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The purpose of this chapter is to give you a brief introduction to a site or soils investigation.
The British Standard Code of Practice B.S. 5930: 1981 gives a list of the primary
objectives of site investigation as follows:
i. To assess the general suitability of the site and environs for the proposed work
including implications of previous use or contamination.
ii. To enable an adequate and economic design to be prepared, including the design for
temporary works.
iii. To plan the best method of construction, to foresee and provide against difficulties
and delays that may arise during construction due to ground and other local
conditions.
iv. To determine the changes that may arise in the ground and environmental
conditions, either naturally or as a result of the works and the effect of such changes
of the works on adjacent works and on the environment in general.
v. When alternatives exist, to advise on the relative suitability of different sites or
different part of the same site.
CODES AND STANDARDS
MS 2038:2006 Site Investigations Code Of Practice
MS 840:1983 Recommended methods for soil physical analysis
MS 1056:2005 Soils for civil engineering purposes-test method
B5 5930:1981 Code of practice for site investigations
BS1377 Methods of test for soils
EC7 Parts 2 Ground investigation and testing.
A soils investigation has three components. The first component is done prior to design.
The second component is done during the design process. The third component is done during
construction. The second and third components are needed for contingencies. The first
component is generally more extensive and is conducted in phases. These phases are as follows:
WASH BORING
Water is pumped though a hollow rod that may or may not be equipped with a drill bit to remove
soil from a borehole. The washings can be used to estimate the soil types.
The number of boreholes should be adequate to detect variations of the soils at the site. If
the locations of the loads on the footprint of the structure are known (this is often not the case),
you should consider drilling at least one borehole at the location of the heaviest load. As a guide,
a minimum of three boreholes should be drilled for a building area of about 250 m 2 (2500 ft2)
and about five for a building area of about 1000 m2 (10,000 ft2). Some guidelines on the
minimum number of boreholes for buildings and for due diligence in subdivisions are given in
Table 1.4 Some general guidance on the depth of boreholes is provided in the following:
In compressible soils such as clays, the borings should penetrate to at least between 1 and
3 times the width of the proposed foundation below the depth of embedment or until the
stress increment due to the heaviest foundation load is less than 10%, whichever is
greater.
In very stiff clays and dense, coarse-grained soils, borings should penetrate 5 m to 6 m to
prove that the thickness of the stratum is adequate.
Borings should penetrate at least 3 m into rock.
Borings must penetrate below any fills or very soft deposits below the proposed structure.
The minimum depth of boreholes should be 6 m unless bedrock or very dense material is
encountered.
General guidelines for the minimum number or frequency of boreholes and their
minimum depths for common geotechnical structures are shown in Table 1.4.
Table 1.2 Depth of Rock Coring
Rock Type Minimum core length
Igneous rock 3m - 6m (expected boulders)
Sedimentary (without limestone) 3m
Limestone (without cavity) 10m
Limestone with cavity 10m cavities free
TABLE 1.3 Guidelines for the Minimum Number of Boreholes for Buildings and
Subdivisions Based on Area
BUILDINGS SUBDIVISIONS
2 No. of boreholes 2 No. of boreholes
Area (m ) Area (m )
(minimum) (minimum)
<100 2 <4000 2
250 3 9000 3
500 4 20000 4
1000 5 40000 5
2000 6 80000 7
5000 7 400000 15
6000 8
8000 9
10000 10
2
Note: 1 Hectare = 10000 m
TABLE 1.4 Guidelines for the Minimum Number or Frequency and Depths of Boreholes
for Common Geostructures
MINIMUM NUMBER OF
GEOSTRUCTURE MINIMUM DEPTH
BOREHOLES
1, but generally boreholes are placed 5 m or 1B to 3B, where B is the
at node points along grids of sizes foundation width
1. Shallow foundation for buildings
varying from 15m x 15m to 40m x
40m
2. Deep (pile) foundation for Same as shallow foundations 25 m to 30 m; if bedrock is
buildings encountered, drill 3 m into it
Abutments: 2 25 m to 30 m; if bedrock is
3. Bridge
Piers: 2 encountered, drill 3 m into it
Length < 30 m: 1 1 to 2 times the wall height
4. Retaining walls Length > 30 m: 1 every 30 m, Walls located on bedrock: 3 m into
or 1 to 2 times the height of the wall bedrock
Along length of slope: 1 every 60 m; 6 m below the bottom of the cut
if the soil does not vary significantly, slope
5. Cut slopes
1 every 120 m
On slope: 3
6. Embankments including roadway 1 every 60 m; if the soil does not The greater of 2 x height or 6 m
(highway, motorway) vary significantly, 1 every 120 m
Figure 1.21 Grid system
The objective of soil sampling is to obtain soils of satisfactory size with minimum
disturbance for observations and laboratory tests. Soil samples are usually obtained by attaching
an open-ended, thin-walled tube - called a Shelby tube or, simply, a sampling tubeto drill rods
and forcing it down into the soil.
The tube is carefully withdrawn, hopefully with the soil inside it. Soil disturbances occur
from several sources during sampling, such as friction between the soil and the sampling tube,
the wall thickness of the sampling tube, the sharpness of the cutting edge, and the care and
handling of the sample tube during transportation. To minimize friction, the sampling tube
should be pushed instead of driven into the ground.
Sampling tubes that are in common use have been designed to minimize sampling
disturbances. One measure of the effects of sampler wall thickness is the recovery ratio defined
as L/z, where L is the length of the sample and z is the distance that the sampler was pushed.
Higher wall thickness leads to a greater recovery ratio and greater sampling disturbance.
One common type of soil sampler is the Shelby tube, which is a thin-walled, seamless
steel tube of diameter 50 or 75 mm and length of 600900 mm (Figure 1.26a). Another popular
sampler is the standard sampler, also known as the split spoon sampler (split barrel sampler),
which has an inside diameter of 35 mm and an outside diameter of 51 mm (Figure 1.26b). The
sampler has a split barrel that is held together using a screw-on driving shoe at the bottom end
and a cap at the upper end. Split spoon samples are disturbed. They are used for visual
examination and for classification tests.
Figure 1.26 (a) A thin-walled tube and (b) A split barrel sampler.
Figure 1.27 A thin-walled tube
Laboratory analyses of soil texture are costly and take time, while feeling soil texture by
hand is quick, free, and, with practice, highly accurate. The two basic steps in the texture by feel
method are shown in figures 1.31(a) and (b).
After completing these two steps, and following the flow chart diagram, determine the
soil textural class for your soil sample. The textural triangle organizes the textures into 12
classes. Notice that the loam textures are toward the middle of the diagram, because they contain
a significant amount of sand, silt, and clay.
The term coarse-textured is often used for soils that are dominated by sand. Fine-textured
refers to soils that are dominated by clay, and medium-textured soils are a more balanced
mixture of sand, silt, and clay particles.
(a) (b)
Figure 1.31 : (a) Step 1: Take a handful of soil and break it up in your hand. Add water, and knead the mixture into a ball. The mixture should
have the consistency of putty or Play-Doh. Press the ball of soil between your thumb and forefinger, and try to make a ribbon. See how long
you can make the ribbon before it breaks. Measure the ribbon length. Remember, there are 2.5 centimeters in 1 inch. (b). Step 2: Take a pinch of
soil from your texture ball. Place it in the palm of your hand, and add water. Rub the soil and make a muddy puddle in your palm. How gritty
does this feel?
Soil texture is one of the most important properties to know how to measure, as it affects
many other chemical, physical, and biological soil processes and properties such as the available
water-holding capacity, water movement though the soil, soil strength, how easily pollutants can
leach into groundwater, and the natural soil fertility.
Figure 1.33 Soil structure and its effects on permeability
Procedure:
1. Take a ped (each individual unit of soil structure is called ped) of soil from each horizon
and note on data sheet whether it is moist, dry or wet. If it is dry, moisten it slightly with
water from your water bottle. Figure 1.34(a)
2. Stand with the sun over your shoulder so that sunlight shines on the colour chart and the
soil sample you are examining. Break the ped. Figure 1.34(b)
3. Compare the colour of the moist inside surface with the soil colour chart. Figure 1.34(c)
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1.34 Soil colour test
Consistency: Very stiff : Finger pressure barely dents soil, but it cracks under significant
pressure.
Stiff : Finger pressure dents soil.
Firm :Soil can be molded using strong finger pressure.
Soft :Easily molded by finger.
Very soft :Soil flows between fingers when fist is closed.
Figure 1.40 Common In-Situ Tests for Geotechnical Site Characterization of Soils
1. Vane Shear Test (VST)
The vane shear test (VST), or field vane (FV), is used to evaluate the inplace undrained
shear strength (Suv) of soft to stiff clays & silts at regular depth intervals of 1 meter (3.28 feet).
The test consists of inserting a four-bladed vane into the clay and rotating the device about a
vertical axis, per ASTM D 2573 guidelines. Limit equilibrium analysis is used to relate the
measured peak torque to the calculated value of Su. Both the peak and remolded strengths can be
measured; their ratio is termed the sensitivity, St. A selection of vanes is available in terms of
size, shape, and configuration, depending upon the consistency and strength characteristics of the
soil. The standard vane has a rectangular geometry with a blade diameter D = 65 mm, height H =
130 mm (H/D =2), and blade thickness e = 2 mm.
Advantages of VST Disadvantages of VST
Assessment of undrained strength, Suv Limited application to soft to stiff clays
Simple test and equipment Slow and time-consuming
Measure in-situ clay sensitivity (St) Raw Suv needs (empirical ) correction
Long history of use in practice Can be affected by sand lenses and seams
Figure 1.41 General Test Procedures for the Field Vane in Fine-Grained Soils.
(Note: Interpretation of undrained strength shown is specifically for standard rectangular vane with H/D = 2).
Figure 1.42 Torquemeter Devices.
The standard penetration test (SPT) was developed circa 1927 and it is perhaps the most
popular field test. The SPT is performed by driving a standard split spoon sampler into the
ground by blows from a drop hammer of mass 63.5 kg falling 760 mm (Figure 1.44). The
sampler is driven 152 mm (6 in.) into the soil at the bottom of a borehole, and the number of
blows (N) required to drive it an additional 304 mm is counted. The number of blows (N) is
called the standard penetration number.
Advantages Disadvantages
Obtain both a sample & a number Obtain both a sample & a number*
Simple & Rugged Disturbed sample (index tests only)
Suitable in many soil types Crude number for analysis
Can perform in weak rocks Not applicable in soft clays & silts
High variability and uncertainty
Note: *Collection simultaneously results in poor quality for both the sample and the number.
Figure 1.44 Sequence of Driving Split-Barrel Sampler During the Standard Penetration Test.
3. The Cone Penetrometer Test (CPT)
The cone penetration test is quickly becoming the most popular type of in-situ test
because it is fast, economical, and provides continuous profiling of geostratigraphy and soil
properties evaluation. The test is performed according to ASTM D-3441 (mechanical systems)
and ASTM D 5778 (electric and electronic systems) and consists of pushing a cylindrical steel
probe into the ground at a constant rate of 20 mm/s and measuring the resistance to penetration.
The standard penetrometer has a conical tip with 60 angle apex, 35.7-mm diameter body (10-
cm2 projected area), and 150-cm2 friction sleeve. The measured point or tip resistance is
designated qc and the measured side or sleeve resistance is fs. The ASTM standard also permits
a larger 43.7-mm diameter shell (15-cm2 tip and 200-cm2 sleeve).
The CPT can be used in very soft clays to dense sands, yet is not particularly appropriate
for gravels or rocky terrain. The pros and cons are listed below. As the test provides more
accurate and reliable numbers for analysis, yet no soil sampling, it provides an excellent
complement to the more conventional soil test boring with SPT measurements.
Figure 1.45 Various Cone Penetrometers Including Electric Friction and Piezocone Types.
Figure 1.46 Procedures and Components of the Cone Penetration Test.
Disturbed samples such as from a standard sampler are usually used for visual inspection and
for tests to determine the physical properties such as plasticity and grain size and shape.
Undisturbed samples such as from a thin-walled sampler are used for both physical and
mechanical properties.
Test results, especially those that relate to the mechanical properties, are strongly affected
by sampling, handling, transportation, and sample preparation disturbances. Care must therefore
be exercised to protect the intact condition of the soil samples. Wax is often used to coat the soil
samples to prevent moisture losses.
Figure1.48 Delineation of Geostratigraphy and Soil & Rock Types by Drill & Sampling Methods
The report must contain a clear description of the soils at the site, methods of exploration,
soil stratigraphy, in situ and laboratory test methods and results, and the location of the
groundwater. You should include information on and/or explanations of any unusual soil, water-
bearing stratum, and any soil and groundwater conditions such as frost susceptibility or
waterlogged areas that may be troublesome during construction.
(Refer to JKR SI Report)