Measurement Errors

The measurement of any quantity plays very important role not only in science but in
all branches of engineering, medicine and in almost all the human day to day activities.
The technology of measurement is the base of advancement of science. The role of science
and engineering is to discover the new phenomena, new relationships, the laws of nature
and to apply these discoveries to human as well as other scientific needs. The science and
engineering is also responsible for the design of new equipments. The operation, control
and the maintenance of such equipments and the processes is also one of the important
functions of the science and engineering branches. All these activities are based on the
proper measurement and recording of physical, chemical, mechanical, optical and many
other types of parameters.
The measurement means, to monitor a process or a operation and using an instrument,
express the parameter, quantity or a variable in terms of meaningful numbers. Such a
measurement gives in depth knowledge of the process and the parameter and helps in
further modifications, if required. Thus the measurement provides us with a means of
expressing a natural phenomena or the various processes, in quantitative terms. The
feedback information is possible with the help of measurement techniques, which helps in
achieving goals and objectives of various engineering processes and systems.
The measurement of a given parameter or quantity is the act or result of a quantitative
comparison between a predefined standard and an unknown quantity to be measured.

For the result to be meaningful, there are two basic requirements :-

1. The comparison standard is accurately defined and commonly accepted, and
2. The procedure and the instrument used for obtaining the comparison must be
provable.

The major problem with any measuring instrument is the error. Hence, it is necessary
to select the appropriate measuring instrument and measurement procedure which
minimises the error. The measuring instrument should not affect the quantity to be
measured.
 This is the actual value of the unknown resistance.
At - A 5.462 -5.333
iii) % error = At m X 100 5.462 x 100

= 2.36 %
iv) The relative accuracy,
% A (1 -Ierrorl) xlOO = (1 - 0.0236) xlOO
97.63 %

1. What is measurement? What are the two basic requirements of any measurement?
2. List the advantages of an electronic measurement.
3. Define and cxplain tilc term 'Calibration '.
-t. How the performance characteristics of an instrumcnt are classified?
5. Definc and explain the following static characteristics of an instrulllcnt :
i) Accuracy ii) Precision iii) Static error iv) Resolution
v) SensitiVity v/) Threshold vii) Zero drift viii) Rcproducibility
ix) Lillearity and x) Stability
6. Explain how the accuracy can be specified for an instmment.
7. Distinguish clearly between aCCliracy and precision.
S. State and explain the characteristics of precision.
9. Explaill tile terms relative error and relative percentage error.
10. What is scale span of an instrument?
11. Define a dynamic response of an instrument.
12. Defint' the following terms,
i) Speed of response ii) Lag iii) Fidelity ivY Dynamic error.
13. Define and explain the types of errors possible in an instrument.
14. Define limiting errors. Derive the expression for relative limiting error.
15. A moving coil voltmeter has a uniform scale with 100 divisions, the full scale reading is 200 V
and 1/10 of scale division can be estimated with a fair degree of certainity. Determine the
resolution of the instrument in volt. [Ans. : 0.2 V]

16. A digital voltmeter has a read out range from 0-9999 counts. Determine the resolution of the
instrument in volt when the full scale reading is 9.999 \I. [Ans. : 1 mV]

17. A true value of voltage across resister is 50 V. The instrument reads 49 V. Calculate
i) absolute error ii) percentage error iii) percentage aCCliracy
[Ans. : 1 V, 2%, 98%]
 Voltmeters and Multimeters

The measurement of a given quantity is the result of comparison between the quantity
to be measured and a definite standard. The instruments which are used for such
measurements are called measuring instruments. The three basic quantities in the electricnl
mC,lsurement are current, voltage and power. The measurement of these quantities is
important as it is used for obtaining measurement of some other quantity or used to test
the performance of some electronic circuits or components etc.

The necessary requirements for any measuring instruments are:

1) With the introduction of the instrument in the circuit, the circuit conditions
should not be altered. Thus the quantity to be measured should not get affected
due to the instrument used.
2) The power consumed by the instruments for their operation should be as small as
possible.

The instrument which measures the current flowing in the circuit is called ammeter
while the instrument which measures the voltage across any two points of a circuit is
c,ll1ed voltmeter. But there is no fundamental difference in the operating principle of
analog \'oltmeter and ammeter. The action of almost all the analog ammeters and
\oltmeters depends on the deflecting torque produced by an electric current. In ammeters
such c1 torque is proportional to the current to be measured. In voltmeters this torque is
decided by a current which is proportional to the voltage to be measured. Thus all the
analog ammeters and voltmeters are basically current measuring devices.

A basic d.c. meter uses a motoring principle for its operation. It stntes that any current
carrying coil placed in a magnetic field experiences a force, which is proportional to the
magnitude of current passing through the coil. This movement of coil is called D'Arsonval
movement and basic meter is called D'Arsonval galvanometer. Adding various other
elements to the basic meter, various practical instruments can be obtained. These
instruments are classified as,
 a) Using shunt resistance, d.c. current can be measured. The instrument is d.c.
microammeter, milliammeter or ammeter.
b) Using series resistance called multiplier, d.c. voltage can be measured. The
instrument is d.c. millivoltmeter, voltmeter or kilovoltmeter.
c) Using a battery and resistive network, resistance can be measured. The instrument
is ohmmeter.

a) Using a rectifier, a.c. voltages can be measured, at power and audio frequencies.
The instrument is a.c. voltmeter.
b) Using a thermocouple type meter radio frequency (RF) voltage or current can be
measured.
c) Using a thermistor in a resistive bridge network, expanded scale for power line
voltage can be obtained.

The basic d.c. voltmeter is nothing but a

permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC)
0' Arsonval galvanometer. The resistance is
required to be connected in series with the
basic meter to use it as a voltmeter. This
Rm series resistance is called a multiplier. The
Basic main function of the multiplier is to limit the
meter
current through the basic meter so that the
meter current does not exceed the full scale
deflection value. The voltmeter measures the
voltage across the two points of a circuit or a
voltage across a circuit component. The basic d.c. voltmeter is shown in the Fig. 2.1.
The voltmeter must be connected across the two points or a component, to measure
the potential difference, with the proper polarity.
The multiplier resistance can be calculated as :

Let Rm internal resistance of coil i.e. meter

Rs = series multiplier resistance

1m full scale deflection current

V = full range voltage to be measured

From Fig. 2.1, V = I In (Rill + Rs)
 L_'
~v R Ill
_-IIll_- _ _

The multiplying factor for multiplier is the ratio of full range voltage to be I11casurC'd
and the drop across the basic cleter.

· I"VIng J,Ktor
mu 1tlP = -V
" - ~

IIll(RIll+R,)
'111 Rill

Thus to increase thE r<1llge of voltmeter 'm' times, the serie~ resistance required is
(m-l) times the basic meter resistance. This is nothing bu t extension of ranges of a
voltmeter.

III. Example 2.1 : A moving roil instrument gives a filII senle deflectioll witll 11 Cllrrcnt of
40 pA, while thc internal resistance of the meter is 500 D. It is to he IIsed as a voltmeter to
//IcaSlire a voltagc range of 0 - 10 V. Calclilate the mliitiplier rrsistallce Il/'/'den.

V 10
R, = --Rill
1111 40 x 10-6

Ill. Example 2.2 : A moving coil instmment gives t1 filII scale deflectioll for a Cllrrellt of
20 mA with a potential diffcrence of 200 I1IV across it. Calclilate : i) Shllnt reqllired to liS/' it
as an ammeter to get a range of 0 - 200 A ii) Multiplier reqllired to liS/' it as a 1 oltl11/'ter of
1

range 0 - 500 V
 (20 mA) Rm

10 n

20x 10 -' x 10
200-20x 10 -'

Thi: is the required shunt.

ii) For llsing it as a voltmeter,

500 V

~-R
1111 m

500 -10
20x ]0--'

The range of the basic d.c. voltmeter can be extended by using number of multipliers
clnd a selector switch. Such a meter is called multirange voltmeter and is shown in
the Fig. 2.2.

Fig. 2.2 Multirange voltmeter

The R:, R2, R) and R~ are the four series multipliers. When connected in series with
the meter, they can give four different voltage ranges as V], V2,V-, and V~. The "elector
switch S is multiposition switch by which the required multiplier can be selected in the
circuit.
The mathematical analysis of basic d.c. voltmeter is equally applicable for such
multirange voltmeter. Thus,
V1
-r - - Rm
m

2.4.1 Practical Multirange Voltmeter

More practical arrangement of multiplier resistances is shown in the Fig. 2.3.

R1 R2 R3 ~ R4

v,'2.

v1 ~.

+ t Rm
t
V Basic meter

Fig. 2.3
In this arrangement, the multipliers are connected in a series string. The connections
are brought out from the junctions of the resistances. The selector switch is used to select
the required voltage range.

When the switch S is at position V1, R1 + R2 + R3 + R.+ acts as a multiplier resistance.

While when the switch S is at position V4 then the resistance R4 only acts as multiplier
resistance. The V.+ is the lowest voltage range while V1 is the maximum voltage range.
The multiplier resistances can be calculated as :
In position V.+, the multiplier is R4 only. The total resistance of the circuit is say RT.
V4
RT =
r:-
 __ R_:! R_T_-_(R_,,_n_+_R_3_+_R_~
)__ J
In position V1, the multiplier is R1 + R:! + R3 + R~

VI
RT = Jm

R1 + R2 + R \ + R~ = F'I - Rill

RT - ( Rill + R2 + R3 + R~) J
Using the equations (1), (2), (3) and (4) multipliers can he dcsigncci. Tlw ,ld\ ,mtage of
this <lrrangcment is that the multiplier except R4 have ,>t<lndard resistance value:, ,md Celn

be obtained commercially in precision tolerances. T~e first n~SJ..,tance I.e R~ on" is thl'
resistance having special va]lk' ,md must be man,1tactlJred -.,pccidlly tll meet the cIrcuit
requirements.

Ill. Example 2.3 : A basic D'Arsonval 11loZ/emcnt witll 1111 internal n's/stallce of :J(} ~l 11/1,1 1/

full senle deflection currcnt of 2 mA is to be used I/S a l17ultimnge voltllleter. Oesign the
SCrit'S string of lIIultipliers to obtain the voltage mm;cs of () - 7U v, () - 5(} V, () - 10U V.
() - JUO v.

~ 1m = 2 mA

For position V~ = 10 V, Series multiplier is R~.

R4 = V~ _ R 10 - 50 v
J In III 2 x 10 3
.... as R, = -1- - Rm
III
 v,
.-:- - Rm
.till

_5_0 _ 50 - 4950
2x1O 1

_1_00 _ 50 - 4950 - 20000

2xlO 1

For position Vj = 500 V, multiplier is ( R1 + R2 + R, + R~ ).

(R1 + R2 + R, + R~) 1:-

VI
R m

500 _ 50 - 4950 - 25000 - 20000

2xl0 3

R1 = 200 kQ

Thus Rj, R2, R, and R~ forms a series string of multipliers.

Tn a multirange voltmeter, the ratio of the total resistance R r to the vollag(' r,1ng:'
remains same.((rhis ratio is nothing but the reciprocal of the full scale deflection current ,)f
the meter)i.e. 1/1 01. This value is called sensitivity of the voltmeter.
Thus the sensitivity of the voltmeter is defined as,

S = I
Full scale deflection current

S = r:
1
D./V or kO.!V

Key Point: The sensiti()ity range is specified 0/1 the nleter dial and it ii7dicntes the resistonce
of the 11Ieterfor n one volt range.
The internal resistance of the voltmeter is not the same in each of its ranges. The
higher is the range of the voltmeter, greater is its internal resistance. Internal resistance of
a voltmeter can be obtained from its sensitivity as,

Internal resistance of voltmeter = Maximum voltage (range) x Sensitivity in D/V

The ~~'nsitivity i~ useful in calculating the resistance of a multiplier in d.c voltmeter.
Con-.;ider the prClcticcll multirange voltmeter circuit shown in the Fig. 2.5.

R1 R2 R3 R4

V2
+
V1
V4 t Rm
S BasIc
meter

Fig. 2.5
sensitivity rating in 0.jV

where VI, V2, V., cllld V-I (lre the required voltage ranges.
Key Point: This lIlethod is called the sensitivity method of cnlClllating thl' lIlultiplier
/"l'sistallcl's.

1
2x10-3

= 500 OjV

VI 500 V, V2 = 100 V, VI = 50 V, V-I=10 V

R-l S V-l - Rm = 500 x 10 - 50

4.951<.0.

R3 = SV3-(Rm + R-I)

500 x 50 - (50 + 4.95 x W 3 ) = 20 k0.

111* Example 2.5: Calculate the value of the multiplier resistance 011 the 5UU V range of 11 d.c.
utiltmeta, that uses 5U IlA meta movement with an internal resistance of 200 D.

s r:,
= -50X~0 6 =20000 D/V

11I* Example 2.6 : The meter A has. a rallgc of 0 - 100 V and multiplier resistance of 25 ill.
TllC met('r B has a I"IInge 0 - 1000 V and a multipli('r resistance of 150 kD.. Both metas /1I11'C
[Iasic meter resistance of 1 l\fl. Which meter is 1110resensitive?

Solution : ~or meter A, Rs = 25 ill, Rm= 1 ill, V = 100 V

Now R, SV- Rm

25 x 1() 3 S x 100 - lxlO 3

S 2600.jV

For meter B, R, 150 ill, Rm= 1 ko., V = 1000 V

R, SV- Rm

150 x 103 S x 1000 - 1 x 103

S 151 D/V
 While selecting a meter for a particular measurement, the sensitivity rating IS very
important. A low sensitive meter may give the accurate reading in low resistance circuit
but will produce totally inaccurate reading in high resistance circuit.
The voltmeter is always connected across the two points between which the potential
difference is to be measured. If it is connected across a low resistance then as voltmeter
resistance is high, most of the current will pass through a low resistance and will produce
the voltage drop which will be nothing but the true reading. But if the voltmeter is
connected <KroSS the high resistance then due to two high resistances in parallel, the
current will divide almost equally through the two paths. Thus the meter will record the
voltage drop across the high resistance which will be much lower than the true reading.
Thus the low sensitivity instrument when used in high resistance circuit 'gives a lower
redding th'ln the true reading. This is called loading effect of the voltmeters. It is mainly
cc1l1sed due to low sensitivity instruments.

))I. Example 2.7: The Fig. 2.6 shows a sill/pie sail'S circuit of R1 I7lld R2 conl1ected to (/
25U V d.c. source. If the voltage across R2 is to be measured by thl.' voltlJleters havi/lS

i) (/ sensitivity of 500 O;V ii) a sensitivity of 10,000 O;V

Find which voltmeter will read more accurately. Both the mt>tcrs arf used all the 150 V

+1
250 V

250 2"-
(20 + 25) x .J
 Req R2 II Rv
25x 75
(25 + 75)

Hence the voltage across Rt.q is,

eq
V = R x 250
(Req + R1)

Thus first voltmeter will read 120.96 V.

Case ii) S = 10,000 {1 IV
The voltmeter resistance will be
Rv SV

1000,0 x 150

1.5 1\.10

Req R2 II Rv
25x1.5xl06 xl03
(25xl03 + 1.5xl06)

Hence the voltage across Req is,

Req 250 24.59 ~50

V = (Req + R1) x = (24.59 + 20) xL

Thus the second voltmeter reads more accurately.

Key Point: Thus the high sensitivity voltmeter gives more accurate reading, though the
voltage range for both the meters is same.
 4.167 -4.132
4.167 x 100

0.84%
e) The percentage accuracy can be obtained as :

99.16%
Thus voltmeter 2 is 99.16% accurate while voltmeter 1 is 85.7% accurate.

2.5.2 Precautions to be taken while using a Voltmeter

The following precautions must be taken while using a voltmeter:
1) The voltmeter resistance is very high and it should always be connected across the
circuit or component whose voltage is to be measured.
2) The polarities must be observed correctly. The wrong polarities deflect the pointer
in the opposite direction against the mechanical stop and this may damage the
pointer.
3) While using the multirange voltmeter, first use the highest range and then decrease
the voltage range until the sufficient deflection is obtained.
4) Take care of the loading effect. The effect can be minimised by using high
sensitivity voltmeters.

2.5.3 Requirements of a Multiplier

1) Their resistance should not change with time.
2) The change in their resistance with temperature should be small.
3) They should be non-inductively wound for a.c. meters.
Commonly used resistive materials for construction of multiplier are manganin and
constantan.

The PMMC movement used in d.c. voltmeters can be effectively used in a.c.
voltmeters. The rectifier is used to convert a.c. voltage to be measured, to d.c. This d.c., if
required is amplified and then given to the PMMC movement. The PMMC movement
gives the deflection proportional to the quantity to be measured.
lt is important to study some basic definitions related to the a.c. quantities, before
studying the operation of the a.c. voltmeters. The a.c. meters are usually calibrated to read
Lm.S. value of an alternating quantity to be measured.
 The r.m.s. value of an alternating quantity is given by that steady current (d.c.) which
when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the same amount of heat
as produced by the alternating current which when flowing through the same circuit for
the same time. The r.m.s value is calculated by measuring the quantity at equal intervals
for one complete cycle. Then squaring each quantity, the average of squared v,llues is
obtained. The square root of this average value is the r.m.s. value. The r.m.s means
root-mean square i.e. squaring, finding the mean i.e. average and finally root.
If the waveform is continuous then instead of squaring and calculating mC,lll, the
integratioll is used. Mathematically the r.m.s. value of the continuous a.c. voltage having
time period T is given by,

1T
T f V}, dt
o

The + term indicates the mean value or average value.

Most of the a.c. vo1tmeters are r.m.s. responding or average responding type, with
scale calibrated interms of the r.m.s. value of a sine wave.
The average value of an a.c. quantity is another important parameter. The average
value is defined as that value which is obtained by averaging all the instantaneous values
over a period of a half cycle. For the symmetrical a.c. quantity, the average value over a
complete cycle is zero as both positive and negative half cycles are exactly identical. Hence
average value is calculated over a half cycle. If the a.c. quantity is continuous then average
value can be expressed mathematically using an integration as,
T/2
Vav = ~ fV in dt
o

The interval T /2 indicates the average over half a cycle.

For purely sinusoidal quantity,

= -IT2 Vm = 0.636

As mentioned earlier, the average responding meter scale is also calibrated in terms of
r.m.s. values. To achieve such calibration, a pure sine wave ,,-ith ":'.m.s. value of 1 V is
applied. Then the deflection of meter is adjusted to IV reading. For this, a particular factor
is required to be considered. This factor is called Form Factor.
The form factor is the ratio of r.m.s. value to the average value of an alternating
quantity.

r. m. s. value
------ = form factor
average value

Key Point: For purely sinusoidal waveform the form factor is 1.11.

Thus while calibrating average responding meter interms of r.m.s. values the markings
are actually corrected by a factor of 1.11.
r. m. s. value
Kf
Some meter scales are calibrated in terms of peak values of the input. In such cases
another factor relating peak value and the r.m.s. value becomes important. This factor is
Gllled Peak Factor or Crest Factor.
The peak factor or crest factor is the ratio of peak (maximum) value to the r.m.s. value
of an alternating quantity.

K _ maximum value
p - r. m. s. value

Key Point: For purely sinusoidal a.c. quantity the crest factor is 1.414.

The question is, why to use these factors to correct the readings by measuring average
and peak values, when the true r.m.s. voltmeter can give direct r.m.s reading. The reason
behind this is that the average and peak responding meters are less in cost and very
simple in construction as compared to true r.m.s. voltmeters.
A.C. voltmeters can be designed in two ways:
i) First rectifying the a.c. signal and then amplifying.
ii) First amplifying the a.c. signal and then rectifying.

2.6.1 First Rectifying and then Amplifying A.C. Signal

In this arrangement simple diode
rectifier circuit precedes the amplifier and
the meter. This is shown in the Fig. 2.8.
The a.c. input voltage if first rectified
using the diode D. This rectified signal is
then applied to the amplifier of gain A.
The amplified signal is then given to the
basic PMMC meter to obtain the
deflection.
 This <lpproach ide<ll1y requires d d.c. <lmplifier with zero drift char<lcterI;,tics ,1Ild ,1 d.c
meter movement with high sensitivity. The resistance Rill indicates inpllt re;,lst,lIlCl' of the
metL'r.

2.6.2 First Amplifying and then Rectifying A.C. Signal

In this approilch, the ,1C Input
signill which is il small slgn<ll is
ampli fied first and then rl'clit Il'd
after the sufficient <lmplific,ltion. The
a.c. signal is applied to .1n 'lmphfier
and hence amplifier is neces<"clrIh ,1n
a.c. amplifier. This type of approach
is shown in the Fig 2.9
The a.e. amplifier require;, a hIgh
open loop gain and the large Jmount
of negatIve feedback to O\'ercollle thp
nonlinearity of the rectifier diode;,

The amplifier output is then applied to full wave rectifier consisting of diodes 01 <lIld

The diodes are nnnline<1r device;,.

particularly at the 10IV v<llucs of the
linear
region forward current. This is shown in lhe
Fig. 2.10.
Due to this nonlinear beha\'iour of
the diodes, the meter scale i;, also
nonlinear and is crowded <It till' 10ll'er
end of a low range voltmeter
In this region, the meter sensitivity is also very low because of high forward re~isl,lIlce
of the diode. Dependence of diode characteristics on temperature is also an important
factor in J.e. voltmeters. The rectifier shows the capacitance properties under reverse
biased and tends to bypasss high frequencies. The meter reading may have error due to
such effect of the order of 0.5% decrease for every 1 kHz rise in the frequency.

A genera] rectifier type a.e. voltmeter

is shown in the Fig. 2.11.
The diodes DJ and D~ are used for
the rectifier circuit. The diodes show the
nonlinear behaviour for the low currents
hence to increase the current through
diode 01, the meter is shunted with a resistance Rsh' This ensures high current through
aiode and its linear behaviour.
When the a.c. input is applied, for the positive half cycle, the diode 01 conducts and
causes the meter deflection proportional to the average value of that half cycle.
In the negative cycle, the diode O2 conducts and 01 is reverse biased. The current
through the meter is in opposite direction and hence meter movement is bypassed.
Thus due to diodes, the rectifying action produces pulsating d.c. and lile meter
indicates the average value of the input.

The a.c. voltmeter using half

wave rectifier is achieved by
introducing a diode in a basic d.c.
voltmeter. This is shown in the
R Basic
m meter
Fig. 2.12.
The diode 0 conducts only
during positive half cycle. Let us
compare the sensitivities of d.c.
and a.c. voltmeters.
The sensitivity of d.c. voltmeter is,

I 5". = IIfsd I

Let I fsd be 1 mA, hence the sensitivity becomes 1 kO/volt. The series resistance Rs is
10 kO hence the 10 V d.c. input would cause exactly the full scale deflection, when
connected with proper polarity.
Let purely sinusoidal input of 10 V r.m.s. is applied.

Erms 10 V

Ep peak value = J2. Erms

Now the rectified d.c. is pulsating d.c. hence meter will deflect proportional to the
average value.

But the diode conducts only for half cycle and meter movement is bypassed for
another cycle. Hence it responds to half the average value of the a.c. input.
 = 8.99", 4 5 V
2 .

Thus pointer will deflect for full scale if 10 V d.c. is applied and 4.5 V when 10 V
r.m.s. sinusoidal input is applied.

I Ede = 0.45 Erms I

Thus the vi:l1ue of series multiplier can be obtained for a.c. voltmeters as,

Rs = E]de :... Rm
de

OASE
----- rms Rm
Ide

The a.c. voltmeter using full wave rectifier is achieved by using bridge rectifier
consisting of four diodes, as shown in the Fig. 2.13.

Fig. 2.13 A.C. voltmeter using full wave rectifier

Let 10 V r.m.s. purely sinu?oidal input be applied.

0.636 Ep = 8.99 V

"" 9 V
Now this meter uses full wave rectifier and hence the average value of output over a
cycle is same as average of the input over a cycle i.e. 9 V.
Thus, the 10 V r.m.s. voltage is equal to 9 V d.c. for full scale deflection Thus the
jPointer will deflect to 90% of full scale.
 R, = Elk - Rrn
Ide

)1. Example 2.9 : All a.c. 'uoltmeter IIses half wave rectifier alld the basic I//eter with filII
scale d{:flection current of 1 mA and tire meter resistallce of 200 D. Calclliate the 1IlIIItiplier
resistance for a 10 V 1'.111.5.rallge on the voltmeter.

Solution: The meter uses half wave rectifier and input is 10 V r.m.s.

Eav ~ (Eav over a cycle of input)

0.6 Ep = 8.99 '" 9 V

1
"2x 9 = 4.5 V

Eoe - R III
-J-
0.45x JO _ 200

~ Ix 10'

)1. Example 2.10: All a.c. voltmeter IIses 11filII wave bridge rectifier and tire basic I//eter
ll'itlr filII scale deflection current of 2 I1IA I1l1a tire meter resistance of 500 D. Calclliate the
1IlIIItiplier resistl1nce for 11 10 V 1'./11.5.rallge all the voltmeter.

Solution : The meter uses full wave rectifier,

0.9x 10 _ 500 = 4000 D

2x 10 3
 As the name indicates, this type of meter responds to the peak value of the <l.c. input
signal. The difference between average responding meter and this meter IS the use of
storage cClpacitors with the rectifying diode. The storage capacitor charges through the
diode upto the peak value of the a.c. input signal. The d.c. amplifier then amplifies thIs
signal Clnd provides the necessary current for the meter movement proportional to ,<, L.

pC'lkvalue of the input.

The two types of peak responding voltmeters are,
=
i) D.C coupled peak responding voltmeters
ii) A.C. coupled peak responding voltmeters
The Fig 2.14 (a) shows the d.c. coupled whiLe the Fig. 2.14 (b) shows the a.c. coupled
peak responding voltmeter.

d.c. d.c.
Amplifier Amplifier

In d.c. coupled voltmeter, the capacitor Cj charges to the total peak voltage above the
ground reference. In this case, presence of d.c. with a.c. input affects the meter reading. In
a.c. coupled peak reading voltmeter, the positions of diode and capacitor are interchanged.
The capacitor still charges to the peak value of the a.c. input.
~In both the meters, a d.c. amplifier having very high input impedance is used. Due to
.---
such high input impedance, the discharging of the capacitor takes place very slowly. Thus
the negligible amount of current is supplied by the circuit under test. This keeps the
capacitor charged to the peak value of the a.c. input. The d.c. amplifier provides the
necessary meter current required for the deflection.

2.10.1 Advantages
4When a.c. input is strong, the pre amplification of a.c. input is not necessary. In
such case, the C<1pacitor and diode can be taken out of the instrument and placed
in a probe. Thl" measured a.c. signal in this case, travels no further than the diode.
T loadin df( 'ct is thus minimised.
hen Capi'lLII(lr ,md diode are placed in the probe, the frequencies upto hundreds
of MHz car: be measured.