shield tunneling method. Beijing, 2008
Shalabi, F. I. (2001). Behavior of gasketed segmental concrete tunnel lining. Ph. D.
Thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,.
Wang, W., Deng T., Zhao S.G. (2004). Determination for Material Constants of Rubber
Mooney-Rivlin Model. Special Purpose Rubber Products, 25(4): 8-10.
Xiang, K., Sh,i X.W. (2008). Design and Optimization of Elastic Gasket Section of Shield
Tunnel Lining. Chinese Journal of Underground Space and Engineering, 4(2):
361-364.
Zhao, M., Ding, W.Q., Peng, Y.C. (2013). Experimental Study on the Reliability of
Shield Tunnel Segment Joints to Remain Watertight Under High Water Pressure.
Modern Tunneling Technology, 50(3): 87-93.
Zhu, Z.X. (1995). Present situation and Prospect of urban tunnel waterproof technology.
Underground Engineering and Tunnel, 4: 18-24.
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Analysis of the Stability of Mud Inrush Induced by Fillings Sliding Failure in a Karst
Cave Based on the Simplified Bishop Method and Its Application
Abstract: A simplified computational model used for the stability analysis of the
fillings is proposed based on the simplified Bishop method. In this model, sliding soil,
circular slip surface, exterior load, pore water pressure and boundary constraint is
defined by simplifying the complex system which consist of tunnel, filling materials
and karst cave. The global stability coefficient of fillings is got by solving
the equilibrium equation of force for individual soil slice and moment for failure mass
and by assuming that the direction of inter-slice forces is horizontal. By this way, the
risk of mud inrush due to the filled-typed karst caves can be identified. Using this
analytical method, this paper analyzes a case and conducts research on the influence of
hydraulic effect, shear strength parameters, mud content in cave and boundary
constraint on the global stability of fillings.
INTRODUCTION
This paper simplifies the complex system which consist of tunnel, filling materials
and karst cave into a computational model based on simplified Bishop method. By
solving this model, an innovative method is used to analyze the stability of mud inrush
induced by filled-typed karst cave. Using this method, conduct research on the
influence of hydraulic effect, shear strength parameters, mud content in cave and
boundary constraint on the stability of mud inrush.
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O Simplified Load
a O
d c Cracked
Surface c a
Sliding
Soil f Sliding Soil
Model 2 Model 1
FIG.1 Two different simplified computational models
There are six basic assumptions for above models:
a. The stability analysis is consider as plane-strain problem.
b. On sliding surface, shear failure obeys Mohr-Coulomb criterion and shear
strength is decided by cohesion and friction.
c. Fillings is assumed as an ideal rigid-plastic material, and there is no deformation
in fillings during loading process, and the cave itself is stable.
d. There are no forces on the contact interface because of the separation of fillings
and the upper boundary while fillings are sliding along the lower boundary.
e. The sliding surface is an arc, and forces on the surface satisfy the static force and
moment equilibrium, The direction of resultant of inter-slice forces is horizontal.
f. Only for model 2, there would generate a cracked surface within fillings result
from boundary restraint. Other assumptions: the cracked surface is also an arc; Shear
failure obeys Mohr-Coulomb criterion on the cracked surface too; The direction of
forces between soil and boundary restraint is horizontal.
Method and Principle
Firstly, for model 1, as shown in Fig.1, the arc ab(a boundary of cave) is selected as
the sliding surface. Through the top point a, draw a horizontal line ac. Fillings below
the line ac is regarded as sliding soil(soil abc), and above is simplified into exterior
load applied to the sliding soil. The sliding soil mass is divided equally into vertical
slices.
The forces acting on the whole sliding soil and the individual slice is shown in
Fig.2 (For simplifying the calculation, assume that the exterior load is uniform load
above each slice).
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O qi
R=15m Saturation line qi
27
Ti Ni
B=14m Ti Ni
(a) (b)
FIG.2 Diagram indicating the forces acting on whole sliding soil and the
individual slice: (a) on whole sliding soil; (b) on the individual slice
Where Ni indicates normal force and Ti indicates tangential force, is the angle
between failure surface and horizontal plane, qi is the exterior load above a slice, Wi is
the weight of a slice, indicates force between ith slice and i+1th slice.
For each single soil slice, static force equilibrium equation in the vertical direction
is established and for whole sliding mass, moment equilibrium equation of the circle
center O is established.
Secondly, for model 2, as also shown in Fig.1, the arc df is the cracked surface. Soil
abc is regarded as sliding mass.
Above the cracked surface, static force and moment equilibrium equation can be
established by forces analysis as is shown in Fig.3 (Where Fr0 indicates resultant on
constrained boundary). Here is the point: glyphs with a subscript ri are used in study
subject above the cracked surface, such as Nri, Tri, qri, Wri, , Fri, implications are the
same as before.
qi
qr
O
r=9.6m
Fr0
hr=4.3m
Fr0
Tri
Free Face
Ti Nri
Ni Br=8m
(a) (b)
FIG.3 Diagram indicating the forces acting on whole sliding soil and soil above
cracked surface: (a) on whole sliding soil; (b) on soil above cracked surface
Above the cracked surface, the static force equilibrium equation in the horizontal
and vertical direction and moment equilibrium equation of the circle center O are
established and Fr0 can be obtained.
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And above the sliding surface, static force equilibrium equation in the vertical
direction and moment equilibrium equation with Fr0 are established.
Safety Factor
The safety factor f reflects the stability of mud inrush induced by integral soil
sliding in karst cave. The f is defined by the following relation: = / , =
/ . Where c is cohesion and is angle of internal friction.The safety factor f is
got with iterative computation by putting ce and e into front static force and
moment equilibrium equation.
Seepage Effect
Under seepage condition of karst water, Ni and Ti is defined by the following
expression: = +( ) . Where the indicates effective cohesion
and indicates effective angle of internal friction, ui indicates pore water pressure on
sliding surface.
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Hyd
draulic Effeccts on Stabiliity of Mud In
nrush
Safety
S factorrs with or wiithout bounddary restraintt are obtaineed, as shownn in Fig.4.
3
2..39 2.3
37 withouut boundary rrestraint
2.5
with b
boundary resttraint
Safetyy Factor
2 1.70
0 2 .00 1.70
1.5 1.20
0.94 0.92
1 0.71 0.71
0.5
0
1 2 3 4 5
Conditioon
FIG.4 Histogram m about safetty factors u nder differeent conditioons
witth or withou ut boundaryy restraint
As
A can be seeen from Fiig.4, the safe fety factor o f condition 1 is larger than that off
otheers. It showss that underg
ground waterr play an impportant role in integral sliding.
The
T safety faactor of cond dition 2 is laarger than thhat of condittion 3. It shoows that, forr
soil with good water
w permeeability, suddden drawdow wn of water will increase the risk off
mud d inrush beccause of variiation of buoyancy and constant poore water preessure. Thiss
con
nclusion coin ncides with engineering
e actuality.
a
The
T safety factor
f of con
ndition 5 is significantlyy larger thann that of conndition 2. Itt
showws that, at thhe same porre water pressure, fillinggs with poorr water perm meability aree
morre readily to slide than porous fillinggs.
Influence of Sheear Strength on Stabilityy of Mud Inruush
1.6
=18
=20
1.4
Safety Factor
=22
1.2
0.8
0 10 20 30 40
Cohesion
C (kPPa)
FIGG.5 Relation curves beetween safetty factor and d cohesion
The
T safety faactor of cond dition 1 is laarger than thhat of conditiion 4 as show wn in Fig.4.
It shhows that shhear strength h has a greaat effect on iintegral slidding. Under ccondition 1,
reseearch about the influen nce of shearr strength oon the stabiility is condducted withh
diffferent valuess of C and .. And relatio on curves beetween safetyy factor and cohesion off
soils with differrent inner friiction angless is plotted aas shown in F Fig.5.
Known
K from
m the analysis of relation n curves, thee safety factoor increase liinearly withh
the increase of cohesion
c nd also increase with thee increase off inner frictiion angle. Itt
an
show ws that the larger
l the sh
hear strength h, the strongeer the abilityy on resistingg the risk off
mud d inrush.
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1200
1.3
(kN)
800
1.1
400
0.9 0
0 2 4 6 x Pi
Exterior Load (N/m)
FIG.6 Relation curves between safety factor and maximum shear force
with the increase of fillings content (exterior load)
By the analysis of relation curves, without boundary restraint, the safety factor
decrease gently with the increase of fillings content. But with the continuous increase
of fillings content, the change of safety factor is smaller and smaller. It shows that
fillings content has a certain extent effect on integral sliding, but is not the main
influence. And with boundary restraint, the influence on integral sliding is lesser.
And yet, with the increase of fillings content, the maximum shear force
significantly increase while the safety factor change slightly. It shows that fillings
content is not the main influence on integral sliding, but has a great effect on structural
security of cave boundary.
Influence of Boundary Restraint on Stability of Mud Inrush
As can be seen from Fig.4, safety factors with boundary restraint is significantly
higher than that without boundary restraint. It shows that boundary restraint plays an
important role in risk reduction of mud inrush.
Under condition 4, as a variable for research on influence, the length of boundary
restraint are set to 0.4m, 1.3m, 2.7m, 4.3m, 6.0m, 7.8m. And by calculation, relation
curves between safety factor and fillings content is plotted as shown in Fig.7.
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4 1600
safety factor
maximum shear force
Maximum Shear
Safety Factor
3.2 1200
Force (kN)
2.4 800
1.6 400
0.8 0
0 2 4 6
Length of Boundary(m)
FIG.7 Comparison between safety factor and maximum shear force
with the increase of length of boundary
Known from the analysis of relation curves, with the increase of the length, the
safety factor and the maximum shear force both significantly increase together. It
shows that the longer the cave boundary, the higher the risk of structural failure while
the less likely mud mass slide away. This coincides with engineering actuality: fillings
in a closed cave can not slide away before structural failure of cave boundary.
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors appreciate the support of the National Basic Research Program of China
(973 Program, No.: 2013CB036000), the National Natural Science Foundation of
China (Grant No.: 51479106), the promotive research fund for excellent young and
middle-aged scientists of Shandong Province (Grant No.: 2014GN028).
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REFERENCES
Li, S., Zhou, Z., Li, L., et al. (2013). Risk assessment of water inrush in karst tunnels
based on attribute synthetic evaluation system. Tunnelling and Underground Space
Technology. Vol. 38: 50-58.
Shi, S.S. (2014). Study on seepage failure mechanisim and risk control of water inrush
induced by filled disaster structure in deep-long tunnel and engineering
applications. Jinan: Shandong University.
Li, S.C., Lin, P., Xu Z.H., et al. (2015). The minimum safety thickness of water and
mud inrush induced by filled-type, karst water bearing structures based on the
concept of slice method. Rock and Soil Mechanics. Vol. 07:1989-1994+2002.
Xu, Z.H., Li, S.C., Li, L.P., et al. (2011). Cause, disaster prevention and controlling
of a typical kind of water inrush and lining fracturing in karst tunnels. Chinese
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering. Vol. 30(7): 13961404.
Wang, X.Y., Tan, Z.S., Wang, M.S., et al. (2008). Theoretical and experimental
study of external water pressure on tunnel lining in controlled drainage under high
water level. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology. Vol. 23(9): 552
560.
Zhu, D.Y., Lee, C.F., Huang, M.S., et al. (2005). Modifications to three well-known
methods of slope stability analysis. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Engineering. Vol. 24(2): 183194.
Fang, Y.S. (2008). The lowest solution of slice method for slope stability analysis.
Chinese Journal of Geotechnical Engineering. Vol. 30(3): 331335.
Tong, Z.Y., Chen, C.X., Xu, J., et al. (2009). A slice-stability method for stability
analysis of slopes. Rock and Soil Mechanics. Vol. 30(5): 13931398.
Liu, Z.Y., Chen, S.W. (2002). Evolution model of progressive failure of strain-
softening soil slopes. Journal of Zhengzhou University (Engineering Science). Vol.
23(2): 3740.
Bishop, A.W. (1955). The use of slip circle for the stability analysis of slopes.
Geotechnique. Vol. 5(1): 717.
Morgenstern, N. R., Price, V.E. (1965). The analysis of the stability of general slip
surfaces. Geotechnique. Vol. 15(1): 7993.
Spencer, E. (1965). A method of analysis of the stability of embankments assuming
parallel inter-slice forces. Geotechnique. Vol. 17(1): 1126.
Janbu, N. (1973). Slope stability computations. Embankment Dam Engineering.
New York: Wiley: 4786.
Chen, Z.Y. (2003). Soil slop stability analysis-theory, methods and programs.
Beijing: China Water & Power Press.
Liu, G.B., Wang, W.D. (2009). Foundation pit engineering manual. Beijing:
China Building Industry Press.
Su, A.J. (2005). The principle and method of landslide stability evaluation.
Wuhan: China University of Geosciences Press.
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Study on the Reasonable Cover Thickness of a Subsea Tunnel with the Numerical Calculation
Criterion Method
B. S. Xu; S. C. Li; R. C. Liu; and C. L. Zhao
(School of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Shandong Univ., Jinan 250061, China.)
Abstract: The minimum rock cover thickness is a significant parameter during longitudinal
sections design of subsea tunnel by means of drilling and blasting. The thickness will impact the
cost and safety when subsea tunnel is constructed. On the basis of numerous elasto-plasticity
numerical tests and theoretical analysis, the minimum rock cover thickness criterion is provided,
including minimum displacement method and factor of safety (FOS). For a certain section of
subsea tunnel, with the growth of rock cover thickness, vault displacement will decrease first and
then increase. There always exists a minimal value. At the same time, the same section is
calculated and analyzed using a strength reduction method, and some clear regularities of subsea
tunnels FOS are summarized. That is, for any section of a subsea tunnel, with the increasing of
rock cover thickness, FOS increases first and then decreases, always with a maximum value.
There is a close correlation between FOS and vault displacements variation tendencies.
Accordingly, it can be thought that the technology feasible and economic reasonable minimum
rock cover thickness is a rational and effective thickness, considering the maximum FOS and
minimum vault displacement at the same time. Under this numerical method, the determined
minimum rock cover thickness can give great reference values to the planning of tunnels
vertical routes.
Keywords: Minimum vault displacement; Safety reserve coefficient; Qingdao Jiaozhou Bay
Subsea Tunnel; Minimum rock cover.
INTRODUCTION
In China, there are many subsea tunnels being planned, constructed and used. For example,
sea channel connecting Hong Kong, Macao and Zhuhaisubsea tunnel of Dalian Baysubsea
railway tunnel from Dalian to Yantai in Bohai Baysubsea railway tunnel of Qiongzhou Strait
subsea tunnel of Taiwan Strait, and so on. Xiang'an subsea tunnel and Qingdao Jiaozhou Bay
subsea tunnel have been constructed and are in use. It is a serious problem of how to determine
the subsea tunnels minimum rock cover thickness. At the same time, it designs tunnels safety
during construction and operation, while considering tunnels economical efficiency.
The minimum rock cover thickness is a significant parameter during longitudinal sections
design of subsea tunnel by means of drilling and blasting method. On the one hand, if rock cover
thickness is too thin, then there will be serious instability problems with the danger of seawaters
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inburst on the working face of subsea tunnel. Even if it is safe, it would increase the cost of
auxiliary construction, which will also increase the cost of tunnel support, seepage-proofing and
dewatering. On the other hand, thicker rock cover thickness means increasing the depth of tunnel,
increasing the length of tunnel, increasing the head pressure impact on lining structure, and thus
increasing the cost of subsea tunnelSun Jun 2006;Lu Ming 2005;Li shucai 2007;Wang mengshu
2205;Nilsen 1993; etc. So, it is obvious that there is always an optimum value of subsea
tunnels rock cover thickness.
The experience of constructed subsea tunnels in the world can be used for reference. Japanese
Seikan highway tunnel has an overall length of 53.85km, with 23.0 km in the subsea portion. The
water depth is 140m, and the minimum rock cover thickness is 100m. Japanese Kanmon subsea
railway tunnel is the earliest channel tunnel in the world. The tunnel has two holes, with roads in
both directions. The length is 1.14km, with height 5.75m and maximum slope 2.0~2.5 %. The
depth of seawater is 14 m, and the average rock cover thickness is 11m. The thinnest part is 9.5m,
located on the area near seabed rockfill and clay. Drilling and blasting methods for subsea tunnel
is used the most in Norway, compared with other countries. In the past 30 years, Norway has
built more than 40 tunnels, with a total length of more than 100km. Norway highway tunnel
design specifications define that subsea tunnels minimum rock cover thickness must be greater
than 50m. If the thickness is less than 50m, then detailed geological investigations and special
analysis must be conducted. Also, the design must be reported to the national highway
administration, and get their permission. However in fact, most of the Norway subsea highway
tunnels rock cover thickness is less than 50m. The shallowest part is only 23mNilsen 1993;Lu
Ming 2205; etc.
Shandong University has researched about minimum rock cover thickness through
engineering analogy, numerical calculation and model experiment on the bases of the constructed
Xiamen Xiangan subsea tunnel and Qingdao Jiaozhou Bay subsea tunnel. The system of subsea
tunnels minimum rock cover thickness has been built through engineering analogy, numerical
calculation and theoretical closed form analysis. In the mechanical analysis of engineering
problems, closed form solutions can be used only in the simple situation, while numerical
method can adapt to complicated boundary conditions and consider the mediums constitutive
relations. So, numerical method is widely used in engineering practice. At present, the numerical
methods usually used in the stability analysis of geotechnical engineering include finite element
method, finite difference method, discrete element method, boundary element method. In this
paper, the finite difference method is used to research the problem.
A subsea tunnels minimum rock cover thickness is a problem of optimization. There are
many criterions to evaluate a tunnels stability. For example, one is strength criterion. It estimates
surrounding rocks stability through comparing rock stress or stress combination to the ability of
the rock's resist compression, tensile, resisting shear and other strength factors during different
loads. Another is deformation or deformation rate criterion. The related standards at home and
abroad mainly focus on surrounding rocks deformation or deformation rate. It is thought that as
long as the deformation or deformation rate exceeds a certain value, the rock is thought to be
broken downShao Guojian,2003Li shuchen,2007. This paper based on Qingdao Jiaozhou
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Bay subsea tunnel, provides a vault displacement criterion method and security coefficient
criterion method of strength reduction theory, which has been applied in engineering practice
successfully.
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Where, I1 J 1 are stress tensors first invariant, deviatoric stress tensors second invariant
and Lode angle; c are rocks cohesion and internal friction angle.
According to the report of geological survey, the classes of rock mass are divided by Basic
Quality. Initial ground stress in vertical direction only considers rocks weight stress, and the
horizontal ground stress is considered to be 0.8 times the vertical ground stress. Left and right
boundaries are fixed on x-direction, and bottom boundary is restrained in three directions(x,y,z).
The model is simplified to be plane strain problem, with restrain in y-direction restrain. Up
boundary is applied hydrostatic pressure. Pore water pressure is of graded distribution in the
scope of the model. For example, the thickness of rock cover is 20m, and the tunnel is excavated
using up and down steps method. The finite difference calculation gridding is showed in Fig.4.
Elastic-plastic numerical calculations are finished under different rock cover thicknesses. The
transformation regulars of key points and plastic zone around the tunnel are analyzed after the
tunnel is excavated. The distribution of key points is showed in Fig.5, with point 1 to record sink
of vault, point 2 and 3 to record convergence of top bars boundaries, point 4 to record upheaval
of inverted arch. The displacement change of key points around tunnels boundary is showed in
Fig.6. The change of plastic zone is showed in Fig.7. The distribution of plastic zone under
different rock cover thicknesses is showed in Fig.8.
From Fig.6, we can see that with the increase of rock cover thickness, creating a minimum
value. The rock cover thickness, corresponding to vault displacements minimum, is 16 m.
Upheaval of inverted arch presents to be linear trend, and convergence presents to be
approximate a linear trend of increase. Through analysis, the shape of tunnels cover rock is
thought to be similar to arch. If vault sinks, the stiffness of rock will become weaker when the
rock cover thickness is thin. So, the deformation will increase under the pressure of seawater.
When rock cover is thick, the initial ground stress around tunnel will become larger, and the
deformation will increase too. Convergence of tunnels boundary and deformation of inverted
archs upheaval have small relationship with rock cover thickness, but are influenced largely by
tunnels depth. From Fig.7, we can see, with the increase of rock cover thickness, the area of
plastic zone around the tunnel increases. When the rock cover thickness is 10m-20m, the area of
plastic zone around the tunnel is about 40 m2~60 m2. For other sections of Qingdao subsea
tunnel, similar results were found, too. In conclusion, for a certain section of subsea tunnel, with
the growth of rock cover thickness, vault displacement will decrease first and then increase.
There always exists a minimal value. When the rock cover thickness is determined by minimum
displacement, through the stability analysis of deformation, it is found that tunnels surrounding
rock is relatively more stable, too. Besides, the sink of vault due to the tunnel's excavation can
reflect the surrounding rocks deformation and stability most. Therefore, the rock cover thickness
corresponding to minimum vault displacement is thought to be a technically reasonable
minimum rock cover thickness.
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2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
rock cover thickness(m)
Fig.6 Deformation curve of tunnels surrounding rock under different rock cover
thicknesses
180
area of plastic zone(m2)
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
rock cover thickness(m)
Fig.7 Plastic zones change curve of tunnels surrounding rock under different rock cover
thicknesses
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(a) minimum rock cover=10m (2) minimum rock cover=25m (3) minimum rock cover=40m
Fig.8 Plastic zone under different rock cover thicknesses
materials shear strength parameters c and t are replaced by critical intensity parameters
c and t respectively, then the tunnel will fall into critical equilibrium state. Where:
(2)
= / Fs (3)
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t = t / Fs (4)
At present, theres not a uniform unstability criterion of tunnels surrounding rock. That is to
say, now, we have no way to get an acceptable terminal condition of FOS. The unstability
criterions of tunnels surrounding rock are as the followings: regarding force or
displacements convergence as unstability criterion Tang Chunan 2006 regarding
displacements abrupt change of feature parts as unstability criterion. For example, Wang
Mingnian 2010 researched deformation regular of Xiamen subsea tunnels
completely-weathered and highly-weathered sections, and provided control standards of absolute
displacement. regarding plastic zone or plastic strains cut-through as unstability criterion.
The paper mainly uses plastic zones cut-through as subsea tunnels unstability criterion. If the
rock cover thickness is 8m, with the increase of strength reduction, the rock cover destroyed as
shown in Fig.9. Firstly, failure zones occur near the flanks. And then spreads to all the
boundaries of the tunnel. Next, failure zones expand to the upper part along both sides of
spandrel. Finally, plastic zones are formed between tunnel vaults both sides and seabed, which
means the tunnel is destroyed. Fig.10 shows shearing strain distribution regular at the first step of
destruction. Also, the destruction starts from spandrels both sides, spreads in an inclined upward
direction of tunnels outboard. The relation curve of FOS and subsea tunnels rock cover
thickness is shown in Fig.11. Obviously, the calculated subsea tunnels FOS has clear regularities.
For any section of subsea tunnel, with the growth of rock cover thickness, FOS will increase first
and then decrease. There always exists a maximum value. The rock cover thickness
corresponding to maximum FOS is 18 m.
From the analysis above, the reasonable rock cover thickness determined by vault
displacement method is 16 m. The value can be regarded as designs lower limit. The rock cover
thickness determined by FOS method is 18 m. The value can be regarded as designs higher limit.
Above Qingdao subsea tunnels deepest points section, there are completely-weathered and
highly-weathered parts with a thickness of about 10 m. The strength of completely-weathered
and highly-weathered parts is very low, and carrying capacity is very low, too. Therefore, the
rock cover thickness should be the summation of completely-weathered and highly-weathered
parts thickness and reasonable rock cover thickness. The value is suggested to be 23~30 m. In
practice, it is reasonable and reliable to set a designed value to be 30m.
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CONCLUSIONS
Through lots of numerical calculations and theory analysis, the minimum vault displacement
method and FOS are used to determine the minimum rock cover thickness. The two methods can
be proved by each other. Calculation results show that for any section of subsea tunnel, vault
displacement will decrease first and then increase, always existing a minimum value, with the
increase of rock cover thickness. Besides, the calculated FOS of subsea tunnel has obvious
regularities. For any section of subsea tunnel, FOS will increase first and then decrease, always
existing a maximum value, with the increasing of rock cover thickness. There is a good
corresponding relationship between vault displacements and FOS distribution trends. The
feasible technology and economically reasonable minimum rock cover thickness is a rational and
effective thickness, considering the maximum security coefficient and minimum vault
displacement at the same time. Under this numerical method, the determined minimum rock
cover thickness can give great reference values to the planning of tunnels vertical routes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financial supports for this paper provided by National Science Foundation of China
(No.50909056) and Provincial Science Foundation of Shandong Province (No.ZR2014EEM014,
ZR2014EEM029) , and Science and Technology Project Plan in 2015, Ministry of Housing and
Urban-Rural Development of China (No. 2015-K5-004) are gratefully acknowledged.
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691-696.
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1
Senior Engineer, Geotechnical Engineering Dept., Guangdong Hualu Transportation Science and
Technology Com. Ltd., Guangzhou 510032, China. E-mail: zhyl0802@163.com
2
Director, Geotechnical Engineering Dept., Guangdong Hualu Transportation Science and Technology
Com. Ltd., Guangzhou 510032, China. E-mail: 826875931@qq.com
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groundwater, vertical charge from precipitation and river is mainly dependent on the
meteorologic condition, while the lateral charge is greatly dependent on the abundance
of rock joints and fractures. Due to the weakening of rock and structural and thus
resulting abundance of rock joint and fracture, the run-off of groundwater is changed. In
addition, the construction of the tunnel has great influence on the original geological
structure and further the run-off of groundwater. The leakage of groundwater on the
ground, walls and vaults of the tunnel happens very often. These leakage of groundwater
can further deteriorate the rock. As such, the failure of the tunnel structure can occurs if
no prevention is made during the tunnel operation.
Tunnels, which have accident hazard liability and is generally considered as a special
structure, should be paid much attention on its maintaining based on the mechanism and
feature of disaster. By doing so, it can ensure the safety of tunnel structure and
operation.
In this paper, taking the in groundwater leakage in the Pishuangao tunnel of the
Beijing-Zhuhai expressway as an example, it proposes a method for analyzing the cause
of groundwater leakage and its treatment.
PROJECT OVERVIEW
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The high density resistivity method and seismic imaging technique are used to find
out the developing state of karst dolines. And the connectivity test is used to determine
the connection between surface water and groundwater.
A seismic imaging test was conducted from lining surface of the tunnel. There are
sixty-one karst dolines were found, of which fifty-three ones are assumed to be karst
caves, and eight one as karst fractures. The width of karst dolines is in the range of
2.8~32.4 m and the height is about 1.7~33.5 m. The connection of these karst dolines
to the surrounding karst provides a good path for the water infiltration and leads to a
disaster. The fracture development zone in the LK1905+378.8~+476.4 section have an
apparent dip of 75~79 to the small number section. In this zone, the rock mass is
cracked, and big or bead-like karst caves may exist. This provides infiltration path for
the groundwater. Fig. 4 shows the map obtained by the seismic imaging test. Theses
karst dolines and fractures may be connected to each other, which provides a good
infiltration path for groundwater and further leads to the disaster.
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FIG. 6. Time histories of concentrations of TF01, TF02 and TF03 at the end
from Beijing side
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FIG.7. Time histories of concentration of TF01, TF02 and TF03 at the end from
Zhuhai side
Draining treatments
Draining treatments along with buried pipes in cutting groove surrounding the
construction joints and draining holes arranged at the side wall corners are used in the
tunnel.
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EFFECT OF TREATMENT
CONCLUSIONS
Under long-term groundwater table, after a tunnel service of many years, the
infiltration path of ground water changes, which will lead to change in the recharge of
groundwater in the region. These changes may cause the leakage in the tunnel. Since
some changes are a progressive procedure, and some ones are a transient process, the
monitoring and regular inspection to ground surface and draining conditions during the
tunnel maintaining is necessary.
After the leakage happens, a fine hydro-geological and engineering geological
surveying should be first performed. And then, the connectivity test can be conducted in
the zone through which groundwater is collectively flowing into the tunnel. After the
connection between surface and ground water, the blocking, cutting-off and draining
treatment can be used in this zone.
The karst dolines should be investigated behind the tunnel linings using High density
resistivity method and seismic imaging technique.
The prevention to leakage in the tunnel should be implemented by considering
ground surface-surround rock-lining as an integration. Backfilling the subsidence and
ground fractures, and draining on the ground are the key measures for the ground surface.
For the surrounding rock, backfilling the gas behind the lining is the key method.
Reinforcement to the structure and consolidated draining groundwater are suitable for
the lining. Treatment to the ground surface, surrounding rock and lining is subsequently
taken in practice.
The potential impacts on the tunnel maintaining must be considered in the design and
construction plan. In the area with complex geological conditions, multiple geophysical
and geochemical methods are necessary and should be employed to investigate the
engineering geological and hydro-geological conditions.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
Ita. (1991). Report on the damaging effects of water on tunnels during their working
life. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, Vol. 6(1): 11-76.
Li, G., Du, X., Zeng, Y.W. (2008). Analysis on the interaction between tunnel and
groundwater. China Water Transport, Vol. 9(8): 263-265.
Liu, H.J., Xia, C.C., Zhu, H.H., Luo, X. (2007) Recent research and development of
tunnel disasters. Chinese Journal of Underground Space and Engineering, 5:
948-953.
Jiang, Z.X. (2005). Interaction between tunneling and groundwater. Chinese Journal
of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, Vol. 24(1): 121-127.
Zhang, L.C. (2003). Study on the technique of water draining in highway tunnels.
Chinese Journal of Technology of Highway and Transport, 4: 68-69.
Zhao, S.Y. (2008). A study and treatment to the leakage in mountain tunnels. Master
thesis, Chongqing University.
Zhu, H.Q., Li, H.Y., Du, C.S. (2008). A study on the comprehensive method for water
leakage in the tunnel. Chinese Railways, 2: 42-45.
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A Case Study for Escape Route Optimization after Water Inrush in a Backward
Excavated Karst Tunnel
Abstract: With the development and utilization of underground space in karst area,
water-inrush is becoming a major geological disaster in tunnel engineering. The
investigation for escape routes optimization after water inrush in process of karst
tunnel excavation is particularly important. In the present study, a case of water inrush
from the working face is investigated in a backward excavated karst tunnel. Numerical
simulation is carried out by using the FLUENT software, the variation laws of velocity
and pressure along with distance are analyzed and discussed by selecting a series of
probing lines in a plane. Then flow characteristics of water after inrushing during
double-line tunnel excavation are summarized. Finally, the optimized escape routes
are made. The results show that: (1) the water velocity nearby the tunnel side wall is
the minimum, while it is the maximum in the middle position. So people in tunnels
should first move to the tunnel side wall and then escape quickly when water inrush
happens. (2) The water pressure at the intersection area of the cross passage and
tunnels is large. So people must not stay at the intersection area of the cross passage
and tunnels when water inrush happens. (3) When water inrush happens in the left
tunnel, if people meet the cross passage during escaping, they should pass through it
rapidly, turn to the right tunnel and run to the entrance. (4) If there is not enough time
to escape, people can run to the trolley and other equipment in the vicinity of the right
tunnel working face. In addition, some rescuing equipment can be set up at the high
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location of the cross passage. (5) Even if large flow water inrush occurs in the tunnel,
people can escape safely as long as the disaster is observed in time and the escape
routes are optimized scientifically and rationally. The results are of important practical
significance and engineering value to ensure the safety of tunnel construction.
INTRODUCTION
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NUMERICAL
L SIMULAT
TION
One
O case stu udy of water inrush is sim mulated in a backward exxcavated karrst tunnel.
In
I process off the left tun nnel excavattion, the tunnneling cannot be carriedd out due too
the effects of geological
g co onditions annd other facctors. At thiss time, the right tunnell
shou uld first be excavated, and a then botth ends of thhe left tunneel are furtheer excavatedd
afteer passing thrrough the cross passage..
During
D the leeft tunnel exxcavation, water
w inrush occurs in thhe working fface close too
the left tunnel entrance,
e i.ee., the workiing face closse to the lefft tunnel enttrance is thee
inleet of water inrush
i (veloccity, 2 m/s),, and the rigght tunnel eentrance is thhe outlet off
watter inrush (prressure, 0 Paa). Boundary y conditions are set as foollows, the w
working facee
closse to the leeft tunnel en ntrance is velocity
v inleet boundaryy, and the rright tunnell
entrrance is pressure outlet boundary.
b
Ana alysis and Discussion
D
In
I order to sh how the chan nge rules off velocity andd pressure inn tunnels moore clearly, a
series of probin ng lines are selected.
s Thee details of thhe probing lines are show wn in Fig. 1.
Thee probing lin nes are researrched and an nalyzed.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
FIG.. 1 The locattion of the p
probing linees
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5
X=-14,Y=2
4
Velocity (m/s) X=-16,Y=2
3
X=-18,Y=2
2
X=-20,Y=2
1
X=-22,Y=2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Distance (m)
(a) Velocity curves
194
X=-14,Y=2
190.8
X=-16,Y=2
Pressure (Pa)
187.6
X=-18,Y=2
184.4
X=-20,Y=2
181.2
X=-22,Y=2
178
0 20 40 60 80 100
Distance (m)
(b) Pressure curves
FIG. 2 The velocity and pressure curves of the left tunnel
1) On the whole, the velocity of five probing lines shows the tendency of
decreasing, and it is 2 m/s in the position of working face with water inrush (Z = 100),
while it reduces to 0 m/s in the position of the other working face (Z = 0). To be more
exact, when the variation range of Z is from 60 to 100, the velocity basically keeps
unchanged at 2 m/s. When the variation range of Z is from 40 to 60, the velocity
decreases sharply. When the variation range of Z is from 0 to 40, the velocity reduces
to 0 m/s. In addition, the velocity close to one side of the cross passage is the
maximum, and then it decreases gradually toward the other side, i.e., the velocity is
the maximum when X = -14, while it is the minimum when X = -22.
2) In general, the pressure of five probing lines shows the tendency of increasing.
When the variation range of Z is from 60 to 100, the pressure basically keeps
unchanged at 191 Pa. When the variation range of Z is from 40 to 60, the pressure
close to one side of the cross passage is the minimum, and then it increases gradually
toward the other side, i.e., the pressure is the minimum when X = -14, while it is the
maximum when X = -22. When the variation range of Z is from 0 to 40, the pressure
keeps unchanged at 193 Pa.
The Cross Passage
As for the five probing lines in the cross passage (Fig. 1b), their velocity curves and
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pressure curves are also drawn. The analysis process is the same as the left tunnel and
the main conclusions are as follows:
1) The velocity in the center of the section is the maximum, and then it decreases
gradually toward both sides of the section, i.e., the velocity is the maximum when Z =
50, while it is the minimum when Z = 51.6.
2) On the whole, the pressure decreases gradually with the increase of X, and it is
the maximum at the starting point of the cross passage.
The Right Tunnel
As for the five probing lines in the right tunnel (Fig. 1c), their velocity curves and
pressure curves are also drawn. The analysis process is the same as the left tunnel and
the main conclusions are as follows:
1) Among the five selected probing lines, the velocity is the minimum when X = 20
and the variation range of Z is from 60 to 100.
2) On the whole, the pressure changes greatly in the vicinity of the cross passage,
while it changes gently in other areas.
The Y-direction
As for the five probing broken lines along the height direction (Y-direction) of
tunnel centerline (Fig. 1d), their velocity and pressure curves are shown in Fig. 3.
15
Y=0.4
12
Y=1.2
Velocity (m/s)
9
Y=2
6
Y=2.8
3
Y=3.6
0
0 28 56 84 112 140
Distance (m)
(a) Velocity curves
200
Y=0.4
155
Y=1.2
Pressure (Pa)
110
Y=2
65
Y=2.8
20
Y=3.6
-25
0 28 56 84 112 140
Distance (m)
(b) Pressure curves
FIG. 3 The velocity and pressure curves of Y-direction
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The
T analysiss process is the t same as the left tunnnel and the m main concluusions are ass
follows:
1)
1 In the left tunnel, th he velocity changes moore gently, aand the velocity is thee
minnimum when n Y = 0.4. In the processs of flowinng from the left tunnel to the crosss
passsage, the veelocity increeases obviou usly. In the cross passaage, the veloocity in thee
centter of the secction is the maximum,
m and
a then it deecreases graadually towarrd the upperr
and
d lower, i.e., the velocity y is the maxximum wheen Y = 2, w while it is thhe minimum m
wheen Y = 0.4 or 3.6. In th he process of
o flowing ffrom the crooss passage to the rightt
tunnnel, the velo
ocity decreasses rapidly. In
I the right ttunnel, the vvelocity channges gently,
and
d the velocity y is lower When
W Y = 0.4 or 3.6.
2)
2 In the left tunnel, th he pressure basically keeeps unchannged at 1922 Pa. In thee
proccess of flow wing from th he left tunn
nel to the crross passagee, the presssure reducess
quicckly. Then, ini the processs of flowingg from the ccross passagee to the righht tunnel, thee
presssure continnues to reducce. On the whole,
w the ppressure in tthe vicinity of workingg
facee with water inrush is the maximu um, and the n it decreasses graduallyy along thee
direection of water inrush. In addition, the
t pressuree curves of ffive probing lines are inn
goood agreemen nt, which sho ows that thee pressure vvalues along the length direction off
tunnnel are basiccally fixed in
n the height direction
d of ttunnel (Y-diirection).
FIG
G. 4 The op
ptimized esccape routes
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A comparison between the simulated results and the field measurements should
have been done thereby verifying the validity of numerical model, but it is impossible
to achieve such the field measurements, and the reasons are as follows: On the one
hand, water inrush often occurs suddenly during tunnel excavation, and it is hard to
carry out field measurements timely in process of water inrush. On the other hand,
when water inrush happens in a tunnel, the tunnel constructors are eager to escape
with their lives, so there is no other time to consider the field measurements. Therefore,
this study emphasizes on the optimized escape routes when water inrush happens,
which purpose is to reduce economic losses and casualties, and ensure the safety of
tunnel construction.
CONCLUSIONS
In the present study, Qiyueshan high risk karst tunnel is taken as research
background. Numerical simulation is carried out by using the FLUENT software. One
case of water inrush from the working face is investigated in a backward excavated
karst tunnel. Combined with this case study, the water characteristics of water after
inrushing in process of karst tunnel excavation are concluded and summarized.
(1) The water velocity nearby the tunnel side wall is the minimum, while it is the
maximum in the middle position. Therefore, people should first move to the tunnel
side wall and then escape quickly when water inrush happens.
(2) The water pressure at the intersection area of the cross passage and tunnels is
large. Thus, people must not stay here for a short while when escaping.
(3) When water inrush occurs in the left tunnel, if people meet the cross passage
during escaping, they should pass through it rapidly, turn to the right tunnel without
water inrush and run to the entrance.
(4) When water inrush occurs in the left tunnel, the water velocity and pressure
nearby the working face of the right tunnel are small. Thus, if there is not enough time
to escape, people can run to the trolley and other equipment in the vicinity of the right
tunnel working face.
(5) When water inrush occurs in the left tunnel, the velocity and pressure at the
high location of the cross passage are both small, so some rescuing equipment can be
set up there.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to acknowledge the financial support from the National Basic Research
Program of China (973 Program, No.: 2013CB036000), the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant No.: 51509147, 51479106), the promotive research fund
for excellent young and middle-aged scientists of Shandong Province (Grant No.:
2014GN028) and the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (Grant No.:
2014M551908).
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REFERENCES
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Xu, Z. H., Ma, G. W., Li, S. C. (2014). "A Graph-theoretic Pipe Network Method for
water flow simulation in a porous medium: GPNM." Int. J. Heat Fluid Fl. Vol. 45:
81-97.
Xu, Z.M., Huang, R.Q. (2000). Deep and extra-long tunnel and geological hazards
during construction. Southwest Jiaotong University Press, Chengdu, China.
Zhang, J.C. (2005). "Investigations of water inrushes from aquifers under coal seams."
Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Vol. 42(3): 350-360.
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INTRODUCTION
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DATA BASIS
Expressway Number of
Tunnel Name Abbreviation
Name Tunnels
GLN DYS1, DYS2, DYS3, CYT , CJL 5
GLS ZSD , DLS , LJK , YZ1 , YZ2 , HS 6
JZN PS , MZ , PSG , YP , WKB , WQ , SMG 7
JZS BLS , DBS , KYS , WLI , DJS 5
SSW HM , YDS 2
YG DLG , HP , HSH , SHT , LZS 5
SM TK , ZZL , SHH , YSX , LHS , LGD 6
YW DHS , SYSH , DD , WZS , CLD , QSD , EGJ , NCD 8
GZW BT , LMH , SS , BM , NL , YH 6
GH SCK , MEL , NMK , GD , FK , WK , SHM , DJK , MTT 9
YY EBL , SYZ 2
Total Number 61
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Table 2. Zone Distribution of Tunnel Accident Rates (Unit: per year per km)
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Calculate accident rate of zone 1~6 in different tunnel types. Figure 7 shows all
tunnel types have relatively high accident rate for zone 1, zone 2, zone 4, zone 5. The
accident of zone 3 in the long tunnels and super long tunnel is higher than the medium
tunnel. For long tunnel, zone 1 has the highest accident rate, up to 5.4 per km per year.
For super long tunnel, the highest accident rate is zone5, 4.54 per km per year.
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Table 4. Annual Average Accident Rate for Different Tunnel Pavement Type
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CONCLUSIONS
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank the corresponding highway management department
for providing information relating to the investigated tunnels.
REFERENCES
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Earth Pressure in a Head Chamber and Grouting Issues for EPB Tunneling in Soft
Ground: A Case Study in Tianjin Area
Abstract: Based on a shield tunneling project using Earth Pressure Balance (EPB)
construction method in Tianjin, China, this paper builds a database of real monitored
data which includes ground surface settlement at different phases of tunneling,
chamber earth pressure, grouting pressure and volumes as well as excess pitch
information. A model to determine the earth pressure in head chamber to maintain the
face stability is proposed and verified with monitored data. Moreover, grouting
volumes are analyzed and compared with different considerations.
INTRODUCTION
Underground transportation networks are strongly needed to relieve traffic
congestions in populous metropolis worldwide. Even though shield tunneling has
advantages in mitigating the risks of ground movements over open excavations and
thus for has been widely used, ground surface settlement caused by shield tunneling
still can lead to angular distortion, sometimes severe damages to roadway, buildings
and utilities etc (Burd et al. 2008). Factors affecting ground surface settlement caused
by tunneling include the types of tunneling shield parameters, geometry of tunnels,
geological conditions, load conditions above tunnel, as well as construction
parameters, including earth cabin pressure, volume of excavated earth, grouting
pressure and volumes, etc (Liu et al. 2003).
Tunneling parameters are important to mitigate the risks associated with ground
settlement induced by shield tunneling. Based on a shield tunneling project using EPB
construction method in Tianjin, this paper builds a database consisting of ground
surface settlement at different phases of tunneling, chamber earth pressure, grouting
pressure and volume as well as the excess pitch of tunneling etc. A model to determine
the earth pressure in head chamber to maintain the face stability is proposed. The
method is verified with the data collected in real-time monitoring program. Moreover,
grouting volumes are analyzed and compared with different considerations.
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Real-time monitoring system was adopted for this project. With shield advancing,
tunneling parameters, shield status, etc., were transmitted wirelessly and shown on the
monitors in the clients monitoring center. In the same time, these data are stored in
continued formats of images in the system. In addition, a stringent monitoring
program was carried out every day so that ground surface settlement at different
phases of construction can be measured. Figure 1 shows the monitoring plan for
ground surface settlement.
Aiming at determining and verifying the earth pressure in the head chamber of Earth
Balance Boring (EPB) tunneling as well as studying the grouting issues, 8 monitoring
points above the centerline of the right tunnel and 7 monitoring points above the
centerline of the left tunnel (data from one point abandoned due to bad documentation)
as well as the corresponding cut-out images of ground surface settlement, earth
pressure in head chamber, grouting pressure, grouting volumes and the excess pitch
information were selected. Table 2 summarizes these collected data.
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lower bounds of face stability followed by Anagostous and Kovari (1996), Chambon
and Corte (1994) and Huang et al. (2013). However, this contribution focuses on
determining the earth pressure in head chamber practically to maintain the stability of
the cutting face instead of scholarly research.
Maximum ground surface settlement data prior to shield arrival and when shield
passing indicate that the cutting face is fairly stable (refer to columns 5 and 6 in Table
2). Statistical analysis for the earth pressure in head chamber indicate that it may
follow a normal distribution as the cover depth of tunnel is flat and the soil strength,
which usually follows a normal distribution, contributes to the earth pressure in head
chamber. The mean and the standard deviation of earth pressure for this study are
=218.4 kPa and =31.7 kPa respectively. Moreover, back analysis of the data
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indicate that the earth pressure in head chamber, which can be automatically slightly
adjusted by the shield machine, are largely scattered between the lower and upper
bound (, +) of the monitored earth pressure in head chamber.
Assume the soil pressure from soil mass works on the open face as an external
square to the tunnel cross-section (i.e, the square with a side length d), the following
equation can be derived to estimate the earth pressure in head chamber based on the
assumption that an equilibrium state is reached at the open face:
2
overburden = H = (2C + d )(1 sin ' ) (1)
where C is the cover, measured from the ground surface to the crown of the tunnel; d
is the diameter of the tunnel; is the unit weight of the soils above the tunnel center,
and is the effective friction angle of soils. In practice, the average of unit weight
and effective friction angle weighted by layer thickness shall be used for
calculation.
Anagostous and Kovari (1996) assume the soil behind the cutting-head is a wedge,
which generates the pressure on the face supported by the earth pressure in head
chamber to reach an equilibrium state. They found at equilibrium, the effective
support pressure depends on the tunnel diameter d, on the overburden C, on the
piezometric head, on the elevation of the groundwater table h0, as well as the effective
shear strength parameters c and ', and on the submerged unit weight and dry unit
weight d. Based on Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion, they proposed a method to
estimate the minimum effective support pressure in soils:
h
' = F0 ' d F1c'+ F2 ' h F3c' (2)
d
where h denotes the difference of water elevations, i.e., the vertical distance from
the groundwater level to the center of the tunnel. Fi (i=0, 1, 2 and 3) is dimensionless
coefficients that depends on the friction angle ', on the ratio of the cover over the
tunnel diameter C/d, (h0 is groundwater level), and on the ratio of dry to the
submerged unit weight. Based on Tianjins most subway tunnels, groundwater level is
2 m below ground surface, tunnel diameter d=6.2 m, effective friction angle of soil
=20 deg., the dimensionless factors F0=0.45, F1=3.5, F2 =0.64, and F3 =0.052 (Note,
Fi is based on =20. F0, F1 and F2 will decrease while F3 will increase with an
increase of ). Substituting these dimensionless factors to Equation (2) obtains
h
' = 0.45 ' d + 0.64 ' h 3.5c'0.052 (3)
d
Hydrostatic pressure to the tunnel open face shall be added to Equation (2) to obtain
the total pressure:
h
(0.45 ' d + 0.64 ' h 3.5c'0.052 d ) + C w at crown
A K = (4)
h
(0.45 ' d + 0.64 ' h 3.5c'0.052 ) + (C + d ) w at bottom
d
3
where w =10 kN/m .
Earth pressure calculated with Equation (4) was plotted in Figure 2. It is observed
that the range of lower and upper bound in Figure 2 is quite wide; also for
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GROUTING ISSUES
The earth pressure in head chamber of earth balanced shield tunneling can support
the soils; five phases of settlement are classified according to shield location as shown
by Figure 3. Settlement occurred from the time that the ground was cut to that the tail
of the shield passed the monitoring points which are defined as Phase III contributes
more to the total ground surface settlement (Leca and New 2007) and for this specific
project it is up to 80% for DBC 16-3 monitoring point.
Lee et al. (1992) stated that the settlement caused by tunneling depends on (i) the
ground and groundwater conditions, (ii) the tunnel depth and diameter, and most
important (iii) the construction details. Moreover, they studied the reasons for that and
evaluated the gap parameters which cause such settlement.
A shield boring machine with an outside diameter D is needed to construct a tunnel
with an inside diameter d (d here actually is the outside diameter of the segmental
ring). The relation between the shied outside diameter and d is D = d + 2 + , where
2 + is termed as physical gap, and and is the thickness of tailpiece and
clearance respectively for segmental ring erection as illustrated by Fig. 4(a). Grouting
cementitious material to the shadow area shown in Figure 4(b) which models the gap
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when the shield tail passing the settlement points and erecting the lining is necessary
to prevent the collapse of soil.
The grouting volume to fill the physical gap for each segmental ring is
VPhysica _ gap = W (d + + )(2 + ) (6)
2
Lee et al. (1992) studied the gap parameter g. They proposed
g = G p + u 3d*
+ (7)
where G p = 2 + . The term u3d *
represents the equivalent 3D elastoplastic
deformation at the tunnel face; it equals approximately zero for EPB tunnel; and the
term takes the quality of workmanship into account, and = L , here
represents "excess pitch" (i.e., an upwards or downwards angle of the shield when
advancing) and L represents the length of the shield, which are illustrated in Figure 5.
Lee et al . (1992) also stated that for EPB tunneling the workmanship parameter is
up to 6Gp.
In practice, cementious material is grouted to the gap via 4 or 6 holes evenly
arranged along the tunnel segmental ring. The grouting volume to fill the shadow area
taking workmanship into account for each segmental ring in Figure 5(b) is
L
Vgap _ fill = W (d + + + )(2 + + L ) (8)
2 2
However, more grouting volume than the calculated with Equations (7) and (8) are
conducted to eliminate the excessive settlement. Grouting volumes calculated using
Equations (6) and (8) as well as the real monitored grouting volumes are plotted in
Figure 6.
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Figure 6 shows the comparisons of grouting volumes: (1) only considering the
physical gap; (ii), consider the physical gap and workmanship and (iii) consider the
high grouting pressure (Note, the project of interest uses earth pressure balanced shield
boring machine TM634-PMX with a thickness of 40 mm of tailpiece, a clearance for
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segmental ring erection of 30 mm and a length of the shield of 8.68m). Figure 6 shows
that the grouting volumes considering the workmanship are between the magnitudes
that to fill the physical gap and using the upper limit workmanship (i.e., =0.6Gp by
Lee et al. 1992). However, the high grouting pressure grouted much more
cementitious materials. When biding a project, the appropriate model shall be selected
to calculate the volumes.
To study the effect of the extra grouting, normalized ground heave caused by
grouting (i.e, the settlement immediately after grouting minus the max. settlement
prior to grouting/max. settlement prior to grouting) is studied. Statistical analysis for
the 15 points indicated that approximately 50% normalized extra grouting lead to 40%
of the maximum ground heave.
CLOSING REMARKS
A model to determine the earth pressure in head chamber is proposed and verified
with the database. In addition, comparison with accepted A-K method indicates it is
valid but much simplified. Different phases of settlement caused by shield tunneling
and the gap in shield tail and clearance of erection of lining are discussed. Grouting
volumes are compared; extra grouting volume can cause ground heave, and a general
ratio of extra grouting volume to the ratio of ground heave is analyzed. The result of
the work is applicable to other similar projects, and design method is easily replicated.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful for the support of the open research fund (#2014-01)
provided by State Key Laboratory of Shield Machine and Tunneling Technology,
China.
REFERENCES
Anagostous, G, and Kovari, K. (1996). "Face stability conditions with earth-pressure-
balanced shields." Tunn. Underg. Spa., 11(2):165-173.
Burd, H.J., Houlsby, G.T., Augarde, C.E. and Liu, G.(2000). "Modeling tunneling-
induced settlement of masonry buildings." Proc. ICE, Geotechnical Eng., 143(1): 17-
29.
Chambon, P. and Corte, J.F. (1994). "Shallow tunnels in cohesionless soil: stability of
tunnel face." J. Geotech. Engrg., 120:1148-1165.
Clough G.W. and Schmidt B. (1981). "Design and Performance of Excavations and
Tunnels in Soft Clay." Elsevier, Netherland, pp. 569-634.
Huang, M. S., Song, C.X. and Lu, X.L.(2013). "Upper bound analysis for stability of a
circular tunnel in heterogeneous clay." Chinese J. Geotech. Eng., 35(8):1504-1512.
Leca, E. and Domieux, L. (1990). "Upper and lower bound solutions for the face stability
of shallow circular tunnels in frictional materials." Geotechnique, 40(4):581-606.
Leca, E. and New, B. (2007). "Settlement Induced by Tunneling in Soft Ground." Tunn
Undergr. Sp. Tech., 22, 119-149.
Lee, K.M., Rowe, R.K, and Lo, K.Y. (1992). "Subsidence owing to tunneling. I:
Estimating the gap parameters." Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 29(6):929-940.
Liu, Z., Wang, M. S. and Dong, X. (2003). "Analysis of ground surface settlement
caused by shield tunneling." Chinese J. Rock Mech. Rock. Eng., 22(8): 1297-1301.
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The Effects of Relative Tunnel Depth and Volume Loss on Vertical Settlements
above Tunnels in Dense Sands
Abstract: Past studies have provided data on the variation of settlement distribution
above relatively shallow tunnels in sands. There is, however, a lack of research that
considers the case of relatively deep tunnels. This paper compares the results of a set
of plane-strain centrifuge tests in dry dense sands. The cover-to-diameter ratio, C/D, of
the tunnels ranged between 1.3 and 6.3, thereby including relatively shallow and deep
tunnels. Ground movements are measured using an image-based measurement
technique. Gaussian curves are fitted to the settlement data in order to evaluate the
characteristics of the settlement profiles. An assessment of greenfield settlement
trough shape, both at the surface and subsurface, is carried out. The effect that relative
tunnel depth and volume loss has on the settlement trough shape is demonstrated and
discussed. The results indicate a non-linear trend of settlement trough shape with C/D,
which suggest a transition between shallow and deep tunnels within the investigated
C/D range. To account for highlighted results, new relationships are proposed to
estimate settlement trough shape parameters in dense sands.
INTRODUCTION
Current needs for infrastructure and services in urban areas often require the
construction of tunnels. Because of environmental and economic reasons, tunnels may
be excavated close to the surface or at greater depth. However, tunnel excavation
inevitably induces ground movements that affect existing surface and buried
structures. To preserve structural serviceability and safety, it is necessary to assess the
magnitude and distribution of tunnelling-induced ground movements. In particular, the
prediction of the vertical settlement trough shape is important: a narrow settlement
trough (high curvature) with large maximum settlement poses potential for damage to
structures. Ground movements due to tunnelling in clay have been widely monitored
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increases with the cover to diameter ratio, C/D, decreases with the magnitude of
volume loss, Vl,t, and decreases with relative density, Id (Marshall et al. 2012;
Sugiyama et al. 1999; Zhou et al. 2014).
Despite its versatility, the use of the modified Gaussian curve is not as user-friendly
as the standard Gaussian curve and the parameter does not have a physical meaning.
To overcome these drawbacks, Marshall et al. (2012) suggested to characterise the
shape of modified Gaussian curves through x* and x** that are, respectively, the
horizontal distance between the tunnel centre line and the point where uz = 0.606 umax
and uz = 0.303 umax. x* and x** are related to the depth through x* =K*(zt - z) and
x** = K**(zt - z). For standard Gaussian curves x coincides with i, therefore the use of
x and x allows for a reasonable comparison of the trough width of standard and
modified Gaussian curves.
Marshall et al. (2012) proposed the following equations, based on the modified
Gaussian curve, to predict surface and subsurface settlement troughs in dense sands.
*K s* + (x * / z )( z / z t ) ** K s** + (x ** / z )( z / z t )
K = K =
1 z / zt 1 z / zt (6)
K s* = K s*,int % * slope
Vlt + Vl ,t K s ,Vlt K s** = K s*,*Vltint + Vl %,t K s*,*Vltslope
However the regression of centrifuge data was performed assuming a linear variation
of the trough shape parameters ( x* / z ; x** / z ; K s*,slope ** slope
Vlt ; K s ,Vlt ; K s*,int **int
Vlt ; K s ,Vlt ) with
The test was conducted at the University of Nottingham Centre for Geomechanics
geotechnical centrifuge. The centrifuge test of was performed in plain strain condition
at 80 g with a 40 mm diameter model tunnel buried at 270 mm depth (to tunnel axis).
The centrifuge model replicated, at prototype scale, the excavation of a 3.2 m diameter
tunnel with a 20 m cover.
A dry silica sand known as Leighton Buzzard Fraction E with d50 = 0.122 mm was
used for testing. The sand was poured to achieve a relative density, Id, of 90%. The
tunnel comprised a rubber membrane filled with water. It consisted of a concentric
cylinder with enlarged ends covered by a latex sleeve sealed with O-rings. The tunnel
was designed with a concentric cylinder rather than a downwards eccentric one
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because, due to the high relative depth, the tunnel is most likely to experience a radial
contraction. However, because the tunnel volume loss is due to water extraction, a
concentric cylinder allows for both a radial and an oval-shaped contraction depending
on the equilibrium condition between the soil and the model tunnel. A tunnel volume
control system composed by a constant-head standpipe, a solenoid valve, a linear
actuator, a water-filled sealed cylinder and an LVDT was used to 1) compensate,
during the centrifuge spin up, the volume loss at the tunnel due to the compressibility
of the air trapped within the system; 2) extract water from the tunnel during the test to
replicate the ground loss due to tunnel excavation and 3) measure the extracted
volume of the water, which is proportional to Vl,t. Further details regarding the setup
were provided by Zhou et al. (2014).
Three digital cameras were used to take pictures of the soil at the front Perspex wall
of the centrifuge container. During the test, digital photos were taken at 0.2% Vl,t
increments up to 10%. To measure surface and subsurface soil displacements, the
geoPIV image-based measurement technique was used (White et al., 2003). To
improve measurement precision, the field of view of the soil was limited to one side of
the tunnel with respect the centreline, both above and beneath the tunnel. For this test,
the precision was of the order of 0.01 mm.
Scale effects in centrifuge tests should always be evaluated. In case of tunnelling,
the main consideration is the ratio between the model tunnel diameter, D, and average
grain size, d50. Kutter et al. (1994) and Marshall (2009) suggested, respectively, that
grain size impact on the test results decrease when D/d50 > 350 and that scale effects
should be negligible for D/d50 > 500 in collapse condition. For the test presented in
this paper, the ration D/d50 is 327 and the investigated range of Vl,t is within pre-
collapse conditions. Therefore, although grain size effects may be present, they should
have a minor influence on the results.
RESULTS
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The soil arching phenomenon probably plays a major role in 1) the transition from a
chimney-like displacement field to a wide one with C/D and 2) the decrease of the
width parameter K with Vl,t. In general, ground movements due to tunnel ground loss
tend to propagate vertically within the arching zone inducing narrow settlement
troughs in this area. On the other hand, above the arch, ground movements propagate
towards the surface, spreading in the horizontal direction, resulting in wide settlement
troughs. In case of deep tunnels, the soil arching is localized at the tunnel crown and
the soil deformation pattern is wide overall. In case of shallow tunnels the arching
affects a proportionally larger zone of soil above the tunnel, resulting in a chimney-
like displacement field (i.e. narrow settlement troughs). With the increase of Vl,t, the
arching failure induces a narrowing of the settlement troughs in both the zones above
and below the initial soil arch because additional movements due to tunnel ground loss
tend to propagate vertically from the tunnel towards the surface.
FIG. 1. Normalized vertical soil movements for test CD2.4 and CD6.3.
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FIG. 3. Comparison of settlement trough curves for CD2.4, CD4.4 and CD6.3.
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settlement trough shape with C/D ratio has a non-linear trend, probably due to a
transition between shallow and deep tunnels. In clays, Jones (2010) has previously
described the non-linear trend of K by means of a logarithmic curve. Therefore, the
regression of the trough shape parameter coefficients with C/D was based on
logarithmic formulas. This allows for a realistic extrapolation of these parameters in
case of C/D higher than the investigated range. The equations of the interpolating
curves plotted in Fig. 4 are reported in Eq. (7). The prediction of Eq. (7) compared
well with the data used for their statistical regression, as shown in Fig. 5.
x * / z = 0.094 ln(C / D ) 0.378 x ** / z = 0.064 ln(C / D ) 0.712
K s*,slope
Vlt = 0.005 ln(C / D ) 0.040 K s*,*Vltslope = 0.016 ln(C / D ) 0.070 (7)
K s*,int
Vlt = 0.180 ln(C / D ) + 0.424 K s*,*Vlt
int
= 0.255 ln(C / D ) + 0.779
FIG. 5. Trough width parameters against depth for CD2.4 and CD6.3.
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CONCLUSIONS
To investigate relatively shallow and deep tunnels, a greenfield tunnelling centrifuge
test in plane-strain condition and in dry dense sand was carried out for a C/D ratio
equal to 6.3. Results were compared with a set of similar centrifuge tests in the same
soil condition with C/D of the tunnels that ranged between 1.3 and 4.4. The following
conclusions can be drawn. 1) Modified Gaussian curves provided a better fit to the
settlement data compared to Gaussian curves. However, standard Gaussian curves
may be representative of surface settlements induced by deep tunnels (C/D > 4) in
dense sands. 2) The settlement trough width increased with the increase in C/D ratio
whereas it decreased with increase in Vl,t. However, the interpolation of settlement
data with modified Gaussian curves indicated a non-linear trend of settlement trough
shape parameters with C/D, which suggests a transition between shallow and deep
tunnels within the investigated range. This phenomenon may be due to the arching in
the soil above the tunnel. 3) A linear interpolation of the width parameters may lead to
an overestimation of the settlement width, which is not conservative for soil-structure
interaction analyses, in case of C/D higher than the investigated range. Therefore, a set
of equations with a logarithmic trend was proposed to estimate settlement trough
shape parameters in dense sands. This work may be extended to include the effect of
soil relative density.
REFERENCES
Cording, E. J. (1991). "Control of ground movements around tunnels in soil." In: Proc.
9th Pan-American Conf. on Soil Mech. and Found. Engng.: 2195-2244.
Jones, B. (2010). "Low-volume-loss tunnelling for London ring main extension." In:
Proc. Inst. Civil Eng. Geotech. Eng., Vol. 163 (3): 167-185.
Kutter, B. Chang, J. and Davis, B. (1994). "Collapse of cavities in sand and particle
size effects." In: Proc. 94 Int. Conf. on Centrif.: 809-815.
Marshall, A.M. (2009). "Tunnelling in sands and its effect on pipes and piles." Ph.D.
thesis, Cambridge Univ., Cambridge, U.K.
Marshall, A.M. Farrell, R.P. Klar, A. and Mair, R. (2012). "Tunnels in sands: the
effect of size, depth and volume loss on greenfield displacements. " Gotechnique,
Vol. 62 (5): 385-399.
Mair, R.J. Taylor, R.N. and Bracegirdle, A. (1993). "Subsurface settlement profiles
above tunnels in clay." Gotechnique, Vol. 43 (2): 315320.
Sugiyama, T. Hagiwara, T. Nomoto, T. Nomoto, M. Ano, Y. Mair, R.J. Soga, K.
(1999). "Observations of ground movements during tunnel construction by slurry
shield method at the Docklands Light Railway Lewisham Extension-East London."
Soil & Found, Vol. 39 (3): 99112.
Vorster, T.E.B. Klar, A. Soga, K. and Mair, R.J. 2005. "Estimating the Effects of
Tunneling on Existing Pipelines." J. Geotechnical & Geoenv. Engng., Vol. 131
(11): 13991410.
White, D.J. Take, W.A. and Bolton, M.D. (2003). "Soil deformation measurement
using particle image velocimetry (PIV) and photogrammetry." Gotechnique, Vol.
53 (7): 619-631.
Zhou, B. Marshall, A.M. and Yu, H.S. (2014). "Effect of relative density on
settlements above tunnels in sands." In: Proc. 2014 GeoShanghai Int. Congress:
Tunn. Undergr. Constr., 242 GSP: 96-105.
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Performance of a Long Pipe Roof for a Large Span Shallow Tunnel below an Existing Highway
Yu-Feng Shi1,2; Da-Xin Geng1; Chang-Jie Xu; Jun-Sheng Yang3; and Jin-Yang Fu3*
1
Lecture, School of Civil Engineering and Architecture Dept., East China Jiaotong Univ., 808 Shuanggang East Ave.,
Nanchang 330013, China. E-mail: s074811156@126.com
2
Postdoctoral Fellow, Jiangxi Provincial Institute of Water Science, 1038 Beijing East Rd., Nanchang 330029, China. E-mail:
s074811156@126.com
3
Lecture, Civil Engineering School of Central South Univ., 68 Shaoshan South Rd., Changsha 410075, China. E-mail:
jy.fu85@gmail.com
Abstract: The pipe roof reinforcement is usually used to stabilize the tunnel arch for tunneling in weak ground
section or passing below highway. In this study, large scale pipe-roof (85m long and 159 mm) was used to
enhance the Shitougang tunnel where a railway tunnel passes below the Hengyang-Kunming Highway in China.
The deformation of the pipe was measured by a series of strain gauges, and meanwhile, a three dimensional
numerical analysis was carried out to investigate the mechanical performance of the long and larger pipe roof. The
measured results are in good agreement with the numerical results. They both show that the stress distribution of
the pipe roof can be divided into three sections: tension section ahead of tunnel face, compressive section behind
the tunnel face and tension section near the entrance casing arch. The peak stress value occurs close to the
entrance casing arch and a certain distance ahead and behind the tunnel face, respectively. This analysis illustrates
the mechanical response of large and long pipe roof reinforcement used for a shallow tunnel passing below
highway.
Keywords: Tunnelling; Long and large pipe roof; Field test; Numerical analysis.
1 Introduction
The method of pipe roof is used extensively because of its adaptability, simplicity for installation and low cost [1-4].
According to the Chinese design code [5], the lengths of the pipe roof are generally between 10-45m and the
diameter of the pipe mostly ranges from 79 to 108mm.In general, the design of pipe roof is still largely depended
on experience and engineering analogy in a qualitative way. In recent years, engineers attempt to make progress
from qualitative design to quantitative design for pipe roof support for underground excavation. Field
measurements and numerical analysis are usually carried out to testify the mechanism of pipe roof reinforcement.
Most numerical analyses used equivalent formation model or beam element method to simulate the pipe roof
[6-12]
. These analyses mainly focus on the effects of pipe roofs in restraining ground surface settlement. It was
revealed that the pipe roof can redistribute the surrounding rock stresses and give an arching effect to the tunnel
face. Consequently, the pipe roof can improve the tunnel face stability and reduce the tunneling-induced ground
surface settlement significantly. The working mechanism of pipe roof has been investigated by Gou et al who
used the theory of elastic foundation beams based on field tests. The results showed that the jacked steel pipes
roof works as beams not only to support overburden loads but also to enhance the properties of surrounding rock
[13]
. Some other scholars improved the elastic foundation beams model, such as the model considering the variable
coefficient of subgrade reaction in front of the tunnel face [14]. However, the beam theories model could not reflect
the working mechanism of pipe roof perfectly because the model parameters are highly uncertain and the model
cannot account for the construction process.
Although pipe roof reinforcement has been used widely in practice, the pipe diameter and length varied for
different projects and were determined mainly on the basis of field experiences of the engineers. There were few
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field measurements on the effects of the steel pipe roof reinforcement, especially long and large diameter pipe
roof reinforcement. This study aims to investigate the mechanical performance of pipe roof, based on field
measurements of large scale pipe-roof (85m long and 159 mm) in the project of Shitougang tunnel where the
railway tunnel passes below the Hengyang-Kunming Highway in China. The deformations of the steel pipes were
observed by the installation of a series of strain gauges inside the pipe. A three-dimensional numerical analysis
was carried out to improve the understanding of the reinforcement mechanism of pipe roof, especially for long
and large span pipe roof.
2 Project overview
The Shitougang Tunnel crosses the Hengyang-Kunming highway at section DK214+975~ DK215+060 about 6~8
m beneath the surface. The angle between the tunnel center line and the highway center line is about 41 degree, as
shown in Fig.1. The width of roadbed of Heng-Kun highway is 26 m while the width of concrete pavement is
11.25 m 2. The tunnel excavation section is 14.68 m in width and 13.09 m in height. The tunnel was excavated
with its upper part in soft expansive soil layer while its lower part in limestone, as shown in Fig. 2 (a). The
expansive soil is made up of silty clay and turns out grayish yellow and in semi-hard state.
1
About 40 m
Elevation (m)
Hengyang-Kunming highway
186.7
178.9
Expansive soil
T unnelprofile
165.8
DK214+975
DK215+060
Limestone
Centerline Intersection position
between highway and tunnel
D K 215+ 021
85 m
1
(a) Longitudinal tunnel section under the highway
Top
1m
6.4
0.4 m 0.4 m
R=
1 1 Permanent
Bench
lining
Limestone
Invert
Fig.1 3D view of the tunnel and highway Fig. 2 Longitudinal and transverse section of the Project
The tunnel was excavated by top heading method. The round length of top heading is 0.5m leaving
behind about 4-6 m core soil to support the tunnel face. The first layer reinforced shotcrete was placed
immediately after the excavation to support the upper part of the tunnel, as shown in Fig. 2(b). Before
excavating the lower part of the tunnel, the second layer reinforced shotcrete was erected in the upper
part. Then, the bench and invert were excavated with a round length of 1 m and 2 m, respectively, and
consequently the second layer reinforced shotcrete was placed to support the bench and invert and
closed as a shotcrete support loop. The specific support parameters and tunnel dimensions are shown in
Fig. 2.
To ensure the safety of Hengyang-Kunming highway and the tunnel construction, a long and larger
pipe roof was installed to pre-reinforce the soil mass above the tunnel arch. The steel pipes were 85m
long and with a diameter of 159 mm. Three reinforced steel bars with a diameter of 18 mm were inserted
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into each pipe to enhance the stiffness and strength of the pipe roof. The pipes were installed with a
spacing of 0.40 cm and about 0.18 m outside the excavation profile. There are some diameter 60 mm
middle pipes among the large pipes with a spacing of 0.4 m as well. However, Large cracks appear (as
shown in Fig. 4) during tunnel construction because of the difficulty for long pipe-roof construction
process control. It Powerful explanation of the pipe-roof necessity as design, or the pavement will suffer
more serious influence and even catastrophic collapse.
3 Field Measurements
3.1 Instrumentation
To investigate the mechanical performance of a long and large pipe roof, the deformation of the pipe was
measured through a series of strain gauges installed inside the pipe. Since the pipe diameter is large and very long,
only half length (43 m) of pipe was instrumented. A typical pipe (pipe A) at the tunnel crown was selected to be
instrumented. The layout of the installed strain gauges is shown in Fig.3 as well as their distribution along the
pipe A.
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9
6 5 4 6 4 5 4 5 4
(a) Layout of strain gauges
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Geo-China 2016 GSP 260 136
arrives at A6. With the tunnel face advancing, the compression strain increases and undergoes a sharp
increase when the tunnel faces close to A8 which is about 10 m away from A6. The strain stays at the
value of -194 temporarily due to the construction interval. Then, this compression strain begins to
decrease with the restart of the excavation and finally stabilizes at -70 after another 20m excavation.
100
300
A1 A1 A6 A9
pipe roof
200 A2
0 A6
A7
-100 A8 -100
A9
-200
Date Date
-300 -200
Fig.5 Measured strain curve of pipe A Fig.6 Measured strain curve of point A6
Due to the different location, the values of the measured strain are different at each point. With the
progress of the tunnel face, the strain at A1 which is nearest to the entrance casing arch stays increasing
as tension strain and stabilizes at about 230. The strain of A2 and A3 varies slightly and finally
stabilizes at a small value (about 10). As all other points are relatively far away from the entrance
casing arch, they have undergone similar trend of strains as point A6.
3.2.2 The longitudinal strain distribution
During the tunnel construction, the pipe roof should resist a complex loading condition as the tunnel
must pass below the highway. The measured strain of pipe roof turns out similar to a bimodal curve
distribution, as shown in Fig.7. The waveform of the curve can be divided into a tensile region before
tunnel face, a compressive region behind tunnel face and a tensile region near the entrance casing arch.
These three regions are obvious when the excavation distance was about 35m, however, for excavation
distance larger than 40 m, the tensile region before tunnel face cannot be measured because of the lack
of monitoring points. The monitored result shows that the compressive region behind the tunnel face and
the tensile region near the entrance casing arch tended to transmit forward with progress of the tunnel
face. No obvious increase of the strain of the pipe roof was observed after tunnel face passed 40 m.
Distance to entrance (m) Distance to entrance (m)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
150 250
-50 Tunnel
-50 face Tunnel face
Excavation
Tunnel face direction -150
-150 -250
(a) (b)
Fig.7 Development of pipe strain with different tunnel face position
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Stress (Pa)
5.0E+05
1.0E+06
0.0E+00
0.0E+00
-5.0E+05
-1.0E+06
-1.0E+06 -2.0E+06
-1.5E+06 -3.0E+06
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
(a) The 0-30m segment of excavation (b) The 30-65m segment of excavation
Fig.10 Horizontal stress longitudinal distribution for pipe roof
Both the field measurements and the numerical analysis show that the performance of the pipe roof
can be divided into three areas along the longitudinal direction. They are the tension section ahead of the
tunnel face, the compression section behind the tunnel face, and the tension section near the entrance
casing arch, as shown in Fig. 11.
Tension
Stress
Compressive
Pipe roof
Excavation direction
Tunnel face
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Actually, the pipe roof in section I has undergone tension. The peak tensile stress occurred ahead of
the tunnel face at a distance which is equal to the excavation height of top heading. The pipe roof in
section II has undergone compression. The peak value of compressive stress occurred at a distance
behind the tunnel face. This distance is about 5 m in numerical analysis while it is about 10 m in field
measurements. The relative larger distance in field measurements is due to the lagging effect of the
closure of the primary shotcrete in a tope heading construction method. In section III the pipe roof has
undergone tension as well. The peak value of tensile stress occurred close to the entrance casing arch.
All the analysis shows that the calculated section length and the peak stress of each section vary
with the distance of excavation length. The length of section and increases with the excavation
of tunnel face, however, the length of section keeps to be a constant length. Besides, the peak stress
of pipe roof in each section also increases with advancing of the tunnel face. This increase is fast at the
beginning of excavation and after the excavation passed half length of the pipe roof the stress increases
very slowly.
4.2.2 Comparison between field measurements and numerical results
The measured strain of the pipe was converted to stress by using the equivalent stiffness of the pipe
roof, which is calculated from the elastic modulus of the steel pipe and the in-filled mortar. Fig. 12
shows the stress calculated both from field measurements and numerical analysis. The two results are
found in good agreement both in values and distribution. This results show that the numerical method
used in this study can serve as an effective method in modelling the performance of long and large pipe
roof in tunnelling.
4.E+06 4.E+06
Stress(MPa)
0.E+00
0.E+00
-1.E+06
-2.E+06
-2.E+06
-3.E+06 -4.E+06
-4.E+06
-5.E+06 -6.E+06
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
(a) Stress of the pipe with 30 m excavation (b) Stress of the pipe with 42 m excavation
Fig.12 Comparison of the pipe stress from numerical simulation and field measurements
5 CONCLUSIONS
The performance of long and large pipe roof in Shitougang tunnel was analyzed by field measurements and 3D
numerical analysis. Based on the mechanical response of the typical pipe at the tunnel crown, the following
conclusions were obtained:
The development of stress along the long and large pipe roof turns out to be a bimodal curve distribution.
The waveform of the distribution curve increases initially and then moves forward with the advance of the
tunnel face.
The stress distribution of the pipe roof can be divided into three sections: tension section ahead of the
tunnel face, compressive section behind the tunnel face and tension section near the entrance casing arch.
The peak tensile stress generally occurred near the entrance casing arch and at a distance equal to the
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excavation height ahead of the tunnel face. The peak compressive stress is related to the distance from
closed primary support to the tunnel face. The length of tension section which is close to the entrance
casing arch tends to be constant while the other two sections vary with the tunnel face position.
The stress of the pipe increases fast first and then it increases very slowly after the tunnel face passed the
half length of the pipe roof.
The calculated stress of pipe roof was in good agreement with the measured result. Solid elements with
consideration for the contact between the surrounding rock and pipe roof can serve as an effective tool to
analyze the long and large pipe roof.
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to the CCCC Fourth Highway Engineering Co., LTD. of China and Nanning Railway
Bureau of China Railway Corporation for the contributions and support regarding the field measurements
presented in this paper. The technology demonstration research project of China Ministry of Transport
(CXKJSF0106-1) and the National Science and Technology Support Program of China (No. 2012BAK24B02) are
also appreciated.
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Cases. Proc.,4th Congress, International Association of Engineering Geology, 1982,New Delhi, India, pp. 15-27.
2. Ibrahim, O. Control of Surface Settlements with Umbrella Arch Method in Second Stage Excavations of Istanbul Metro.
Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, Vol. 23, 2008, pp.674-681.
3. C.O. Aksoy, and T. Onargan. The Role of Umbrella Arch and Face bolt as Deformation Preventing Support System in
Preventing Building Damages. Tunneling and Underground Space Technology, Vol. 25, 2010, pp.553-559.
4. Volkmann, G., and W. Schubert. Optimization of Excavation and Support in Pipe Roof Supported Tunnel Sections.
Tunneling and Underground Space Technology, Vol. 21, 2006.
5. The Professional Standards Compilation Group of Peoples Republic of China (JTG D702004). Code for Design of Road
Tunnel. China Communications Press, Beijing, 2004.
6. Yoo, C. Finite Element Analysis of Tunnel Face Reinforced by Longitudinal Pipes. Computers and Geotechnics, Vol.29,
2002, pp.73-94.
7. Yoo, C., and Shin, H.K. Deformation Behavior of Tunnel Face Reinforced with Longitudinal Pipes Laboratory and
Numerical Investigation. Tunneling and Underground Space Technology, Vol.18, 2003, pp.303-319.
8. Tan, W. L., and P. G. Ranjith. Numerical Analysis of Pipe Roof Reinforcement in Soft Ground Tunneling. Proc., 16th
International Conference on Engineering Mechanics (CD-ROM), 2003, ASCE, Seattle, Wash.
9. Hefny, A. M., W. L. Tan, P. Ranjith, J. Sharma, and J. Zhao. Numerical Analysis for Umbrella Arch Method in Shallow
Large Scale Excavation in Weak Rock. Tunneling and Underground Space Technology, Vol. 19, 2004.
10. Galli G, Grimaldi A, and Leonardi A. Three-Dimensional Modelling of Tunnel Excavation and Lining. Computers and
Geotechnics, Vol. 31, No.3, 2004, pp.171-183.
11. Bae, G. J., J. S. Shin, C. Sicilia, Y. G. Choi, and J. J. Lim. Homogenization Framework for Three-Dimensional
Elastoplastic Finite Element Analysis of a Grouted Pipe-Roofing Reinforcement Method for Tunneling. International
Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, Vol. 29, No. 1, 2005, pp. 1-24.
12. Shin, J.H., Y.K. Choi, O.Y. Kwon et al. Model Testing for Pipe-Reinforced Tunnel Heading in a Granular Soil. Tunneling
and Underground Space Technology, Vol. 23, 2008, 241-250.
13. Yang, J.S., D.M. Gou and Y.X. Zhang. Field Measurements and Numerical Analyses of Double-layer Pipe Roof
Reinforcement in a Shallow Multiarch Tunnel, Journal of Transportation Research Record (No. 2050/Structures): 2008,
pp.145-153.
14. ZHENG, J., R. ZHANG and Q. YANG. Mechanical Mechanism of Pipe Roofs with Variable Coefficient of Subgrade
Reaction in Shallow Tunnels. Chinese Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 31, No. 8, 2009.
15. FLAC Users Manual, Version 5.0. Itasca Consulting Group, Inc., Minneapolis, Minn., 2005.
16. China Railway Eryuan Engineering Group CO.LTD. Survey and Design Report of Shitougang Tunnel of Bid Section
of Extension Project of Hunan and Guangxi Railway. Chengdu, 2009.
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Abstract: Damages due to a fault activity can be divided into dynamic rupture and
quasi-static rupture. In some special projects like roads, channels, and pipelines,
engineers have to design and construct them on the faults inescapably. In addition to
seismic design, the effects of fault rupture crossing the structures must be considered
in the design process. In this paper, four different computer models of a granular
alluvium with and without tunnel were made by a three-dimensional finite-difference
software. A normal fault offset with three different cross angles was applied to the
bottom of the models at the next step. Then, the shear bands propagation and ground
deformations were calculated. The results show that the effects of tunnel existence on
the ground deformations and shear band propagation depend on the cross angle.
INTRODUCTION
In a seismic event, the rupture of an earthquake fault generates two types of ground
displacement: permanent quasi-static offsets on the fault itself, and transient dynamic
oscillations away from the fault (Anastasopoulos et al. 2007). The permanent offset on
a fault affects the ground surface only in some cases, when the fault rupture extends
all, or nearly all the way to the surface. Naturally, over the last four decades, much
less effort had been devoted to understand how a fault rupture affects the overlying
soil, structures and facilities until the three notorious earthquakes of 1999 in Turkey
and Taiwan having offered numerous examples of detrimental effects of large surface
fault ruptures (Loukidis et al. 2009, Anastasopoulos and Gazetas 2010).
The existence of active faults in the path of tunnels implies a seismic hazard, which
can affect underground and on-ground structures in addition to the tunnel. To this
extent, seismic codes correctly require that the construction not be built within the
immediate vicinity of active faults, at least not without a specialized analysis and
design. However, the quantitative indications for the width of these set-back zones are
few and rather uncertain. Given that various conditions such as a structure existence
can deflect the path of shear bands in the overlying soil, the width of the set-back zone
cant be defined precisely. So for these cases, the following questions are raised:
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1) Will the fault rupture reach the ground surface and at which location?
2) How will the ground surface be distorted when a tunnel exists?
This paper studies the special case of a normal fault. The numerical analyses
presented herein are quasi-static, i.e. they do not account for the potential effects of
seismic wave propagation and ground response.
METHODOLOGY
The numerical analyses presented herein were performed using the finite-difference
code FLAC 3D, which employs the dynamic relaxation technique. The merits of the
dynamic relaxation technique, in connection with the numerical analysis of fault trace
propagation problems, have also been demonstrated in the previous studies (Roth et al.
1982). In this study, firstly a simple alluvium model was made, and fault displacement
was applied. Then, the same fault offset was applied to the same alluvium with a
tunnel for different cross angles. Finally, shear bands causing ground deformations
and distortions were calculated and compared. As well as the mentioned models, two
different models based on Lin et al. (2007) sandbox tests were conducted to verify the
modeling method.
Verification
In this part, the two numerical models with similar characteristics with that of Lin et
al. (2007) sandbox tests, were conducted in FLAC 3D and then the results were
compared with theirs. They also made numerical models with FE code software
(ABAQUS) the same as the physical tests. Faulting in a free-field alluvium was
depicted in Figure 1 and the one in alluvium with a tunnel was depicted in Figure 2.
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The similarity in shear bands development and the shape of settlements between the
illustrations verifies the modeling method of this paper. Even it can be seen in Figure
1 that the results of FD model are more accurate than those of FE model in this
problem.
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Materials Behavior
Several experimental and numerical studies have shown that post-peak soil behavior
is a decisive factor in fault rupture propagation and its possible emergence on the
ground surface (Anastasopoulos et al. 2007).The constitutive model assigned to the
soil is the elastoplastic Mohr-Coulomb with isotropic strain-softening model.
Furthermore, the studied alluvium is made of sand with low cohesion. The features of
the alluvium material are mentioned in Table 1. The constitutive model assigned to the
concrete lining is also elastic and is shown in Table 2.
Table 1. Parameters of the MC model used for the soil.
Model E cp cres Ini p res Ini p res
Constant (t/m3) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
Value 2 4104 0.3 1 0.75 20 45 30 -11 5 0
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
Various studies (Roth et al. 1982, Bray et al. 1994, Lin et al. 2006, Anastasopoulos
et al. 2007, Loukidis et al. 2009) have been done about the fault rupture propagation in
the overlying soil and the effect of different parameters such as friction angle, dilation
angle, cohesion, soil type, fault type, etc. In most of these studies (Lin et al. 2006,
Anastasopoulos et al. 2007, Loukidis et al. 2009), centrifuge tests or sand box tests
have been used to verify the modeling. The results show the accuracy of numerical
modeling and indicate the ability of these methods in predicting the fault effects on
soil and structures. Some studies have been done (Shahidi and Vafaeian 2006, Lin et
al. 2007, Anastasopoulos et al. 2008, Anastasopoulos and Gazetas 2010, Mahinroosta
and Mirmoayed 2011) about the impact of fault rupture on structures located in the
alluvium cover of the fault. Valuable results have been conducted, but because of 2D
modeling, the probable cases of faulting have been limited and in fact, some cases
have not been investigated.
Free-Field Alluvium
Fault rupture can cause the development of the primary shear band and a secondary
shear band which are approximately symmetrical (Figure 4a).
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FIG. 4 One-meter fault offset with a 30 dip angle. (a) Shear bands propagation
through overlying soil; (b) Ground surface settlement and inclination plot.
Usually in normal faults with small dip angles, depending on the soil type, a wedge-
shaped depression can be seen on the ground surface, made by the development of the
secondary shear band. This wedge failure can be seen in Figure 4a. According to the
fault dip angle, the fault trace is predicted to appear at X=74.6 m but based on Figure
4b, the fault trace appears at X=46 m, indicating an average angle of faulting of 73.
Actually, the rupture propagation path is deflected in soil and becomes closer to the
perpendicular. This deviation is due to the rupture path which passes through the soil.
According to Figure 4b the maximum inclination is 0.49, which occurs at X=46 m and
the maximum settlement is 1 m, which is 2 times larger than the faults vertical
displacement (0.5 meter), at X=37 m.
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FIG. 5 One meter fault offset with a 30 dip angle and a 0 cross angle above the
tunnel. (a) Shear bands propagation through overlying soil; (b) Ground surface
settlement and inclination plot.
According to the tunnel existence and the deviation of the primary shear bands
development, the fault trace appears at Y=38 m on the ground (Figure 5b). The
maximum settlement is 1.48 m, which is 2.96 times larger than the faults vertical
displacement and appears at Y=33 m (Figure 5b). Since the wedge failure has a
smaller width in this state, a smaller zone is affected by the fault rupture and so the
ground surface inclination is larger than the free-field alluvium case. As shown in
Figure 5b, the maximum ground surface inclination magnitude is 1.08, which is 2.2
times greater than that of the free-field alluvium state and occurs at Y=38 m.
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FIG. 6 One-meter fault offset with a 30 dip angle and a 45 cross angle above
the tunnel. (a) Shear band propagation through overlying soil; (b) Ground
surface settlement and inclination plot.
FIG. 7 One-meter fault offset with a 30 dip angle and a 90 cross angle above
the tunnel. (a) Shear band propagation through overlying soil; (b) Ground
surface settlement and inclination plot.
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The maximum ground surface settlement recorded above the tunnel is 0.16 m, which
is 3.13 times smaller than the faults vertical displacement. Also the maximum
inclination along this direction is 0.0093, which occurs at X=44 m. (Figure 7b)
CONCLUSIONS
In this article, the effect of faulting on ground surface settlements and shear band
development was investigated for a simple alluvium and an alluvium with an
excavated tunnel. The point of interest in this paper is the investigation of the cross
angle. Based on the performed analyses, the following results are obtained:
1. The maximum settlement of 1.48 m is 2.96 times larger than the faults vertical
displacement and it occurs in the case =0. After that, the maximum settlement is
for the free-field alluvium case.
2. The maximum inclination magnitude is 1.08, which occurred in the case of =0.
After that the maximum inclination occurs in the case of free-field alluvium.
3. The fault rupture reaches the ground surface only in the case of =0.
4. An existing tunnel (in all the cases mentioned above) may cause a reduction in
surface settlement along the tunnel or may increase it. It depends on the situation
of the tunnel against the fault plane.
5. Based on the maximum surface settlements, it can be concluded that developing
the secondary shear band increases these amounts and increases the risk.
6. Faulting in all above cases produces high stresses in the concrete lining. The
tensile stresses are much bigger than the compressive stresses. In fact, the
concrete lining failed due to the tensile stress before it reached the maximum
compressive stress.
According to the results, it is necessary to consider all the conditions, which can affect
the surface settlement and also the width of set-back zone in a fault zone.
REFERENCES
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Lin, M.L., Chung, C.F., Jeng, F.S. (2006). Deformation of overburden soil induced by
thrust fault slip. Engineering Geology. 88, 7089.
Lin, M.L., Chung, C.F., Jeng, F.S., and Yao, T.C. (2007). The deformation of
overburden soil induced by thrust faulting and its impact on underground tunnels.
Engineering Geology. 92, 110132.
Loukidis, D., Bouckovalas, G.D., and Papadimitriou, A.G. (2009). Analysis of fault
rupture propagation through uniform soil cover. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake
Engineering. 29, 13891404.
Mahinroosta, R., Mirmoayed, S.A. (2011). Shear band development in embankment
dam and its alluvial foundation due to normal fault rupture deformation. 6th Int.
Conf. on Seismology and earthquake Engng, Vol I: pp 10879.
Roth, WH., Kalsi, G., Papastamatiou, D., Cundall, PA. (1982). Numerical modeling of
fault propagation in soils. 4th Int. Conf. on numerical methods in geomechanics.
Vol I: pp. 48794.
Sarayloo, M., (2011). Investigation of normal fault effect on instability of shallow
tunnels. M.Sc. dissertation, Islamic Azad University, Zanjan branch, Zanjan, Iran.
Shahidi, A.R., Vafaeian, M. (2005). Analysis of longitudinal profile of the tunnels in
the active faulted zone and designing the flexible lining (for Koohrang-III tunnel).
Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology. 20, 213221.
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Abstract: Cavity contraction method has been used for decades for the design of
tunneling and the prediction of ground settlement, by modelling the cavity unloading
process from the in-situ stress state. Analytical solutions of undrained cavity
contraction in a unified state parameter model for clay and sand (CASM) are used in
this paper to predict the soil behaviour around tunnels. CASM is a critical state soil
model with two additional material constants, which has the ability to capture the
overall behaviour of clay and sand under both drained and undrained loading
conditions. Large-strain and effective stress analyses of cavity contraction provide the
distributions of stress/strain within elastic and plastic regions around tunnels. The
effects of ground condition and soil model parameters are investigated from the results
of stress paths and cavity contraction curves. Comparisons are also provided between
the predicted and measured behaviour of tunneling, using data of centrifuge tunnel test
in clay. To account for the effect of free ground surface, Loganathan & Pouloss
method using undrained gap parameter is incorporated to estimate tunneling induced
ground surface settlement.
INTRODUCTION
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.L.
C.S
N
.C
.L
.
C.
q / ( M p'y )
S.
L.
FIG. 2. Unified state parameter model for clay and sand (CASM).
PLASTICITY SOLUTIONS
Plasticity solutions are presented in this section, for a cavity contracted from a0 to
a until the soil around the cavity reaches the critical state (i.e. soil medium is
deformed to have elastic, plastic and critical-state regions). c is the radius of the
elastic-plastic boundary, and ccs is the radius where the soil starts to be in critical
state. Thus, for r > c , soil is in elastic region; whereas for ccs < r < c , soil is in plastic
region, and critical-state zone is for soil at a < r < ccs (see Fig. 1b). In terms of
undrained condition, the soil volume within an arbitrary radius ( r ) can be assumed as
constant, and the relation can be written as:
m+1 m +1
r0 r m+1 = a0 a m+1 = T (2)
The following subsections describe the solutions in elastic and plastic regions, while
the details of derivations can be found in authors personal notes (i.e. Mo & Yu, 2016;
As these notes have not been published yet, readers are welcome to ask for relevant
document).
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qe =
(m + 1)
A(c )
[1 + (m 1) ]M n [A + A ln p' ]1n +1 +
2G0 (m + 1)(1 2 ) (1 + n )A2 1 2
n
[A1 + A2 ln p'0 ]n +1 [A1 + A2 ln p'0 ]n
1 1 1
[A1 + A2 ln p' ]n
(1 + n )A2
where
ln R0 + 1 ln p'0 1
A1 = and A2 = (6)
ln r* ln r*
Plastic deviatoric strain:
n(m + 1) 2 M n n1
qp =
9A2 M m n
n [ ] (
cn + 9 + 3M 2 M 2 )
c M
d
0 (c = M )
(7)
n 1 n 1
k
M d = M k =0 n + k M (c < M )
n 1 k
k =0 M k (c > M )
n 1 k
Total stresses can be calculated by numerical integration from Equation (8):
q
r = m r dr (8)
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selecting the material constants: n = 1.0 and r * = 2.7183 , the validation of the
solutions is carried out by comparing the results of original Cam-clay model with the
results of solutions by Yu & Rowe (1999). The values of the critical state parameters,
chosen to be relevant for London clay, are identical to Yu & Rowe (1999). It needs to
be noted that ambient pore pressure is not included in the results of total stresses (i.e.
= ' + u ).
Figures 3 and 4 present the results of soil behaviour around tunnels using cylindrical
and spherical scenarios, with the overconsolidation ratio of R0 = 1.001 . The final
contraction for both cylindrical and spherical tests is a0 / a = 1.95 and 1.12,
respectively. The results are found to be comparable with data from Yu & Rowe
(1999) when using non-associated flow rule, while identical results are shown for tests
using associated flow rule.
(b)
(a)
(a) (b)
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be undrained condition. According to Mair (1979) and Yu & Rowe (1999), soil
properties are chosen as: = 3.92 , = 0.3 , = 0.05 , M = 0.8 , = 0.3 , su = 26 kPa .
The predictions of crown settlement ( uc ) and mid-surface settlement ( u s ) are shown
in Fig. 5. The crown settlement in Fig. 5a shows comparable results with previous
analytical results (Yu & Rowe, 1999) and centrifuge data (Mair, 1979). As shown in
Fig. 5b and noted by Yu & Rowe (1999), the cavity solutions tend to underpredict the
observed mid-surface settlement, probably owing to the shallow tunnel test of 2DP
with the effect of free ground surface.
(a) (b)
By using a virtual image technique suggested by Sagaseta (1987), Verruijt & Booker
(1996) provided an analytical solution for a tunnel in a homogeneous elastic half-
space (Fig. 6a). However, Verruijt & Bookers method results in wider settlement
trough and larger horizontal movements, as reported by Loganathan & Poulos (1998).
The settlements caused by tunnelling are often characterized by ground loss, which is
defined as a percentage of the ratio of the surface settlement trough volume and the
tunnel volume per unit length. The undrained ground loss was suggested to be defined
based on the gap parameter (referred to as equivalent ground loss, introduced by
Lo & Rowe, 1982 and Rowe & Kack, 1983) by Loganathan & Poulos (1998), for an
analytical prediction for tunnelling-induced ground movements in clays.
Regards to the gap parameter g for the magnitude of the equivalent two-
dimensional void formed around the tunnel, the ovalisation (Fig. 6b) is attributed to
the combined effects of the three-dimensional elastoplastic ground deformation at the
surface, overexcavation of soil around the periphery of the tunnel shield, and the
physical gap that is related to the tunnelling machine, shield, and lining geometry.
Rowe & Kack (1983) defined the undrained gap parameter g as shown in
g = G p + U 3* D + , where G p = physical gap ( G p = 2 + ) that represents the
geometric clearance between the outer skin of the shield and the lining; = thickness
of the tailpiece; = clearance required for erection of the lining; U 3* D = equivalent 3D
elasto-plastic deformation at the tunnel face; and = value that takes into account the
quality of workmanship. The theoretical method for estimation of the gap parameter
can be found in Lee et al. (1992).
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Loganathan & Poulos (1998) defined the equivalent undrained ground loss 0 with
( )
respect to the gap parameter: 0 = 4 gR + g 2 / 4 R 2 100% , where R = radius of the
tunnel. According to the ground deformation patterns and ground loss boundary
conditions, Loganathan & Poulos (1998) derived the nonlinear ground movement
around the tunnel soil interface, as shown in Equation (9).
4 gR + g 2 1.38 x 2 0.69 z 2
x ,z = exp + (9)
4R2 (H + 2 R )
2
H 2
After incorporated into the closed form elastic solutions derived by Verruijt &
Booker (1996), the modified formula for the prediction of surface settlement can be
wright as shown in Equation (10).
H +R 4 gR + g 2 1.38 x 2
u z =0 = 4 (1 )R 2 exp 2
(10)
(H + R )2 + x 2 4 R 2 (H + 2 R )
As shown in Fig. 5b, Loganathan & Pouloss method with g = 0.5 uc ~2.0 uc is
incorporated to estimate tunneling induced ground surface settlement, which gives
better agreement with experimental observation, especially for g = 1.0 uc ~1.5 uc .
CONCLUSIONS
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REFERENCES
Collins, I.F. and Yu, H.S. (1996). Undrained expansions of cavities in critical state
soils Int. J. Numer. Anal. Meth. Geomech., 20(7), 489-516.
Hoek, E. and Brown, E.T. (1980). Underground excavations in rock The Institution
of Mining and Metallurgy, London, England.
Lee, K.M., Rowe, R.K. and Lo, K.Y. (1992). Subsidence owing to tunneling. I:
Estimating the gap parameter. Can. Geotech. J., Ottawa, Canada, 29, 929-940.
Lo, K.Y. and Rowe, R.K. (1982). Prediction of ground subsidence due to tunneling in
clays Res. Rep. GEOT-10-82, Facu. Of Engrg. Sci., Univ. of Western Ontario,
London, Ont., Canada.
Loganathan, N. and Poulos, H.G. (1998). Analytical prediction for tunneling induced
ground movements in clays Journal of Geotechnical and Geo-Environmental
Engineering, ASCE, 124(9), 846-856.
Mair, R.J. (1979). Centrifuge modelling of tunnel construction in soft clay PhD
thesis, Cambridge University.
Mair, R.J. and Taylor, R.N. (1993). Prediction of clay behaviour around tunnels using
plasticity solutions Predictive Soil Mechanics, Thomas Telford, London, 449-463.
Mo, P.Q. and Yu, H.S. (2016). Undrained cavity expansion analysis in a unified state
parameter model for clay and sand: CASM Personal note, paper submitted to
Gotechnique.
Rowe, P.K. and Kack, G.J. (1983). A theoretical examination of the settlements
induced by tunneling: Four case histories Can. Geotech. J., Ottawa, Canada. 20,
299-314.
Sagaseta, C. (1987). Analysis of undrained soil deformation due to ground loss
Gotechnique, London, England, 37(3), 301-320.
Verruijt, A. and Booker, J.R. (1996). Surface settlements due to deformation of a
tunnel in an elastic half plane Gotechnique, London, England, 46(4), 753-756.
Yu, H.S. (1998). CASM: A unified state parameter model for clay and sand Int. J.
Numer. Anal. Meth. Geomech., 22(8), 621-653.
Yu, H.S. (2000). Cavity expansion methods in Geomechanics Kluwer Academic
Publishers, The Netherlands.
Yu, H.S. and Rowe, R.K. (1999). Plasticity solutions for soil behaviour around
contracting cavities and tunnels Int. J. Numer. Anal. Meth. Geomech., 23, 1245-
1279.
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Abstract: This paper presents an investigation on the generation and distribution pattern
of the temperature field within a vertical frozen soil wall by ADINA. The vertical
freezing closure time was 7 days, and after a freezing time of 30 days, the vertical
freezing formed a water-resistant frozen soil wall with a thickness greater than 1.6 m.
The area within 1 m of the vertical frozen soil wall was affected due to the exchange of
heat between the frozen and unfrozen zones. Thus, the spacing of vertical freezing pipes
should be less than 1 m. For design of the freezing process, the effect of temperature at
boundary zones should be taken into account. Marginal zones should be set aside
because the effective/workable zone of freezing pipes is about 1 m. The width and depth
of the vertical frozen wall should be larger than the designated sizes.
INTRODUCTION
A large diameter shield machine is usually required for the construction of cross-over
and cross-ocean tunnels, which results in increased risk during the break-in and
break-out at the end of a tunnel. Therefore, it is important to enhance the soil strength at
the end of a tunnel for the tunnel stability during boring process (Hu 2013). Ground
improvement is required for shield launching and receiving the large-diameter TBM.
The ground freezing approach has been widely used in tunnel (e.g. Nakamura 2004; Yu
et al. 2005; Yang et al. 2006; Ou et al. 2009; Pimental et al. 2012). For example, a triple
axis mixing machine is first used for soil consolidation and is then followed by a ground
freezing process to freeze the pore water to generate a frozen soil wall, which has high
strength and is impermeable (Andersland and Ladanyi, 2004). Sometimes, a dewatering
well is also necessary. In this paper, we analyzed the distribution regularity and
evolution of the temperature field in the freezing area during shield launching by
ADINA (see Bathe and Dong 2014) for guiding the design process.
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Table 1. Ph
hysical mecha
anical parameters of soil h
horizons at sh
hield launchin
ng spot
Friction
Unit weight Youngs moddulus Cohesioon
Depth
D Soil Strata Poissons rat
atio angle
(kN/m3) (MPa) (kPa)
(degree)
(1) 0 m 0.8 m Plain fill 16.5 0.36 7.00 26.0 7.9
(2) 0.8 m 1.7 m Clay 18.1 0.30 7.90 18.0 13.2
(3) 1.7 m 16.7 m Silty clay 16.7 0.32 6.22 18.0 15.3
(4) 16.7
7 m 31.1 m Silt
S and fine sand 18.8 0.26 19.97 8.0 31.5
(5) 31.1
1 m 48.2 m Silt
S and fine sand 19.4 0.26 24.17 6.0 27.3
MERICAL MODEL
NUM M
The
T basic asssumptions for f the simu ulations are as follows: (1) all soil layers in thhe
simuulation rangee are distribu
uted in a horrizontal dire ction; (2) eaach soil layeer is regardedd
to be
b homogen neous and isotropic in thermodyynamic prooperties; (3)) the initiaal
tempperature with hin the soilss is the sam
me; (4) the innfluence off the pipes tthemselves iis
negliigible; in otther words, the temperrature load iis applied tto the soils directly; (55)
mo-physical parameters are constantt throughout the simulatiion. The phaase change oof
therm
transsient heat co
onduction waas used to caalculate the temperaturee field. Onlyy a section oof
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12 m in length was consideered due to the symmeetry of the pproblem. Thhe simulationn
modeel is illustraated in Fig. 3. There weere 15 and 14 equally sspaced freezzing pipes inn
Rowws A and B,, respectivelly. The frozzen depth off each pipe was 31.2 m m. All otheer
parammeters weree set as the same
s of those in the in--situ projectt. The 4-nodde tetrahedraal
elem
ment was seleected for mo odel discretizzation. The llocal mesh reefinement wwas applied to
the surrounding
s area of the freezing
f pipees. The moddel consists oof 815,788 eelements withh
149,0000 nodes. InI order to trrack the chan nge in tempeerature, 22 rrecording pooints were seet
in thrree paths in the planes z = 0 and y = 0 (Fig. 3).
The
T thermop physical paraameters of ceement-admixxed soils aree summarizeed in Table 22,
and are
a based on n the soils saampled from m the construuction site (ssee Hu 20122, 2013). Thhe
initiaal temperatu
ure in simulaation was seet as 30C. This is beccause the tem mperature oof
naturral soils usuaally varies frrom 19 to 200Cat a deptth of 10 m; inn addition, tthe formationn
temp perature may y rise by appproximately 10C due too the heat of hydration of the cementt.
A teemperature of 30C was w set consstant at thee model booundaries too reflect thhe
temp perature of sooils outside the model. The
T temperaature load waas applied oon the surface
of frreezing pipes and is giv ven in Tablee 3. An incrrement of 244 hours wass used in thhe
proceess of tempeerature load ding. In ordeer to verify tthe calculateed results obbtained from
m
finitee element modeling,
m thee numerical results werre comparedd to the in-siitu data. Thhe
temp perature at recording po oints 1 and 2 were com mpared to thoose at the coorrespondingg
pointts in the fielld as shown in Fig. 4. TheT temperatture curves for the num merical resultts
weree relatively smoother
s than those of the field daata. It is attrributable to the fact thaat
numeerical simullation idealiizes the pro oblem param meters and simplifies the complexx
boun ndary and lo oading conditions. Neveertheless, thee numericall simulation results werre
geneerally consisttent with thee field data.
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RES
SULTS
The
T isotherm ms at 0C forr the overalll model andd cross-sectioon z=0 at diifferent timees
are shown
s in Fig
g. 5. As showwn in Fig. 5,, the isotherm
m at 0C in the early freeezing period
(the first five daays) consisteed of circles centered aat the corressponding freeezing pipess,
witho out intersection betweeen adjacent circles. Thee cylindricall frost zone surrounding
each freezing pip pe in Row A was larger than that in Row B. Thiis can be attrributed to thhe
fact that
t the pipees in Row B were surrou unded by moore soil, whicch offers moore resistancce
to temmperature ch hange. Afterr freezing foor six days (F
Fig. 5b), thee frozen zonees around thhe
freezze pipes begaan to merge;; however, th he isotherm at 0C for thhe overall m
model showed
that the
t frozen zo ones had yett not fully co
onnected. Affter freezing for seven daays (Fig. 5c)),
a coontinuous veertical frozen wall had formed. Thhe growth of the frozen wall waas
contiinued until the 40th daay (Fig. 5d)). After the merge, thee arced isothherm at 0C C
gradu ually linearized. Additioonally, the ex
xpansion of tthe frozen aarea progresssively slowed
but the
t thicknesss of the fro ozen wall co ontinued to increase. T Thus, with reespect to thhe
freezzing scheme, it takes 7 days to form m closure beetween freezze pipes givving rise to a
comp plete frozen soil wall. Inn Fig. 6, the isotherms att 0C and -10C after freeezing for 30
and 40 days fo or both the overall mo odel and crross sectionn z=0areillusstrated. It iis
demo onstrated thaat the thickn
ness of the frrozen wall aassociated wiith the isotherm at -10C C
reachhed 1.6m aft fter freezing for 30 dayss; furthermorre, the thickkness associaated with thhe
isoth
herm at 0Cw was 0.2-0.3mm thicker thaan that at -100C. After frreezing for 440 days, therre
was only a sligh ht increase of the thickneess associateed with the isotherm at -10C, up to
aroun nd 1.8m; th he thickness associated with
w the isootherm at 0C was 0.3-0.4m thickeer
than that at -10C. Thereforre, the thick kness of the frozen walll was greateer than 1.6m m
after vertical freeezing for 30 days.
a)freezing forr 5 days b)ffreezing for 6 days c)freeezing for 7 daays d)freezinng for 40 dayys
FIG
G. 5. Isotherm
m at 0C for the
t overall mo odel and crosss section z = 0 at differentt time points
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a)freezin
ng for 30 dayss b)freeezing for 40 ddays
FIG. 6. Isothermss at 0C (Curv
ve 1) and -10C (Curve 2) for the overaall
mo
odel and cross section z = 0 after 30 and
d 40 days of ffreezing.
To
T examine the cooling trend of th he frozen sooils betweenn Rows A annd B, a pathh
betw
ween the two rows (deno oted as Path 1) was speciified as paraallel to y-axiis. Recording
pointts 1-9 were arranged on n Path 1, wiith Y coordiinates of 0, 1.6, 3.2, 4.88, 6.4, 8, 9.66,
11.2,, and 12m, respectively y. Temperatture-time cuurves for eaach recordinng points arre
preseented in Fig. 7. It is inddicated that there
t was a nearly identtical coolingg tendency oof
the curves
c for reecording points 1-7.It was
w also fouund the tem mperature on these pointts
dropp ped below 0C
0 after freezing for 6 days, and thhe frozen soiils between tthe two row ws
starteed to form closure
c after freezing forr 7 days. Thiis implies thhe continuouus frozen walll
was completely constructed.. For points 8 and 9, it ttook 9 and 221 freezing ddays to reachh
0C, respectively y; the changee in temperaature was sloower than thoose for otherr points. Thiis
may be due to th he fact that there were less
l freezingg pipes surroounding thesse two pointts
than for other po oints as showwn in Fig. 3b.For
3 exam
mple, the disttance from ppoint 9 to itts
neareest freezing pipe was 0.8 8 m. The ressults indicatte that the efffective workking distancce
of a freezing pip pe is about 0.5 m; in other
o words,, the distancce between two freezingg
pipess should not be larger thaan 1 m.
FIG.
F 7.The temperature cu
urves for poin
nts FIG. 88.Temperaturre distributioon curves of
19 d
different pointts on Path 1. (d = day)
Thhe points in Path 1 were further exam mined basedd on their disstance from the centre oof
the tu
unnel. The temperature
t Fig. 8. Usingg
curves at different freezzing time aree plotted in F
thesee curves, two regions were
w classifieed: points 1--7 were desiignated as reegion I whille
the rest
r made up p region II. As shown in Fig. 8, tthe rate of ttemperature decline waas
t first 15 days than the rate theereafter. This is mainly because thhe
greattest during the
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temp perature of the brine was w maintain ned at -30C C, and the heat exchaange is morre
intennsive in periiods with a larger temp perature disccrepancy beetween the bbrine and itts
surroounding soilss. Thus, the decrease in temperaturee of the surroounding soills reduces thhe
rate of temperatu ure decline. The temperrature in reggion 1 droppped to about -20C at thhe
15th day. Region n 2 was located at the ed dge of Row A A, and the teemperature iin this regionn
channges significantly slowerr than otherr points as a result of thhe phenomeena discussed
previiously. The distance
d betw
ween points 7 and 8 wass approximat ately 1/14 of the length oof
Roww A. This imp plies that a marginal
m disttance of 1/144 of the freezing length should be seet
asidee during the design of vertical
v freezze projects. TThus, one orr two additioonal freezing
pipess at each side boundarry should be b installed to ensure the marginaal zones arre
accou unted for. To
T examine the t cooling trend
t along the depth grradient, anotther part waas
chosen (denoted d as Path 2)) and includ ded points 11, 10-15, ass shown in Fig. 2c. Thhe
temp perature-timee curves for the 7 record ding points aare shown inn Fig. 9. It iis shown thaat
the cooling
c rate was
w basically identical for f points 1 aand 10 to 133. The tempeerature for alll
thesee points dropped below w zero after freezing forr 6 days. Att this time, a continuouus
vertical frozen wall
w was form med as the frozen
fr zones around the freeze pipess of two row ws
weree totally merg ged. For poiint 14, the teemperature ddropped beloow zero afterr freezing foor
abouut 10 days. AsA it was furtther away fro om the freezze pipe, poinnt 15 droppeed below zero
after freezing for 30 days. The T distancee between pooint 14 and 15 was 1 m m. The resultts
imply y that a marrginal distan nce of at leaast 1 m alonng the z-axiss should set aside for thhe
desiggn. Similar finding
f can be found by y plotting thhe points in PPart 2 accorrding to theiir
distaance to the grround level (Fig.
( 11).
To
T profile thhe cooling raate of the veertical frozenn wall alongg the tunnelling directionn
(i.e. x-axis in Fig. 3), 8 reco
ording points were seleccted (denoteed as Path 3)) at the crosss
section z=0, inclluding pointss 1, 16 to 222 with x-cooordinates 0, --0.4, -0.8,-1.2, -1.5, -2.00,
-2.5 and -3.0, resspectively, as
a shown in Fig.
F 3b. Pathh 3 was locaated in the central part oof
the frozen
fr wall perpendicula
p ar to the plan
ne y=0. The cooling ratees for points in Path 3 arre
showwn in Fig. 111, in which, it can be seeen that the ccooling curvees differed ffrom those oof
Pathss 1 and 2. The
T cooling-rrate curve of point 17 w was the samee as the coolling program m
of brrine as it waas 0.4m awaay from the heading facce. For otherr points, thee cooling-ratte
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curvee demonstraated that the further awaay from the heading facce, the lowerr the cooling
rate and the high her temperaature. The teemperature oof points 166, 1, and 18 between thhe
freezze pipes in row B and th he heading face
f droppedd below 0C C after freeziing for 6 to 7
days forming a continuous
c vertical
v frozeen wall. Thee temperaturee of point 199, which waas
0.3m
m away from m the freeze pipes in Ro ow B along tthe x-axis, ddropped beloow 0C afteer
freezzing for 10 days.
d Point 20
2 took23 daays to drop bbelow 0C. E Even after freeezing for 40
days, the temperrature did not n drop to below 0C for points 221 and 22, which had a
distaance of 1.3 annd 1.8m, resspectively, frrom the freezzing pipes inn Row B aloong the x-axiis.
Figure 12 gives the cooling rates at diffferent time ppoints. The ppoints alongg Path 3 werre
arrannged based ono their disttance from th he heading face. These curves can be classified
into four regionss: I, II, III an
nd IV. The freeze
fr pipes in rows A aand B were llocated at thhe
respeective centerrs of regionss I and II. In region I, thee temperaturre at differennt time pointts
was basically
b symmmetrical arround the freeeze pipes inn row A. Hoowever, in coontrast to thhe
trendds exhibited in region I, the temperaature in regioon II was low wer at the siide closest to
the freeze
f pipes in row A du ue to influennce of freezee pipes in roow A. Becauuse region IV V
was far away fro om the freezee pipes, the temperature
t did not decrrease signifiicantly, and iit
can beb seen thatt even pointts in this reg gion closestt to the freeze pipes didd not displayy
signiificantly low
wer temperattures. Overall, the coolinng rate of sooils on Pathh 3 decreased
gradu ually, especcially after freezing fo or 20 days.. After freeezing for 110 days, thhe
temp perature withhin 1.5 m of heading facee dropped beelow 0C. A After freezingg for 40 dayss,
the teemperature within
w 2.4 m of heading face droppeed below 0C C.
FIG. 11
1. The temperrature curvess FIG. 112. Temperatu ure distributiion curves
for points 1, 16 to 22 of ddifferent poin
nts on Path 3. (d = day)
NCLUSION
CON NS
The
T distributtion of the temperature field in a veertical frozeen soil wall for the TBM M
breakk-in of a larrge diameterr shield cross-river tunnnel was studdied using A ADINA. Thhe
concclusions can be
b summarizzed as follow ws: (1) The ttrend of the calculated teemperature iis
in geeneral congruuence with the
t measured d data. Furthhermore, the temperaturee curve based
on thhe calculated
d data seemss to be relatiively smoothh. This indiccates that it is feasible to
use a numerical model to sim mulate the temperature change of a vertical froozen soil walll
durinng the launcching of a sh
hield tunnel.. (2) In the designed freeezing schem me, it took 7
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days to form the closure of the frozen soil wall. After a freezing time of 30days, a
water-resistant frozen soil wall with a thickness of greater than 1.6 m was formed. (3)
There was a significant impact due to the heat exchange between the unfrozen soil and
frozen soil wall on both sides of the frozen soil wall. The effective zone of a freezing
pipe was about 0.5 m, and as a result, the spacing of freezing pipes is recommended to
be less than 1 m. (4) A marginal zone should be set aside in design. One or two
additional freezing pipes along each row should be installed to ensure the generation of a
marginal zone at each side boundary. For the z-axis, the marginal zone should be at least
1 m in depth, which implies the freezing pipes should reach the depth at least 1 m deeper
than their designated positions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was financially supported by the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation
funded project (2015M580559), the Scientific Research Foundation for the Returned
Overseas Chinese Scholars ([2014]-240) and the Scientific Research Project of
Education Department of Hainan Province (Hnky2015-10).
REFERENCES
Andersland O.B. and Ladanyi, B. (2004). Frozen ground engineering. American Society
of Civil Engineering, John Wiley & Sons Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Bathe K. J. and Dong, J. (2014). Component mode synthesis with subspace iterations
for controlled accuracy of frequency and mode shape solutions. Computers and
Structures, 139: 28-32.
Hu J. (2012) Study on the reinforcement methods of subway large-diameter shield
launching in the sandy clay with high water pressure. PhD thesis Nanjing: Nanjing
Forestry University. (in Chinese)
Nakamura T., Imaishi T., Eguchi H. and Nishida, Y. (2004). Reducing swelling pressure
on the freezing method of ground treatment by drilling and coring measures for
tunnelling works.Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 19: 499-450.
Ou C.Y., Kao C.C. and Chen C.I. (2009). Performance and analysis of artificial ground
freezing in the shield tunnelling.Journal of GeoEngineering, 4(1): 29-40.
Pimentel P., Papakonstantinou S. and Anagnostou G. (2012). Numerical interpretation
of temperature distributions from three ground freezing applications in urban
tunnelling.Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 28: 57-69.
Yang P. Ke J.M., Wang J.G., Chow Y.K. and Zhu F.B. (2006). Numerical simulation of
frost heave with coupled water freezing, temperature and stress fields in tunnel
excavation.Computers and Geotechnics, 33: 330-340.
Yu Z. K., Huang H. W. and Wang R. L. (2005). Application of the artificially ground
freezing method to shanghai metro engineering.Journal of Glaciology and
Geocryology, 27(4), 550556.
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INTRODUCTION
The sand compaction pile (SCP) method is a technique by placing granular material
(usually sand) into a ground through a casing pipe, and the sand is compacted by
either vibration, dynamic impact or static excitation to construct a compacted sand pile
in soils (Kitazume, M., 2005). This method can be applied to soft clay soils which is a
reinforcement of composite ground consisting of compacted sand piles and
surrounding clay. The improvement purpose is to assure stability, reduce ground
settlement, enhance drainage function, and increase horizontal resistance of pile. This
method can be also applied to sandy soils or soft clay soils. In this paper, the
improvement patterns, design procedures, implementation, quality control and cases
study for clay soils are described in details.
The SCP method can be categorized into on-land construction and marine
construction, respectively. For on-land construction, the SCP method has been applied
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to embankments, storage yard, and building foundations, while the SCP method has
been applied to breakwaters, sea revetments and piers in marine construction. For the
marine construction, the maximum improvement depth of the method increases to
70m and the diameter ranges from 1.6m to 2.0m. The replacement area ratio for
applications on clayey soils is ranged from 0.3 to 0.8. Moreover, the SCP marine
construction method has been applied successfully to the immersed tunnel foundation
in the Island and Tunnel Project of Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge in China and
Busan-Geoje Fixed Link Project in South Korea.
Improvement Patterns
Clayey soils improved by the SCP method can be considered to be a composite
ground consisting of compacted sand piles and surrounding clay as schematically
shown in FIG. 1.
pp
p
As
ps
Sand Pile
Sand Pile
Clay
Clay
Clay
The replacement area ratio, m, is defined as the ratio of the sectional area of the sand
piles, As, to the improving ground area, A, which is formulated as Equation (1).
As
m=
A (1)
Because the compressive stiffness of sand piles is much higher than that of the
surrounding clay ground, more external load is applied on the top of sand piles, while
relatively less load is applied on the clay among the sand piles. The stress
concentration ratio, n, is defined as the ratio of the vertical stress acting on sand piles,
pp, to that on the surrounding clay, ps. A simple analytical approach provides a
formulation to calculate above stresses as expressed in Equations (2) to (4), which are
derived from the stress equilibrium between sand piles and surrounding clay.
pp
n=
ps (2)
np
pp = = p p
1 + (n 1)m (3)
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p
ps = = s p
1 + ( n 1) m (4)
where m is replacement area ratio; A is cross sectional area of clay ground and sand
pile (m2); As is cross sectional area of sand pile (m2); n is stress concentration ratio; p
is average vertical stress (kN/m2); ps is vertical stress on clay ground (kN/m2); pp is
vertical stress on sand pile (kN/m2).
Improvement Principle
The improvement principle of the SCP method for soft clay ground is described in
the following aspects:
(1) Replacement:
For the soft clay ground, sand compaction piles are formed by driving a casing into
the soft ground to a predetermined depth. Sand is then forced through the casing into
the ground to displace the soft soils, and thereby a dense and large-diameter sand piles
are being formed.
(2) Compaction
The sand is then compacted in the casing. The effect of its density of the compacted
sand should be taken into account since it can affect the stability and bearing capacity
of the ground, especially for low replacement ratios lower than 40%.
(3) Consolidation
The compacted sand piles can function as a drainage path to accelerate the
consolidation process in the soft clay ground. Combined with the preloading method,
the ultimate settlement of the soft clay ground with compacted sand piles will be
reduced in long operation period.
Design Criterion
The design of SCP method improved clay ground should meet the requirement for
both total settlement and differential settlement for tunnel foundation, and consider the
load on tunnel structure and the deformation induced by stiffness difference thus
incurred.
Design Procedures
(1) The topographic, bathymetric survey strata, engineering geology and
hydrological data in this site area is needed to be investigated and collected.
(2) The loading condition, stiffness, bearing capacity and settlement requirements is
determined as the input design parameters.
(3) Preliminary calculation for bearing capacity and settlement of natural foundation
under operation loading condition is needed to determine the improved area.
(4) Based on the construction condition, preliminary scheme with diameter, layout,
replacement area ratio and improved depth is proposed. The stability, bearing
capacity, settlement and consolidation for preliminary scheme is analyzed.
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Material
The most suitable material for the SCP method is well blended granular material.
However, in the case where suitable soil cannot be obtained due to economic and/or
environmental reasons, a soil with poor quality can be also used after confirming
acceptable performance and execution ability. Applicable grain size range of filling
materials for SCP method can be showed in FIG. 2.
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Quality Control
The pile shaft must be continuous and complete, and the pile diameter, depth and
pile strength must comply with design requirement. Similarly, the specifications of
pile material must comply with design requirement.
CASES STUDY
Foundation
The longitudinal profile of the tunnel is shown in FIG. 4. The tunnel will be placed
at a very deep depth, and consequently has to accommodate large water and ground
loads, varying soft soil conditions. Ground conditions at the project location (transition
between tunnel and artificial islands) are relatively poor, whereas the ground profile
varies considerably over a relatively short distance. Ground improvement is required
over a considerable part of the tunnel alignment.
Solution
To promote smooth transition from one tunnel part (e.g. piled cut and cover tunnel
at the islands) to the other (e.g. immersed tunnel), sand compaction piles (SCP), jet-
grouting piles, and PHC piles are applied to ground improvement. The objective of the
ground improvement is to improve the foundation conditions for the tunnel. In this
way the ultimate settlements and differential settlements can be limited as well as the
internal forces in the tunnel.
In the transition between immersed tunnel and artificial islands, two SCP schemes
were adopted for the ground improvement. For additional stress less than zero at
bottom of immersed tunnel, the diameter of the sand compaction piles ranges from
1.5m to 1.6m, and the column grid was 1.8m 1.8 m with replacement area ratio of
55% to 62%. For additional stress greater than zero at bottom of immersed tunnel,
SCPs combined with sand drains preloading are adopted. Some soft soils were
replaced by SCP which was also considered as the drain path for consolidation. The
typical cross section of SCP is shown in FIG. 5.
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Foundation
The foundation of the tunnel is formed by a thick layer of marine clay down to
about 30 m below the seabed, followed by a layer of sand and gravel, underlain by
weathered rock. The properties of the marine clay require special attention. Normally,
clay deposits exhibit some degree of overconsolidation due to ageing. On the basis of
the available research data, such an effect does not exist for this marine clay. A
remarkable feature was that the clay exhibited fairly stiff behaviour at low stress levels,
whereas the deformations increased sharply at higher stresses (see Table 1).
Eventually the clay was classified as structured clay.
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However, a heavy backfill on and beside the tunnel is necessary to offer sufficient
resistance to wave pressures. Consequently, the soil stress below the tunnel increases
beyond the limit stress, thus significantly increasing the settlements of the tunnel. This
can be expected to be associated with the large differential settlement. These in turn
may lead to the opening of joints, possibly beyond the capacity of the waterstops.
Solution
To remove the uncertainties described above with respect to the settlements,
different soil improvement techniques had been used. At the ends of the tunnel, the
clay layer under the tunnel was relatively thin. Here the clay was replaced by the rock
fill. Along the major part of the tunnel route, the tunnel was founded on a grid of
columns formed in soils using the Cement Deep Mixing (CDM) method. At the
western end, the tunnel will be resting in a dam construction built on the sea floor. The
CDM method is considered less suitable here, as it may cause disks to be created,
which would form a potential slip surface during an earthquake. The solution chosen
herein is the use of sand columns according to the Sand Compaction Pile (SCP)
marine construction process. FIG. 6 shows the longitudinal cross section of immersed
tunnel of Busan-Geoje Fixed Link project.
These sand columns, with diameters ranging from 1.2m to 2.0m, are inserted to a
record depth of approximate 60m. Two different diameters are adopted in each single
sand pile for upper layer and lower layer as shown in FIG. 7. The sand column has
diameter of 2.0m at upper layer, and the column grid is 3.0m 2.6m with replacement
area ratio of 40%; the sand column has diameter of 1.6 m at lower layer, and the
column grid is 3.0m 2.6m with replacement area ratio of 26%. The dam is built onto
the column grid with some excess height, so that the settlement will be very small
after placement of the tunnel elements.
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DISCUSSIONS
CONCLUSIONS
(1) The SCP method can be applied to soft clay ground which is a reinforcement of
composite ground consisting of compacted sand piles and surrounding clay.
(2) Some important issues of the SCP improved clay ground for immersed tunnel
have been discussed, which include the improvement patterns, design procedures,
implementation and quality control, etc.
(3) The SCP marine construction method has been applied successfully to the
immersed tunnel foundation in Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge in China and
Busan-Geoje fixed link project in South Korea. The SCP method is demonstrated
to be able to reduce the settlements and improve the stability of the tunnel.
(4) With some advantages and disadvantages, the SCP method is still an excellent
method for improving stability, reducing ground settlement, enhancing drainage
function, and increasing horizontal resistance applications.
REFERENCES
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INTRODUCTION
The support of tunnel is usually not followed so closely or enough strongly that the
rock mass (especially for soft rock) near tunnel surface would become unstable
severely after excavation during construction (Bizjak, 2004). In general, tunnel
excavation will lead to excavation damaged/disturbed zone (EDZ) and loosing load on
the structure in the meantime. In the excavation process, the load releases
continuously in the stress adjustment process till the structure and rock mass
stabilizing (Sakurai, 1978). Therefore, the assessment of EDZ around tunnel after
excavation is significantly important to construct tunnels well (Martino, 2004).
The characteristics of EDZ would greatly depend on the geological conditions
(Malmgren, 2007). In the past, we would consider that the damage zones mainly occur
in brittle or quasi brittle, which too many study of EDZ using damage mechanics paid
more attention hard rock mass (Cai, 2004). In fact, the damage in soft rock is very
evident, such as the porosity ratio reduction, the strain softening, even shear band
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phenomena. In other words, the failure of soft rock is a progressive process with a lot
of plastic strain, so the damage mechanics is greatly fit to studying the failure process
of soft rock (Wang, 2010). Therefore, the evolution process of EDZ of tunnel in soft
ground is obviously progressive, which can be described by the ratio of stress release.
E.g. Popp (2008) employed an elasto-plastic constitutive model considering the
hardening/softening to study the spatial development of EDZ around a drift at the
Mont Terri site. Li (2011) carried out numerical analysis and model test to research the
load releasing process of the whole section in the construction of ultra-large section
railway tunnel.
In this paper, some numerical simulations are carried out to study the EDZ of the
longest subway tunnel constructed by subsurface excavation in China and are made up
of some cases of different ratio of stress release by the finite element method based on
the elasto-plastic constitutive laws.
ENGINEERING BACKGROUND
The Tongluoshan tunnel locates in Chongqing City of China, which is a typically
interval tunnel and the part of subway NO.6. The whole length of tunnel is 5633*2 m,
which is longest tunnel of interval subway in China constructed by the method of
subsurface excavation. By the comparison of plans, the method synthesizing the tunnel
boring machine (TBM) and drill-blasting has been adopted. The section with TBM is
about 2736*2 m for the ground of relatively intact and hard ground. On the other hand,
the tunnel will go through the soft and weak ground of the length of about 2897*2 m
including karst zone and fault zone treated by the method of drill-blasting.
The section of fault fracture zone within the soft ground was chosen as the study
background, which is the length of about 50 m. The ground is mainly covered with
strongly weathered sandstone, which can be defined as the grade according to the
design codes of railway tunnel in China. The tunnel is a typically separated tunnel
with the crossing section of diameter of 6 m and altitude height from 268 m to 273 m.
By considering the boundary effects and Saint-Venant's Principle, the dimension of
being numerically simulated is finally determined to be what is shown in Fig.1.
60 m
6m
120 m
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Drucker-Prager yield and recited as following, which has been proved to be reasonable
for study strain softening and progressive failure of soft rock mass (Huang, 2013).
If the stress estimation was beyond yield criterion, it appeared that the material
damage initiated with plastic stain. According to strain equivalent law proposed by
Lemaitre (Lemaitre, 1983), the Cauchy stress ij will be replaced by effective
stress ~ , while material stiffness is degraded progressively according to the specified
ij
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8
7
6
Fig. 2 The numerical mode for UCT Fig. 3 The comparison of test and
calculation
Fig.4 The FE mesh for numerical simulation Fig. 5 The diagram of stress release
The whole process of stress release of rock mass will be completed by 2 steps as
following: (i) the reaction forces of node denoted by RF in equation (4) are
outputted. (ii) The negative forces p(z) are loaded to the nodes by the ratio of stress
release denoted by r in equation (4), which is shown in Fig. 5.
p( z ) = [1 r ( z , p)] RF (4)
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Fig. 6 The EDZ for the ratio of 1.0 Fig. 7 The plastic zone for the ratio of 1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
When the ratio of stress release is respectively 0.7, 0.8, and 0.9, the distribution
isograms of damage zone are shown in Fig 9. The greater ratio of stress release is, the
more obvious and wider the degree and area of EDZ of rock mass respectively are.
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1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
the distance to surface of tunnel /R
Fig. 11 The curves of stress ratio based on different method
When the ratio of stress release is 1.0, the curves of tangential stress at hance of
tunnel got from different model are presented in Fig.11, where the ratio of stress
concentration K is equal to value tangential stress divided by initial stress in ground.
The result of elastic model is obviously unreasonable for soft ground with none of
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peak value. The results of damage model and the ones of plastic have the analogue
rules, while the effects of excavation of damage model is about 3 times of diameters of
tunnel and remarkable bigger than the ones of plastic.
When the ratio of stress release is 1.0, the comparison between the ratio of
tangential stress concentration K and the value of damage variable D at tunnel hance
is presented in Fig.12. The stress loosening zone almost locates in the failure zone, the
partial damage zone offers the external ground bearing, and the stress gradually
transfers to the in situ state.
1.6
1.4
1.2 failure
zone
1.0
in situ
0.8 partial
zone
damage
0.6 zone
0.4 the ratio of stress concentration
the value of damage viarable D
0.2
0.0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
the distance to the surface of tunnel/R
Fig. 12 The comparison of curves of K and D
When the ratio of stress release is 1.0, the comparison between the radial
displacement Ur and the value of damage variable D at tunnel crown is presented in
Fig.13. It is apparent that the gradient of radial displacement in the failure zone is
distinctly greatest and then gradually decreases to a constant in the in situ zone.
1.4
1.2
the radial displacement/10cm
1.0
the value of damage vairable D
0.8 the radial displacement Ur
0.6 partial
failure damage in situ
0.4 zone zone zone
0.2
0.0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
the distance to surface of tunnel/R
Fig. 13 The comparison of curves of Ur and D
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the damage constitutive laws, the method of numerical analysis was
funded by the finite element, which was validated by comparing with the laboratory
tests. Some numerical simulations were carried out for studying the progressive
process and mechanical reaction inner the EDZ with the different ratio of stress release.
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The EDZ of rock mass is an approximate circle for the isotropic initial stress in the
ground and will initiate when the ratio of stress release is more than 0.5. The EDZ
would suddenly increase while the ratio of stress release is over 0.9. The ground after
tunneling can be divided into 3 parts: failure zone (completely damaged zone), partial
damage zone and in-situ stress zone. There will be an obvious stress concentration and
strong deformation gradient in the damage zone.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.
51308574), the post doctor Science Foundation of China (No. 2014M562286), the
natural science project of Chongqing education commission (No. KJ130404), the
project of Chongqing science and technology commission (No. cstc2013jcyjA30007),
the post doctor Science Foundation of Chongqing Xm2014092 , and the post
doctor daily funds of Chongqing Rc201428.
REFERENCES
Aydan ., Akagi T., Kawamoto T. (1993): The Squeezing Potential of Rocks Around
Tunnels Theory and Prediction, Rock mechanics and rock engineering, 26(2): 137-
163.
Bizjak K.F. and Petkovsek B. (2004): Displacement analysis of tunnel support in soft
rock around a shallow highway tunnel at Golovec, Eng. geology, 75(3): 89-106.
Cai M. and Kaiser P.K. (2004): Assessment of excavation damaged zone using a
micromechanics model, Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 20(6):
301-310.
Huang F., Zhu H.H., Xu Q.W., et al (2013). The effect of weak interlayer on the
failure pattern of rock mass around tunnel-Scaled model tests and numerical
analysis, Tunnelling and underground space technology, 35(4): 207-218.
Lemaitre J. (1983): A continuous damage mechanic model for ductile fracture, J. Eng.
Mater, Tech, 107(1): 83-89
Li S.C., Zhao Y., Li L.P. et al (2011). Study of construction section comprehensive
load releasing process of ultra-large section railway tunnel, Rock and Soil
Mechanics (in Chinese), 32(9): 2845-2851.
Malmgren L., Saiang D., Tyr J., et al (2007): The excavation disturbed zone (EDZ)
at Kiirunavaara mine, Swedenby seismic measurements. Journal of Applied
Geophysics ,61(8): 1-15.
Martino J.B. and Chandler N.A. (2004): Excavation-induced damage studies at the
Underground Research Laboratory, International Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Mining Science, 41(5) : 1413-1426.
Popp T., Salzer K., Minkley W. (2008). Influence of bedding planes to EDZ evolution
and the coupled HM properties of Opalinus Clay, Physics and Chemistry of the
Earth, 33: 374-387.
Sakurai S. (1978). Approximate time-dependent analysis of tunnel support structure
considering progress of tunnel face. International Journal for Numerical and
Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, 2(2): 159-175.
Wang S., Yin X.T., Tang H., et al (2010): A new approach for analyzing circular
tunnel in strain-softening rock masses, International Journal of Rock Mechanics
and Mining Sciences, 47(1): 170-178.
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Abstract: Pipe jacking force mainly consists of the penetration resistance from face
pressure and the friction resistance between the pipe and surrounding soil. Jacking
forces depends on following parameters: soil type, groundwater table, overburden,
overcut, lubricant, stoppage, misalignment, length of drive, and intermediate jacking
station (IJS). A slurry shield excavating through alluvium deposit to install a 1.5-m
diameter sewer line was selected in many straight drives with similar conditions of
groundwater table, overburden, overcut, and stoppage. The lubricant distributed among
injection outlets along the pipeline ensures a more uniform distribution of lubricant
around the jacked pipes and a more effective reduction in frictional resistance. This
leaves the soil type and steering correction standing out to reduce the jacking force
required. It can be concluded that the soil classification system developed in separate
study helps interpreting the local variation of jacking force that is resulted from
increasing penetration resistance due to either driving from coarse soil to fine soil or
driving into wood log. This penetration resistance increment is recoverable when
driving condition is reversed. The friction resistance increases significantly if
misalignment is larger than a threshold value of 60 mm, and remains unchanged even if
deviation is corrected. The misalignment effect on friction resistance is not recoverable.
For large diameter pipe jacking with stabilized overcut and sufficient amounts of
lubricant, the face resistance can be significant relative to the friction resistance.
INTRODUCTION
Designing and selecting a pipe jacking system, such as jacking cylinders, traction
frame, thrust block, intermediate jacking station (IJS), pipe material with proper
thickness and sufficient compressive strength, lubrication system, and distance of drive
depend on accurate thrust force estimations (Rahjoo et al. 2012; Khazaei et al. 1994).
Not only site related parameters, i.e., ground conditions, piezometric level, overburden
stress, and soil stress history, but also construction related parameters, i.e., overcutting,
use of lubricant and its volume, stoppage, misalignment, jacking speed, curved
alignment, length of drive, and intermediate jacking station are linked with the thrust
force estimation. However, in fact all the models presented in the literatures (Kastner et
al. 1996; Pellet-Beacour and Kastner 2002; Rogers and Yonan 1992; Rahjoo et al. 2012)
have not yet been fully taken the aforesaid factors into account. Therefore, for tunneling
practice the provision of sufficient jacking capacity is largely based on experiences
from previous projects with similar ground conditions.
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Jacking load mainly consists of the penetration resistance from face pressure and the
resistance from the friction between the pipe and surrounding soil. The friction force
usually constitutes the major component of jacking load. Since in most shields
penetration resistance is not measured, Pellet-Beacour and Kastner (2002) utilized load
cell attached to the head of shield to better understand the percentage of the face
resistance in comparison with the total jacking load. They concluded that the local
variations of total jacking load are mostly linked to the face resistance and the minima
of total jacking load correspond to very low face load. Despite the minor face resistance,
it can be significant for pipe jacking of large diameter under high groundwater level
(Auld 1982; Stein 2003). The face resistance should be greater than the active earth
pressure to prevent surface settlement and less than the passive earth pressure to exclude
surface heaving. Reducing the torque force based on the face pressure is quite important
at the beginning of pipe jacking from the launching shaft to maintain the correct steering
direction.
On the other hand, the friction resistance can then be determined using friction
coefficient between pipe and surrounding soil in conjunction with the overburden
pressure acting on pipe. The bigger the soil particles, the greater the dilatancy of the
soil, and the higher the friction resistance for the same overcut, i.e., annular space
between the excavated tunnel bore and the outer pipe wall. The friction resistance is
proportional to the length of drive and the use of the lubricant injected into overcut can
effectively reduce the friction resistance during pipe jacking. According to Ishibashi
(1988), a reduction of 30 to 50% for clayey soils and about 20% for sandy soils can be
achieved. The lubricant can only work effectively if it is maintained in between the
sliding surfaces of the pipe and the excavated soil surface. The injection of the lubricant
with high pressure may force it to flow only into certain areas, whereas the lubricant
viscosity may contribute a lot to the stability of the tunnel bore (Rahjoo et al. 2012;
Stein et al. 1989). The angular deviation between the central axes of successive pipes
can result in misalignment and a severe misalignment can further cause significant
additional interface friction between pipe and surrounding soil, resulting in an
increment of the total jacking load (Norris 1992; Ni and Cheng 2012). In addition, the
total jacking load may increase after stoppages that stand for the interruption of pipe
jacking during the night or weekend and this increase corresponds to the friction
resistance increase with the face resistance staying the same.
This study presents a case history where one sewer line of the Shulin distinct sewer
network was carried out using a slurry shield, and the drive data obtained were
investigated. The objectives of this study are: (i) to determine the significant factors that
lead to the variation of the total jacking load with the unified soil classification system
and (ii) to verify the critical influence of soil type and lubricant onto total jacking load.
SITE DESCRIPTIONS
Geological Conditions
During ground investigation phase, 7 15-m deep boreholes were constructed for better
understanding the geological conditions along the drive as shown in Fig. 1. The soils
mainly consist of three broad categories of soils: (1) silty sand occasionally mixed with
fill debris and, (2) dense to very dense, poorly graded to well graded sand and gravel
with cobbles or with zones of silt and clay, and (3) silty sand. Groundwater level is at
4.8m below the ground surface.
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BH-6 BH-4
BH-5
LEGEND
Sewer line (D=1.5 m) Fill
Gravel and sand
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Cutter heads are fitted with a combination of roller discs and scraper bits. The roller
discs are 30 mm ahead of a series of scraper bits as shown in Fig. 3. The roller discs
should grind down the hard stones and cobbles, whereas the scraper bits should
shave-off the weak materials such as sand/gravel, silt or clay.
Shaker
4m
1500 mm
H = 11.14 m
10.36 m
Arrival Launching
shaft shaft
P2
L = 126 m
Access of entering the control room was given for taking the spot monitoring readings
every 20 cm distance drive in addition to the above-mentioned continuous monitoring.
The soil samples obtained were used to track parameters such as jacking force, torque,
and penetration rate during the pipe jacking. Shield performance in different ground
conditions encountered along the drive was then evaluated.
Fig. 4 shows a 127-m long pipe jacking result together with the soil log. The fine soil
controlled ground is marked by four yellow shaded areas (i.e., between 21 and 26m,
between 45 and 65m, between 89 and 111m, and between 123 and 127m), otherwise the
ground will be sand and gravel with cobbles. The torque of cutting wheel and shield
deviation are plotted against vertical axis at left, and the jacking force and driving speed
are displayed against vertical axis at right.
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Steering jack
Motor
Steering jack
15 mm Slurry tube
Laser beam
Laser beam
=0
Roller
disc
Strawberry
roller discs
The jacking force maintains at 105 tons along the initial 20 m distance drive and
between 26 and 45 m drive. This force is caused by the face resistance and the friction
between heavier shield and soil. The smallest jacking force after 66 m is 120 tons. The
largest jacking force 150 tons occurs at the half way of drive and the end of drive, and
this happens to be in the fine soil controlled region. It appears that the jacking force does
not increase along the driving length, implying the bored hole may be stable enough to
keep the steering gap open due to the annulus area being full with viscous lubricant. The
highly viscous lubricant prevents it from seeping into coarse soil, i.e., sand and gravel.
Pellet and Kastner (2002) observed the importance of overcutting which, through
reducing the radial compression in soil, leads to a reduction in the normal stress acting
upon the pipe.
Standard roller discs were located within the central portion of the cutter head to spall
encountered cobbles. Scraper bits were included around the periphery of openings in the
cutter head to excavate finer grained silts and clays. The inset was used to protect these
teeth during pipe jacking in the cobbles.
Spikes in torque suggest that the sand and gravel formation with occasional cobbles is
encountered by cutting wheel in this alluvial deposit. The roller discs are used to break
larger particles and they are running 30 mm ahead of a series of scraper bits. When sand
and gravel formation is encountered, the only contact points are between roller discs and
excavation face, and the scraper bits do not contact with excavation face. If the bored is
stable at this moment, the face resistance will maintain steady, so does the jacking force.
But when cutting wheel runs into ground controlled by fine soil, the roller discs will
sink into excavation face and the entire cutting wheel will contact the excavation face.
This results in the increase of jacking force. This can be observed in those four yellow
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shaded areas shown in Fig. 4. The increase of face resistance due to fine soil will
disappear when shield runs into sand and gravel formation again. This fact is confirmed
by Pellet and Kastner (2002). They used a jack load cell attached to the head of shield
machine to measure face pressure. They concluded that the local variations of total
jacking load are mostly linked to the face resistance and the minima of total load
correspond to very low face loads.
The largest increase of face resistance is about 50 tons which is slightly smaller than
the passive soil resistance at the excavation face. Face pressure should be greater than
the active earth pressure to prevent ground surface settlement and less than the passive
earth pressure to exclude surface heaving. Therefore, slower driving speed not only
avoids the excessive face resistance, but also provides more time to slurry system to
separate fine soil from the bentonite slurry. The excessive face resistance may cause the
cutting wheel stalling.
The largest deviation is 30 mm which is smaller than the thresh hold value of 60 mm.
Therefore, the deviation of this drive will not likely cause the friction between pipe and
ground soil. The flow cone testing result is 38 minutes, indicating that the viscosity of
this lubricant is high enough to prevent it from seeping into permeable sand and gravel
formation. This ensures the function of lubricant to be maintained throughout driving
length. Lastly, the stoppage effect was not significant to be observed in this study
because the encountered ground is mostly non-cohesive soils.
FIG. 4. Jacking force versus soil type, torque, deviation, and driving speed.
From the pipe jacking result discussed in this paper, the following conclusions can be
drawn: (1) Bentonite-polymer slurry injected in the annular space at sufficient amounts
to compensate the losses into permeable sand and gravel leads to the stabilization of the
bore, which reduces the friction force around the pipes. (2) The jacking forces in the
first 20 m remain constant at 105 tons, and is caused by the face resistance and the
friction force between heavier shield and soil. (3) The local variations (increasing and
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decreasing) of jacking force are linked to the increasing face pressure due to driving
from coarse soil to fine soil. (4) The pipe deviation is smaller than a threshold value of
60 mm, and this will not generate any significant friction force between pipe and soil. (5)
The highly viscous lubricant distributed uniformly along the pipeline ensures a more
effective reduction in friction resistance during driving in sand and gravel formation. (6)
The classification of encountered soils developed in a separate study helps interpreting
the local variation of jacking force caused by increasing or decreasing of face pressure.
(7) For large diameter pipe jacking with stabilized overcut and sufficient amounts of
lubricant, the face pressure can be significant in comparison with the friction resistance.
REFERENCES
Auld, F.A. (1982). Determination of pipe jacking loads. Proceedings of the Pipe
Jacking Association, Pipe Jacking Association, Manchester, UK.
Ishibashi, N. (1998). Japans recent small diameter pipe jacking construction
methods. Proceedings of International NO-DIG'88, Washington DC.
Kastner, R., Pellet, A.L., Ouvry, J.F., and Guilloux, A. (1996). In-situ monitoring of
microtunneling projects. Proceedings of International NO-DIG'96, New Orleans:
171-182.
Khazaei, S., Shimada, H., and Mastsu, K. (2004). Analysis and prediction of thrust in
using slurry pipe jacking method. Proceedings of the 30th ITA-AITES World Tunnel
Congress, Singapore: 22-27.
Norris, P. (1992). The behavior of jacked concrete pipes during site installation. PhD
Thesis, Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, UK.
Ni, J.C. and Cheng, W.C. (2012). "Steering characteristics of microtunnelling in various
deposits." Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, Vol. 28: 321-330.
Pellet-Beacour, A.L. and Kastner, R. (2002). "Experimental and analytical study of
friction forces during microtunneling operations." Tunnelling and Underground
Space Technology, Vol. 17 (1): 83-97.
Rogers, C.D.F. and Yonan, S.J. (1992). "Experimental study of a jacked pipeline in
sand." Tunnels and Tunnelling Int., Vol. 24 (6): 35-38.
Rahjoo, S., Najaf, M., Williammee, R., and Khankarli, G. (2012). Comparison of
jacking load models for trenchless pipe jacking. Pipelines 2012: Innovations in
Design, Construction, Operations, and Maintenance, Florida: 1507-1520.
Stein, D., Mllers, K., and Bielecki, R. (1989). Microtunneling: installation and
renewal of non-man size supply and sewage lines by the trenchless construction
methods. Ernst and Sohn, Berlin, Germany.
Stein, D. (2003). Practical guideline for the application of micro-tunneling methods.
Rademann, Ludinghausen, Germany.
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Shucai Li1; Haotian Wu1; Ke Wu1*; Wen Zhang1; Maoxin Su1; and Yajun Wang1
1
Research Center of Geotechnical and Structural Engineering, Shandong Univ., Jinan, Shandong
250061, P. R. China.
*Shandong Univ., Jinan, Shandong 250100, P.R.China (corresponding author). E-mail: wk4223@163.com
Abstract: The construction of urban metro in high-risk karst areas is different from that of highway or
railway tunnel in many ways, such as having a great threat to the project stability, prone to induce
secondary geological disaster, damaging the surrounding existing structures and being vulnerable.
Based on the analysis of geological water level of internal and external tunnel project and various
geophysical prospecting, it puts forward a method to explore the geological disaster seepage channel
distribution regularity about urban metro in karst areas in an effective and accurate way. And the
implementation and comprehensive analytic process concerning this method are covered in detail,
which is exemplified by the geological disaster predication and seepage channel exploration of Yaman
interval in urban Rail Line 1, Guiyang city. Then the key technology for comprehensive treatment
towards seepage channel of karst tunnel is proposed and further verifying its effectiveness by utilizing
numerical simulation software.
Keywords: Urban metro; Karst tunnel; Engineering geology; Geophysical prospecting; Advanced
geological predication; Numerical simulation.
INTRODUCTION
With the increase of urban population density, urban underground space is developed on an
unprecedented scale [1]. For cities in karst areas, building underground projects will inevitably result in
sorts of karst geological disasters which undermine the construction and safety of builders [2, 3]. In this
condition, considerable achievements in researching how to forecast tunnel geological disasters in
karst areas has been made[4, 5]. Jetschny, et al[6] employed wave analysis on urban metro tunnel face to
predict the occurrence of geological disasters under metro construction. The distribution regularity of
tunnel geological disasters was revealed by Jang Hyongdoo, et.al[7] through analyzing the regional
geological parameters. Li Shucai, et al.[2, 4, 5, 8] put forward the four-color early-warning mechanism of
tunnel geological hazard by optimizing the comprehensive advanced geological prediction process.
Basing on the vast documents and engineering practice, Ye Ying[9] conducted a systematic study of
forecast methods by analyzing karst formation and distribution. He Chuan[10], through comparing
conventional methods and non-destructive testing methods, studied on applicability to detect water
seepage of highway tunnel by examining the situation of tunnel. However, research on technology of
geological disaster forecast and seepage channel exploration, which involved in urban subway in karst
areas, doesnt develop fully.
In view of the geological disaster predication and seepage channel distribution regularity of Yaman
interval in Guiyang urban Rail Line 1, a high-risk karst area, it brings forward the seepage-distribution
exploration method based on the geological water level analysis of internal and external tunnel project
as well as various geophysical prospecting, and then elaborates its implementation and comprehensive
analytic process.
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The implement of geological disasters forecasting mainly consists of field prospecting and data
explanation. For field prospecting, most forecast methods need adjust instrument parameters and
selection. For inner tunnel prospecting, the survey line should be arranged according to lithology and
structure of surrounding rock. For external tunnel prospecting, the line should be arranged on the top
of tunnel axis when transient electromagnetic method is chosen. For high-density resistivity method,
line is advised to be in each side of road instead of in the middle. Prospecting data explanation should
be carried out after analyzing the corresponding geological data and integrating results from inner and
outer tunnel prospecting. The process is shown in Figure 1.
CASE ANALYSIS
Adopting the comprehensive prospecting methods for outer tunnel (surface hydrogeology survey,
karst cave measuring, water-pumping observation, etc) and inner tunnel (TSP, geological radar and
transient electromagnetic method) ,the author, based on water inflow disaster in tunnel face of
ZDK19+200 at Yaman interval in Guiyang urban rail Line 1, explored the karst geological disaster and
its exact position , scale and damage degree are made clear.
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The tunnel of Yaman interval is excavated by mining method. Its formation lies in mountain peak
valley and corrosion area of Guiyang basin, which falls into the dissolution slope and depression
landform. According to the geological data, there are three faults. F1 in the attitude of
150-16070-80 is the front thrust fault of thrust nappe. The attitudes of F9 and F3 are
24285and14082. Both of them are normal faults. Influenced by them, rock fracture in field is
from less developed to developed and the formation attitude is diverse.
In order to detect the distribution scale of karst seepage channel, first of all, confirming the water
diversion in field area according to geological map and field investigation. Its coverage ranges from
the Station Manpo to Tianyu City forest park.
Secondly, survey shows that there are three large surface water supply stations. (1) Machong ditch,
flowing from north to east, merges with rail line 1. The drain is 2.10~2.60m in width and 1.50~2.20m
in depth. Its water is 1143m in elevation.(2) The pond in the Guizhou University, about 120m2, with
water depth of 0.5~1.5m.(3) Xiaoguan Reservoir, flowing across field area. Interval between Yaguan
and Manpo Station is about 800m apart from the reservoir. The normal storage level is 1,121m, dead
water level is 1112m. Water source is mainly meteoric water.On the other hand, five underground
springs are found out after water-level geological investigation.
Finally, the statistical results of rainfall are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Statistical table about water pumping record and rainfall
Item Rate of water Trans-ver Pumping Rainfallmm
Forecast of
decreasing in se area of rate of
Xiaog water inflow
Date shaft shaft equipment Guiyang Yaguan
2 3
uan m3/h
Begin End (m/h) (m ) (m /h)
8.17 8.18 0 0 107.3 41.5 84.3 30000
8.18 8.22 1.2 500 400
8.22 8.23 1.1 1200 30.2 16.6 64.1 1000
8.23 8.31 1.3 87 500 400
9.1 9.4 0 200 200
9.4 9.5 -0.6 200 21.2 21.2 8.4 300
9.5 9.8 0.5 200 150
The exposed karst cave at ZDK19+200 tunnel face, measured by geological compass and infrared
ambulator, is about 12.5m in height, 16m in length and about 4m at its widest point. The watered point
inside tunnel is about 1117m in elevation. The cave extends from east to the right line of tunnel and
connects with spring. The length of visible part is about 10.4m. Its upper part is wide and ellipse in
shape while the lower part is V-shaped.
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TSP Detection
Using TSP203plus to detect the surroundings near the karst disaster areas in order to prove up
distribution characteristics of seepage channel. The result is in Figure 2:(1) surrounding rocks are
relatively broken from the section ZDK19+200.8 to ZDK19+190. The attitude of stratum changes
considerably. There is a 75% chance that dissolution fissure water or water-conductive muddy
intercalation exits. (2)The surrounding rocks are broken from section ZDK19+190 to ZDK19+160,
joint fissure develops and fillers are abundant. The surrounding rocks are not stable and corrosion
fissure develops.
Considering geological and electromagnetic conditions, the common loop point array is given
preference for transient electromagnetic exploration. Edge of transmitting coil is 3m long, amounting
to 8 turns. The receiving device is probe, with the resonant frequency of 250K15%, effective area of
212m2. Its sensitivity is more than 0.9v/nT.Hz. The dot pitch of surveying line is 0.15m and the
number of measuring point is 20. The analysis result produced by IGGETEM-30A, which is invented
by Institute of Geophysical and Geochemical Exploration, Ministry of Land and Resource and
Shandong University, is shown in Figure 3. It can seen that there is an extensive karst geological
hazard body ahead of tunnel face with the distance of 30~45m.
The detection of tunnel vault by geological radar is to confirm the distribution and scale of karst
area. Figure 4 shows the detection result. With reference to it, there is a strong reflection of radar wave
located at 7m and 15m behind the vault, and probably existing karst anomaly. The event of 7m and
15m in figure is discontinuous which means the presents of fault fracture zone, and because of the
strong reflection of wave here, the fissure is probably filled by water.
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right line excavating. The rocks around karst cave, affected by distinct structure, are broken. Because
strata is steep, rocks in vault are prone to fall down. The elevation of water in right karst cave is higher
than that of left water exit point, and water will seeps with right tunnel excavating.
(3) The tunnel karst seepage water is primarily supplied by surface sewage infiltration and
underground water. The water inflow in tunnel is severely affected by atmospheric rainfall.
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Fourthly, treatment measures of plugging and reinforcement for left-line. Concrete 25 is used to seal
the cave and the filler is as thick as the distance from the entrance to 5 meters away from the bottom.
A 200mm diameter and 8mm thickness steel tube is pre-embedded to the bottom inside cave. Pressure
valve is set outside and the tube is connected to the sump pit of shaft. 10cm shotcrete is done to plug
the tunnel face and then reinforced concrete wall is built in the tunnel face and right karst cave. It is
advised that the wall is at least 2m in thickness and shaped in L, whose bottom and sides are
anchored with surrounding rock by 4m25 thread steel, with the spacing of 5050cm. After
construction of preventing-grout wall, karst cave plugging and advanced curtain grouting in left line
begin. For cave plugging, 6m50 steel flower tube radiates in sector and the mouth spacing is
0.5m0.5m, in which cement and water-glass grout is used. Advanced curtain grouting is done to
ensure the safe construction that behind tunnel face of left line. Reinforcing the excavation face and
rocks that 5~8 meters out of the contour line. At begining, a 2-3m thick grout-preventing wall is
erected. The technology for grouting is advancing phased grouting and cyclic grouting. On the other
hand, take advanced big pipe shed and small pipe grouting supplement strengthening measures for left
line. Advanced big pipe shed is taken on arch for tunnel face of left line. Seamless steel tube with
108mm outer diameter and 8mm thickness is used for big pipe shed. Each section is 2-3m in length.
Then, 42mm advanced grouting little pipe set around working face, which is 3.5m long and 20cm
in ring spacing with setting angle 15. As making consolidation grouting at tunnel bottom, the
geological condition of inverted arch should be scanned in time and backfill treatment need be
provided if cavern exists.
Finally, treatment measures for right tunnel are applied. For grout-preventing wall, its construct
scheme is similar to left line. Then, applying advanced curtain grouting in right line. Suggestting
strengthen primary supporting structure when right line is excavated. Arch centering, made of I22
steel, is modified to 0.5cm in spacing and the concrete is 30cm in thickness. The arrangement of
consolidation grouting for surrounding rocks is similar to left line. The branch tunnel is advised to be
built from the left to the right line when the construction of left line will not be affected.
NUMERICAL METHOD TO RESEARCH ON TREATMENT MEASURES OF
KARST TUNNEL
The treatment measures could be classified into two groups: treatments to supporting structure and
treatments to karst cave. This chapter would use Flac3D to analyze effect of above treatments.
Model Foundation
Based on the project, simplifying layer, tunnel and karst cave, establish a 2-D model. In order to
eliminate boundary effect, length of model is 60m, and the height of model is 80m. Divides model into
3 layer, and from upper to low: overlaying soil 10m; moderately weathered limestone 30m; fresh
limestone 40m. The tunnel shape is horseshoe with length 11m and height 8m. Its depth is 50m. On
the other hand, the karst cave is 8m above the tunnel and similar to elliptical shape. For purpose to
simplify calculation, establishing the cave with circle shape and located at weathered limestone layer
where 5m above tunnel vault. There are 2914 elements and 6070 nodes.
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Essay ignores the influence of seepage field. Simply classify the treatments into two groups: cave
treatment and grouting reinforcement. Considering real effect, surface grouting, full-section grouting,
and curtain grouting all improve mechanical property of surrounding rock. So the essay adopt
full-section grouting method to simulate effect of these measures. On the other hand, the cave
treatment measures, as shown in above: construct 4m HRB40028 rebar as anchor, meanwhile
constructing 30mm thick steel plate as internal lining of cave, as shown in Fig 8.
The calculating method as below: (1) set top boundary of model as free surface; (2) the construction
of tunnel utilizes upper-lower bench method; (3) simulate tunnel and layer with mhor-columb model,
while simulate lining and supporting structure with elastic model. Anchor was simulated by cable
element. The mechanical property of materials are shown as table 2.
Set group without reinforcement measures as the control group to contrast with the full-section
grouting group and cave supporting group, and further analyze the deformation and stress.
(1) The layer settlement nephogram of three groups are shown in Fig 9. From the nephogram,
settlement mainly concentrate on the area between cave and tunnel vault. And both two methods could
effectively reduce eformation of tunnel and layer, which prove the effectiveness of measures
From the nephogram, the deformation trend of model after full-section grouting is simmilar to that
of normal condition, while it is different from the cave-reinforcement group: after full-section grouting,
settlement of tunnel and its surroundings obviously decrease. After cave reinforcement, the settlement
of tunnel decreases, but the settlement of surrounding zones doesnt clearly reduce.
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a. Nephogram of normal condition b. Nephogram of full section grouting c. carve reinforcement using anchor
Fig 9 settlement nephogram of different condition
(2)Fig 10 has shown the plastic zones distribution of model under three reinforcement methods. The
distribute law of common condition and full-section grouting group are similar: V shape area above
the cave intend to failure. And in other area around cave, the element was both tensile failure and
shear failure; the plastic zones around tunnel mainly distribute on side wall, and tensile failure mainly
occurs on the haunch, while shear failure occurs on parts of arch foot. Furthermore, plastic zone of
reinforced model is less then un-reinforced one, especially around tunnel. After full-section grouting,
the load applied on supporting structure and surrounding rock decrease.
CONCLUSION
Taking example of geological disaster predication and seepage channel distribution regularity of
Yaman interval in Guiyang urban Rail Line 1, one new seepage exploration method is presented and
elaborates its implementation and comprehensive analytic process. The key technology for
comprehensive treatment of seepage channel is developed. Finially, get following conclusion: (1) the
new method to research into seepage channel of urban metro based on combining inside and outside
exploration technologies is effective. (2) According to the local project for researching into seepage
channel, some effective treatment measures are supported for similar projects.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was financially supported by National Natural Science Fund(51308323) and Open Fund of
Research Center of Dam safety and Disease Control in Ministry of Water Resources(2014008).
REFERENCE
[1] SU Maoxin, QIAN Qihu, LI Shucai, et al. An method of metra advanced geological prediction under karst geology
condition [J]. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, 2011, 30(7): 1428 - 1434.
[2] LI Shucai, XUE Xiangguo, ZHANG Qingcai, et al. Key technology study on comprehensive predication
earlywarning of geological hazards during tunnel construction in high-risk karst areas [J]. Chinese Journal of
Rock Mechanics and Engineering, 2008, 27(7): 1297-1307.
[3] WANG Meishu. Hydrogeological and geological forecast of tunnel construction in the karst district[J]. Railroad
Survey, 2004, (1): 7-10.
[4] LI Shucai, LI Shuchen, Zhang Qingsong, et al. Forecast of Karst-fractured groundwater and defective geological
conditions [J]. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, 2007, 26(2); 217 - 225.5
[5] ZHANG Wenjun. Study on cross-hole resistivity computed tomography method in survey of karst area[D].
Shandong University Thesis for Master Degree, 2014.
[6] Jetschny Stefan, Bohlen Thomas, Kurzmann Andr. Seismic prediction of geological structures ahead of the tunnel
using tunnel surface waves [J]. Geophysical Prospecting, 2011, 59(5):934-946.
[7] Jang Hyongdoo, Topal Erkan. Optimizing overbreak prediction based on geological parameters comparing multiple
regression analysis and artificial neural network[J].Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 2013,
38:161-169.
[8] SHI Shaoshuai. Study on seepage failure mechanism and risk control of water inrush induced by filled disaster
structure in deep-long tunnel and engineering applications [D]. Shandong University Doctoral Dissertation, 2014.
[9] YE Ying. Tunnel construction ahead geological forecasting method research [D]. Beijing Jiaotong University
Doctoral Dissertation, 2006..
[10] LI Xing. Research on seepage diseases detection and evaluation system of highway tunnel [D]. Southwest Jiaotong
University Master Degree Thesis, 2014.
[11] GUO Ming. Study on concealed Karst caves influence on karst tunnel stability and treatment technology on
tunnels of E-xi mountainous[D]. Shandong University Thesis for Master Degree, 2014.
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Benshuo Wang; Shucai Li; Qianqing Zhang; Liping Li; Qian Zhang; and Fei Xu
Master, Geotechnical and Structural Engineering Research Center, Shandong Univ., Jinan, Shandong
250061, China. E-mail: wbs199203@163.com
INTRODUCTION
Tunnel collapse means that the rock lost control due to the presentation not in time
when it occurs the change of tunnel rock system like fault, crushed zone during
tunneling. Tunnel collapse can greatly endanger the safety of tunnel construction,
leading to huge casualties and economic loss. Therefore, prediction of the occurrence
probability of tunnel collapse is one of the most interesting areas of research in tunnel
construction, and there is a need to clarity the possibility of tunnel collapse during the
construction of tunnel. The risk assessment of tunnel collapse is attached more
attention.
Risk analysis is of signality for tunnel safety, various methods proposed originally
or derived from other fields have been used to evaluate the risk in tunnel.
Probabilistic models for tunnel construction risk assessment were established to
estimate tunnel construction time and guide the construction performance with data
from past tunnel projects. Bayesian probability networks have also been applied to
assess the risk in road tunnel, which is embodied in two aspects. Chen and Huang[1]
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presented a calculation method to access the probability and losses of the accidents
occurred during the shield construction in soft soil area.
As to the risk management and assessment on engineering, the International
Tunneling Association (TA) proposed the Guidelines for Tunnel Risk Management.
Based on the fuzzy analytical method and extension assessment method, many studies
were made to analyze the risk assessment of seismic damage at tunnel and tunnel
collapse. However, because of the random determination of membership function, the
fuzzy analytical method can not be used to obtain clear classification and reasonable
result.
Risk assessment can be used to forecast disaster happened in tunnel. Based on the
results of risk assessment, the possibility of the tunnel collapse can be judged, and
corresponding treatment measures also can be proposed. By using the attribute set,
attribute measure space and ordered partition class, Cheng [2]opposed a attribute
recognition model to analyze the comprehensive assessment in the 1990s. As
subsequently, the attribute mathematics theory was applied successfully in the rock
engineering. However, few studies are concerned on the attribute mathematics theory
of tunnel collapse. Therefore, this is a need to establish an attribute recognition model
by using the attribute mathematics theory to assess the possibility of tunnel collapse.
There are numerous influencing factors about tunnel collapse, such as the support
used and low resistance geological features. And in the present paper, the influencing
factors of the tunnel collapse, i.e., the surrounding rock grade, tunnel depth, angle of
unsymmetrical pressure, rock mass integrity, earthquake and the excavation span,
were used to assess the possibility of tunnel collapse, and to obtain the risk grade of
tunnel collapse. A case study of a mountain tunnel of Cheng-Lan railway was used to
verify the reliability of the present attribute recognition.
{
d jk = min b jk a jk , b jk +1 a jk } (2)
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Im am0am1 am1am2 amK-1amK OR ><amK
When aj0 > aj1 > > ajK, the function of xjk can be determined as:
0 t < a j1 d j1
t a j1 + d j 1
xj1 (t ) = a j1 d j1 t a j1 + d j1 (3)
2 d j1
1 t > a j1 + d j1
0, t < a jk d jk
t a jk + d jk
, a jk d jk t a jk + d jk
2d jk
(4)
xjk (t ) = 1, a jk + d jk < t < a jk 1 d jk 1
a +d t
jk 1 jk 1
, a jk 1 d jk 1 t a jk 1 + d jk 1
2d jk 1
0, t > a jk 1 + d jk 1
1, t < a j1 d j 1
a j1 + d j1 t
xj1 (t ) = , a j1 d j1 t a j1 + d j1 (5)
2 d j1
0, t > a j1 + d j1
When aj0 < aj1 < < ajK, the function of xjk can be determined as:
1, t < a jK 1 d jK 1
a jK 1 + d jK 1 t
xjk (t ) = , a jK 1 d jK 1 t a jK 1 + d jK 1 (6)
2d jK 1
0, t > a jK 1 + d jK 1
0, t < a jk 1 d jk 1
t a jk 1 + d jk 1 , a d
jk 1 jk 1 t a jk 1 + d jk 1
2d jk 1
xjk (t ) = 1 a jk 1 + d jk 1 < t < a jk d jk (7)
a +d t
jk jk
, a jk d jk t a jk + d jk
2d jk
0, t > a jk + d jk
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0, t < a jK 1 d jK 1
t a + d
xjk (t ) =
jK 1 jK 1
, a jK 1 d jK 1 t a jK 1 + d jK 1 (8)
2 d jK 1
1, t > a jK 1 + d jK 1
where t is the value of evaluation index; k=1, 2, ..., K-1; and j=1, 2, ..., m.
The comprehensive attribute measure analysis
The comprehensive attribute xjk can be expressed in the following form:
m
xk = j xjk (9)
j =1
where xjk is the weight of evaluation index Ij, which should satisfy the following
form:
m
0 j 1 j = 1 (10)
j =1
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1.5~2.5
2.5~3.5
3.5~4.5
, >4.5
Complete situation kv
Integrity 0.75~1
Relatively integrity 0.55~0.75
Relatively broken 0.35~0.55
Broken 0.15~0.35
Extremely broken 0~0.15
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where w1 can be estimated by the statistical results of 100 tunnel collapse examples;
and w2 can be obtained from the simple correlation function method. In the present
paper, the values of 1 and 2 can be adopted as 0.5[15].
The weights of the above-mentioned indexes can be written as:
= ( 45 ,w2 , w3, w4, w5, w6) = (0.298, 0.142, 0.088, 0.155, 0.213, 0.104).
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Table 6 Attribute measure functions of single index
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
0, t<3 0, t<2 0, t <1
0, 1,
Geo-China 2016 GSP 260
t<4 t <1
t -3, 3t 4 t -2, 2 t 3 t -1, 1 t 2
x11 (t ) = t -4, 4t 5 x12 (t ) = x13 (t ) = x14 (t ) = x15 (t ) = t -1, 1 t 2
5-t 4 < t 5 4-t , 3 < t 4 3-t , 2 < t 3
1, t >5 0, t>2
0, t >5 0, t>4 0, t >3
ENGINEERING APPLICATION
Project profile
Cheng-Lan Railway was located in Songpan county of Sichuan province, China. It
was a single two-way online tunnel with a length of 6601 m. The surface elevation
was 2570-2810m, with relative height of 240 m, and 25- 40 slope. Tunnel crossed
the Triassic formation in Jurassic Zhuwo group T [3] which was sandstone with
phyllite, local clipping carbonaceous phyllite. On section of the middle-lower Triassic
formation of T[2] z which was the sandstone with rock. Test zone belonged to thin
layer phyllite, with the peak acceleration of 0.30 g. This tunnel was distributed along
the right bank of Minjiang River upstream. Herein the attribute recognition model of
risk assessment was used to assess the possibility of tunnel collapse of the section of
D1K212+088-D1K212+090 of the tunnel (see Fig.1).
2900
2700
2600
2500
Sandstone with slate Sandstone with phyllite
Tunnel body
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An earthq quake with a seismic intensity oof 6.3 happpened in Kaangding onn
Novvember 22, 2014. Thiss earthquakee damages serious to the tunnel, leading too
casu
ualties and economic
e losss.
Table
T 7 Asssessment reesult of tunn
nel collapsee samples
Attribute measure
In
ndex Measured valuee
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
Surrounding rock grade 2.2 0 0 0.2 0.8 0
Rock maass integrity 0.31 0 0 0 0.87 0.13
Tunn
nel depth 290 1 0 0 0 0
Angle of unsym
mmetrical pressu
ure 45 0 0 0 0 1
Excavation span 13.8667 0 0 0 1 0
Eartthquake Serious 0 0 0 1 0
Co
omprehensive in
ndex attribute Meeasure 0.088 0 0.06 0.679 0.1173
Result
R The ppossibility of tunn
nnel collapse is
degree
Analysis of attribu
ute recognition
The order of assesssment set (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, and C6) is C1>C2> C3>C C4> C5> C6. T
The value of
pressented in Eq. (11) can be ado opted as 0.7, and
a Eq. (11) caan be rewrittenn as:
k
k0 = miin k : xl 0.70, 1 k 5 (14))
l =1
The stabiliity grade of this
t tunnel collapse
c is addopted as C4, indicatingg a high risk.
Thee result derrived from the assessm ment methood is consisstent with the presentt
calcculated resullt. The ration
nality and feasibility of aapplication oof attribute m
mathematicss
theoory in risk asssessment off tunnel collaapse is verifi
fied.
Casse study on th he attribute recognition
r
Thrrough the ab bove-mentio oned result, the possib ility about tunnel collaapse of thee
secttion D1K212+088-D1K K212+090 is high. On N November 223, a weak iintercalationn
mixxed with the surrounding g rock appeaared at the riight side of tthe arch foott position off
D1K K212+088. The T collapseed cavity sizze was 10 m 5 m (hoorizontal) (hhigh) 4 m
(verrtical), leadin
ng to sprayinng concrete cracking onn D1K212 + 090. Excavaation resultss
of rock of tunneel face are shhown in Fig.2.
(a) (b)
Fig.2 Ex
xcavation reesults of rocck of tunnel face
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CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the State Key Development Program for Basic
Research Program of China (No. 2013CB036000), the State Key Program of National
Natural Science Foundation of China (No.51139004), the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No.51479106), the National Natural Science Foundation of
China (No.51408338), the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation Special Funded
Project (No.2014T70641), and the Shandong Provincial Natural Science Foundation
of China (No. ZR2014EEQ009). The authors would be grateful to the reviewers for
their valuable comments and suggestions that can help improve the quality of the
paper.
REFERENCES
Alan, N.B. (2010) "Tunnel safety, risk assessment and decision-making. "Tunnelling
and Underground Space Technology, 25:91-94.
Berkowitz, et al (2002) "Characterizing flow and transport in fractured geological
media: a review. Adv. " Water Resources. 25 (8-12):861-884.
Chen, L and Huang, H.W. (2006) "The practice of risk management in Shangzhong
road tunnel engineering. "Chinese journal of Underground Space and
Engineering, 2(1): 65-69+73.
Chen, J.J., Zhou, F and Yang, J.S. et al (2009) "Fuzzy analytic hierarchy process for
risk evaluation of collapse during construction of mountain tunnel." Rock and
Soil Mechanics, 30(12):3622-362.
Cheng, Q.S. (1997) "Attribute recognition theoretical model with application."
Universitatis Pekinnensis, Acta Scientianrum Naturalium, 33(1):12-20.
Cheng, Q.S. (1997) "Attribute sets and attribute synthetic assessment system. "
Systems Engineering Theory & Practice, 17(9):1-8.
Einstein, H.H. (1996) "Risk and risk analysis in rock engineering. " Tunnelling and
Underground Space Technology,11(2):141-155.
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Abstract: In order to improve the prediction methods of geological hazards in the front
of a tunnel face. Gaussian process machine-learning is proposed and the classification
model is established for advanced surrounding rock classification based on TSP-203
system. This approach extracts the useful information from the detection results of
TSP-203, and establishes the quantitative index system of surrounding rock classification.
Then the unknown nonlinear mapping between the detected geological information and
the actual surrounding rock level is established by Gaussian process classification model
(GPC) ultimately. To verify the feasibility and superiority, GPC model is applied to
Jinpingyan tunnel on Chenglan railway in China and the results show that GPC performs
a higher prediction accuracy than support vector machine (SVM) and grey clustering
method in predicting surrounding rock level, providing a new approach for advanced
surrounding rock classification.
INTRODUCTION
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simplified, related literatures (Qiu et al 2010; Raoof et al 2013) can be consulted for the
specific criterion.
The faults and fractured zones can be identified according to the following
observations:
(1) The velocity of the vertical reflection wave increases slightly, and the velocities of
the vertical and horizontal reflection waves decrease;
(2) Depth migration begins with strong negative reflection and ends with strong
positive reflection, while there are many unorganized positive and negative reflective
layers in the reflection bands.
Besides, the water-bearing geological structures can be detected based on the
following evidences:
(1) In a 2D tomography map, the velocity of horizontal reflection wave decreases
while that of vertical reflection wave decreases or increases slightly; both the ratio of the
velocity of vertical reflection wave to that of horizontal reflection wave and the Poissons
ratio of rock mass increase suddenly; the density and Youngs modulus of rock mass
decrease greatly;
(2) The negative reflection is obvious and there are few reflection surfaces after the
primary reflection surface (Liu et al 2003).
GAUSSIAN PROCESS CLASSIFICATION MODEL
Gaussian process (Rasmussen C.E and Williams CKI 2006) is a nonlinear kernel
based learning method, focusing on modeling the posterior directly. In many applications,
it outperforms most other state of the art supervised learning methods. A Gaussian
process (GP) is fully specified by its mean function m(x) and kernel function k(x, x),
expressed as
f ( x ) ~ GP ( m ( x ), k ( x , x) ) (1)
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the predictive posterior with respect to possible latent functions, and values of this could
lie anywhere within the range of (,+). So the probabilistic prediction is made by
= p ( y = +1 X , y , x) = s ( f ) p ( f X , y , x) df (4)
where s can be any sigmoid function that squashes the prediction output to guarantee a
valid probabilistic value within the range of [0,1].
For multi-class classification problem, we can treat each one class as being
independent from the others, and apply binary classification individually to each (one)
class versus the rest classes as shown in Fig.1.
4 0.9
3 0.8
2 0.7
1 0.6
0 0.5
-1 0.4
-2 0.3
-3 0.2
-4 0.1
-4 -2 0 2 4
ENGINEERING APPLICATION
Engineering situation
The Jinpingyan tunnel on Chengdu-Lanzhou railway, which has a total length of
12773m, locates in Songpan county of Sichuan province, the Tibet altiplano eastedge of
China. With weak and fractured rock mass, most of the surrounding rock of Jinpingyan
tunnel is grade III-V. Benching stepping method is adopted in the excavation, and
bolt-shotcrete primary support is immediately constructed after each excavation cycle
completed. During the construction process, the tunnel seismic prediction is applied to
detect the geological information in the front of tunnel face the whole time.
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Before starting the training process, input and output data were scaled to be between
the upper and lower bounds of the transfer functions (usually between 1 and 1). To
transform and normalize the data among various normalization techniques, the minmax
normalization method (Jayalakshmi and Santhakumaran 2011) is adopted, as it is very
simple but also very sophisticated.
Engineering application
To verify the capability of GP classification model in engineering application, this
model was applied to Jinpingyan tunnel on Chenglan railway so as to forecast the
surrounding rock level in advance. In order to obtain the geological condition before
tunnel face, TSP-203plus is adopted to collect the reflection seismic wave data of a
certain tunnel section between D2K200+525 and D2K200+655 (total length is 130m).
The maps of 2D tomography, P, SH waves depth migration and reflector extraction
can be obtained by TSPwin (see Fig.2). Moreover, 2D pictures of prediction results can
also be interpreted as shown in Fig.3. The surrounding rock in predicted zone is divided
into several sections according to P, SH wave, poisson's ratio and young's modulus
obtained by TSP (see Fig.4). Besides, the angle between main structural surface and the
tunnel axisdiscontinuous structural surface and the state of groundwater can also be
interpreted according to Fig.3 and Fig.4 respectively. After quantified (Qiu et al 2010), all
the input data for training and testing is obtained as shown in Table 2.
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X /m X /m
0 30 60 90 120 0 30 60 90 120
50 50
25 25
R/m
R/m
0 0
-25 -25
-50 -50
25
R/m
-25
-50
X /m X /m
0 45 90 120 180 0 45 90 120 180
50
Vp
25
Vs
R/m
0
Vp/Vs
-25
E
-50
X /m
0 45 90 120 180
10
R/m
0
-10
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During to the limitation of space, the detailed description and specific steps of GP
classification can be found in related research (Rasmussen C.E and Williams CKI 2006),
and the procedures are executed in Matlab2011a. With well-trained GPC model above, the
surrounding rock level of Jinpingyan tunnel between D2K200+525 and D2K200+655 in
front of the tunnel face can be predicted in advance as shown in Table 3. To verify the
superiority of GPC model, the surrounding rock in predicted zone is also classified by
grey clustering method and support vector machine (see in Table 3).
Table 3 Contrast of predicted classification results
Distance Design level Actual level GPC SVM Grey cluster
YK200+525~546 IV III- IV III IV III
YK200+546~591 IV IV IV IV IV
YK200+591~620 IV V V V V
YK200+620~638 IV IV IV IV V
YK200+638~655 IV-V V V IV V
According to the results as shown in Table 3, we can conclude that the classification
results predicted by GP model are consistent with actual exposed surrounding rock level
completely, which means the GP classification model is totally feasible for predicting
surrounding rock level in advance. Moreover, we can get higher precision classification
result using GP machine-learning model than support vector machine and grey clustering
method, which performs the superiority of GP model to solve the highly nonlinear
problem with small samples and high dimension.
CONCLUSION
In this work, Gaussian process classification model (GPC) is established for advanced
surrounding rock classification based on the geological information detected by TSP-203
system. To verify the feasibility and superiority, GPC model is applied to Jinpingyan
tunnel on Chenglan railway in China, and performs high prediction accuracy, providing a
new approach for advanced surrounding rock classification. Moreover, as a newly
developed machine-learning method, Gaussian process shows a excellent capability than
support vector machine (SVM) and grey clustering method for solving the highly
nonlinear problem with small samples and high dimension. However, the performance of
the classification results depends on the quality of data and the ability of the mapping,
which directly affected by the parameters. Therefore, further work can be tried to analyze
the effects of parameters for the computational intelligence approaches.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the State Key Development Program for Basic Research
Program of China (No. 2013CB036000), the State Key Program of National Natural
Science Foundation of China (No.51139004), the National Natural Science Foundation of
China (No.51479106). The authors would be grateful to the reviewers for their valuable
comments and suggestions that can help improve the quality of the paper.
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1
College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, East China Jiaotong Univ., Nanchang 330013, China.
E-mail: lukeryuyang@163.com
2
State Key Laboratory of Geomechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Institute of Rock and Soil
Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China.
Abstract: This study integrates micro-seismic data and data from hundreds of
rockbursts of different intensities that occurred in four deep headrace tunnels and one
water drainage tunnel at Jinping II hydropower station in Sichuan province, China.
The overburden of the studied tunnels is between 1900 m and 2525 m, largely
excavated in marble. The tunnels have a total length of 12.4 km. The micro-seismic
energy produced during the development of immediate rockbursts excavated with the
drill-and-blast method (DBM) and a tunnel boring machine (TBM) were studied. The
results indicated that the daily maximum micro-seismic energy can be used as a basis
for estimating the rockburst intensity: no rockburst, weak rockbursts, moderate
rockbursts, and intense rockbursts, and that the common logarithms of the micro-
seismic energy of each level was <4, >4 and <5, >5 and <6, >6, respectively. For the
same intensity, rockbursts excavated by TBM and DBM have the same range but
different distribution characteristics. The micro-seismic energy can be used as a guide
to establish a dynamic warning system based on the evolution of micro-seismic events
to reduce the risk of immediate rockbursts during excavation of deep, hard-rock
tunnels.
Keywords: Drill-and-blast method (DBM); Tunnel boring machine (TBM);
Immediate rock burst; Micro-seismic events; Micro-seismic energy; Rockburst
intensity.
INTRODUCTION
Rockbursts that occur during the excavation of hard-rock tunnels at great depths
or very high stress can cause loss of life and construction delays as well as economic
loss. For example, more than 700 rockbursts occurred during the excavation of two
assistant tunnels, four headrace tunnels and one drainage tunnel in the Jinping II
hydropower project, China. (He et al. 2010, Zhang et al. 2012).
Rockbursts in deep, hard-rock tunnels can be divided into immediate and time-
delay rockbursts based on their time of occurrence. The former, which occur
contemporaneously with microseismic events on an hourly or daily basis, are
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rockbursts within 030 m of the working face that happen approximately a few hours
to several days after excavation. The latter occur several days or several months after
excavation of tunnels with discontinuous occurrences of microseismic events (Chen et
al. 2012). In deep, hard rock tunnels most of the rockbursts are immediate rockbursts
(Zhang et al. 2008) which are also studied in this article. Based on the study of the
intensity of the rockburest (Tang et al. 1992, Wang et al. 1999), immediate rockbursts
in diversion tunnels of Jinping II hydropower station were of three levels of strength,
weak, moderate and intense, based on the sound, shape, and failure features of the
rockburst, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Intensity of Immediate Rockbursts in Deep Tunnels of the Jinping II
Hydropower Station
Depth of Construction
Intensity Main failure type Sound failure Affected
slight spalling and
slabbing in surface cracking sound can
Weak Less than
of surrounding rock be heard barely affected
rockburst 0.5 m;
mass; rock mass was occasionally
not ejected;
cracking sound like more than
severe spalling and a detonator blasting; 0.5 m
slabbing of
Moderate slight cracking and<1.0 m affected to
surrounding rock
rockburst sound lasting for and failure some extent
mass; rock mass was some time inside the range is
slightly ejected; rock mass obvious
more than
a great deal of rock the failure sounds 1.0 and
Intense mass was suddenly like an explosive is seriously
failure
rockburst ejected with great blast; it is loud and affected
range is
power; lasts longer extensive
Stress waves generated by the process of rock mass failure are called micro-
seismic. These can be detected by seismic instruments. Analysis and processing of
these micro-seismic waves can determine size, time, space, energy, and other
information about the microfracturing occurring in the process of rock mass failure.
Microseismic monitoring has been successfully applied during the construction of
deep tunnels (Feng et al., 2012, 2015). Micro-seismic energy is one of the most
important parameters describing the size of micro-seismic events (Chen et al. 2013).
In the high stress conditions during TBM and DBM excavation, the stress path
and extent of damage are different (Barton 2000). This paper will focus on the
relationship between the Micro-seismic energy and the rockburst during two different
excavation methods, TBM and DBM, in deep tunnels. Rockburst intensity and the
evolutionary mechanisms of the maximum energy micro-seismic events are studied,
respectively. The range and distribution characteristics of micro-seismic energy in the
evolutionary process of different intensity rockbursts involve contrastive analysis, and
few studies have explored these processes. This study thus addresses that gap.
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4193 m
Jinping II Hydropower
Jinping mountain
Station
4448 m
1630 m
4309 m diversion tunnels
Marbl
Hai ganzi Greenschist
Slate Fault
Jinping I Hydropower
Station z
x
2525 m
Yalong river
17285 m
West Eest
FIG. 1. Location and geological section of diversion tunnels for the Jinping II
hydropower station
K7+344 K8+530
K6+168
1#
2#
3#
4#
P# B3#
B2#
A#
B1#
B#
3# K5+240 4# K5+097 P# K4+810 1# K9+138 2# K9+201 3# K9+003
4# K9+052P# K8+575 3# K11+165 3# K10+049
FIG. 2. Ranges of micro-seismic monitoring of TBM and DBM excavation of
diversion tunnels for the Jinping II hydropower station (1# 2#, 3# and 4# are the
indexes of the 4 headrace tunnels, P# is the drainage tunnel, A# and B# are traffic
tunnels, and B1#, B2# and B3# are branches of traffic tunnel B# that were used to
accelerate the construction of the four headrace tunnels).
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Rockburst zone
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North
10 m 30 m
South
Advancing direction
3# headrace tunnel
FIG. 3. (a) Photograph after the intense rockburst in the 3# headrace tunnel,
on September 9, 2010, (b) Micro-seismic events of the rockburst
3.2 Relationship between the micro-seismic energy and the intensity of rockburst
3# headrace tunnel chainage K10+632-11+165 (as shown in Fig. 2) with
overburden depths between 1964 m and 2029 m and lengths of 1.12 km, was
excavated by TBM. The surrounding rock (which has good integrity, Karst
nondevelopment, and moderate amounts of groundwater) is mainly comprised of
marble. Fig. 4 show the rockburst intensity and evolutionary mechanisms of the
maximum energy micro-seismic events in the warning zone. Fig. 4 indicates that
maximum energy micro-seismic events along the working face can be used as a basis
for estimating the immediate rockburst intensity. There were <4 zero maximum
energy (logarithmic) rockburst events, >4 and <5 rockbursts with weak maximum
energy (logarithmic) were, >5 and <6 rocketbursts with moderate maximum energy
(logarithmic), and >6 rockbursts with intense maximum energy (logarithmic).
9 None rockbrust
No rockburst Weak rockbrusts
8 Moderate rockbrusts Intense rockbrusts
7
6
5
lglge
e
4
3
2
1
0
27-May 6-Jun 16-Jun 26-Jun 6-Jul 16-Jul 26-Jul
date
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4
3
2
1
0
23-Jul 28-Jul 2-Aug 7-Aug 12-Aug 17-Aug 22-Aug 27-Aug 1-Sep
date
Curve of T BM excavation
Rate of microseismic event%
Curve of T BM excavation
40
30
30
20
20
10
10
0 0
(-1,0) (0,1) (1,2) (2,3) (3,4) (-1,0) (0,1) (1,2) (2,3) (3,4) (4,5)
Lge Lge
(a) (b)
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5 5
0 0
(-1,0) (0,1) (1,2) (2,3) (3,4) (4,5) (5,6) (-1,0) (0,1) (1,2) (2,3) (3,4) (4,5) (5,6) (6,7)
Lge Lge
(c) (d)
FIG. 6. Energy distribution of micro-seismic events in immediate rockbursts of
different intensity during TBM and DBM excavation (a) no rockburst (b) weak
rockbursts (c) moderate rockbursts (d) intense rockbursts
4 CONCLUSIONS
This study investigates the micro-seismic energy in the evolutionary process of
immediate rockbursts in four deep headrace tunnels and a water drainage tunnel, with
overburdens of between 1900 m and 2525 m, at Jinping II hydropower station, China.
The following conclusions are drawn:
(1) The maximum energy of micro-seismic events of the working face can be
used as a basis for estimating the immediate rockburst intensity.
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(2) No rockburst is less than 104J, weak rockbursts are >104J and <105J,
moderate rockbursts are >105J and <106J, and intense rockbursts are >106J.
(3) In the evolutionary processes of same intensity rockbursts, the micro-seismic
energy has the same distribution range but different distribution characteristics for
each excavation method. For TBM excavation the micro-seismic energy (concentrated
in the range 101J to 105J) is higher than DBM excavation (concentrated in the range
less-than 104J). Both moving toward higher energy as the intensity the rockbursts
rises.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors acknowledge the financial support from The National Natural Science
Foundation of China under Grant No. 51509092.
REFERENCES
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Abstract: The impact of fault fracture zone on the stability of surrounding rock in
tunnels is a key scientific topics of geologic engineering. In this study, a three-
dimensional finite element model was established for Wuzhuling tunnel of Zhuyong
highway in Zhejiang Province, China. By simulating the dynamic process of tunnel
excavation through the fault fracture zone, the deforming performance and stress
distribution law of surrounding rock were studied. It indicates that fault fracture zone
in the tunnel reduced the stability of surrounding rock. When constructing tunnels in a
fault fracture zone, three-dimensional numerical analysis can be performed to find the
areas where collapse occurs easily. The study could provide useful information on the
potential collapse areas for strengthening the engineering supporting structure and
preventing the relative disaster.
Keywords: Tunnel; Fault fracture zone; Surrounding rock; Collapse; 3D numerical
simulation.
INTRODUCTION
Sometimes, mountain tunnels have to go through fault fracture zones to meet the
requirements of proper linetype. When rock mass is broken and loose, it has poor self-
stability in fault fracture zones, where collapse occurs easily, causing heavy economic
losses, injuries and deaths. Above all, the key problems in tunnel engineering is that
fault fracture zones affect the stability of surrounding rock.
Many scholars research the impacts of faults on tunnels and have made gratifying
achievements in recent years. K. Y. Geun and H. B. Hyun (2011) studied a important
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case for the tunnel collapse and reinforcement during the construction for the
waterway tunnel at large thrust fault zone in schist. K. Zhao and M. Janutolob (2014)
presented a model of the fault zone and of the TBM excavation process. S. Dalgc
(2003) proposed failure mechanisms and other phenomenon encountered during the
tunnel excavation. In addition, dyke rocks and karstic systems collapsed by faulting
caused some problems during the tunnel excavation. P. K. Shrestha (2014) studied the
groundwater effect on faulted rock mass. Mollon (2010) proposed a translational
three-dimensional multi-block failure mechanism in order to determine the face
collapse pressure of a circular tunnel driven by a pressurized shield. Fraldi (2009)
introduced an exact solution for the plasticity of the evaluation on collapse
mechanisms in rectangular cavities and some numerical examples. He also reported a
comparison with numerical procedures to predict plastic collapse in circular rock
tunnels based on a straightforward analytical approach. However, the reliable
prediction on the collapse state in tunnels and natural cavities is still one of the most
difficult tasks in rock engineering. In aspects of numerical simulation, researchers
have simulated characteristics of tunnel lining force and deformation and supporting
effect of spray anchor affected by faults. By using Plane Finite Element, S. W. Huang
(2006) simulated the response of surrounding rock construction mechanical in
different fault location. Lee and Osman (2006) evaluated tunnel stability and
investigated the so-called arching effect both for soft soils.
From previous studies, it can be seen that methods of numerical simulation or
numerical test is the most important methods that can be used to research the effect of
fault on tunnel. Three-dimensional finite element models was established in this article
to stimulate the dynamic process of tunnel excavation, analyzing characteristics of
surrounding rock force and deformation when tunnel passes through fault fracture
zone, to reveal the mechanism that expresses how fault fracture zone effects
surrounding rock stability. The research achievement can be used to provide necessary
reference and guidance to rock mass stability evaluation and supporting design in fault
fracture zone.
Project Background
Wuzhuling tunnel is located in Zhuyong super highway in China. During left hole
termini, stake is K58+372K58+990, and its length is 618 m. The tunnel has separate
two-lane one-way roads, its clear width is 10.5m, and its clear height is 7.1m. During
right hole termini, stake is K58+355K58+990, and its length is 635 m. The large
span tunnel has three-lanes in it. Its clear width of which is 14.25 m and clear height is
7.69 m. The tunnel was constructed according to NATM principle. It was supported in
composite support structure form. Combined support was applied in the tunnel, which
includes bolt, steel mesh and shotcrete. At the same time, a molded concrete structure
was used as secondary lining. There is a waterproof layer between initial support and
secondary lining.
A fault fracture zone existed where the construction of Wuzhuling tunnel was being
conducted. The fault fracture zone was 400m long, 15m wide, and intersected with the
tunnel axis at the angle 75. Rock mass in fault fracture zone was cracked, brecciated
and earthy. Surrounding rock fissure of both sides is extremely obvious. Affected by
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fault fracture zone (F8), when the tunnel was constructed to the point of K58+713.5, a
large-scale roof collapse occurred on Oct. 29, 2005. According to engineering
geological survey report, eluvial gravel was distributed upon the tunnel and strongly
weathered tuff was below the tunnel between section K58+738 and K58+713. As time
went on, the collapse scope expanded gradually. Finally, Accumulation range of
collapse body existed from K58+733 to K58+713.5. Original ground of the section
also appeared to collapse and formed a collapse cavity that was 10.3m long, 6.5m
wide, 15m deep. Cross-sectional view at collapse and its scene photos are shown in
Figure 1.
In order to research the law of surrounding rock stress and deformation when
tunnels go through the fault fracture zone, Wu Zhu Ling tunnel was taken as an
example and a three-dimensional numerical model was built, as shown in Figure 2.
We have chosen a small portion of the whole tunnel to use as the model. The area we
chose was about 100 meters long in the direction of the Z-axis, 200 meters long in the
direction of the X-axis, and 100 meters long in the direction of the Y-axis, as shown in
Figure 2. Surrounding rock and fault fracture was simulated using 8-node hexahedral
isoparametric element. Shell element was used to simulate the support structure. The
boundary conditions of the numerical model was setted as upper boundary with no
constraints, the rest of the sides and bottom boundary were constrained in normal
direction. The tunnel has two lanes in the left and three in the right. Main mesh
generation of left and right holes are shown in Figure 3.
According to the engineering geological survey report of Wuzhuling tunnel and
highway tunnel design specifications (JTG D70-2004), physical and mechanical
parameters of surrounding rock and supporting structure were obtained, as shown in
Table 1.
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Elastic Friction
Structure Poisson's Severe Cohesion
Modulus Angle
Category Ratio kN/m3 / MPa
GPa /
Surrounding
10.0 0.25 26.0 1.0 50
Rock
Fault Fracture
0.30 0.40 17.0 0.07 30
Zone
Supporting
30.0 0.20 27.0
Structure
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 100 m
' ''' A
C D
B
'cross section
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difference between the front and the rear side of the fault fracture zone due to the
influence of the fault. Due to tunnel excavation, larger displacement appears in upper
chambers of excavated section, and vault of the right tunnel has a maximum
displacement.
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Fig.7 Cloud chart of principal stress in fault fracture zone after tunnel
excavation
(a) The left tunnel vault cross-section (b) The right tunnel vault cross-section
CONCLUSIONS
In summary, it can be seen that the fault fracture zone reduces the stability of the
surrounding rock. The displacement of each cross-section increases first and stabilizes
later during tunnel excavation. Displacement fluctuates as the tunnel face goes
through. In the fault fracture zone, the vertical displacement field exhibits a "global
slip" phenomenon. Due to the slanted formation of the fault fracture zone,
displacement in front of the fault fracture zone is greater than that in the rear. After
excavation of the right Wuzhuling tunnel, tensile stress occurs in the vault, which is
greater than the tensile strength of the rock mass in the fault fracture zone, and finally
leads to collapse. When constructing tunnels in a fault fracture zone, three-
dimensional numerical analysis can be performed to find the areas where collapse
occurs easily. Then preventive measures can be taken to strengthen support earlier .
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
Dalgc, S. (2003) "Tunneling in fault zones, Tuzla tunnel, Turkey." Tunnel. Underg.
Space Technol., Vol. (18): 453-465.
Fraldi, M. and Guarracino, F. (2009) "Limit analysis of collapse mechanisms in
cavities and tunnels according to the HoekBrown failure criterion." Int. J. Rock
Mech. Min. Sci., Vol. (46): 665-673.
Fraldi, M. and Guarracino, F. (2010) "Analytical solutions for collapse mechanisms in
tunnels with arbitrary cross sections." Int. J. Solids Struct., Vol. (47): 216-223.
Fraldi, M. and Guarracino, F. (2011) "Evaluation of impending collapse in circular
tunnels by analytical and numerical approaches." Tunnel. Underg. Space Technol.,
Vol. (26): 507-516.
Geun, K. Y. and Hyun, H. B. (2011). "A Case Study of Collapse and Reinforcement
for Large Span Waterway Tunnel at Thrust Fault Zone." Tunnel. Underg. Space
Technol., Vol. 9 (4): 251-263.
Huang, F. C and Qin, B. (2013) "Determination of minimum cover depth for shallow
tunnel subjected to water pressure.", J. Cent. South Univ., Vol. (20): 2307-2313.
Hang, S. W., SI, T. H., and CHEN, W. S. (2006) Finite element analyses of influence
of fault on large-span tunnel surrounding rock stress., Chin. J. Rock Mech. Rock
Eng., Vol. 25(S2): 2845-2852.
Lee, C.J. (2006) "Tunnel stability and arching effects during tunnelling in soft clayey
soil.", Tunn. Undergr. Sp. Tech., Vol. 21(2): 119-132.
Mollon,G. and Dias, D. (2010) "Face stability analysis of circular tunnels driven by a
pressurized shield." J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., Vol. 136 (1): 215-229.
Shrestha, P. K. and Panthi, K. K. (2014) "Groundwater Effect on Faulted Rock Mass:
An Evaluation of Modi Khola Pressure Tunnel in the Nepal Himalaya." Rock
Mech. Rock Eng.., Vol. (47): 1021-1035.
Wand, Y. C., Shang, Y. Q., and Jing, H. W. (2011) "Optimization of construction
scheme of tunnel collapse and treatment effect". Rock Soil Mech., Vol. 32(S2):
514-519.
Xiong, W. and Fang, W. (2010) "Numerical analysis of effect of normal fault activity
on road mountain runnel project.", Chin. J. Rock Mech. Rock Eng., Vol. 29(S1):
2845-2852.
Zhao K. and Janutolob, M. (2014) "3D simulation of TBM excavation in brittle rock
associated with fault zones: The Brenner Exploratory Tunnel case." Eng. Geol.,
Vol. (181): 93-111.
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INTRODUCTION
With the development of urbanization in China, the deep excavation projects due to
high-rise buildings and underground stations are increasing. The construction process of
the pits excavation unavoidably has impacts to various degrees on the surrounding
existing structures, especially on the adjacent operational tunnel. It has been an
important research topic which is significant to solve the contradiction between urban
development and urban tunnel protection.
In recent years, some scholars have led research on such issues, and have achieved
some results: Huangs paper discussed the influence of pits excavation on tunnel about
following aspects including the relative position between tunnel and excavation, tunnel
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diameter, pit size and pit protection measures (Huang et al. 2013). The displacement of
the soil is counteracted to some degrees by the tunnel owing to the stiffness of the tunnel
itself, and this counteraction further caused greater tunnels deformation (Jiang and Huo
2002). Someone put forward the two-stage method for determining the longitudinal
deformation of metro tunnels caused by adjacent foundation pits excavation. It may
provide certain theoretical basis to come up with correctly protective measures for metro
tunnels influenced by adjacent excavation (Zhang et al.2011). Combining the Longpan
Tunnels excavation which is right beyond two existing shield tunnels of Nanjing No.1
subway, the paper found that the tunnels upwarping deformations were too great
without stabilizing and could be safe with stabilizing (Yu et al. 2007).
The above researches mostly analyze the impacts of pits excavation on the subway
tunnel, and the study about open-cut tunnels of high-speed railway is few. The
deformation of high-speed railway tunnel is more strict. Based on Tianjian 15 #
excavation in Tianjin, the article used the finite element software to simulate the entire
process, and analyzed the effects of every step on open-cut tunnels of high-speed railway.
Furthermore, the article analyzed horizontal and vertical displacement trends of open-cut
tunnel structure by simulating different reinforcement measures and thereby may
provide certain basis for construction of pits excavation around adjacent open-cut
tunnels of high-speed railway.
Engineering Situation
There are two foundation pits. The shallow pits depth is 4.9m, and the deep one is
8.6m. The foundation pit construction is excavated open and orderly sequenced, and the
construction of shallow pit is prior to the deep one. Bored piles are used as enclosure
structure at the boundary between shallow pit and deep pit. The east wall of the
foundation pit is approximately parallel to adjacent open-cut tunnels. The distance range
between them is about 20-27m, so the foundation pit is in the protected area of
high-speed railway tunnel.
Soil in construction area is divided from top to bottom into following layers:
miscellaneous fill, the thickness is 1.0-4.9m; plain fill, the thickness is 2.6-5.8m;
silty clay, the thickness is 0.9-2.1m, mucky clay, the thickness is 1.9-3.6m, silty
clay, the thickness is 6.9-12.5m, silt and sand, the thickness is 10.6-17.5m; silty
clay, the thickness is more than 20m. The physical and mechanical parameters of soil
layer are shown in Table 1.
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elastic model. Horizontal displacement was restricted around the model as well as the
vertical and horizontal displacement of model bottom.
Numerical Simulation
The deformation requirements of high-speed railway tunnel are very strict.
Considering the safety requirements and deformation of additional longitudinal
curvature about tunnel, the maximum vertical displacement of structure must not exceed
3mm, and horizontal displacement is no more than 3mm. During the excavation, in order
to ensure the safety operations of high-speed railway, the excavation of foundation pit is
subdivided into the following steps and effects on adjacent open-cut tunnel are analyzed
one by one.
Step Content
S0 Forming initial stress field, resetting displacement;
Activating shield excavated well, open-cut tunnel, shield tunnel, enclosure
S1
structure and so on, resetting displacement;
S2 Excavation of shallow foundation pit;
S3 Constructing floor of shallow foundation pit;
S4 Excavation of deep foundation pit;
S5 Constructing floor of deep foundation pit;
S6 Constructing basement structure;
S7 Constructing upper building
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After the removal of soil inside the foundation pit, stress equilibrium of surrounding
soil has been destroyed, so soil deformation occurs in accord with the direction of
reaction force which drives the movement of tunnel. The tunnel is located at the right of
foundation pit, therefore, the main direction of tunnels movement is horizontal. The
effect of foundation pits excavation on the tunnel structure horizontal displacement is
significantly greater than the vertical displacement.
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above analysis, the horizontal displacement of the tunnel structure in step S4, S5 and S6
are beyond the control value. It needs to reinforce the foundation pit, so that the
displacement could be controlled within the safety value. There are two reinforcement
schemes:
Scheme 1: doing uplift piles of 1000mm, length 35m in the bottom of the
foundation pit, and closer to tunnel the place is, the denser uplift piles we make;
Scheme 2: on the basis of scheme 1, replacing the plain concrete with reinforced
concrete of 200mm cushion at the bottom of foundation pit.
Figure 6 is the cloud picture of horizontal displacement about open-cut tunnel
structure. The horizontal displacement of each section is markedly lower than the one of
original scheme, but there is no change about displacement law. From Figure 12, the
maximal horizontal displacement reduced from 6.1mm to 2.5 mm. Comparing with the
original scheme, horizontal displacement of every step decreased a lot after being
reinforced. Due to constraint function of uplift pile, the range of stress redistribution of
surrounding soils narrowed, and the plastic zone of soil narrowed. So horizontal
displacement of tunnel structure decreased at the same point.
On the basis of scheme 1, scheme 2 replaced the plain concrete with reinforced
concrete at the bottom of foundation pit. From Figure 7, tunnel structure displacement
further decreased comparing with scheme 1. The uplift displacement of soil was 26mm,
and the maximal horizontal displacement of tunnel structure was 2.4mm, which are all
within the safe value. Reinforcement measures can satisfy the requirement of foundation
pit construction safety and effectively reduce the effect of foundation pits construction
on open-cut tunnel of high-speed railway.
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CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(Grant No.50908234), and the Major State Basic Research Development Program of
China (973 Program, Grant No.2011CB710604).
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REFERENCES
Huang, X., Schweiger, H.F., Huang, H.W. (2013). Influence of Deep Excavations on
Nearby Existing Tunnels. International Journal of Geomechanics, Vol. 13(2):
170-180.
Huo, Z.L., Yan, S.W., Zhang, Q.B. (2014). Numerical Analysis of Effects of Foundation
Pit Excavation on Metro Tunnels. Tunneling and Underground Construction, Vol.
802-807.
Jiang, H.S., Hou, X.Y. (2002). The Influence of Deep Excavation on Adjacent Metro
Tunnel in Soft Ground. Industrial Construction, Vol. 32(5): 53-56.
Qi, K.J., Wang, X.D., Jiang, G., Chang, Y.S., Chen, Y.D. (2005). Analysis of Deep Pit
Excavation Adjacent to Tunnel. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Engineering, Vol. 24(S2): 5485-5489.
Ruan, S.L., Hu, S.B., Lou, Y.L. (2012). Effects of a Foundation Pit on Adjacent
Subway Tunnels and Control Measures. Morden Tunnelling Technology, Vol. 49(1):
100-104.
Yu, J., Xu, Q.H., Xing, W.W., Ding, Y., Cheng, W.Z. (2007). Numerical analysis of
upwarping deformation of existing tunnels under a new tunnels excavation. Rock
and Soil Mechanics, Vol. 28(S): 653-657.
Zhang, Z.G., Zhang, M.X., Wang, W.D. (2011). Two-stage method for analyzing effects
on adjacent metro tunnels due to foundation pit excavation. Rock and Soil
Mechanics, Vol. 32(7): 2085-2092.
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Analysis on the Response of Ground Surface Settlement for a Metro Station during
Construction Using the Pile-Beam-Arch (PBA) Method Subjected to Pore Pressure
Fei Xu1; Li-Ping Li2; Qian-Qing Zhang3; Zhe-Chao Wang4; and Peng He5
1
Ph.D. Student, Research Center of Geotechnical and Structural Engineering, Shandong Univ., Jinan,
China. E-mail: 869957556@qq.com
2
Associate Professor, Research Center of Geotechnical and Structural Engineering, Shandong Univ.,
Jinan, China (corresponding author). E-mail: sduytzx@126.com
3
Ph.D. Student, Research Center of Geotechnical and Structural Engineering, Shandong Univ., Jinan,
China. E-mail: 562570719@qq.com
4
Associate Professor, Research Center of Geotechnical and Structural Engineering, Shandong Univ.,
Jinan, China. E-mail: wanz@sdu.edu.cn
5
Ph.D. Student, Research Center of Geotechnical and Structural Engineering, Shandong Univ., Jinan,
China. E-mail: 378246365@qq.com
Abstract: A simple approach to predict the settlement of ground surface during the
construction of metro tunneling using pile-beam-arch (PBA) method, subjected to pore
pressure is presented. As to the analysis on the response of a single pile installed
beneath the tunnel, a softening nonlinear model was adopted to predict the relationship
between unit skin friction and pile-soil relative displacement developed along the
pile-soil interface and a bilinear base load-displacement model was used to predict the
relationship developed at the pile end. To analyze the settlement of ground surface
during the construction of metro tunneling using PBA method, a highly effective
iterative computer program was developed. In order to demonstrate the effectiveness
and accuracy of the proposed simple method in this paper, the result is compared with
one well-instrumented previous test. The proposed simple analytical approach is
economical and efficient, and suitable for the analysis of the settlement of ground
surface during the construction of metro tunneling using pile-beam-arch (PBA)
method subjected to pore pressure.
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INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, the metro with a larger transport capacity and a larger share in
guaranteeing the smoothness of traffic, have been building to ease their heavy traffic
in more and more cities. Ground settlement (surface vertical movement) is a critical
threat to both the surface (Melis et al., 2002) and subsurface facilities (Vorster et al.,
2005), especially in the shallow metro station. How to control the excessive ground
movement and reduce the influence of excavation on the existing nearby facilities is a
difficult question. As a main construction method, widely used in the construction of
metro station, especially the arch cover located in soft soil stratum and weak-fracture
stratum, the pile-beam-arch (PBA) method was introduced in this paper. The main
steps of PBA method are summarized as below: (a) two small cross-section pilot drifts
(left-and right-drift) located on each side of the metro tunnel, are excavated above the
tunnel crown using a short bench-heading method; (b) two rows of bored
reinforced-concrete piles are emplaced to a suitable depth below the tunnel floor.
Based on the mechanism of load transfer of PBA method, there are two aspects to be
figured out: one is the vehicle load acted on the arch cover subjected to pore pressure;
and the other is the displacement of pile induced by overlaying load.
LOAD ACTED ON THE ARCH COVER SUBJECTED TO PORE PRESSURE
Sine Hoek-Brown failure criterion was proposed by Hoek and Brown (1980), this
nonlinear failure criterion had been widely applied in a variety of geotechnical
engineering (Fraldi and Guarracino 2010; Huang et al. 2013). For deep tunnels, Fraldi
and Guarracino (2010) constructed a curved kinematically admissible failure
mechanism and introduced Hoek-Brown failure criterion to calculate the energy
dissipation of the failure surface. Huang et al. (2013) developed this solution
considering the effect of pore water pressure for the shallow cavities.
sym
L2 L1
x
Hock-Brown f (x)
rock mass Failure block n
H ru
n
Arch cover
c(x)
Pile
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As described by Huang et al. (2013), considering the effect of pore pressure, and
using a new curved failure mechanism within the framework of upper bound theorem
and nonlinear Hoek-Brown failure criterion, the shape of failure surface of collapse
block can be drawn by the following form (Figure 1):
1 B 1
(1 + ru ) B
1
c1 B
f ( x) = A x
B
+ c2 (1)
c (1 + ru )
The weight of the collapse block P can also be obtained by integral calculation:
P = c( x)dx- f ( x)dx
L2 L2
(2)
0 L1
where is the unit weight of the rock mass, c(x) is the equation describing the circular
tunnel profile which can be calculated by:
c( x) = H + r r 2 x 2 (3)
where H and r are the buried depth and radius of the circular tunnel, respectively.
As shown in Figure 1, the value of L1 and L2 can be obtained from the following
equations:
f(x=L1)=0 (4)
f(x=L2)=c(x=L2) (5)
Substitute equation (4) into Eq. (1) and the values of constants c1 and c2 are
determined.
c1=L1 (6)
c2=0 (7)
Furthermore, one equation can be derived by equating external rate of work and
internal energy dissipation:
1 B 1 1
1 L1 1+BB L 1+ B
t ( L2 L1 ) + A B c B [ (1 + ru )] B ( L2 ) ( L1 1 ) B
B +1 1 + ru 1 + ru (8)
(1 + ru ) L2 (1 + ru )r 2 L L
(1 + ru ) L2 ( H + r ) + r 2 L22 + arcsin 2 + rq arcsin 2 + s L1 = 0
2 2 r r
where n is the normal stress, n is the shear stress, A and B are the material constants,
c is the uniaxial compressive strength of the soil, ru is the pore pressure coefficient,
and t is the tensile strength of the soil (t>0).
Combining the Eqs. (5) and (8), and using the numerical software, the values of L1
and L2 can be given.
SOFTENING NONLINEAR MODEL OF SKIN RESISTANCE
As reported by Zhang et al. (2015), the relationship between skin friction and the
corresponding shear displacement follows a softening model when skin friction is
fully mobilized. Thus, in this work, a simple softening model, may be conveniently
adopted to describe the shaft shear stress and the shear displacement developed along
the pile-soil interface.
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This softening behavior between the skin friction and the pile-soil relative
displacement at a given depth z has been described by the following equation:
Ss ( z )[a + cSs ( z )]
s ( z) = (9)
[a + bSs ( z )]2
where s(z) is the shaft shear stress at a given depth, z; Ss(z) is the relative
displacement along the pile-soil interface at a given depth, z. The parameters a, b, and
c are empirical coefficients, and be obtained from Zhang et al. (2015).
A series of field tests on bored piles under compression loading (Zhang et al. 2010)
demonstrated that values of s applied for the bored piles have been found to be in the
range 0.83-0.97. The value of Ssu is determined experimentally or by back-analysis of
field load test results. A series of field tests (Zhang et al. 2010) show that the values of
parameter Ssu have been found to be in the range 5-25 mm for bored piles of 0.7-1.1 m
diameter in different soils (e.g., mud, clay, sandy silt, silty clay).
Based on the results of laboratory and in situ tests, the ultimate unit shaft resistance,
su, can be determined using a formula corresponding to soil parameters. The effective
stress method is employed to predict su in the drained condition. Based on Coulombs
friction law, the following equation can be used to calculate the limiting unit shaft
resistance, su:
su = K v tan (10)
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where b and Sb are equal to unit end resistance and pile-end settlement, respectively;
k1 and k2 represent the compressive rigidity of the pile-tip soil in the first and second
stage of the load-displacement curve, respectively; and the parameter Sbu is defined as
the pile-end settlement related to the limiting end resistance in the first stage. In the
bilinear hardening model of the soil below the pile base, three parameters (k1, k2 and
Sbu) are required to define the load-displacement response at the pile end, and the
calculation method could be found in Randolph and Wroth (1979) and Zhang et al.
(2010).
ALGORITHM FOR LOAD-SETTLEMNT BEHAVIOR OF A SINGLE PILE
EMBEDDED IN LAYERED SOILS
The theoretical method for a single pile embedded in multilayered soils can be
analyzed with the following procedure:
1. Assume a single pile is divided into m segments.
2. Assume a small pile end settlement Sbm.
3. Calculate the pile base load, Pbm, induced by the assumed pile base displacement
Sbm, using Eq. (12).
4. A vertical movement, Scm, at the middle height of pile segment m is assumed (for
the first trial, assume Scm= Sbm).
5. From the load-transfer function as given in Eq. (9), the unit shaft resistance of pile
segment m, sm, is obtained based on the assumed value of Scm.
6. The load at the top of pile segment m, Ptm, can then be calculated from the
following:
Ptm=Pbm+ dLmsm (13)
where Lm= length of pile segment m; and d = pile diameter.
7. Elastic deformation at the midpoint of pile segment m (assuming a linear variation
of load in the segment), Sem, is calculated from the following:
Sem =
( Ptm + 3Pbm ) ( Lm
) (14)
4 2 Ap E p
following:
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10. Calculate the load and displacement at the top of pile segment m, Ptm and Stm,
respectively, using the following equations:
Ptm = Pbm + dLm sm (16)
.
where sm is derived from Eq. (9) and an updated midpoint displacement Scm
11. Repeat steps 4-10 from pile segment m to pile segment 1 until the load-settlement
relationship developed at the pile head is obtained.
12. The procedure from steps 2-11 is then repeated using a different assumed pile end
settlement Sbm until a series of load-displacement values are obtained. The proposed
simple analytical approach is economical and efficient, and suitable for analysis of a
single pile embedded in layered soils.
To analyze the influence of the parameters related to the proposed method on the
settlement of ground surface during the construction of metro tunneling using
pile-beam-arch (PBA) method subjected to pore pressure, a further study was
conducted.
Arch cover
17.0
Floor
Pile
8.0
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FIG. 3. Analysis results of the ground surface settlement for different value of
parameter ru.
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, a simple approach to predict the settlement of ground surface during
the construction of metro tunneling using pile-beam-arch (PBA) method, subjected to
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REFERENCES
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INTRODUCTION
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illustrated in Fig. 1(b). The building modification factors (MDRsag and MDRhog) were
then presented to denote the maximum deflection ratio of a building due to tunneling
in relation to the Greenfield condition:
sag Lsag hog Lhog
M DRsag = g g
M DRhog = g (2)
sag L
sag hog Lghog
The deflection ratios and were calculated in the sagging and
hogging zones corresponding to the building geometry and location using the
Greenfield settlement trough. In their two-dimensional finite element (2D FE) study,
the building was modeled as a weightless elastic beam with appropriate bending and
axial stiffness properties. Its contact with the ground surface was taken as rough. By
changing the building geometry and location in relation to the tunnel, a design chart
of modification factors in terms of building relative bending stiffness 2
( is the building bending stiffness; is the soil elastic modulus) was proposed
such that the building deflection ratio can be estimated from the Greenfield condition.
(a) (b)
FIG. 1 Interaction diagram and definition of deflection ratios.
Owing to 2D FE analysis, Potts and Addenbrooke (1997) only took the one-
dimensional geometrical characteristic of the building length into account. Based on
the modification factor approach, Franzius et al. (2006) subsequently applied 3D FE
method to extend the above model incorporating the building dimension in the
direction of tunnel axis and building weight. New design charts were proposed in
terms of building relative bending stiffness redefined as ( is the building
length in the direction of the tunnel axis; z is the depth of tunnel center).
It can be established from the above mentioned design charts that the eccentricity
ratio is an independent variable. Based on 2D FE results, a new parameter
relative bending stiffness ( and ) was presented by Goh and
Mair (2011) for buildings subjected to excavation-induced settlements. and
are the sagging and hogging lengths in the Greenfield corresponding to the building
location, respectively. A series of parametric studies involving building length and
location demonstrated that the relationship between the building modification factor
and the relative bending stiffness is reasonably unique.
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Following the approach by Goh and Mair (2011) on foundation movement due to
excavation, the present study investigates the foundation movement due to tunneling.
In this paper, the relative bending stiffness will be further evaluated to study the
effect of raft foundation dimension in the direction of the tunnel axis and the building
weight on the modification factor using 3D FE analysis.
In the present study, the finite element program Plaxis 3D is employed to analyze
the effects of tunneling beneath a raft foundation. An undrained total stress analysis is
conducted using a linear-elastic perfectly plastic soil model with Tresca parameters of
strength and stiffness for a saturated clay. This is a commonly used geotechnical
analysis owing to the large database and experience in applying the Tresca soil model.
The simulation of the tunnel volume loss (see Fig. 2, the percentage tunnel cross-
sectional area loss upon tunneling) is modeled using the gap method proposed by Lee
and Rowe (1991). After the geostatic stresses reach equilibrium, the soil elements are
deactivated and the plate elements, representing the tunnel lining, will be activated
along its interface. The function of the contraction of the plate elements is applied to
simulate the volume loss. Since it is difficult to control the volume loss accurately in
a real case, the parameters of the tunnel and the soil in this paper are based on the
centrifuge model tests conducted by Loganathan et al. (2000). The depth of the
tunnel center is 18m, and the tunnel diameter is 6m. The soil submerged unit weight
is 6.5kNm . The undrained shear strength of the saturated soil is 35kPa at the
ground surface increasing linearly to 75kPa at the tunnel center elevation. Following
the recommendation by USACE (1990), a consistent ratio of 400 is adopted for
all the analyses. To simulate undrained condition, the Poissons ratio is set to 0.495.
The coefficient of earth pressure at rest, = 1, is applied over the entire soil profile.
In the centrifuge test, the volume loss magnitude is 1%. A typical mesh used for the
3D FE analyses is depicted in Fig. 3.
R 2 r02
R2
FIG. 2 Volume loss.
Fig. 4 shows the ground surface settlement trough obtained from the FE analysis
which is in fairly good agreement with that measured from the corresponding
centrifuge test. Since the distance from the inflection to the tunnel centerline is about
10m for the current result, the foundation length is designed to be 20m such that the
building is solely located within the sagging zone without eccentricity.
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0.000
Settlement (m)
-0.005
-0.010 Inflection
-0.015
Centrifuge test (Loganathan et al, 2000)
This study
-0.020
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Distance from tunnel centreline (m)
The foundation has a width in the direction of tunnel axis and an eccentricity
between the foundation and the tunnel center line. The width and the eccentricity
are varied independently to assess the influence on the modification factor. The plate
element of 1-m thick is modeled as the raft foundation and a rough contact is adopted
between the foundation and the soil.
In this parametric study, the weightless foundation width is chosen to range from
10m to 70m and no eccentricity is included. Considering the boundary condition and
the model size, the foundation width of 70m can be considered as a plane-strain case.
For each foundation width, the modification factors are calculated with the raft
having an elastic modulus varying from 1.2104 N/m2 to 1.21010 N/m2.
Fig. 5(a) shows the comparison of modification factors among four buildings with a
length-width ratio of zero (plane-strain), 0.5, 1 and 2. For the same bending stiffness,
a smaller length-width ratio would result in higher modification factors, implying
more severe differential settlements. The plane-strain condition serves as the upper
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bound for all foundation length-width ratios. In addition, it should be noted that for
the foundation with a low bending stiffness, the maximum settlements are greater
than those from Greenfield. This observation is consistent with that reported by Potts
and Addenbrooke (1997).
By replacing the bending stiffness with the bending stiffness per unit foundation
width , the relationship between and is illustrated in Fig. 5(b). As
such, the plane-strain condition can serve as the standard case to estimate of a
3D case based on the concept of the unit bending stiffness as long as the foundation
eccentricity is not taken into account.
1.2 1.2
20 40 (LB) 20 40 (LB)
1.0 20 20 (LB) 1.0 20 20 (LB)
20 10 (LB) 20 10 (LB)
0.8 0.8
DRsag
DRsag
0.6 20 70 (LB) 0.6 Strandard
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 0.0 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
EI EI/B
(a) (b)
FIG. 5 Effect of building width on modification factors.
Relative Stiffness
Goh and Mair (2011) presented a dimensionless relative bending stiffness to unify
the relationship between the building modification factor and eccentricity for 2D
plane-strain structures. In the present study, the 2D dimensionless relative bending
stiffness is combined with the concept of unit bending stiffness. New parameters of
relative bending stiffness and are introduced by
considering the effect of eccentricity and width on the 3D foundation building
modification factors. The representative soil stiffness is defined as the weighted
average of the elastic modulus of the soil above the tunnel center.
Based on the new relative bending stiffness, a parametric study is performed for
eccentricity =5m, 10m, 15m and 20m. The weightless foundation has a length-
width ratio of 2 (20m by 10m in length and width). For =5m and 15m ( =
0.25 and 0.75), the inflection point is placed at the quarter length of foundation to the
edge. For = 0.5, the raft foundation is equally divided into the sagging part and
hogging part. The eccentricity of = 1 is a special case for the foundation entirely
located in the hogging zone.
Fig. 6 shows the relationship between modification factors and relative bending
stiffness of the 3D foundation with foundation eccentricity in relation to the tunnel
centerline. From Figs. 6(a) to (c), it can be seen that as bending stiffness increases,
the inflection point in the foundation gradually moves from the inflection location
corresponding to the Greenfield condition to the foundation edge along the direction
of the shorter distance to the edge and eventually disappears. For the same
eccentricity, and follow a similar phenomenon with the
corresponding relative bending stiffness and .
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1.2 1.2
LB=20m10m LB=20m10m
1.0 e=5m (Sagging) 1.0 e=10m (Sagging)
DRhog
DRhog 0.8 e=5m (Hoagging) 0.8 e=10m (Hoagging)
0.6 0.6
DRsag
DRsag
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
0.0 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
3 3 3 3
EI/EsBLsag EI/EsBLhog EI/EsBLsag EI/EsBLhog
(a) (b)
1.2 1.2
LB=20m10m LB=20m10m
1.0 e=15m (Sagging) 1.0 e=20m (Hogging)
DRhog
DRhog
0.6 0.6
DRsag
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
0.0 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
3 3 3
EI/EsBLsag EI/EsBLhog EI/EsBLhog
(c) (d)
FIG. 6 Distribution of modification factors for different eccentricities.
Fig. 7 shows that the modification factors for each foundation eccentricity fall
within a narrow cluster near the plane-strain case (the standard case). As such, the
adoption of this relative bending stiffness could take the foundation eccentricity into
account such that the magnitude of modification factor is close to unity.
All the above parametric studies do not consider the superstructure weight.
However, the building load may be a critical factor for foundation settlement. An
attempt is made to investigate whether the building load could severely affect the
deflection ratio. In the present study, the building loading pressure is taken as 25kPa.
In addition, since the foundation is usually assumed to be wished-in-place, the
displacement induced by the load would reset to zero after the initial geostatic
equilibrium stage. The foundation size and locations are the same as those adopted
earlier.
Fig. 8 illustrates the distribution of modification factors corresponding to different
building locations. Fig. 8(d) demonstrates that similar relationship between the
modification factor and the new relative bending stiffness can be obtained when the
building is located within the sagging zone or hogging zone. It can be established
from Figs. 8(a) and (b) that for a foundation with the same eccentricity, the
distributions of and versus the corresponding relative bending
stiffness are consistent. However, they are slightly higher than those of a building
without eccentricity.
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1.2
e/B=0.25 (Sagging)
1.0 e/B=0.25 (Hogging)
e/B=0.5 (Sagging)
DRhog
0.8 e/B=0.5 (Hogging)
e/B=0.75 (Sagging)
0.6 e/B=0.75 (Hogging)
DRsag
e/B=1 (Hogging)
0.4
Plane strain
0.2 Strandard
0.0 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
3 3
EI/EsBLsag EI/EsBLhog
Fig. 7 Effect of building eccentricities on modification factors.
1.2 1.2
LB=20m10m LB=20m10m
1.0 e=0m (Sagging) 1.0 e=0m (Sagging)
DRhog
DRhog
0.8 e=5m (Sagging) 0.8 e=10m (Sagging)
e=5m (Hogging) e=10m (Hogging)
0.6 0.6
DRsag
DRsag
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
0.0 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
3 3 3 3
EI/EsBLsag EI/EsBLhog EI/EsBLsag EI/EsBLhog
(a) (b)
1.2 1.2
LB=20m10m LB=20m10m
1.0 e=0m (Sagging) 1.0 e=0m (Sagging)
DRhog
DRhog
0.6 0.6
DRSag
DRsag
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
0.0 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
3 3 3 3
EI/EsBLsag EI/EsBLsag EI/EsBLsag EI/EsBLsag
(c) (d)
FIG. 8 Distribution of modification factors for building with weight
The comparison between the plane-strain standard case and the modification factors
for a building with weight is shown in Fig. 9 where and for various
foundation locations fall into a band close to the standard case. Therefore, the
building weight is not a critical factor affecting the deflection ratio of the building due
to tunneling. The plane-strain standard case can be used to provide guidance on the
influence building stiffness on its differential settlement behavior.
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1.2
BL=10m20m
1.0 e/B=0 (Sagging)
e/B=0.25 (Sagging)
DRhog
0.8 e/B=0.25 (Hogging)
e/B=0.5 (Sagging)
e/B=0.5 (Hogging)
0.6
e/B=0.75 (Sagging)
DRsag
e/B=0.75 (Hogging)
0.4 e/B=1 (Hogging)
Plane strain
0.2 Strandard
0.0 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
3 3
EI/EsBLsag EI/EsBLhog
FIG. 9 Effect of building weight on modification factors
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, a new relative bending stiffness parameter is proposed to unify the
distribution of modification factor of the deflection ratio for various building widths
and locations in relation to the tunnel axis. The effect of building weight on the
deflection ratio is examined and the results indicate that the effect of building weight
is insignificant. As such, the modification factors versus the relative bending stiffness
obtained from the plane-strain case can be employed to estimate the deflection ratio
of a building supported on shallow foundation due to tunneling using the building
bending stiffness and the Greenfield ground movement.
REFERENCES
Burland, J.B. and Wroth, C.P. (1974). "Settlement of buildings and associated
damage: Session V review paper." Conference on Settlement of Structures,
Cambridge: 611-654, London: Pentch Press.
Franzius, J. N., Potts, D. M. and Burland, J. B. (2006). "The response of surface
structures to tunnel construction." Proc. Institution of the Civil Engineers, Geotech
Eng, Vol. 159(1): 3-17.
Goh, K.H. and Mair, R.J. (2011). "Building Damage Assessment for Deep
Excavations in Singapore and the Influence of Building Stiffness. " Geotech Eng J
SEAGS & AGSSEA, Vol. 42(3): 1-12.
Lee, K.M. and Rowe, R.K. (1991). "An analysis of three-dimensional ground
movements: the Thunder Bay tunnel." Can Geotech J, Vol. 28(1): 25-41.
Loganathan, N., Poulos, H. G. and Stewart, D. P. (2000). "Centrifuge model testing of
tunnelling-induced ground and pile deformations". Geotechnique, Vol. 50(3): 283-
294.
Potts, D.M. and Addenbrooke, T.I. (1997). "A structures influence on tunnelling-
induced ground movements." Proc. Institution of the Civil Engineers, Geotech
Eng, Vol. 125(2): 109-125.
USACE (1990). Settlement Analysis, Enineer Manual EM 1110-1904. U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers: Washington, D.C.
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INTRODUCTION
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METHOD OF ANALYSIS
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where kz and Kb are, respectively, the stiffness of shaft springs (per unit-length of pile)
and the base spring stiffness of the pile; zi is the effective pile length corresponding
to the i-th node, and sz is the greenfield vertical soil movement induced by tunnel
excavation at the pile axis line. As suggested by Randolph et al. (1978), kz and Kb are
assumed equal to
2G s
kz =
2.5 L p (1 s )
ln
dp /2 (2)
d p Eb
Kb =
1 b2
where Gs and s are the shear modulus and the Poissons ratio of the soil layer at the
node depth; Eb and b are the shear modulus and the Poissons ratio of the soil deposit
at the pile toe; dp is the pile diameter; Lp is the total pile length.
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fp is the vector of the tunnelling-induced forces. The condensed stiffness matrix of the
structure is a full matrix, whereas the stiffness matrix of the pile-soil system is a
diagonal matrix because pile-pile interaction is neglected. The elements up,i and fp,i are,
respectively, the displacement and the tunnelling-induced force at the i-th degree of
freedom (dof). If the structure degrees of freedom are fixed, Ks,ij is the structural
reaction force in the i-th dof due to a unit displacement of the j-th dof. Kg,ii is the
equivalent stiffness of the i-th pile.
Once the equilibrium equation is solved, structural deformations can be computed by
displacing the constrained structure according to the solution displacement vector up.
In this paper, the condensed stiffness matrix of the elastic structure was obtained with
a finite element code using the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory. Alternatively, the second
stage may be solved directly through a 3D numerical modelling software, simulating
the structure on vertical springs subjected to the tunnelling-induced force system.
In this section, the Winkler-based method predictions are compared against more
rigorous 3D numerical analyses performed with Abaqus (Simulia 2010). This section
demonstrates that the proposed method allows for a reliable assessment of piled
building deformations due to tunnel construction. The influences of tunnel location as
well as soil and structure stiffnesses are also investigated.
Configurations
The validation of the proposed method was performed by analysing the deformation
profile of a beam with a foundation comprising a row of either 5 or 11 piles. The
beam, with a stiffness representing a foundation and superstructure, was located with
its centre at a horizontal distance Xt from the tunnel centreline. The pile spacing was
fixed, hence the 5-pile building model has a width B=20m, whereas the 11-pile
foundation has a width B=50m. Fig. 2 summarizes the considered tunnel-pile-structure
configurations.
db
Lp
H
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Several relative soil-structure stiffness ratios, given by Es/Eb, where Es and Eb are the
Youngs modulus of the soil and foundation beam, respectively, and tunnel locations,
given by Xt, were investigated.
Model details
The ABAQUS model simulated both the soil and piles using 3D 8-node linear brick,
reduced integration solid elements (C3D8R). The mixed analytical-numerical
approach for soil-structure interaction analysis used by Klar and Marshall (2008) was
adopted here. This ensured that the input of soil displacements due to tunnelling in the
numerical model were consistent with those used in the Winkler method.
The mixed analytical-numerical analysis consists of two stages. In the first stage, all
nodes of the soil model are forced to displace vertically according to a chosen input
for greenfield settlements, in this case the closed-form expression proposed by
Loganathan and Poulos (1998), and the reaction forces of the nodes (nodal forces
required to produce the applied displacements) are recorded. In the second stage, the
model is returned to its original condition (before deformation) and the selected
structure, in this case the piles and superstructure (beam), are then added to the model.
The nodal reaction forces recorded in the previous stage are then applied to the model
which includes the added structure. Any difference in soil displacements between the
two stages of the model is due to the existence of the added structure (piles and
superstructure). All other aspects of the ABAQUS model were consistent with the
assumptions adopted in the Winkler method: tie connections, elastic linear isotropic
materials, no contact between the soil and beam, and weightless materials. The model
dimensions were set to ensure that boundary conditions did not affect results.
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-1 -1
0 Xt = 0m 0 Xt = 0m
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 Es = 24 MPa 6 Es = 100 MPa
7 (c) Eb = 30 GPa 7 (d) Eb = 30 GPa
8 8
-1 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25-1 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
0 Xt = -25m 0 Xt = -25m
Vertical settl.(mm)
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6 Es = 100 MPa
Es = 24 MPa
7 (e) Eb = 30 GPa 7 (f) Eb = 30 GPa
8 8
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
x (m) x (m)
Greenfield Surface Abaqus B=50m Winkler B=50m
Settlements Abaqus B=20m Winkler B=20m
FIG. 3. Comparison of numerical and Winkler model results: Eb = 30 GPa.
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-1 -1
0 Xt = 0m 0 Xt = 0m
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 Es = 24 MPa 6 Es = 100 MPa
7 (c) Eb = 600 GPa 7 (d) Eb = 600 GPa
8 8
-1 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25-1 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
0 Xt = -25m 0 Xt = -25m
Vertical settl. (mm)
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6 Es = 100 MPa
Es = 24 MPa
7 (e) Eb = 600 GPa 7 (f) Eb = 600 GPa
8 8
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
x (m) x (m)
Greenfield Surface Abaqus B=50m Winkler B=50m
Settlements Abaqus B=20m Winkler B=20m
FIG. 4. Comparison of numerical and Winkler model results: Eb = 600 GPa.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper presented a simple elastic Winkler based method of analysis for piled
buildings subjected to tunnelling-induced ground movements. Results obtained from
the model compared very well to finite element analyses for cases where both soil and
structure stiffness as well as the location of the structure were varied. Results indicate
that the proposed method is suitable for preliminary assessment of building/foundation
deformations. The method has the advantage that it permits implementation of a
framed or a 3D structure rather an equivalent beam or plate at the foundation level.
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REFERENCES
Basile, F. (2014). "Effects of tunnelling on pile foundations." Soils & Found., Vol. 54
(3): 280-295.
Burland, J.B. Mair, R.J. and Standing, J.R. (2004). "Ground performance and building
response due to tunnelling." In: Proc. Int. Conf. on Advances Geotech. Engrg., Vol.
1: 291-342.
Goh, K.H. and Mair, R.J. (2014). "Response of framed buildings to excavation-
induced movements." Soil & Found., Vol. 54 (3): 250-268.
Franzius, J.N. Potts, D.M. and Burland, J.B. (2006). "The response of surface
structures to tunnel construction." Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Geotech. Eng., Vol. 159 (1):
317.
Huang, M. Zhang, C. and Li, Z. (2009). "A simplified analysis method for the
influence of tunneling on grouped piles. " Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol., Vol. 24
(4): 410-422.
Klar, A. and Marshall, A.M. (2008). "Shell versus beam representation of pipes in the
evaluation of tunneling effects on pipelines." Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol., Vol.
23 (4): 431437.
Loganathan, N. and Poulos, H.G. (1998). "Analytical prediction for tunneling-induced
ground movements in clays." J. Geotechnical & Geoenv. Engrg., Vol. 124 (9): 846-
856.
Mair, R.J. Taylor, R.N. and Burland, J.B. (1996). "Prediction of ground movements
and assessment of risk of building damage due to bored tunnelling." In: Proc. Int.
Symp. Geotech. Aspects Undergr. Constr. Soft Ground: 713-718.
Mair, R.J. and Williamson, M.G. (2014). "The influence of tunnelling and deep
excavation on piled foundations." In: Proc. Int. Symp. Geotech. Aspects Undergr.
Constr. Soft Ground: 21-30.
Randolph, M.F. Wroth, P.C., & Wroth, C. (1978). Analysis of deformation of
vertically loaded piles. J. Geotechnical & Geoenv. Engrg. Division, Vol. 104 (12):
1465-1488.
Simulia, D.S. (2010). Abaqus analysis users manual.
Zhang, R. Zheng, J. Pu, H., & Zhang, L. (2011). "Analysis of excavation-induced
responses of loaded pile foundations considering unloading effect." Tunn. Undergr.
Space Technol., Vol. 26 (2): 320-335.
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Shong-Loong Chen1; Cheng-Tao Ho2; Chia-Yu Yeh3; and Meen-Wah Gui, M.ASCE4
1
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Taipei Tech, No 1, Sec 3, ZhongXiao E Rd., Taipei 10608,
Taiwan. E-mail: f10391@ntut.edu.tw
2
Senior Engineer, Chao-Wei Engineering Consultant, 5F, No 185, Sec 1, DunHua S Rd., Taipei 106,
Taiwan. E-mail: s4679005@ntut.org.tw
3
Graduate Student, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Taipei Tech, No 1, Sec 3, ZhongXiao E Rd., Taipei
10608, Taiwan. E-mail: a0905a0905@yahoo.com.tw
4
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Taipei Tech, No 1, Sec 3, ZhongXiao E Rd., Taipei 10608,
Taiwan (corresponding author). E-mail: mwgui@ntut.edu.tw
Abstract: Buttress and cross-wall have been widely adopted with success in soft
ground excavation work. The interaction between the soil, buttress/cross-wall and
diaphragm wall is a three dimensional (3D) problem but in practice the problem is
commonly simplified into a two-dimensional problem. This study compared the
contribution of buttress and cross-wall on the displacement of diaphragm wall via a
series of 3D finite element (FE) analysis. The numerical procedure was first calibrated
against the field data obtained from a 16 m deep excavation project in Taipei city. The
model was then used in the subsequent parametric study to evaluate the efficiency of
buttress and cross-wall for a diaphragm wall supported excavation. Result showed that
cross-wall and buttress were equally efficient in restraining the lateral displacement of
diaphragm wall.
INTRODUCTION
The lateral displacement of retaining walls is dealt with in many ways, such as via
cross-wall, buttress, ground improvement, thicker diaphragm wall and a stiffer
strutting system. Cross wall and buttress are used extensively as they provide better
retaining result (Chen et al., 2011; Chen et al., 2014). In practice, the analysis of these
retaining structures is often simplified to provide contribution similar to ground
improvement. For example, Hsieh and Ou (1998) converted the contribution of
buttress and cross-wall to the equivalent shear strength increase of the ground for
analysis carried out using the program such as RIDO and TORSA. The simplification
may be convenient but it does not provide the true picture of three-dimensional (3D)
excavation.
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The Mohr-Coulomb (MC) model is the most common soil material combination
law used in practice. The parameters required for the MC model are unit weight of soil
t, undrained shear strength cu, and internal friction angle , all of which can be
obtained from the tests conducted for boring report. The soil parameters obtained for
the site were tabulated in Table 1. The undrained modulus of elasticity Eu of clay in
Taipei Basin has been widely adopted as 600Su. The modulus of elasticity for sand
was calculated from E = 2 VS2 (1 + ) , where is the mass density of soil; (0.3<<0.5)
is the modifier for large strains generated during excavation was taken to be 0.5, as
recommended by Ou et al. (2006). The shear wave velocity, VS (m/sec), was calculated
using the empirical formula of Lee (1990): Vs = 74.44N0.16H0.25, where N is the SPT-N
value obtained from standard penetration test, and H the depth of soil layer. The
modulus of elasticity of diaphragm walls is a function of the 28-day compressive
strength of concrete.
The reduction in effective moment of inertia due to concrete cracking was also
considered as its stiffness experiences changes under large bending moment. The
design stiffness was obtained by multiplying the stiffness of concrete with a reduction
factor ranged between 0.6 and 0.8. For this study, the reduction factor was taken as
0.7 for the diaphragm wall, cross-wall and buttress. A reduction in strutting stiffness
was also considered as the quality of installation, the fitness and fatigue of steel
materials would be imperfect on site. The reduction factor is generally ranged between
0.5~0.7; a reduction factor of 0.6 has been taken in this study. Beam element was used
to simulate the H-shaped steel struts and it has a yielding strength of 256 MPa. Table 2
shows the material parameters used in this study.
Numerical Model
The site was an asymmetric excavation site and thus full cross section analysis was
carried out. A roller boundary should be at least 3 times the excavation depth from the
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diaphragm wall while for ground settlement, Peck (1969), Clough and ORourke
(1990), Hsieh and Ou (1998) and Wang et al. (2010) suggested that the influence zone
caused by excavation in soft soil could be between 2~3.5He. Thus, vertical boundaries
were at 4 times the excavation depth from the diaphragm wall while the bottom
horizontal boundary was set at 5 times the excavation depth, i.e. 56.5 m deep at the
bottom of the diaphragm wall, in the hard soil layer. The 3D FE analysis mesh used in
the study is shown in Fig. 2. Bottom-up construction was adopted for this building.
The site was excavated in 6-stage with 5-level of strutting.
Table 2. Material parameters for diaphragm wall (DW), buttress (BW), cross-
wall (CW) and struts.
Material
DW CW BW Struts
property
Steps Items
1 Initial equilibrium of stress
Installing diaphragm walls, cross walls, buttresses and posts
2
(H4004001321, L=32m)
3 1st stage excavation to GL-2.05m
4 Installing 1st level of struts H3003001015, preloaded to 294kN/strut
5 2nd stage excavation to GL-3.40m
6 Installing 2nd level of struts H3503501219, preloaded to 588kN/ strut
7 3rd stage excavation to GL-7.30m
8 Installing 3rd level of struts 2-H3503501219, preloaded to 588kN/ strut
9 4th stage excavation to GL-10.30m
10 Installing 4th level of struts 2-H4004001321, preloaded to 785kN/ strut
11 5th stage excavation to GL-13.40m
12 Installing 5th level of struts 2-H4004001321, preloaded to 1178kN/ strut
13 6th stage excavation to foundation level at GL-16.00m
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Four inclinometers SI-1~SI-4 were installed in the diaphragm wall (Fig. 1). A typical
comparison of the numerical and field monitored results at SI-3 for each of the six
construction stages is shown in Fig. 3. The numerical profile was in good agreement
with the observed data in each excavation stage. The comparison between the
maximum diaphragm wall displacement and that observed from the field monitored
data was summarized in Table 4. The maximum lateral displacements obtained from
the FE analysis (3Dm) were between 0.84~4.30 cm, while that from the monitored data
(m) was between 0.64~5.20 cm. The inclinometers data were 97~123% of that from
the FE analysis. Both the results/data at locations SI-3 and SI-4 were in particular
good agreement, about 96% of the monitoring data (Table 4). In addition, the location
of the maximum lateral displacement in the diaphragm walls was also very close to
that observed in the field, indicating that the FE procedures used in this study was
effective for the analysis of buttress- and cross-walls supported excavation.
-4 -4 -4
-8 -8 -8
-4 -4 -4
-8 -8 -8
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
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Chen et al. (2011) used the so-called displacement reduction ratio (DRR) to
indicate the efficient use of buttress:
hm hmb (1)
DRR =
hm
where hm and hmb is the maximum lateral displacement of the diaphragm wall
without and with buttress, respectively. In this study, the contribution of cross wall in
diaphragm wall supported excavation is also analyzed using the analogous definition,
with simulation conducted with 0, 1, 3 or 5 numbers of buttress and cross-walls.
8
N.B.=0
Maximum Wall Disp (cm)
N.B.=1
6
N.B.=3
N.B.=5
4 SI-3
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
Distance from the corner (m)
(a)
8 N.B.=0
N.B.=1
Maximum Wall Disp (cm)
6 N.B.=3
N.B.=5
SI-3
4
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
Distance from the corner (m)
(b)
FIG. 4. Effect of 0~5 numbers of buttress on the west side of DW on the DWs
lateral displacement: (a) with 5 CW in N-S direction; (b) the 5 CW were replaced
by buttress.
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The displacement profile result obtained from the analysis with five N-S cross-
walls and various numbers of buttress on the west diaphragm wall are shown in Fig.
5(a). The displacement profile of the west diaphragm wall reduces as the number of
buttress (NB) increases from 0 to 5. As for case where the five 36 m long cross-walls
were replaced by five 7.5 m long buttresses on each of the north and south diaphragm
walls, the diaphragm wall displacement is shown in Fig. 5(b). Clearly, the diaphragm
wall displacement was larger this time, albeit not very drastically. This is perhaps the
buttress itself was sufficiently stiff in preventing the wall displacement.
As shown in Table 5, with five cross-wall across the excavation site, the
maximum lateral displacement of diaphragm wall and DRR for NB=0, 1, 3 and 5 on
the west diaphragm wall was 7.06 cm, 5.23 cm, 4.67 cm and 3.57 cm, respectively;
while the DRR was 0%, 26%, 33.9% and 49.4%, respectively. However, with five 7.5
m long buttresses to replace the cross-wall, the maximum lateral displacement of the
diaphragm wall for NB=0, 1, 3 and 5 became 6.48 cm, 4.63 cm, 4.05 cm and 2.85 cm,
respectively; while the DRR was 0%, 28.5%, 37.4% and 55.9%, respectively. This
must be due to the high stiffness contributed by the cross-wall in the north and south
diaphragm walls than that in east and west walls supported only by buttresses. This
must be due to the compliancy of the soil in the latter case
CONCLUSIONS
A series of 3D FE analysis had been conducted to examine the displacement
behavior of diaphragm wall during an excavation in Taipei City. The diaphragm wall
was supported by five cross-walls running across N-W of the excavation site while on
the west side various numbers of buttress (0~5) was provided to examine the
displacement of the west wall. The following conclusions have been reached:
The 3D FE result was with 97%~123% of the field observed data; in addition, the
location where the maximum lateral displacement in the diaphragm wall was also
close to that observed in the field, indicating that the numerical procedures and
materials parameters adopted were reliable.
Both the buttress and cross-wall were effective in reducing lateral displacement of
diaphragm wall. In either cases, the displacement reduction ratio DRR increases as
the spacing of the buttresses decreases, thus it is more efficient in reducing the lateral
displacement of a diaphragm wall. When the buttress spacing was about 20% (=6.6
m/36 m), the DRR could be as high as 50%.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance given by Kai Gu Engineering
Co., Ltd. who has kindly provided the field data that made this study possible.
REFERENCES
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Wu, H. H., Ching, J. Y. and Ou, C. Y. (2013). "Predicting Wall Displacements for
Excavations with Cross Walls in Soft Clay." J. Geotechnical & Geoenv. Engrg.,
Vol. 139(6): 914-927.
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Zaw Zaw Aye, M.ASCE1; Thayanan Boonyarak, Ph.D.2; Nutthapon Thasnanipan3; and
Sereyroath Chea4
1
Executive Vice President. E-mail: zaw@seafco.co.th
2
Chief of Engineering Division. E-mail: thayanan@seafco.co.th
3
Executive Vice President. E-mail: nutthapon@seafco.co.th
4
Geotechnical Engineer. E-mail: sereyroath.chea@gmail.com
Seafco Public Company Limited, 144 Prayasuren Rd., Bangchan, Klongsamwah, Bangkok, Thailand.
INTRODUCTION
Excavation of cut-and-cover tunnel results in stress relief and soil movement. When a
pile group is located within the excavation influence zone, additional axial force,
bending moment and displacement is likely to be induced. In addition, capacity and
serviceability of the pile should also be evaluated. From literature, influence zone of
excavation is estimated to be 2.5 times of the excavation depth (H) proposed by Aye et
al. (2006). Wang et al. (2010) also reported that distance of ground surface settlement
induced by excavation is ranging from 1.5 to 3.5 H, depends on soil type and stiffness of
retaining wall.
This paper presents back-analyzed responses of pile group due to construction of
nearby cut-and-cover tunnel. The numerical analysis results were validated with
measured results from the retaining wall of the tunnel. Time dependent behavior of the
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wall and pile is reported. Interpretation of induced axial force, bending moment and
displacement of pile due to changes in stress is given.
SITE INFORMATION
Figure 1a shows plan of a tunnel construction project at one of the major intersections
in the eastern part of Bangkok. The four-lane underpass along Srinakarin Road was in
the form of 758 m long cut-and-cover tunnel. At the intersection, the tunnel was
constructed underneath across the existing flyover of Udomsuk Road.
The design in the initial stage for the tunnel adopted bottom-up construction method
with temporary bracing to complete the excavation. Each roof-slab with dimension of
2.5 m wide and 18.8 m long made of precast pre-stressed concrete was initially planned
to be used. However, installation of heavy precast panels underneath the existing flyover
was considered difficult and high risk involved. After reviewing different options with
consideration of the constraints imposed on site and constructability, top-down
construction method with cast-in-place post-tension roof slabs was selected.
To facilitate top-down construction, roof slab openings were provided at an evenly
spacing of about 40 m for access of soil excavation underneath the slab. Adjacent to the
cut-and-cover tunnel, a pile group on each side of the underpass was located with
minimum clear distance of 8.0 m and 12.5 m
Section of the underpass is shown in Figure 1b. The thickness of the diaphragm wall is
0.8 m and depth is 25 m. At the middle of the tunnel, barrette size of 0.8 by 2.7 m with
depth of 29 m at 4.5 m spacing was used for replacing bored piles. This is because the
machine for barrette was modified for construction under the limited height of 6 m. Each
adjacent pile group of the flyover consists of six bored piles with diameter of 0.8 and
depth of 42 m.
Construction sequences
To construct the underpass (refer to Fig 1b), diaphragm wall and barrette with
embedded temporary stanchion were constructed, followed by casting of roof slab
supported by the stanchion. Before excavation started, post-tension force was applied on
the roof slab. Excavation using top-down method was performed to final level or 7 m
deep from the existing ground surface. The base slab was constructed afterward,
followed by casting of median wall between the temporary stanchions. The stanchions
were removed and the remaining median wall was constructed.
Soil profile
A soil profile at the site, derived from five soil investigation boreholes, is shown in
Figure 1b. A typical soil profile at the site is characterized by thick Bangkok soft clay at
the top, followed by thin layer of medium clay underlying by alternating stiff clay and
dense sand layers. Soil properties used for numerical analysis are given in the Section
Constitutive model and input parameters.
Geotechnical instrumentation
To monitor the behavior of the underpass construction and to ensure safety,
instruments (see Fig. 1a) consisting of inclinometer embedded in the diaphragm wall,
surface settlement markers and strain gage in the diaphragm wall were installed.
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S2
P
Surface Opening for
12.5 m
S3
S4
S5
settlement excavation
markers
S6
Udomsuk Road
(a)
Existing flyover
Left pile group Median wall / stanchion
Roof slab Right pile group
0 0
Fill
5 5 Base slab
Soft clay
10 10
Depth from ground surface (m)
15 15
Medium stiff clay
8.0 m 12.5 m Excavation
20 20
Very stiff depth is 7.0 m
clay
25 25
50 50
(b)
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Diaphragm wall
0.8 m thick x
25 m deep
Bored pile diameter
0.8 m x 42 m deep at
spacing of 2.4 m
Barrette size
Depth of model 50.0 m 0.8 m x 2.7 m x 29 m
Width of excavation 18.0 m deep at spacing of 4.5 m
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Left pile
15 15 15
[6 months after]
Depth (m)
20 20 20
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
Right pile
[Final excavation
25 25 25
Right pile
[6 months after] Right pile
30 30 30
[Final
excavation]
35 35 35
40 40 40
45 45
Computed results 45 Computed results
Mea sured [Fina l exca va tion] Left pile [Fina l exca va tion]
Mea sured [6 months a fter fina l exc] Left pile [6 months a fter fina l exc] Dia phra gm wa ll [Fina l exca va tion]
Computed [Fina l exca va tion] Right pile [Fina l exca va tion] Left pile [Fina l exca va tion]
Computed [6 months a fter fina l exc] Right pile [6 months a fter fina l exc] Right pile [Fina l exca va tion]
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Figure 4b shows induced axial force in each pile due to excavation. Maximum
induced axial force of 130 kN occurred in the front pile at depth of 18.5 m. The reason
of increase in axial force in the bored pile is due to relative downward movement of soil,
causing negative skin friction. Due to excavation, the maximum total axial force (i.e.,
existing and induced axial force) in the pile became 2,200 kN.
To assess the effects of excavation on pile, allowable bending moment and axial
compressive force were estimated to be 400 kN.m and 4500 kN, respectively. The
summation of bending moment ratio (BMinduced/BMallowable) and axial force ratio
(Finduced/Fallowable) was 0.56, still within the allowable capacity of 1.
The effects of excavation caused stress relief due to removal of soil weight and
inward soil movement. This stress relief in the underpass resulted in horizontal stress
reduction in each pile as shown in Figure 4c. As a result, bending moment was induced
in pile (refer to Fig. 4a).
Induced pile bending moment (kN.m) Induced pile axial force (kN) Incremental horizontal stress in soil (kPa)
-50 -25 0 25 50 0 50 100 150 -20 -10 0 10 20
0 0 0
5 5 5
10 10 10
15 15 15
20 20 20
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
25 25 25
30 30 30
35 35 35
40 40 40
45 45 45
Computed [Front pile] Computed [Front pile]
Computed [Front pile]
Computed [Middle pile] Computed [Middle pile] Computed [Middle pile]
Computed [Rea r pile] Computed [Rea r pile] Computed [Rea r pile]
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(b) Induced bending moment and increase in axial force occurred in adjacent bored pile.
The reason of induced bending moment was reduction in horizontal stress along the
pile shaft. The increase in axial force was caused by relative downward soil
movement or negative skin friction.
(c) The extent of induced bending moment and axial force was about five times of the
excavation depth of the underpass, given that the distance between the pile and
diaphragm wall was within three times of the excavation depth. The induced
bending moment and axial force of the pile were still within the allowable limit.
(d) A permanent diaphragm wall coupled with effective design of associated structures
and suitable selection of construction method could offer a practically and
technically attractive solution in construction of vehicle underpass in the congestive
traffic area of Bangkok.
REFERENCES
Aye, Z. Z., Karki, D. and Schulz, C. (2006). Ground Movement Prediction and
Building Damage Risk-Assessment for the Deep Excavations and Tunneling Works
in Bangkok Subsoil. in the International Symposium on Underground Excavation
and Tunneling, Urban Tunnel Construction and Protection of Environment, EIT,
Bangkok, Thailand, pp. 281-297
Benz, T. (2007). Small-strain Stiffness of Soils and Its Numerical Consequences.
Volume 55 of Institut fr Geotechnik Stuttgart, Mitteilung. Inst. fr Geotechnik
Likitlersuang, S., Teachavorasinskun, S., Surarak, C., Oh, E. and Balasubramaniam, A.
(2013). Small Strain Stiffness and Stiffness Degradation Curve of Bangkok Clays.
Soils and Foundations. 53(4): 498509
ONeil, M. and Reese, L. C. (1999). Drilled Shafts: Construction Procedures and
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