Durability of Embedded Fiber Composites Thesis

Durability of
Embedded Fibre Optic Sensors

in Composites
Klas Levin
Doctoral Thesis
Report 2001-8
Durability of Embedded Fibre Optic Sensors
in Composites
by
Klas Levin
Department of Aeronautics
Royal Institute of Technology
SE-100 44 Stockholm
Sweden
Report 2001-8
ISSN 0280-4646
Akademisk avhandling som med tillstnd av Kungliga Tekniska Hgskolan i
Stockholm framlgges med offentlig granskning fr avlggande av teknisk
doktorsexamen mndagen den 21 maj 2001 kl 13.15 i Kollegiesalen,
Administrationsbyggnaden, Kungliga Tekniska Hgskolan, Valhallavgen 79,
Stockholm. Fakultetsopponent r Professor Anders Ulfvarson, Institutionen fr
marin teknik, Chalmers Tekniska Hgskola.
Durability of embedded fibre optic sensors in composites
PREFACE
The work presented in this doctoral thesis was carried out at FFA, The Aeronautical Research
Institute of Sweden, presently, a division of FOI, The Swedish Defence Research Agency.
The research was financially supported by the FMV, Defence Materiel Administration.
There are a number of people who deserves my gratitudes as they have been important to this
work. First of all I am deeply indebted to Dr Pavel Sindelar who by his visionary view
directed me into the field of structural health monitoring. I also want to thank him for his
support during the years at FFA. I am deeply grateful to T. Lic Rolf Jarls and Jrme Matrat
for their contribution and helpfulness. I also wish to express my sincere gratitude to Sren
Nilsson and Dr Arne Skontorp sharing their experience with me. Christophe Paget and Dr
Gunnar Melin are both thanked for their enthusiasm, as well as all the others at the Structures
Department are acknowledged.
I want to thank Professor Jan Bcklund for accepting me as a student at the Department of
Aeronautics at the KTH, and that he finally encouraged me to finish this thesis. Finally, but
not least, I want to thank my wife Tuula for her patience and support.
Stockholm in April 2001
Klas Levin
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ABSTRACT
This thesis concerns various aspects of the durability of fibre optic sensors embedded in
composite. Since repair or replacement of embedded sensors is not generally possible, the
functional reliability of embedded sensors is one of the most important prerequisites for
successful use. The main research objective was to investigate the interaction between the
sensor and the composite, and how this is affecting the mechanical and optical sensor
response. Fibre optic sensors embedded in composite structures induce local stress
concentrations when the composite is subjected to mechanical loads and environmental
changes such as temperature and moisture. A complex transfer of stresses through the
interfaces between the embedded sensor and the composite occurs and can result in large local
stresses in the composite and a significant change in the response of the embedded sensor.
These stress concentrations make the interfaces susceptible to debonding.
The sensor performance was studied experimentally and numerically. Some basic results were
generated for the EFPI and Bragg grating sensors. The phase-strain response was determined
during static and fatigue loading. The results showed that the sensors were more reliable in
compression than in tensile static and fatigue loading. Generally, the sensor reliability during
loading was significantly improved for the Bragg grating sensors over that of the EFPI sensor,
as an effect of the sensor geometry. This was also demonstrated in the investigations on
impacts. Impacts do not necessarily result in damage in the composite, but might cause
debonding or other failure modes in the sensor area. Large, local stress concentrations occur
at several positions in the EFPI sensor, which pointed out that this sensor type was not
suitable for embedded applications.
The shift in focus from the sensor concept based on the EFPI sensor to that based on the
Bragg grating sensor manifested itself in several studies. The calculated deformation field
around an embedded optical fibre was verified in experiments using a high-resolution moir
interferometric technique. Furthermore, the improvement in the coating technology was
verified. A significant higher interfacial strength was obtained with the silane-treated glass
surface. The results indicated that at least a twofold improvement of the shear strength was
obtained.
To simultaneously measure the in-plane strain components and the temperature change,
embedded Bragg grating sensors were arranged in a rosette configuration. The relationship
between the optical response from each sensor and the strains in the laminate was numerically
and analytically established.
Damage lead to stress redistribution in the sensor region, which may influence the output
from the embedded Bragg grating sensor. The effect was numerically evaluated for interfacial
damage, and was compared to that of a sensor with undamaged interface. The results showed
that debonding might have a significant influence, in particular for combined thermal and
mechanical loading.
Keywords: composites, fibre optic sensor, embedded, EFPI sensor, Bragg grating sensor,
durability, fatigue, impact, strain measurement, interface, stress analysis
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE ....................................................................................................................I
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................III
DISSERTATION....................................................................................................... VII
DIVISION OF WORK BETWEEN AUTHORS .......................................................... IX
INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................1
1. BACKGROUND ......................................................................................................1
2. FIBRE SENSOR TECHNOLOGY...........................................................................3

2.1 Optical fibres and Bragg gratings ...................................................................3
2.2 Fibre optic strain sensors ...............................................................................4
2.3 Bragg grating demodulation and multiplexing ................................................6
2.4 Strain and temperature measurements..........................................................7
2.5 Temperature discrimination ............................................................................8
3. COMPOSITES WITH EMBEDDED SENSORS....................................................10

3.1 Microstructural effects ..................................................................................10
3.2 Structural integrity.........................................................................................10
3.3 Sensor performance .....................................................................................11
4. SUMMARY OF APPENDED PAPERS.................................................................13
REFERENCES..........................................................................................................16
PAPER A.......................................................................................................... A1-A13

PAPER B.......................................................................................................... B1-B14
PAPER C............................................................................................................ C1-C8
PAPER D............................................................................................................ D1-D9
PAPER E.......................................................................................................... E1-E10
PAPER F ...........................................................................................................F1-F16
PAPER G .........................................................................................................G1-G10
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DISSERTATION
This dissertation consists of the following seven appended papers:
Paper A:
K. Levin & S. Nilsson, "Examination of reliability of fibre optic sensors embedded in
carbon/epoxy composites", Third International Conference on Intelligent Materials and Third
European Conference on Smart Structures and Materials, ICIM-3/ECCM-3, Proc. SPIE 2779,
Lyon, June 3-5 1996, pp.222-229
Paper B:
K. Levin & R. Jarls, "Vulnerability of embedded EFPI-sensors to low-energy impacts",
Smart Structures and Materials, Vol. 6, June 1997, pp. 369-382
Paper C:
R. Jarls & K. Levin, Location of embedded fiber optic sensors for minimized impact
vulnerability", Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 10, March 1999,
pp.187-194
Paper D:
L.G. Melin, K. Levin, S. Nilsson, S.J.P. Palmer & P. Rae, A study of the displacement field
around embedded fibre optic sensors, Composites: Part A, Vol. 30, 1999, pp.1267-1275
Paper E:
K. Levin, Interfacial strength of optical fibres, Proc. Twelfth International Conference on
Composite Materials, ICCM-12, Paris, July 5-9, 1999, Paper 640
Paper F:
J. Matrat, K. Levin & R Jarls, Implementation of a Bragg grating strain rosette embedded in
composites, Smart Structures and Materials 2001: Sensory Phenomena and Measurement
Instrumentation for Smart Structures and Materials, Proc. SPIE 4328, March 6-8, 2001,
Paper 4328-18
Paper G:
J. Matrat, K. Levin & R. Jarls, The effect of debonding on strain measurement with
embedded Bragg grating sensors, Proc. Second International Workshop on Structural Health
Monitoring 2000, Stanford, CA, Sep. 8-10, 1999, pp. 651-660
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DIVISION OF WORK BETWEEN AUTHORS
Paper A:
The work was initiated and defined by K. Levin, who performed the experiments. S. Nilsson
did the numerical analysis. The paper was jointly written by the authors.
Paper B and C:
The works were initiated and defined by K. Levin. The experimental work was performed by
K. Levin. The numerical analysis was carried out by R. Jarls. The papers were jointly written
by the authors.
Paper D:
The work was initiated by K. Levin. L.G. Melin did mainly the optical testing with assistance
of S.J.P Palmer and P. Rae. K. Levin made the additional experimental work. S. Nilsson
performed the numerical analysis. The paper was jointly written by L.G. Melin and K. Levin.
Paper F and G:
The work was initiated and defined by K. Levin. Numerical analysis was performed by J.
Matrat with assistance of R. Jarls and K. Levin. The papers were written by J. Matrat and K.
Levin.
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INTRODUCTION
1. BACKGROUND
A challenge to finding more cost-effective ways to reduce maintenance costs and enhancing
structural safety has been created by the continual ageing of the aircraft fleets, a more cost
driven design of new military aircraft, rotorcraft and the future use of large capacity aircraft.
Also, in marine vessels and other vehicles where new design concepts including composite
structures have been introduced, a need exist for more beneficial inspection methods. The
important driving force for built-in sensors in structures is improved ways to monitor
operational loads. In many applications such as in the area of civil engineering (bridges,
tunnels, dams etc.) the knowledge of the loads is generally low, and significant rewards can
be gained by incorporating sensors into the structures.
Historically, structural monitoring in aircraft has been accomplished with a limited number of
resistive strain gauges together with manual flight logs and accelerometers [1]. The
development of sensor technology and microprocessors has made it possible to incorporate
more data processing on-board the aircraft. Such systems include strain sensors, parametric
and other sensors together with diagnostic and prognostic capacities, as schematically
indicated in Figure 1. This might allow monitoring of the structure during service with less
efforts and resources and at the same time obtain more reliable and efficient data. The
operation and support of the aircraft may be sufficiently improved while reducing cost for
maintenance and improving the structural performance. Similar approaches also exist for
other vehicles and structures.
Figure 1. Proposed architecture at Boeing of a structural health management system [2].
1
At research level, the field of structural condition and health monitoring has attracted many
contributors over the last 20 years with the objective to develop systems for monitoring
operational loads and even damage detection. Various sensor techniques have been proposed.
Currently, these solutions are in most cases developed based on fibre optic sensor technology.
The use of optical fibre sensors to measure strain and temperature, or even to detect damage
in structures are finding more applications due to the sensors small size, sensitivity and
immunity to electromagnetic interference. Other advantages of fibre optic sensors originate
from the fact that they are dielectric and therefore can be used in hazardous environments
where electrical sensors would not be safe, and that the losses are very small in optical fibres
allowing the signal to be transmitted over a long distance. Fibre optic sensors have been used
to monitor strain but are also finding applications in other areas, such as cure process
monitoring for composites, pressure, current, chemical and acoustic emission monitoring,
indicating the versatility of the fibre optic sensor technique.
Many activities in Europe, Asia and the US are focused on application of large fibre optic
sensor arrays for various types of structures. Recently the research has led to a number of
demonstration projects. Application of fibre optic sensors have been demonstrated in a
military boat [3], as indicated in Figure 2, and a large yacht [4] and in civil structures such as
bridges [5]. Field testing has also been conducted to demonstrate utility of fibre optic sensor
systems in aircraft structures as in the flight testing of a BAe Jetstream in the Brite-EuRam
project MONITOR [6]. Other applications are the full-scale testing of a fighter F-15 [7] and
the testing of a wing structure from a civil aircraft [8]. The fibre optic sensors have in these
applications been either surface attached or embedded within the material. The major reason
to embed sensors is that they will be more protected from external damage. In the US Air
Force close to half of the structural repairs is due to damage caused during maintenance [9].
On the other hand, attached sensors are easier to install, and may be refitted during service.
Figure 2a. Sensor location in the Fast patrol Figure 2b. Strain data from a pair of fibre
boat KMN Skjold [3]. optic sensors attached to the
hull [3].
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2. FIBRE SENSOR TECHNOLOGY
2.1 Optical fibres and Bragg gratings
Current optical fibre sensor technology has arisen largely on the basis of optical components
and especially optical fibres made available as a result of the growth in their use for
telecommunication purposes. An example is the development of optical fibres where the
technology to produce low loss optical fibres has been developed from the sixties to be highly
sophisticated a few decades later. The same fibre technology is also applicable for
manufacturing of optical fibre sensors. As these optical fibre sensor techniques have been
evolving rapidly, different types of optical fibres have been developed to suit many
applications. For sensing purposes, mainly one type of fibre has been considered, which is the
single mode optical fibre. The main characteristic is that only one mode is allowed to
propagate in the fibre core, which serves as the light guide.
The optical fibres are small, lightweight and flexible. The diameter of the fibres is typically
125 m. In a single mode fibre, the core has a diameter which is typically less than 9 microns.
The fibre is protected from moisture and from mechanical contact using a polymer coating or
a hermetically closed coating made of metal or ceramics [10]. The most common polymeric
coating material for sensor applications is polyimide. It has excellent high temperature
properties and generally bond well with various adhesives, glass and polymers such as
polyesters and epoxies. To further improve the bond between the coating and the optical fibre
a sizing may be used.
Acrylate-coated Fit to K-model Acrylate-coated Fit

Polyimide-coated Fit to K-model Uncoated - Series 1
4000 4000
Uncoated - Series 2
Uncoated - Series 3
3000 3000
Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)
2000 2000
1000 1000
Day Month Year 10 Y Day

0 Month Year 10 Y
0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (hours) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Time (hours)
Figure 3a Applied stress as a function of Figure 3b Applied stress as a function of

time-to-failure for the acrylate and time-to-failure for the acrylate and
polyimide coated fibres [13]. uncoated fibres [13].
The strength and durability of optical fibres is among the major concerns in embedded fibre
sensory applications. Since it is generally impossible to repair a damaged optical fibre
embedded in a structure, it is of vital importance to ensure that the optical fibre system will
survive and remain functional for the life of the structure. The intrinsic short-term failure
strain of an optical fibre is very high, normally above 5 %, as shown in Figure 3 [11,12,13].
However, it was found that in order to achieve these good properties, the glass surface of the
fibre must be protected from the environment, i.e. shielded from moisture and mechanical
3
contact. Failure mechanisms in silica glass have been found to be accelerated due to moisture.
It is believed that this mechanism is mainly responsible for the ageing of optical fibres
[12,13]. However in [13] it was indicated that even uncoated fibres could remain functional
for years at typical composite load levels in aircraft applications.
The failure strain of uncoated fibres is often less than 1 %. However, the strength and ageing
process of the optical fibre are strongly affected by the Bragg grating production method. To
obtain access to the fibre core when the Bragg gratings are written, the coating must be locally
removed. Most gratings are made by first stripping the optical fibre, either mechanically or
chemically. Fibres with mechanically removed coating have very low strength; therefore,
chemical stripping is generally preferred. For polyimide coatings this is normally performed
with hot sulphur acid. However, in many applications, it is preferable to directly fabricate the
gratings in the draw tower or to write gratings directly through a special fibre coating. It is
preferable since the strength is only slightly affected as the exposure of the glass to the
ambient environment and further handling are reduced to a minimum. It is however difficult
to effectively implement such a technique, as it results in an inflexible grating fabrication.
Sensors based on Bragg gratings have received the most focus during the recent years. This is
a result of the relatively simple fabrication method and the capability to multiplex Bragg
grating sensors. When a germanium-doped silica core fibre is exposed to ultraviolet radiation,
this leads to a permanent change in refractive index of the germanium-doped region [14].
Photosensitivity is often increased by sensitising the germanium-doped fibres with hydrogen
to obtain gratings with high reflectivity. For commonly used production techniques, the
degradation of the optical properties of the Bragg gratings has been shown to be small at
300C or below.
2.2 Fibre optic strain sensors
Two different sensor principles, the intracore Bragg grating and the interferometric Fabry-
Prot, have attracted most interest for localised strain and temperature sensing. Their
multiplexibility and versatility lends itself to many sensing applications. Many other different
sensor principles exist, such as the polarimetric approach [e.g. 15] or the Brillouin scattering
technique [16]. However, these have not achieved general acceptance due to the fact that the
optical systems based on such sensors have either low sampling rates, low spatial resolution
or low strain resolution.
The intracore Bragg grating sensor is based on the principle that the Bragg grating reflects the
central wavelength of the light, as indicated in Figure 4. A uniform periodic grating is used,
which is same as the sensor length. Typically the sensor length is a few millimeters long to
achieve gratings with large reflectivity. Strain and temperature induce a shift in the spectral
location, which is detected.
4
Figure 4. Principle of the intracore Bragg grating sensor [21].
The interferometric Fabry-Prot sensors have been used in many different configurations,
although it is the extrinsic Fabry-Prot Interferometer (EFPI) [e.g. 17] and the interferometric
Bragg grating sensor [e.g. 18] that have received the most interest. Common for these sensors
are that they have two (semi-) reflective mirrors which create the Fabry-Prot cavity. The
principle of the interferometric sensors is that the two reflections interfere and the intensity at
the detector varies as a sinusoidal function of the length between the mirrors. The length is
directly affected by the strain and temperature. The mirrors can be realised with deposition of
reflective material inside the fibre or at straight cleaved fibre ends as shown in Figure 5, or by
writing two semi-reflective Bragg gratings in the fibre core as seen in Figure 6.
Figure 5. An EFPI-sensor. Figure 6 An interferometric sensor based on two

semi-reflective Bragg gratings.
The cavity in the EFPI sensor inherently results in mechanical weakness. These sensors have
the disadvantages that they have stress concentrations due to diameter discontinuities between
the lead fibres and the alignment tube or partially reflecting splice. These geometrical features
resulted in static failure strain of approximately 1 % or less [17]. Sensors with Bragg gratings
have a much higher strength, similar to that of optical fibres.
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2.3 Bragg grating demodulation and multiplexing
Multiplexing is a method in which two or more sensors utilize the same light source, detector
and signal processor. Multiplexing is necessary to reduce the number of fibre leads and
connectors. Different concepts for multiplexing of fibre optic sensors have been reviewed in
[18-21]. In theory, multiplexing can be achieved in many fashions such as in the time,
wavelength, spatial, phase and frequency domain. The two most important methods are the
time and wavelength multiplexing techniques for which many different configurations have
been suggested.
Figure 7. Example of a wavelength multiplexing technique [21].
The concepts utilizing wavelength division multiplexing have to accommodate the

wavelength response of the Bragg grating sensors associated with the change in strain and
temperature. Each sensor grating is written with a specific Bragg wavelength for a unique
identification of each sensor. The difference in wavelength between sensors is associated with
the spectral width of the light source and the strain range. This will limit the number of
sensors that a fibre can host. Typically, the maximum sensors with full strain range (1 %) are
less than ten with currently available light sources. However, there exist different techniques
to expand the number of sensors such as sequentially addressing each sensorised fibre or
using multiple light sources, although this creates a more complex configuration. An example
of a wavelength multiplexing technique is shown in Figure 7.
For interferometric sensors, time division multiplexing is the standard multiplexing technique.
The principle is based on addressing each sensor in the fibre with different delays from the
source and detector. For such systems each generated light pulse produces twice as many
pulses representing the two reflected pulses from each sensor. The interference of the light is
then made in the detection unit, as schematically shown in Figure 8. The number of sensors is
limited due to that fact that each sensor reflects a part of the light resulting in a reduced light
intensity at the successive sensors.
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Figure 8. A schematic view of a time domain multiplexing system [22].
2.4 Strain and temperature measurements
In this section, the response of embedded fibre optical sensors to strain and temperature is
discussed.
Once an optical fibre is embedded, the interpretation of the sensor response becomes complex
due to the effects of the interaction between the sensor and the surrounding material in which
the sensor is embedded. The strain state in the sensor core is not necessary the same as the
strain in the surrounding material. Several studies have addressed this interaction. In the early
studies of embedded fibre optic sensors, the difference between embedded and free sensors
were not fully understood.
With illumination from a broadband light source, only a narrow spectral line is reflected along
the core at the Bragg wavelength, b, which is the wavelength at maximum reflectivity. The
reflective light from the sensor is independent of intensity fluctuation of the light. The Bragg
wavelength is dependent on the period of the grating, , and the refractive index of the fibre,
ne, as
b = 2 n . (1)
The period of the grating is changed from the mechanical strain and temperature. Therefore
the Bragg wavelength of the reflected light is sensitive to these parameters. In the optical
sensor system, the sensor response is encoded in terms of the changed Bragg wavelength
[23,24]. The strain and temperature in the fibre core is linear proportional to the Bragg
wavelength shift,
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n2 1
= 11 P12 11 + (P11 + P12 )( 22 + 33 ) + T (2)
b 2 2
where 11, 22 and 33 are the sensor strains, and T and are the temperature variation and the
thermo-optic constant, respectively. P11 and P12 are the photo-elastic constants (the Pockels
constants). The equation is based on the assumption that the strain is approximately constant
over the gauge length and that the sensor is in a non-birefringent fibre. Equation 2 has
recently been extended for non-uniform conditions such as chirped gratings (gratings with a
non-uniform period) [25] and large stress gradients [26].
Similarly, the Fabry-Prot interferometric sensor, consisting of two gratings, provides

interference between the two reflected signals and exhibits the same linear relation between
the phase shift, , and the change in strain and temperature [23,24],
n2 1
= nkL 11 P12 11 + (P11 + P12 )( 22 + 33 ) + T (3)
2 2
where L is the gauge length of the sensor and k is the free-space propagation constant.
For the extrinsic Fabry-Prot interferometric sensor, Equation 3 can be further simplified in
that the sensor has a cavity formed in air instead of a glass waveguide. This implies that the
transverse sensitivity disappears and the thermal-optic constant, , is changed to thermal
expansion for the sensor gauge length, , as:
n2
= L k n 11 (P12 11 ) + a T . (4)
2
A disadvantage with the sensor based on Bragg gratings is that the sensor is significantly
more temperature sensitive due to the sensor being formed in the glass rather than by an air
cavity. Another point is that the transverse sensitivity is negligible in the EFPI sensor whereas
the transverse strain in Bragg grating based sensors has a significant influence on the sensor
output. Despite this, the ease of fabrication and multiplexing of Bragg gratings has made the
EFPI sensor obsolete.
Studies have been performed to determine the full strain field in the composite with
embedded fibre optic sensors. Various type solutions have been proposed and tested by using
different measurement principles such as Bragg grating in polarization preserving optical
fibres [27], multiple sensors with different strain sensitivities [28], and multiple sensors
embedded with different orientations [29, 30, Paper F].
2.5 Temperature discrimination
One of the challenges of strain measurement is always the separation of mechanical strains
from thermally induced strains. With a single measurement of the Bragg wavelength, it is not
possible to differentiate between the effects of changes in strain and temperature. Therefore,
8
in these concepts the principle is to use two measurements to be able to separate the strain and
temperature. For a successful determination of strain and temperature, the effect of sensor
location on the measurements should be insignificant. Temperature compensation in the strain
measurement can be achieved with a varity of detection schemes. Separation of mechanical
strains from thermally induced strains has been tried with some success using sensor fibres
with different core dopings that induced differences in the thermo-optical constant [31,32] or
using two sensors with different thermal sensitivity [33,34]. In this case, the wavelengths
changes of two single gratings, one in each fibre, were monitored subjected to the same
temperature and strain embedded in a composite.
The change in peak Bragg wavelength of the fibre grating can be expressed as,
( , T ) = K + K T T (5)
assuming that the strain and thermal response on the wavelength shift is independent. If this
assumption is valid, we can solve the following equation system where 1 and 2 refer to the
two wavelengths:
1 K 1 K T 1
= (6)
2 K 2 K T 2 T
by simultaneously measuring the response of the Bragg gratings in terms of wavelength shift
for the two wavelengths. As the photo-elastic and thermo-optic coefficients are wavelength
dependent, wavelength changes of each of the two gratings will be different although each
grating has the same level of strain. The technique can be extended to interferometric sensors
by replacing the wavelength shift with the phase shift in Equation 5.
Other methods used for strain-temperature discrimination are based on dual wavelengths for
measuring the response at two different wavelengths [35], long-period gratings [36,37], two
different optical modes, or a sensor uncoupled to the strain [38]. These methods basically
work using the same principle as the above methods in that they are based on that the
measurands strain and temperature being separated by a two-parameter scheme. As the
sensitivity at two different Bragg wavelengths is different with strain and temperature, they
can be determined by a simultaneous measurement. The limitations of these techniques are
that they show some degree of a non-linear thermal sensitivity and have limited strain
resolution. A resolution on the order of 20 microstrain and a temperature resolution better
than 1 C over a strain range of 800 microstrain can be achieved [39,40].
A few of these concepts are based on two fibres spatially embedded close to each other so that
each sensor experiences the same condition. However, there exist a required minimum
distance between the two fibres such that no interaction occurs in the local strain field around
the optical sensors. In [41] it was shown that a distance larger than 0.3 mm is sufficient to
avoid any interaction. An alternative way is to use dual cores in one fibre, but this concept is
envisaged having large problems to connect the sensors with the optical system.
9
3. COMPOSITES WITH EMBEDDED SENSORS
3.1 Microstructural effects
The basic understanding of the changes in microstructure as a consequence of embedding

optical fibres was obtained in studies reported in [42,43]. There is a significant interaction
between the composite material and an embedded optical fibre, giving rise to changes in
geometry on the local scale. An optical fibre embedded off-axis to the reinforcing carbon
fibres creates a matrix pocket around the optical fibre, as shown in Figure 9.
The geometrical effect was studied and quantified for typical cases. Generally, sensors should
be embedded parallel to the surrounding carbon fibres in order to disturb the reinforcing fibres
the least and avoid matrix pockets. The effect of small local variation in fibre volume around
the optical fibre found in [43] for parallel optical and reinforcing fibres was analysed in [41].
The finding was that this effect is negligible. The resulting strain field around the optical fibre
is significantly changed and the interfacial stresses increase [44].
Optical fibre
Matrix pocket
Figure 9. An optical fibre embedded between a +45- and a

-45-ply.
3.2 Structural integrity
Embedded optical fibre sensors and their associated optical fibres should not affect the
structural integrity of the host composite structure. A decrease in the load-carrying ability of
the structure is not acceptable in most cases especially in composite materials as the strive is
10
to increase strain allowables and thereby make them more competitive. As described above,
embedded optical fibres may disrupt the composite microstructure. In addition, the difference
in thermo-elastic properties may cause stress concentrations. From a structural integrity point-
of-view, as well as from a fibre survivability viewpoint, the optimal position of an optical
fibre in a composite is between two plies with reinforcing fibres oriented along the optical
fibre. In this position, the optical fibre is most protected as the reinforcing fibres will carry
axial loads, and potentially threatening matrix cracks will grow along the optical fibre, not
through it.
Studies have shown that the effect of embedded optical fibres on the strength and fatigue life
of composites laminates is generally unaffected by the presence of a small (125 m) optical
fibre, with the optical fibre in the direction of the surrounding co-linear plies [45-50]. In static
tension or compression, there were no significant adverse effects of the embedded optical
fibres, because the optical fibres did not initiate or indirectly cause fibre-dominated failures in
the composite. In the case of an optical fibre loop, where the fibre changes direction and
locally disturbs the microstructure considerably, no premature failures associated with optical
fibres were found [48,49].
Structures introduce an additional complexity; thus, a need existed to investigate whether the
introduction of embedded optical fibres into regions with internal ply-drops and bolts would
affect the static load-carrying ability. Therefore, studies were conducted on both holes, ply-
drops and bolted joints with optical fibres [47-49]. Similar studies were performed to evaluate
if impact on plates with embedded optical fibres can result in reduction in structural integrity
of the composite [51-54]. The results indicated that the embedded optical fibres did not affect
the structural integrity, as they do not initiate failure.
3.3 Sensor performance
The sensor performance has to be excellent and reliable during the entire life of the structure.
Since repair or replacement of embedded sensors is not generally possible, the functional
reliability of embedded sensors is one of the most important prerequisites for successful use.
This will be associated with a disruption of data and also induce cost for installation of new
sensors attached to the surface.
Sensors and transducers embedded in composite structures induce local stress concentrations
when the composite is subjected to mechanical loads and environmental changes such as
temperature and moisture. This is an effect of the local geometry and difference in stiffness
between the composite and the fibre optic sensor. A complex transfer of stresses through the
interfaces between the embedded fibre and the composite occurs and can result in large local
stresses in the composite and a significant change in the response of the embedded sensor.
These stress concentrations make the interfaces susceptible to debonding [55, Paper A]. If
there is debonding at the interface, this may lead to unacceptable stress redistribution in the
sensor, which may lead to undesired changes in the sensor output [Paper A, Paper G].
11
The sensor performance has been studied experimentally and numerically. The first numerical
investigations concerned the transfer of stresses to optical fibres in different laminate
configuration, for optical fibre embedded parallel and off-axis to the reinforcing carbon fibres
[44,56-61]. These studies showed that the matrix pocket created for optical fibres creates large
stress concentrations, which are significantly larger than those occurring in optical fibres
embedded parallel to the reinforcement. These studies were accompanied by analytical
solutions [62-69], which focused on reduction of the stress concentration with a selection of
coating properties. They found that a reduction in the interfacial stresses might be achieved,
although only a few viable alternatives exist to polyimides, limiting the useful of these results.
In [41], a detailed numerical study showed a complex interaction between the cavity and the
stresses at the interface on the EFPI sensor. This study was further extended in [Paper A] to
understand the coupling between the local stresses induced from mechanical and thermal
loading and the effect of the lay-up. One concern was that impacts, although they do not
necessarily result in damage in the composite, might cause debonding or other failure modes
in the sensor area [Paper B, Paper C]. Impacts generate high, local stress levels that can
induce damage in the sensor or damage in the composite in the region of the sensor. Initially
the work concerned embedded EFPI sensors. The critical impact energy level was predicted
for different thickness positions of the sensor. The results were correlated with impact
experiments indicating that in some positions the EFPI sensor was vulnerable to impacts. The
study was shifted to addressing the impact vulnerability of embedded Bragg grating sensors.
The objectives were further extended to more cases and conditions. It was found that the best
position to embed sensors was close to the mid-plane, similar to that found for the EFPI
sensor. Although the results showed that an impact might not initially affect the sensor
performance, subsequent fatigue loading could result in premature degradation in sensor
performance. This could occur if the interfacial strength between the coating and the glass
was poor.
Other important findings from the numerical studies [70] were that the number of 0-plies in
which the sensor is embedded does not lead to significant change of the stress field around the
sensor. No large changes in the Bragg grating signal response and the interfacial stresses
occur as an effect of the coating thickness.
The calculated deformation field around the embedded optical fibre was verified in
experiments using a high-resolution moir interferometric technique [56-57, 59, Paper D].
These studies generated a deeper understanding of the mechanics of embedded sensors.
Experimental evaluation of the limit of sensor performance and the associated damage
mechanisms to the degradation was tested in [Paper A] for the EFPI sensor. The phase-strain
response was determined during static and fatigue loading indicating a strain sensitivity of
embedded sensors which was linear up to approximately 0.20 % strain in tensile static and
fatigue loading. In compression, the sensor was significantly more reliable. Similar
experimental studies were also performed for embedded Bragg grating sensors. Generally, the
sensor reliability during loading was significantly improved for the Bragg grating sensors
over that of the EFPI sensor, probably as an effect of the sensor geometry as well as the
improved coating technology. Damage lead to stress redistribution in the sensor region, which
12
may influence the output from the embedded sensor. Another study has addressed the
influence of matrix cracking in the composite on the sensor output [71]. It was found that the
sensor response is not significantly affected by the presence of damage in the composite
because the stress redistrubution as an effect of matrix damage in the composite is small on
the strain in the fibre core. The interfacial damage effect was numerically evaluated
[Paper G], and was compared to that of a sensor with undamaged interface. The results
showed that debonding might have a significant influence, in particular for combined thermal
and mechanical loading. The study pointed out the importance of a strong bond between the
sensor and the composite.
Improvement in the coating technology was evaluated. Initially, acrylate coated fibres were
used similar to those common in the telecommunication industry. It was shown early that
these could not be used in embedded applications since the thermal stability is significant
reduced above 100 C. Polyimide soon became the prevalent coating material. However it was
shown that in the case of highly strained embedded sensors the interface between the silica
glass and the polyimide failed [Paper A]. A significant higher interfacial strength could be
obtained with a silane-treated glass surface [72, 73, Paper E]. The results in Paper E indicated
that at least a twofold improvement of the shear strength was obtained.
4. SUMMARY OF APPENDED PAPERS
Paper A
One of the most important tasks in achieving a reliable performance of optical fibre sensors
embedded in aircraft health monitoring and usage systems is to clarify their functional
reliability. In this study, the limits of sensor functionality are assessed for a number of loading
conditions at room temperature.
It was observed that under static tensile loading the functional strain limit for EFPI-sensors
was approximately 0.20%, whereas the functional limit for embedded Bragg grating sensors
was above the strain level (0.4-0.5%) for the initiation of matrix cracking in the cross-ply
laminate. In compression, the function of the EFPI-sensor was unimpaired up to a strain level
that was more than four times larger than that in tension. In constant amplitude fatigue
loading, the functional strain limit of the EFPI-sensor was similar to that in static tensile
loading, i.e. 0.20% at 105 cycles. The silica glass/polyimide coating interface in the EFPI-
sensor was identified as the sites where failure was initiated. The finite element analysis
showed that the effects of curing stresses and moisture in laminates have significant influence
on the functional reliability of sensors. The stress concentrations on the interface caused by
the cavity in the EFPI-sensor are the main reason for the lower reliability obtained for EFPI-
sensors than for embedded Bragg grating sensors.
13
Paper B
The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the vulnerability to low-energy impacts of
EFPI sensors embedded in carbon fibre composites. The task was to determine the critical
contact load, which leads to deterioration in the sensor function. A bending dominated case,
typically resulting from an impact far from any supporting boundary, was chosen in this
investigation of impact vulnerability of a modified EFPI-sensor embedded at different depths
in a composite plate.
An important finding from the experiments was that the depth position of the sensor in the
plate had a significant influence on the contact load at which the sensor function deteriorated.
The best position was in the middle of the plate. When the sensor was embedded closer to the
plate surfaces, the sensor function became vulnerable to impact. It was shown that the
function of the sensor deteriorated as an effect of debonding. In the finite element analysis the
effect of embedded fibre optic sensors on the local stress distribution was a subject of special
interest. The analysis supported the findings from the experiments that debonding of the
sensor is the most critical failure mode for the sensor function, it is however difficult to
predict the load level for initiation of damage. A new debonding criterion was proposed to
improve the agreement with the experimental data.
Paper C
Vulnerability of embedded Bragg grating sensors to impact has been studied in composite
laminated plates. The effects of the distance from the supporting boundary and the sensor
thickness position were determined. The main objective was to develop an accurate numerical
procedure to calculate the local stresses at the sensor from impact in order to determine the
criticality with respect to damage initiation. A semi-analytical and a finite element based
method were used to consider the contact at impact. From the analysis, it was found that a
lower impact energy was required to cause damage in the sensor region when the sensor was
embedded close to the boundary. At locations far from boundaries, sensors should not be
embedded close to the plate surfaces. For sensors embedded close to a boundary, a thickness
position close to the upper surface was found to be less suitable than other positions.
Paper D
Deformation fields around optical fibres embedded in carbon fibre/epoxy composite

specimens have been measured using moir interferometry. The inclusion of the optical fibre
resulted in large strain gradients. Calculated displacements from finite element analysis were
compared to the experimental results. The numerical analysis showed that the displacement
field on the specimen surface is smoothed out through the moir grating thickness, an effect
which is most pronounced at the material interfaces. With this influence taken into
consideration a reasonable good quantitative agreement between the experiments and the
14
finite element analysis was obtained. The finite element analysis also showed that the grating
stiffness did not affect the measured displacements as long as the grating had a lower stiffness
than the specimen.
Paper E
The interfacial strengths of three different optical fibres were evaluated using a push-out test
method. Polyimide coated optical fibres either without or with a silane sizing on the silica
glass, and optical fibres with aluminium coating were tested. A significant increase in the
interfacial strength was achieved with the silane sizing. The failure mode shifted from the
silica glass/polyimide interface to the polyimide/composite. For the two other fibres the
interfacial strength was similar. Pre-conditioning of samples with polyimide coated optical
fibres indicates that moisture can result in a significant reduction in interfacial strength for
fibres without sizing whereas the sizing has a protective effects on the interfaces to moisture.
Paper F
Four embedded Bragg grating sensors were arranged in a rosette configuration to

simultaneously measure the in-plane strain components and the temperature change. The
sensors were embedded in neighbouring plies to realise a point-like measurement. Assuming
linear thermoelastic behaviour, the relationship between the optical response from each sensor
and the strains in the laminate was established. A finite element model was then used to
quantify numerically the expected accuracy of the measured strain under various loading
conditions.
Paper G
The effect of interfacial debonding between an embedded Bragg grating sensor and the
composite on the response of the sensor was investigated. The sensor response associated
with the strain state in the debonded Bragg grating sensor was compared to that for the sensor
with an undamaged interface. A finite element model was used to determine the three-
dimensional strain field, including contact analysis for various thermo-mechanical loading.
Different debonding locations and sizes were analysed to determine the maximum change in
the sensor response. The results showed that debonding could have a significant influence on
the sensor response. In the case of transverse tensile loading, the stress redistribution in a
debonded sensor resulted in an error in the strain measurements that was less than 54%.
Loading in the axial direction may result in strain errors on the order of 1%. The investigation
also showed that thermal loading could further increase the error in the strain measurements.
Furthermore, a non-linear response from the debonded sensors was observed.
15
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20
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Durability of

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Stockholm in April 2001

DIVISION OF WORK BETWEEN AUTHORS .......................................................... IX

2. FIBRE SENSOR TECHNOLOGY...........................................................................3

3. COMPOSITES WITH EMBEDDED SENSORS....................................................10

4. SUMMARY OF APPENDED PAPERS.................................................................13

PAPER A.......................................................................................................... A1-A13

This dissertation consists of the following seven appended papers:

DIVISION OF WORK BETWEEN AUTHORS

Figure 1. Proposed architecture at Boeing of a structural health management system [2].

2. FIBRE SENSOR TECHNOLOGY

2.1 Optical fibres and Bragg gratings

Acrylate-coated Fit to K-model Acrylate-coated Fit

Day Month Year 10 Y Day

Figure 3a Applied stress as a function of Figure 3b Applied stress as a function of

2.2 Fibre optic strain sensors

Figure 4. Principle of the intracore Bragg grating sensor [21].

Figure 5. An EFPI-sensor. Figure 6 An interferometric sensor based on two

2.3 Bragg grating demodulation and multiplexing

Figure 7. Example of a wavelength multiplexing technique [21].

The concepts utilizing wavelength division multiplexing have to accommodate the

Figure 8. A schematic view of a time domain multiplexing system [22].

2.4 Strain and temperature measurements

Similarly, the Fabry-Prot interferometric sensor, consisting of two gratings, provides

2.5 Temperature discrimination

3. COMPOSITES WITH EMBEDDED SENSORS

3.1 Microstructural effects

The basic understanding of the changes in microstructure as a consequence of embedding

Figure 9. An optical fibre embedded between a +45- and a

3.2 Structural integrity

3.3 Sensor performance

4. SUMMARY OF APPENDED PAPERS

Deformation fields around optical fibres embedded in carbon fibre/epoxy composite

Four embedded Bragg grating sensors were arranged in a rosette configuration to

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