Advanced Engineeering: Fluid Mechanics 170 JA Flow Over a Flat Plate 5.4.1 Blasius Flow Over a Flat Plate The condition at infinity is interpreted here as the region just outside the boundary-l be also be mentioned that the sul u = UU. % 2, ») This relation in terms of five variables involves two dimensions, namely, length and time. Hence it is reducible to a dimensionless relation in terms of (5=2) = 3 quantities, It turns out that for the boundary-layer ‘Laminar Boundary Layers am velocity at two arbitrary x locations, namely, x; and zp should satisfy the eee lea | n= Whe (537) The stream function can now be obtained in terms of the velocity compo- sp ve few = [rr (Ea = Wave f Fine Y= VOmve Sn) + constant (638) where [Foe = 410) =The-constant of integration is zero if the stream function is defined as zero on the solid surface, where both y 1 are zero. e iy components and their derivatives are oe ae a uaF 2H vr) (639) v2 te ~ Vie [3 Je fn) + are] a v= FY mre - som) (640) FE = Ue ro) 2% = Uns") - ie]- Brym r+ Are fi) = dot Ans Bet Sart Bite. Ava At Ant ar + oP +. Ar Ayn Ae + As As + Aan + Ft + ‘Adtranced Engionaing Fuid Mechanics & - - 2p (an Fe = Vu $0). 22 = Um S") % = Um [= rm (5.2) oo = Ue Erw{ Pueites Se = B ym 49) Substituting Equation 5.29 into 6.33, we have B ingen - son se) = & prin) 2 sos = 2 rm rin + tgs) = 0 | (544) This is known as Blasius Equation. The boundary conditions (5.35), in ‘combination with Equations 5.39 and 5.40 become at 7 = 0: f(m) = 0, fi (n) =0; at 1 = ow: f(y) = 1 (5.45) Equation 5.44 is a third order nonlinear ordinary differential equation, Blasius obtained its solution in the form of a series expansion around 7 = 0. Let us assume a power series expansion (5.46) (6.47) (5.48) (9) Laminar Boundary Layers a 173. ‘The boundary conditions (5.45) at n = 0 may be applied to Equations 5.46 and 5.47 to obtain Ao = 0, Ar = 0 (5.50) ‘We derive another boundary condition from Equation 5.33 as @u y=0, Fy =0 Which leads to atn = 0, f"(n) = 0 (5.51) Invoking Equation 5.51 into 5.49, we get As = 0 (5.52) Finally, substituting Equations 5.46, 5.48 and 5.49 for f, f" and {™ into ‘Equation 5.44, we find + [Sr +Srs Sere] Sirs Sa] =o Collecting the terms for different. powers of 7 and equating the correspond- ing coefficients to zero, we obtain x fue which will finally yield As = > AR (5.53) ‘Substituting the series for f(n) in terms of n and A Ar 14} 1 1143 So) = Sp — Eg TAR 1S ao ose)a4 Advanced Enginesering Fluid Mechanics 1/8 9s * 41) a | aa) a a 1 = | (59 or Sin) = Ay! F(AY* n) (6.56) ‘Equations 5.55 and 5.56 sati ty Si Near pecans o> CAPA eatary ousidons (24H) at n = 00, we im, [42 F (Az? nl] = (00) = 1” = liar 7) In principle then, Ay ly can be determined by computing F" "(n) from its and f" (9) ate given in Table 8. __ 21 (9) ase given in Table 5.1, 84.2 Wall Shear Stress and Boundary-layer Thickness ‘With the velocity profile iown, wall shear stress can be evaluated as a re = Um 5 Fn). SO Substituting from Table 5.1 we get = Ua 088 Laminar Boundary Layers U2 Bet % Spe 8 Figure 83: Distribution off," and f” in the Boundary ayer. or 0.332 p U2, n= (558) and the local skin friction176 Advanced Enginecering Fluid Mechanics ‘Table 5.1: Blasins Velocity Profile f= u/Un and f", Schlichting (2) n=wVe 7 Ln) = Vn" (n) T em (Chapter 3) with the exception that the variation of boundary-layer thickness with time replaced with one in space. The definition of boundary-layer thickness (Equation 5.62) is somewhat arbitrary; a physically more meaningful measure of boundary-layer estima- son pombe through the displacement thicknes tr pteil ow iat 8 consequence of the decrease ‘in the velocity in the boundary-layer (Figure 5.4). It ean be determined as Use 5° -[w-» w) dy (53) ‘and mote precisely where - e-[a- pw on Rez = Usol; Sut ns 3 . Since u/Uze approaches 1.0 only as y ~+ 00, it is customary to select the Sabstituting (u/Use) and from Equations 5.39 and 5.37 into 5.64, we boundary-layer thickness 5 as that point where u/U. reaches 0.99. From "yhishl 4/05 reaches 090 at 9215.0 aed one tun suite yale ti Pid = fe Jin to = son) ve or ly 5.0 (a) & =a.r [7 = ise hs il 6 = 50\/* - (6.62) Following the analogy of the displacement thickness, a momentum thickness Us A an alo be defied. Momentum thicknes (6) is defined as the lows of ard with distance as 21/2. The ‘momentum in the boundary-layer as compared with that of potential fw. Seiae bostig lore a vlled © sic as el ee es Thus tarough ‘the outer flow by the action of Kine mec swans oan te St Pune =P pun — w) dy (6.6)178 Advanced Engineering Fluid Mechanics acs dP apt, oe B= ote (5.67) With the substitution of (u/Uze) and 7 from Equations 5.39 and 5.37 we can evaluate 6°* for a flat plate as mee figh tah wa lf r0- rm Numerical integration with the help of Table 5.1 yields = ete, [Fy Sas Un ~ VRee (5.68) It may be mentioned that in the expressions for the displacement thick- ness (5.64) and momentum thickness (5.67), Us signifies the free stream velocity for a flat plate. However, in the case of flows over curved geometry ‘or internal flows, Use it is not a constant, instead it is a function of the streamwise coordinate and usually written as U(z), 5.5 Boundary-layers with Non-Zero Pressure Gradient ‘There is a class of problems concerning boundary-layers for which similar solutions are obtainable. In general, the pressure gradient in the 2 direction will not vanish, but will continue to be determined from the flow exterior to the boundary-layer. 5.5.1 More about Similarity Solutions Reconsider Blasius flow over a fiat plate, The essential feature of analysis is that the equation ot 4 ot = Ou az * ay = OP reduces to i m+ 59s" =0 with the boundary conditions atn = 0, f = f' = Oand at n+ cof = 1. Note that the equation for f does not contain z, Further the boundary conditions at x= and y = 30 merge into the condition n> 00, u/s = ‘J’ = 1, If this had not happened a similarity solution would not have been possible. wees p MITT Figure 5.5: Flow Past » Wedge. ‘The ordinary differential equation which governs f and the boundary conditions constitute a two-point boundary value problem. Tt can be solved numerically by a Runge-Kutta scheme along with Newton-Raphson itera- tion as described later in this section. ‘A generalized method of obtaining the form of the similarity variable is as follows. Let 7 = Ay 2* and u/U = f"(n). Hence y is obtained by integration as y = 1/A{x-* [U f(n)]}- The momentum equation for a flat plate boundary-layer redhices to gh Ye apes = Sito Choosing a = ~1/2 cancels z throughout the equation while A = /O7v ‘keeps the equation free of the flow and fluid parameters. mia Sle (5.69) For 2 = 0, m=0 andthe fat pate problem recovered. The pesure is va)= B - $ pU*(e) hhence the pressure gradient @ = pu wyan = 222, ‘nd the z-momentum equation becomes ; tu yO mi, tu 3 et ae tee178 Advanced Engineeering Fluid Mechanics a ines u ’ -[ weC- ge (6.67) With the substitution of (u/Usc) and n from Equations 5.39 and 5.37 we ccan evaluate 6° for a flat plate as ea VEL ra-nin Nomerial integration with the help of Table. yields oes 2 oe = 0.664 te = Ji (5.68) ‘Tt may be mentioned that in the for the displacement thick- ness (5.64) and momentum thickness Us, signifies the free stream velocity for a flat plate. However, in lows over curved geometry or internal flows, U., it is not a cor it is a function of the ftreamwise coordinate and woually wri 5.5 Boundary-layers with Non-Zero Pressure Gradient ‘There is a class of problems concerning boundary-layers for which similar solutions are obtainable. In general, the pressure gradient in the « direction will not vanish, but will continue to be determined from the flow exterior to the boundary-layer. 5.5.1 More about Similarity Solutions Reconsider Blasius flow over a flat plate. The essential feature of analysis ‘is that the equation ou, ou Hu Oz * Yay = “ae reduces to ‘ fm +iss <0 with the boundary conditions atn = 0, f = f' = Oand atin of =1 Note that the equation for f does not contain 2. Further the boundary conditions at z= 0 and y = 00 merge into the condition 1) ~+ 00, u/Uss = J, 5,1 H this bad not happened a similarity solution would not have been possible. Laminar Boundary Layers 179 ioe B HANI Figure 5.5: Flow Past a Wedge. ‘The ordinary differential equation which governs f and the boundary conditions constitute a two-point boundary value problem. It can be solved numerically by a Runge-Kutta scheme along with Newton-Raphson itera- tion as described later in this section. the form of the similarity variable /U = f'(n). Hence y is obtained by i [W J(n)]}. The momentum equation for a flat ee ato VA? ae re gif =0 of U represents flow past. wedge shaped surfaces (Figure 5.5). The relationship between m and the wedge angle 3 is phase. (5.69) = Bie For 6 = 0, m = 0 and the flat plate problem is recovered. The xe pressure: field is pla) = B- 3 p03 (2) Ihence the pressure gradient 2 = pu wyan = 22%, ‘and the z-momentum equation becomes fu Ou ml oy ae Oy et Oe180 Advanced Engineeering Fluid Mechanics U= Cs" ase botany lier Gleedates peal and perpomsiclar to /. ly Yecubia vy VU/vz and the stream function » = Peg) eae ig eteia eateat a rgot aay vl Acs Ephintnasia=*] om ‘The equation for f with m as a parameter is called as the Falkner-Skan Equation for wedge flows 5.5.2, Calculation of Wall Shear Stress for Wedge Flows ‘The wall shear stress due to flow above it is Tol2) = 1 Uylyoo a Car £0) ae > les" ~ Fe ‘which is identical to Equation 5.58. The drag acting on a plate of length L is Hence D= ff rales = 2 100) ‘The boundary-layer thi determined by estimating the value of 9 at which w/U = f'(n) = 99% of the free stream velocity. For a flat plate boundary-layer tl thy mb Seca ge p-/Ofosand aE aty=6 ee in Table 5.2 Laminar Boundary Layers & 181) { z BE, Ue a ‘Table 5.2: Solution of Falk: skan Equation for Wedge Flows. Sb, M 25 00476 0.314 0220 5.92 _ Expanding flow thickness increases rapidly and the skin friction approaches zero, the state of separation. The reduction in boundary-layer thickness in a favourable Pressure gradient flow is successfully employed in wind tunnels by the use of large ‘Tabl = t the wall shear stress goes to zero for m = -0.09. For smaller values of m, the flow separates from the solid surface and Noumdic lve than 20 valid. 4" within the iaigiaee br Rakai crcl eee integration. (6.70), ic. rr") = -@h) (0) f" (0) = mi (F OP) ‘Then at a distance A away from the wall, we have ) = = (—Z—) f(A) f" (An) — m [1 — (F (4n)?7] ‘The error in these approximations is of order An and so An must be kept ‘small, typically 0.1% of ng, The solution at 2An is obtained starting with the f-values at An. %G5.8 Numerical Solution of Ordinary Differential Equations ‘The similarity variable approach reduces the boundary-layer equations to fan ordinary differential equation. In goneral, analytical solutions of this reduced equation cannot be obtained. The only analytical solution available{is Blasius solution in the form of an infinite series for the problem of flow Hee, ee en ‘The appropriate formulae are att = Unt B (hy + 2h + 2hs + be) ‘where By = fleas th ha = flan + ky = Stn + Ke = f(tm + Integration may be started at n = 1 with x1 = 0, 1 =I’, and continued ‘to any desirable value of x = (n—1)h by a suitable choice of hand n. =0: =0 0) =s ation with respect to the similarity vari- able, to be called 2, for convenience. The integration steps which guarantee fourth order accuracy are as follows fost = fu + Eh + Bhp + 2h + he) west = te + Eh + 2h + Me +h) tats = Ue + Em + 2m + 2s + mu) ‘as one moves from 2» tO ty41 = z_ +h. Fourth order accuracy is preserved only if h is constant along the integration path, ic, 2n41 — 20 =A for all For generality let the system of governing equations be ‘The functions Fj, F, and Fs are respectively, u,v and —vf/2 for the flat plate problem. While solving for flow, the quantity (0) — @ zero. The fastest descent towards Q is obtained by means of a tangent drawn at P which estimates # 9(Q), a8. o(R) = 96 FOGFigure 5,6: Typical s-¢ Relationship, Hence, from a guess s;, an improved value of s can be obtained as eres eS aN ‘This process continues till | si,1 — si | is as small as desired. The gradient Ups canta calguataditn ingiagia dad +e (where ¢/s ~ 10™*) and noting the corresponding change in @. Every s ~ ¢ calculation entails two. full integration of the governing equation through the Runge-Kutta method. 5. see Equation for the Boundary-layer refer to Baquations 6145.18 Mea deena a ot Equation 5.14 with respect to y, we obtain 4 ; [ok rea - [risee os ay & w+ fio oe ay = [ -iBas [Fam /, ‘Tho second term of the left hand side can be expanded as [ vay = fouls — fw ay frotan-0f Bas [uh (72) ‘Substituting Equation 5.72 in 5.71 we obtain finte-o ['Ba-- [ite Som ‘Substituting the relation between dp/dz and the free stream velocity U for the inviscid zone (Equation 5.12), into Equation 5.73 we get be bu ou du #3, Le ee ee [athe aie ee [»Be a, oe [eg ? or ou Ou aw Te [ be -o8-9S] Ae Cte which is reduced to Zé f[we- oa + 2 fiona a ‘The differentiation with respect to x can be brought outside the integral above equation in terms of the momentum thickness and the displacement thickness. Hence $f wo-ma+? [o-ow~% 674) ‘We now redefine the displacement thickness 6* and the momentum thick- ness 5°* for a general case where free stream velocity is U which is a function of x. Equations 5.63 and 5.66 are restated ve=fu-s pu? 6 = [pull w) dy omentum thiknes) lb :Substituting the definitions of displacement and momentum thickneses into Equation 5.74 we obtain 4 yt ge ey Ww EUS) +g == (6.75) ‘This is the momentum integral equation for two dimensional incompress- a iaesmaae core) outside the boundary-layer in the entrance region of a closed conduit. For external flow, the existence of U' dU/dz depends on the shape of the body. For a flat plate, UdU/dz = 0 and the momentum integral equation becomes (5.76) ee ane 5,7/ Separation of Boundary-layer One of the most important eee ee the growth of a gradient. Before going for the mathematical explanation of flow separation, consider the following example. ‘A metallic ball is rolled on a U-shaped container as shown in Figure 5.7. ‘The potential energy of the ball at A (due to its position) will be converted into kinetic energy as it moves to point B. In the absence of any friction, tthe ball will climb to point C at the expense of this kinetic energy available at B. This does not happen in reality due to friction. During the descent shown by a firm line. Also pas and Use are the pressure and velocity in the free stream respectively. If we consider the forces in the flow field, we Figure 5.7: A Metallic Bal is Being Rolled Over a Container. ‘observe that in the inviscid region, the pressure and the inertia forces are in the same direction (pressure gradient being favourable) until @ = 90° dow eeparation in erm of tho second derivative of velocity u at the wall188 Advanced Engineeering Fluid Mechanics Ip = Inertia force Pr= Pressure force Vp= Viscous force Viscous zone Ve Pe Figure 5.8: Separation and Interaction Between Viscous and Inviscid Regions. Laminar Boundary Layers 189 [Us [U. [Use Fi [Ue u uv u a Tw20 ‘oh 5 © wo Sco Peg Bo B50 Boo No separation Separation Back flow Figure 5.9: Influence of Pressure Gradient on the Velocity Profile within the Boundary-layer. From the dimensional form of the momentum equation (5.14) at the wall, where u = v = 0, we obtain (5.78) ‘observe from Equation 5.78 that (0%u/Oy2) qq) <0. As we proc cds the free stream, the velocity u approaches Use asymptoticall decreases at a continuously lesser rate in y direction, ie, (6 Jess than zero near the edge of the boundary-layer. Hence, we conch that for @ decreasing pressure gradient, the curvature of a velocity profile (#u/dy?) is always negative (Figure 5.10a). Now consider the case ofNe “Bhd (0) Favourable pressure gradient, dp/dx<0 Yeu vs “A wan De ou, Bu oy Dy? (v) Adverse pressure gradient, dp /éx>0 yLu mana n; 7 ou gu ay ‘Oy? (c) Adverse pressure gradient, dp /dx >O Figure 5.10; Velocity Distribution in Boundary-layer; PI = Point of Inflexion. rust exist a point of inflexion in the velocity profile. Point of inflexion is always a consequence of adverse pressure gradient, It should be understood condition for separation to take place, the sufficient condition for separation to occur is the existence of a point of inflexion. In order to see an important application of separation, flow in a duct consisting of a nozzle, throat and diffuser (Figure 5.11) is considered. The nozzle flow takes place with a favourable pressure gradient and never sep- rates. At the throat, pressure gradient is zero and flow does not separate either. In the expanding area diffuser where velocity decreases and pres- Boundary layer reasing pressure creasing velocity Figure 5.11; Boundary-layer Separation in a Variable Area Duct. sure recovery takes place, the state of the affairs is complicated. If the 5.8 Approximate Methods for the . Boundary-layer Equations 5.8.1 Karman-Pohlhausen Method for Flow Over a Flat Plate tioa with repect to'y from the wall'at y = O'to a distance &(2) which is assumed to be just outside the boundary-layer. With this notation, we rewrite the Karman momentum integral Equation (5.75) as fe, OS As + 81) Vag Se UL Ge + 5" + 81) Ue FE = (6.79)rr NB ee ‘The effect of pressure gradient is described by the second term on the left hand side. For non-zero pressure gradient surfaces in external flow ‘or for the developing sections in internal flow this term must be retained. ‘This implies that with the growth of boundary-layer with distance z from the leading edge, the velocity profile (u/Uso) remains geometrically similar. We consider the case of ow over a fat plate frst. ‘This will enable us to extend these ideas for a more complicated geometry by adapting suitable ‘modifications. We put Te TB tantan + ogn + acm a0) In order to determine the constants ao, a1, @2, as and a4 we prescribe the following boundary conditions: aty = 0 u=00r at y = 0, 7 = 0 (681) aty = 0 ee AR rs ay (5.82) In general, uyy = (1/1) dp/de and is zero only for a flat plate. Further Ba DARE SEE Na (683) ea =0 (584) Plu /Us) ay = 6 FE oot n=, tate d= 0 6.25) ‘These requirements prod We obtain the following values for the coefficients in Equation 5.80: a = 0,0 = 202 = 0,03 = 2a = 1 1 5 and the velocity profile becomes [ \ gama at (5.38) For flow over a flat plate dp/dz = 0, Hence, dUn/dz = 0 and the governing equation (5.79) reduces to aes dr p UR ‘We know from Equation 5.67 that fr -Lul-a -[ab-n)* = sfa- 2n + 2? = nt) (2m — 29? + nt) do (6.87) te (on — a +] ‘Substituting the values of 6** and r,. in Equation 5.87 we get Std 2a BS de ~ 303, [ie-[Bacere where C isan unknown constant, Solving this equation, we get S-Rrte (5.88) ‘At the lending edge eat? ='0, J = 0 Invoking this la Equston 5.88 we get parRee Ce See Finally we obtain » ow Fa 1260 7 83 5.33 = (5.89) wee SI This is the estimate of boundary-layer thickness. Although the method i an appasinae one the result astonishingly acura, being shy hhigher than the exact solution of laminar flow over a flat given by (5.62). ‘The wall shear stress can be shown to be e 6 é ee ee 1 * 07) 0% ~ Vier ‘The constant 0.684 is only marginally different from 0.664, obtained using the Blasius solution. ‘The accuracy ofthe final answer depends on the order ‘of the velocity profile. It may be mentioned here that instead of Equation 5.80, we can as well use a third order velocity profile as, Tete tant ae tat ‘along with the boundary conditions described in Equations 5.81 ‘and 5.84. We then obtain the constants a8 a = 0, a, = 3/ ‘and ay = — 1/2 aera 1 a 2” 7a If we carry out the derivation in order to find out the growth of boundary-layer in a similar way as for the fourth order profile, we obtain 5 _ 464 27 Ve (591) This is also very close to the value of exact solution (about 6% below the Blasius solution) (5.90) 5.8.2 Karman-Pohlhausen Method for Non-zero Pressure Gradient Flows ‘The Karman-Poblhausen method is a very general procedure of solving the momentum integral equation for flows with a non-zero pressure gradient. With 1 = y/6 the velocity profile is chosen as B= Md) = 07 + ty? + oo? + art, OS S1 See ee AAs stated in the previous section, this profile automatically satisfies the no-slip condition, namely = 0, u = 0. The profile parameters a,b,c and dare determined from the boundary conditions and (@)v) (dude). The pea raes -n becomes ee a where F =m - 2 + nt and G = (n - 39 + 3 — nhV/6 (6.92) Ringe Kovtia method. Taveration proceed in favourable preure gradient fiows till s exceeds +12 and in adverse pressure gradient flows till the flow separates, Le., s <-12. The turn integral equation is Ta hats ot ot El aE 1Sr= f0-pa-[5- a4 r= [ae-a4 -al-s- als ‘he itil condition for 8 = =:0 is (0) = O for cup shaped objects and 4(0)/a = /3.526/Re, with Re = U,.a/v for rounded objects whose upstream radius of curvature is a (Figure 5.13). This is discussed later in this section, ‘The integration of the momentum integral equation can also be accom- plished by hand calculation. ‘This is most conveniently done by defining ad- ditional shape parameters (besides s) as Z = 6°"2/v and K = Z (dU/dz), ‘The momentura integral equation is writ ie AEE npc Aone Sesh che od a In terms of K and Z this becomes. ug =n =a [SF -b+ al] (693) = 4 OF Lfoa wens Figure 5.13: Cusp and Rounded Objects. where H is a unique function of s. The explicit form of His obtained by ‘Toes equations ae soll sje to suitable ital conditions. For shaped objects the initial boundary-lay a a = w(0)_= KO) = Z(0) = 0. For rounded objects, x = Ox “Tatagnation point at which = 0. Hence-Hf at x = 0 a zero, The valve ‘of s that makes H = 0 (and also satisfies the constraint ~12 0, the equation is hyperbolic Figure 6.23: Boundary-layer Control by: (a) Giving a Streamline Shape (b) Pro- ‘The unsteady Navier-Stokes equations are elliptic in space and parabolic ‘viding Suction (c) Blowing. ‘in time. At steady state, the Navier-Stokes equations are elliptic. In el- liptic problems, the boundary conditions must. be applied on all confining removing these retarded fluid particles and replacing them by fluid particles Surfaces. These are boundary value problems. with higher kinetic energy. This is possible to achieve by sucking the slow ‘The boundary-layer approximations have contributed another impor- particles through a porous wall. Particles of higher kinetic energy at the tant simplification by converting the governing equations from elliptic to upper layer now move close to the wall and prevent separation. The process is known as suction of boundary-layers (Figure 5.236). Wall Blowing: The injection of fuid through porous wall can also control to complex problems without increases skin friction. However, the form drag is reduced considerably due ‘The domain of calculation in the 2 — y plane can be represented by a to delay of flow separation. one bounded by the wall at y= 0, an outside zone of boundary-layer at