DECLARATION

I UWIRINGIYIMANA Samuel hereby declare that this project work entitled THE STUDY
AND IMPLEMENTATION OF 12V BATTERY CHARGER is myself design and im-
plemented from the beginning up to the end, under supervision of HARELIMANA Wilson
and the help of NYANZA TECHNICAL SCHOOL that is under WDAs authority.

PRESENTED BY: signature

UWIRINGIYIMANA Samuel ..

SUPERVISED BY: signature

HARELIMANA Wilson

i
DEDICATION

I dedicate my project to:

Almighty God

The all staff of NTS

MY family

My friends

My classmates

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I owe great thank to different people who supported me and participated in various ways in
writing this book and implementation of the project it concerns.

I am grateful to my parents, individuals who did their best for me to perform a successful pro-
ject, I once again thank to my school staff and supervisor for the efforts they offered to have
this project done. I acknowledge and appreciate all their support and I was blessed to have
them.

iii
ABSTRACT

I have studied and implement the 12V battery charger firstly a battery as an devise that stores
energy while a battery charger is also an devise which is used to charge a rechargeable bat-
tery .and we should use a battery charger which is compatible with the battery to be charged.

After all the effort applied to implement the project ,it has been well designed and of
course implemented.

iv
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1:symbols of resistor................................................................................................ 3

Figure 2: VI characteristics of linear and non-linear resistors ............................................ 4

Figure 3: variable resistor and its symbols ......................................................................... 5

Figure 4: Series connection of resistors .............................................................................. 6

Figure 5: parallel connection of resistors ........................................................................... 6

Figure 6: Color coded Resistor ............................................................................................ 8

Figure 7: symbol of a capacitor .......................................................................................... 9

Figure 8: symbol of a variable capacitor ........................................................................... 10

Figure 9: capacitors in series connection ......................................................................... 11

Figure 10: Diode with its Symbol ..................................................................................... 13

Figure 11: biasing of a diode ........................................................................................... 13

Figure 12: V-I characteristics of a diode ........................................................................... 14

Figure 13: Symbol of a LED with its pin identification ...................................................... 15

Figure 14: symbol of zener diode ..................................................................................... 16

Figure 15: Construction of an NPN transistor .................................................................. 18

Figure 16: Symbols of transistor ....................................................................................... 18

Figure 17: Transistor current directions ............................................................................ 19

Figure 19: Transistor as a switch with the base current .................................................. 20

Figure 20: transistor in CB configuration ......................................................................... 21

Figure 21: transistor in CE configuration ......................................................................... 21

Figure 22: transistor in CC configuration ......................................................................... 22

Figure 23:figure of classification of ic ............................................................................... 24

Figure 24: transformer construction.................................................................................. 25

Figure 25: RELAY ............................................................................................................... 27

Figure 26: internal structure of relay ................................................................................ 27

v
Figure 30: internal structure of ne555 ............................................................................. 30

Figure 31: structure of timer ............................................................................................ 30

Figure 32: symbol of NE555 .............................................................................................. 32

Figure 27: Switch symbol .................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 33.Bistatable mode ................................................................................................ 33

Figure34.timer in bistable mode ..................................................................................... 33

vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

: angular velocity

: Resistivity

: pi (=3.14)

r: relative Permittivity

o: Permittivity of free space

: Temperature coefficient of resistance

XC: capacitive reactance

WDA: Workforce Development Authority

W: watt

W: energy

Vcc: positive collector voltage

V: Volts

THR: threshold

T: tolerance

S: suitch

RT: Final resistance

Ro: initial resistance

R: Resistor

Q: Charge

Pf: picofarad

P: Positive

N: Newton
vii
N/O: normal open

N/C: normal closed

M: multiplier

m: milli

M: meter

M: mega

LED: Light Emitting Diode

LDR: Light Dependent Resistor

L: Length

K: kilo

J: Junction

IE; emitter current

IC: Integrated circuit

IC: collector current

IB: base current

I: Current

GND: ground

N:nano

ii
LIST OF TABLES

Table1: color coding table .................................................................................................. 8

Table2: comparison between CC, CE, and CB................................................................... 23

Table3: Classification of ICs basing on their chip size ...................................................... 24

Table4: connection of pin of timer555 ............................................................................. 32

i
TABLE OF CONTENT

DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i

DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................. iii

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. iv

LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................................... v

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................................... vii

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................ i

TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................................................................... ii

CHAPTER I: GENERAL INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1

I.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1

I.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ...................................................................................................... 1

I.3 OBJECTIVE.......................................................................................................................... 1

I.3.1 the main objectives were ........................................................................................... 1

I.3.2 the specific objectives ................................................................................................ 2

I.4.SCOPE OF PROJECT ............................................................................................................ 2

I.5 METHODOLOGY................................................................................................................. 2

CHAP II: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................... 3

II.1: PASSIVE COMPONENTS ................................................................................................... 3

II.1.1: RESISTORS ................................................................................................................. 3

II.1.1.2 GROUPING OF RESISTORS ...................................................................................... 5

II.1.1.3 RESISTOR MEASUREMENT...................................................................................... 7

II.1.1.4 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RESISTORS ............................................................. 8

II.1.2 CAPACITORS ............................................................................................................... 9

ii
 I.1.2.1. TYPES OF CAPACITORS.......................................................................................... 10

II.1.2.1 FIXED CAPACITORS ............................................................................................... 10

II.1.2.2 VARIABLE CAPACITORS ......................................................................................... 10

II.1.2.3 GROUPING OF CAPACITORS ................................................................................. 10

II.1.2.4. APPLICATIONS OF CAPACITORS ........................................................................... 12

II.2.ACTIVE COMPONENTS ................................................................................................... 12

II.2.1: DIODE...................................................................................................................... 12

II.2.1.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A DIODE ........................................................................ 13

II.2.1.2 TYPES OF DIODES .................................................................................................. 15

II.2.2. TRANSISTOR ............................................................................................................ 17

II.2.2.1 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR ......................................................................... 17

II.2.2.3 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ........................................................................................... 23

II.2.2.3.1 IC CLASSIFICATIONS ........................................................................................... 23

II.2.2.3.2 ADVANTAGES OF ICs .......................................................................................... 24

II.2.2.3.3 DRAWBACKS OF ICs ........................................................................................... 25

II.3 MISCELANEOUS COMPONENTS.................................................................................. 25

II.3.1 TRANSFORMER ........................................................................................................ 25

II.3.2 RELAY ....................................................................................................................... 27

II.3.3 Switch ...................................................................................................................... 28

II.4.THE COMPONENT DESCRIPTION ................................................................................ 28

II.4.1. TIMER 555 ............................................................................................................... 29

The 555 in Bistable (Flip-Flop) mode .............................................................................. 32

A flip-flop(Flip-Flop) ............................................................................................................... 32

CHAPTER III DESING AND IMPLIMENTATION ................................................................. 35

III.1. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION OF 12V BATTERY CHARGER...................................................... 35

CHAP IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .................................................................. 37

iii
 IV.1. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................ 37

IV.2. RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................................................... 37

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 38

iv
i
CHAPTER I: GENERAL INTRODUCTION

I.1 INTRODUCTION

With a goal of achieving reliable hands- on and practical skills among the Technical schools
learners, The ministry of education through Workforce Development Authority (WDA) re-
quires technical secondary school finalists to study and realize projects to perform practically
the knowledge they learned in theory.

Project has a lot to do with making sure the knowledge I learned theoretically turned out to
be important skills useful in our daily life and of remarkable interest to the development of
my country. The project work covers two main parts that clearly explain the detail about the
principle of function of the 12v battery charger, which are: Literature review and imple-
mentation of the project.

This circuit is based on IC timer555 which comprises comparator and they are used to turn
off the charger depending on the level of the battery you have setting more discrete compo-
nents. And my devise will give an output of 12V which is D.C if the relay it is closed.

I did my best to make everything as more understandable as possible, and i hope the project is
the most interested.

I.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

I realizing that the different activities cannot be accomplished and data can be lost due to the
dies of battery and the battery can be damaged due to over discharge.

I took in charge how I can prevent such a problem and I studied and implement 12V battery
charger which will switch on automatically by sensing the voltage level of the battery. As
the battery is being low and the battery charger will stop charging as a battery reaches its
maximum charging level.

I.3 OBJECTIVE

I.3.1 the main objectives were:

1
The main objective of my project is to design and implement the system which will charge a
battery.

I.3.2 the specific objectives:

Studying the operation and different applications of every single used component

Studying of 12Vbattery charger principle of function

I.4.SCOPE OF PROJECT

Normally, my project is designed to be used at home for charging the battery of 12v when the
main supply (A.C) is activated and that energy from the battery will be used to hold the pow-
er when the main supply is cutoff. Likewise that stored power in the battery will continue to
help us in different home activities.

I.5 METHODOLOGY

Carrying out our project, I relied on different documents including various internet research
engines, books from my school library, class notes and my acquired knowledge with analysis
about working principle of the circuit system of 12V battery charger.

2
CHAP II: LITERATURE REVIEW

II.1: PASSIVE COMPONENTS

Passive components are those which are not capable of amplifying or processing the electri-
cal signal. Those include resistors, capacitors and inductors. During this study, we will deal
with resistors.

II.1.1: RESISTORS

Definition: Resistor(R) is a passive electrical component which offers the opposition to the
flow of electricity through it.

It is measured in ohm for which the symbol ().

Figure 1:symbols of resistor

The resistance R offered by a conductor depends on the following factors:

It varies directly as its length (L)

It varies inversely as the cross-section of the conductor (A)

It depends on the nature of the material ()

It also depends on the temperature of the conductor (T)

Mathematically,

R=

3
II.1.1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF RESISTORS

Resistor can be classified into two broad categories according to their V-I characteristics:

Linear resistors

Non-linear resistors

Figure 2: VI characteristics of linear and non-linear resistors

Linear resistors are those in which current produced is directly proportional to the applied
voltage. Their VI characteristics are represented by the curve (A). The change in voltage will
cause the resistance to be changed.

Those are classified into fixed and variable resistors.

Fixed resistors are those which have specified values.

Variable resistors are those whose resistance can be varied.

Variable resistors are classified into two types:

-Rheostats

-potentiometers

The difference between the two is that a rheostat has two connecting terminals, while poten-
tiometer has three terminals.

4
Note that the potentiometer can work as the variable resistor when its sliding pin has been
connected to one of rest two pins.

Figure 3: variable resistor and its symbols

Rheostats are used in heater control, motor speed control while potentiometers are used in
radios receivers to control the volume and also in voltage divider circuits.

Non-linear resistors are those whose current does not change linearly with changes in applied
voltage. Their resistance varies independently to the applied voltage but to other characteris-
tics such as temperature, and light.

The commonly used non-linear resistors are:

Negative Temperature Coefficient resistor (NTC)

Positive Temperature Coefficient Resistor (PTC)

Voltage Dependent Resistor (VDR)

II.1.1.2 GROUPING OF RESISTORS

Resistors may basically be grouped in series or in parallel, depending on the needed value of
resistance.

5
RESISTOR IN SERIES

Figure 4: Series connection of resistors

Two or more resistors can be grouped in series when are connected end to end.

The equivalent resistance of the circuit will be equal to the sum of individual resistance.

RT=R1+R2+Rn

Note that in series the current trough each resistor is the same and the voltage across the cir-
cuit equal to the sum of the voltage drop in each resistor.

RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL

Figure 5: parallel connection of resistors

In parallel connection resistors are connected to the same terminal one other.

6
It means that the first terminal of the resistor R1 is connected to the first terminal of the resis-
tor R2 and the second terminal of the resistor R1 is connected to the second terminal of the
resistor R2.

The total resistance = + +

The current in each resistor is different from other and it may be given by ohms law.

I1=

The total current pass through the parallel connection of resistor equal to the sum of the sepa-
rated branch current.

It= I1+I2+..+In

The voltage across all resistors is the same.

Vt=V1=V2=..Vn

Note that in parallel combination the equivalent resistance is less than the least among the
resistors. Resistors can also be grouped in mixture of series and parallel.

II.1.1.3 RESISTOR MEASUREMENT

More resistors are large enough in size to have their resistance (in ohm) printed on the body.
However, there are some resistors that are too small in size to have numbers printed on them.
The system used to indicate their values is COLOR CODING, which can be used without the
millimeter.

Different colors represent the numbers 0 to 9. The first two colored bands on the body are the
first two digits of the resistance, and the third band is the multiplier showing the number of
zeros should be added to digits. The final band is the tolerance (the accuracy x %).
7
 TABLE OF COLOR CODING

Table1: color coding table

Figure 6: Color coded Resistor

The above resistor has: Blown, Black, Red, Silver so it has 10102 =1K

II.1.1.4 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RESISTORS

8
The resistance of all substances is affected by the temperature. In case of insulators or bad
conductors, the resistance usually decreases with an increase in temperature.

However in case of conductors, the resistance increases with the increase in temperature.

If Ro is the resistance of a material at 00c and on heating to the given temperature 0c its re-
sistance becomes Rt the change in resistance (Rt-Ro) is directly proportional to the initial re-
sistance, to the rise in temperature and to the nature of the material.

Mathematically, = . where is called the Temperature coefficient of re-

sistance.

Its value depends upon the nature of the substance = .

The resistance of a conductor at any temperature, RT=Ro (1+ ).

Resistors are used to limit current through LEDs or other low power electronic components to
protect them. They are also used as the heating elements for soldering irons, irons cookers,
water heaters

II.1.2 CAPACITORS

DEFINITION: A capacitor is an electronic component which has the property of storing en-
ergy in the electric field and is formed by two parallel metal plates separated by an insulator
or a dielectric.

Figure 7: symbol of a capacitor

The practical unit of capacitor is Farad (F). Capacitance is a measure of a capacitors ability
to store charge. A conductor is said to have a capacitance of one Farad if it stores electric

charge of one coulomb (C) at the potential difference of 1V.It means, = (F)

The capacitor basically consists of two conductor plates with a separation space between
them. The surface (area of the plates) and the distance between them both influence capaci-
tance. The capacitor is basically meant to store electrons. It offers low impedance to A.C and
9
very high impedance to D.C. A capacitor is used when we want to couple alternating voltage
from one circuit to another, which at the same time blocks the direct current from reaching

the next circuit. The reactance of a capacitor is equal to: = = (); = where

f is the frequency

I.1.2.1. TYPES OF CAPACITORS

II.1.2.1 FIXED CAPACITORS

Fixed capacitors are the ones which cannot be used to vary the value of their capacitance.
These types of capacitors have many types like: mica, ceramic, paper and electrolytic.

According to my project I emphasize on electrolytic capacitor

Electrolytic capacitor

Its plates are made of aluminum with Oxide as a dielectric to the positive plate and without
Oxide at the negative. Its capacitance ranges from 10-6 to several 103, voltage rated from 1 to
500 V or more. It is used where large capacitance is required.

II.1.2.2 VARIABLE CAPACITORS

In some circuits such as tuning circuits, it is desirable to change the value of capacitance
readily. This is done by means of variable capacitors. A variable capacitor is a capacitor
whose capacitance can be varied by tuning the value of its capacitance. The most common
type of it is an air gang capacitor. The range of its capacitance is obtained from 2pf to 500pf.

Figure 8: symbol of a variable capacitor

II.1.2.3 GROUPING OF CAPACITORS

CAPACITORS IN SERIES

10
Figure 9: capacitors in series connection

If a number of capacitors C1, C2 and C3 are connected in series, they are equivalent to a sin-

gle capacitor of value given below: = + + .. +

There is also charge stored in the capacitor and is equal to: Q= C.V where V=

And the total voltage across the combination is calculated as the sum of the voltages in each

capacitor: VT= V1 + V2 + V3 = + + = + +

CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL

Figure 10: capacitors in parallel connection

If a number of capacitors C1, C2 and C3 are connected in parallel, they are equivalent to a
single capacitor of value C given by: = + . Cn

When the arrangement is connected to a D.C supply of V volts, the total charge is the sum of
the charge stored on each.

Qt= Q1+ Q2+ Q3

Where Qt is the total charge, Q1 is the charge on C1, Q2 is the charge on C2 and Q3 is the
charge on C3. Here, the voltage is common to all the capacitors.

Then, Q1=C1.V, Q2=C2.V, Q3=C3.V and QT=CT.V

11
ENERGY STORED IN A CHARGED CAPACITOR

Since the discharging of a capacitor goes with electric current, there is a waste of energy cor-
responding to it. The electrical energy stored during the charging and that liberated by capaci-

tor during the discharging time is determined as follows: W= CU 2Where W is the energy, C

the capacitance and V the voltage

The capacitance of a capacitor may be calculated as: C=or Where is the cross sectional

area, r is the Relative permittivity and o is the Permittivity of free space which is equal to
8.85*10-12

II.1.2.4. APPLICATIONS OF CAPACITORS

It is used to store electrons or electrical energy

It is used as a bypass capacitor

It is used as a coupling capacitor

It is used when we want to couple alternating voltage from one circuit to another.

II.2.ACTIVE COMPONENTS

Active components are those which are capable for amplifying or processing the electrical
signal. Those are semiconductor devices in general.

II.2.1: DIODE

Diode is a two terminal device consisting of a PN junction formed either in germanium or

silicon crystal and conduct electrical current only in one direction

12
Figure 10: Diode with its Symbol

II.2.1.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A DIODE

The terminals are Anode (+) and cathode (-).

Figure 11: biasing of a diode

When the anode terminal is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the cathode
to the negative terminal as in figure A, the diode is said to be forward biased because it al-
lows the flow of current through it.

Inversely, when the anode is connected to the negative terminal of the battery and the cathode
to the positive terminal as in figure B; the diode is said to be reverse biased because it doesnt
allow the flow of current through it.

13
The graph below shows the relationship between the current and voltage applied between the
anode and cathode of a diode. It clearly shows how the diode works.

Figure 12: V-I characteristics of a diode

Initially no current flows until the applied voltage reaches the forward junction potential, the
negative voltage and current show the reverse biased condition. Here, although the voltage
increases but the small current flows.

This small current is called the leakage current of the diode caused by the movement of mi-
nority carriers and is typically only a few micro-amps with germanium diodes and even less
in silicon. If a high enough reverse voltage is applied however, there is a reverse breakdown
voltage where the insulation of the depletion layer breaks down, and a very high current sud-
denly flows.

Diodes devices may be designed for low-power, high switching application: (signal diodes)
or higher power applications (rectifier diodes).

The important characteristics of semiconductor diodes are:

Maximum forward current

Forward and reverse AC resistance

Behavior breakdown region

Junction capacitance
14
II.2.1.2 TYPES OF DIODES

There are many types of diodes in electronic circuit, the main used are:

Light Emitting Diode (LED) diodes

Zener diodes

Power diodes

Varactor diodes

Signal diodes

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

LED is a special PN junction diode that emits light when it is forward biased.

The Light is obtained by the recombination of electrons and holes when the LED is forward
biased. The free electrons passes through the junction and recombines with holes as it passes
high energetic level to low energetic level it dissipate the energy.

Figure 13: Symbol of a LED with its pin identification

The LEDs must be in series with the resistor for current limiting for being protected against
the current greater than its maximum admissible current.

For the most available LEDs, the maximum voltage is between 1.5 to 2.5V and the current
varies from 10 to 50mA.

15
 Advantages of LEDs

-They work on low voltage

-They provide less heating

-No warm up time

They have long life

-They are small in size and weight

-They are not affected by mechanical vibrations

Disadvantages of LEDs

LEDs have some disadvantages such that they cant work on low power, they can be dam-
aged easily and they produce the small light compared to bulbs.

Applications of LEDS

LEDs find applications in: seven segments, burgle alarm, remote controls, Indicators

ZENER DIODE

It is a reverse biased heavily doped silicon or germanium P-N junction diode which is operat-
ed in the break dawn region where current is limited by bath external resistance and power
dissipation of the diode

Figure 14: symbol of zener diode

The larger current at break dawn is brought by two factors known as:

Zener effect and

Avalanche effect

16
The zener effect is reverse current down due to the presence of a high electric field at the
junction of a semiconductor

Avalanche effect

Avalanche effect occurs because of a cumulative action. The external applied voltage accel-
erates the minority carriers in the depletion layer the zener effect is predominant for break
down voltage less than about 4v while avalanche break down is predominant for the voltage
beyond 5v.

If the applied reverse voltage exceeds the break dawn voltage, a zener diode acts as constant
voltage source, for this reason a zener diode is also called voltage reference diode.

The zener diode is specified by its breakdown voltage and the maximum power dissipation.

For proper biasing of a zener diode in any circuit it is essentially that it must:

Be reverse biased

Have a voltage across it greater than VZ-Be

Application of zener diode

The most common application of a zener diode is in the voltage stabilizing or regulator cir-
cuit.

II.2.2. TRANSISTOR

A transistor is a three layer solid-state electronic component used to control the flow of cur-
rent in electronic circuit.

There are two categories of transistors: - Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

-Field effect transistor (FET)

II.2.2.1 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

17
A bipolar junction transistor is a type of transistor whose both electrons and holes are in-
volved in the conduction.

The bipolar junction transistor has three layers which are Base (B), Collector (C), and Emitter
(E).

They can be made of two types of doped semiconductor, so they are classified into two types:
PNP and NPN.

Figure 15: Construction of an NPN transistor

As it is appeared on the previous figure, the NPN transistor has both emitter and collector
constructed in N- type layer and its base constructed by

Figure 16: Symbols of transistor

CURRENT DIRECTIONS FOR NPN AND PNP

The NPN transistor has the positive layer on the base while the collector andthe emitter have
the negative layers, unlikely the PNP which has the negative layer on the base and positive
layers on collector and emitter.

18
This gives the difference of PNP and NPN in biasing polarity and also the direction of current
is different.

Figure 17: Transistor current directions

This figure shows the direction of small controlling current (base current) which is the only
current that passes through the base of the transistor and the large controlled current (collec-
tor current) which will passes through the collector and so, the emitter current is the sum of
the collector current and the base current.

IE=IB+IC

Note that the current is always in opposite direction to the transistors arrow.

TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH

A transistor can work as a switch as the base current will control the flow of the collector cur-
rent. When there is no base current, the transistor will be turned off like an open switch and
prevent the current through the collector. Otherwise when there is the base current, the tran-
sistor will be turned ON like a closed switch, so there is the flow of current through the col-
lector.

19
Figure 18: Transistor as a switch without base current

When there is no base current, there is no collector and the transistor is said to be in the Cut-
off Region.

Figure 19: Transistor as a switch with the base current

When there is the current on the base, there will be the flow of electrons from emitter to the
collector and this will make the lamp ON. The transistor is said to be in Saturation.

TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS

There are three types of configurations in which the transistor can be to perform specific
use:

Common base configuration

Common emitter configuration

Common collector configuration

20
COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION

Figure 20: transistor in CB configuration

In this configuration, the emitter terminal will serves as the input; the collector terminal as the
output and the base is connected to the ground. It is typically used as a current buffer.

COMMON EMMITTER CONFIGURATION

Figure 21: transistor in CE configuration

Here the base is acting as the input; the collector as the output and the emitter is connected to
the ground. It is typically used a voltage amplifier.

21
 COMMON COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION

Figure 22: transistor in CC configuration

For this configuration, the base serves as the input; the emitter as the output and the collector
is connected to the ground. It is used as a voltage buffer.

COMPARISON BETWEEN CB; CE; AND CC

PARAMETERS CB CE CC

Input resistance Very low Moderately low High

(30 to 150) (1K to 2K) (20 to 50K)
Output resistance Very high Moderately Large Low
(up to 500K ) (50K and so) (50 to 1K)
Voltage gain Large voltage gain Very high Less than 1
(about 1500) (1500 and so)

Current gain Less than 1 High High

(50 to 300) (50 to 500)

22
Power gain Up to 30db Very high Moderately low
(up to 40db) (10 to 20 db)
Comparison be- No phase reversal be- It produces phase re- No phase reversal
tween input and tween input and output versal between input between input and
output impedance (they are in phase) and output(they are output (they are in
out of phase 1800) phase)

Table2: comparison between CC, CE, and CB

II.2.2.3 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

Definition: An integrated circuit is a circuit which consist several interconnected transistors,

Resistors, Capacitors etc all contained in one small package with external connecting termi-
nals

II.2.2.3.1 IC CLASSIFICATIONS

ICS can be classified according to different factors:

On the basis of fabrication techniques, ICs are classified into:

Monolithic ICs

Film ICs: thin film and thick film

Hybrid ICs

23
 Figure 23:figure of classification of ic

Classification of ICs by functions:

Linear ICs: When the input and output relationship of a circuit is linear. An example of linear
IC is an op-amp which was originally designed for performing mathematically operations.

Non-linear ICs: When the circuit is either in ON-state or OFF-state or not in between the two,
circuit is called non-linear or digital circuit. They find wide applications in computers and
logic circuits.

Classification of IC basing on their chip size:

TYPE EQUIVALENT INDIVIDUAL NUMBER OF

BASIC GATES COMPONENTS
Small scale integration (SSI) Less than 12 Up to99

Medium scale integration (MSI) 12-99 100-999

Large scale integration (LSI) 100-999 1000-9999

Very large scale integration Above 1000 Above 10000

(VLSI)

Table3: Classification of ICs basing on their chip size

II.2.2.3.2 ADVANTAGES OF ICs

Extremely small physical size.

Very small weight

Extremely high reliability.

Reduced cost

Increased response time and speed.

24
 Easy replacement.

Low power consumption.

Higher yield

II.2.2.3.3 DRAWBACKS OF ICs

They handle only limited amount of power.

They cannot withstand excessive heat.

They cannot be repealed

II.3 MISCELANEOUS COMPONENTS

In electronic components, there are some which cannot be classified in either active or pas-
sive components. Those are called miscellaneous components.

II.3.1 TRANSFORMER

Is a static piece of apparatus that used for transferring power from one circuit to another at
different at voltage but without changing in frequency. It can rise or lower the voltage with
corresponding decrease or increase of current does it by electromagnetic induction
.transformer is an important equipment in electric and electronic technology depending it
beautiful role.

Figure 24: transformer construction

25
Transformer Working

If one coil is connected to the source of alternating voltage, an alternating flux set up in the
laminated core most of which is linked with other coil .hence mutual induced voltage is pro-
duced in the secondary coil whether secondary voltage V2 is more or less than primary volt-

age V1 depend on the two ratio of the transformer . ==k voltage transformer ratio if

N2>N1 then transformer is step- down. If N2<N1 t

TYPE O F TRANSFOMER

The types of transformers differ in the manner in which the primary and secondary coils are
provided around the laminated steel core. According to the design, transformers can be classi-
fied into two:

Core- Type Transformer

Shell-Type Transformer

Applications of transformer

In rectifier circuits.

In radio receiver

In battery charger

Note:

If the voltage on primary winding is greater than the voltage in the secondary winding, and
the number of turns of the primary winding is greater than the number of turns of the second-
ary winding, the transformer is called step-down transformer.

If the voltage on primary winding is less than the voltage in the secondary winding, and the
number of turns of the primary winding is less than the number of turns of the secondary
winding, the transformer is called step-up transformer.

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II.3.2 RELAY

Figure 25: RELAY

In simple terms, a relay is a device that uses an electromagnet to mechanically pull two con-
nections together to complete a circuit, in the exact same way your finger mechanically push-
es two contacts together in a toggle switch.

A relay is used wherever a small low power device or power supply needs to switch on a
much larger one, usually completely isolated from the signals power source, or at a much
higher voltage than the signal could provide.

However this is usually not enough to help someone really grasp the idea of how these myste-
rious boxes work.

Figure 26: internal structure of relay

A typical relay generally has 5 pins on it.

These are referred to as, Input 1, Input 2, COM, N/O, N/C
heres a better description of what these are and what they do, and remembering signal means
the power turning on the relay; Input 1: is generally the positive of your relay, where the + of
your signal goes, it is at the top of the electromagnet coil that pulls the contact pin

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Input 2: is where the negative of your signal goes, it is at the bottom or top (end of the coil
winding), of the coil, though in most relays it shouldn't matter because an electromagnet just
pulls metal towards the centre of the magnet. input 2 should always be thought of as negative,
as some relays only work one way, but it's up to you

COM: is short for common ground, in most cases you connect the negative of the power you
are switching to this. If your application uses the same power source, you can connect Input 2
and COM together. COM is the middle terminal, and is connected to the pin that gets pulled
towards N/C when power is off

N/C: Short for normally closed, this terminal is not connected to COM when there is no sig-
nal, but when there is a signal, the pin inside the relay is pulled down until it touches N/C,
which would connect it to COM

N/O: short for Normally Open, uses a small spring to make it always touches COM when the
magnet is off. N/O is used in most cases to turn on the standby light, as it switches on when
there is no power.Contact: is not a terminal, but rather the pin that either connects COM with
N/O or N/C. It is often coated in gold or vanadium/platinum to stop it welding onto N/O or
N/C.

II.3.3 Switch

A Switch is an electronic device which is used to allow or stop the flow of current in a circuit.
It can be single throw or double flow depending whether it consist only one or two switching
positions

FIGURE 27: symbol of switch

II3.3 ABATTERY

A battery operation
A batteries store direct current electrical energy in chemical form for later use. In photovol-
taic system, the energy is used at night and during periods of cloudy weather. Battery also
serves as a portable power source for appliance, such as flash light and radios, since any giv-
en day, abatterystorage system can provide a relatively constant source of power when the

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PV system is producing minimal power during periods of reduced insulation. Batteries can
also provide the necessary amounts of power required to start same motors.

TYPES OF BATTERY.

The following types of batteries are commonly used in diffent application

Lead acid batteries

Liquid battery

Sealed {VRLA-valve regulated lead acid

Alkaline batteries

Nickel cadmium

Nickel-iron

II.4.THE COMPONENT DESCRIPTION

II.4.1. TIMER 555

This is the eight pin device with the marking NE555 on the top, a circle etched onto the pack-
age identifies pin 1 the pin s are arranged four per side. The IC numbering scheme for the IC
is as follows. with the Ic positioned so that the legend reads the correct way up and the cir-
cle is positioned at the lower left hand corner ,pin 1is nearest the circle and going from left
to right ,the pin number are 2,3and 4 moving upward to the top row of pins numbering
now runs from right to left 5,6,7and 8. What you should thus have is as follow: pin1 at
the lower left-hand corner pin4 at the lower right-hand corner, pin5 at the upper right-hand
corner, and pin8 at the upper left hand corner

The 555 timer is an integrated circuit chip that can be used for generating extremely precise
time delays or oscillations. It has been around since the 1970s as the first commercial timer
IC available, and it continues to be popular among the industry and hobbyists due to its ease
of use, low cost, and reliable stability.

29
Figure 30: internal structure of ne555

Figure 31: structure of timer

555 TIMER INTERNAL CIRCUITRY IN RELATION TO PINOUT:

As seen from the above basic structure of a 555 timer diagram, on the left are 3 resistors in
series. They are being used as voltage divider resistors so that there can be a one third VCC
and two third VCC voltages into the comparators. These three 5k resistors are where the
name 555 timer comes from. After the resistors are the 2 comparators. The top comparator
compares the Threshold pin voltage with the 2/3 VCC voltage to get an output. Its output
goes high when Threshold is higher than 2/3 VCC, and it goes low when Threshold is lower
than 2/3 VCC. The bottom comparator compares the Trigger pin voltage with the 1/3 VCC
voltage to get another output. Its output goes high when Trigger is lower than 1/3 VCC, and
it goes low when Trigger is higher than 1/3 VCC.
Now these two outputs are put into the flip flop. The top threshold comparator output will
go into the Reset pin of the flip flop. The bottom trigger comparator output will go into the
Set pin of the flip flop. When set is high, the output will be high, when reset is high, the out-
put will be low. If both are low, then output does not change. If both are high, then it is un-
defined.

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There is a transistor on the bottom after the flip flop. The output of the flip flop is called Q
Not. When Q Not goes high, the transistor turns on, and the discharge voltage of Pin 7 will
be pulled down to low state. When Q Not goes low, the transistor turns off, and Pin 7 is
high, or open, to be more precise. Finally, the output Q Not is passed through an inverter to
produce the final output of the 555 timer, Q. Its high low state follows that of the Discharge
pin except the fact that its high state is the actual high state, not just open.
The most important thing to remember from this is when Threshold goes higher than 2/3
VCC, output

The connection of the pins for a DIP package is as follows:

Pin Name Purpose

1 GND the Ground pin which connects to the 0V power supply like the name suggests.

the Trigger pin. When its voltage becomes lower than a third of the input rail
2 TRIG voltage, the output will be set high.

the Output pin, which acts as the output. The output capacity is 200mA.
3 OUT

4 RESET the Reset pin which will reset the chip when it goes below 0.8V.

the Control pin which directly accesses the 2/3 voltage divider point to modify
5 CTRL
the timing periods.

. the Threshold pin. When its voltage gets higher than two thirds of the input
rail voltage, the output will be set low.
6 THR

31
 the Discharge pin. Its high and low state follows Pin 3, except the fact that the
7 DIS high state of Pin 7 is actually open state.

the Supply pin which is where the input rail voltage goes in. It can be any volt-
8 VCC age from 4.5V to 15V DC.

Table4: connection of pin of timer555

Figure 32: symbol of NE55

The 555 has three operating modes:

Monstable mode

Astable (free-running) mode

Bistable mode

And our 555timer will work on bistable mode

The 555 in Bistable (Flip-Flop) mode

A flip-flop (Flip-Flop)

is an electronic circuit that alternates between two output states. In a flip-flop, a short pulse
on the trigger causes the output to go high and stay high, even after the trigger pulse ends.
The output stays high until a reset pulse is received, at which time the output goes low.

32
This type of circuit is called bistable because the circuit has two stable states: high and low.
The circuit stays low until it's triggered. Then, it stays high until its reset. This type of circuit
is used extensively in computers and other digital circuits

BISTABLE STRUCTURE

Figure 32.Bistatable mode

This is a schematic for a 555 used in bistable mode. As you can see, this circuit doesn't re-
quire a capacitor. Thats because in bistable mode, the 555 isn't used as a timer. The highs
and lows of the output signal are controlled by the trigger and reset inputs, not by the charg-
ing and discharging of a capacitor.

Figure33.timer in bistable mode

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Both the trigger (pin 2) and the reset (pin 4) inputs are connected to Vcc through a 10 k re-
sistor. When the set switch is depressed, pin 2 is shorted to ground. This causes the voltage to
bypass pin 2, resulting in a momentary low pulse, which triggers the 555. Once triggered, the
output pin goes high.

In astable or monostable mode, the output pin would remain high until the voltage at the
threshold pin (pin 6) reaches two-thirds of the supply voltage. However, because pin 6 isn't
connected to anything in this circuit, no voltage is ever present on pin 6. Thus, the threshold
is never reached, so the output remains high indefinitely until the 555 is reset by a low pulse
on the reset pin (pin 4).

The reset input (pin 4) is connected to Vcc in the same manner as the trigger input. As a re-
sult, when the reset switch is pressed, pin 4 is short circuited to ground, creating a low pulse,
which resets the 555 and brings the output back to high.

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CHAPTER III DESING AND IMPLIMENTATION

III.1.
CIRCUIT
DE-
SCRIP-
TION OF
12V
BAT-
TERY
CHARGE
R

Fig: 29 12v battery charger circuit

Components Required

IC 555

Transistor BC 548

Diode (6A4 x5, 1N4007)

Zener diode (5.1V)

LED (red, green)

Capacitor 4700uF, 25V

Resistor (1K x 3,820,2x10E 10W)

Variable resistor 10K

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Relay 12V, 10A

Transformer 230V/0-15,

Working

Consider the main supply is ON the step dawn transformer reduce the A.C voltage level
from 23ovto15v as we wont D.C voltage our bridge rectifier it is used to convert this 15 v
A.C into 15v D.C and 4700MF|25V this capacitor it is used to remove A.C ripples instead of
making D.C perfect and the presents of the main power is ON is indicated by red LED and
it is connected in series with resistor of 1kthe role of that resistor it is used as current lim-
iting resistor for LED and that combination series is followed by series combination of ze-
nerdiodeof 5.`1v and resistor of 1k and this is for providing a reference voltage during a
positive terminal upper comparator of 555timer is connected to the reference voltage in
order to turn off the charger if the battery charger is above 13.8v and if the battery voltage
is greater than 13.8v flip flop will set comparator output goes high and flip-flop will be set
this turn off transistor and relay also the charger it is directly turn off and that helps to lead
acid battery long life. During negative terminal of comparator if the battery voltage is the
preset voltage(voltage set by us ) lower comparator will reset the flip-flop and turn ON
transistor and relay which will switch to charge the battery ,and the recharge voltage can be
set b a variable resistor and the 2resistor 10eat 10w it used for limiting charging current of
the batter also the green LED is used to indicate that the charger if is ON as the current
trough the base of transistor and the transistor will drive our relay and of course if transistor
and relay is ON will switch to charge batter and when transistor and relay is off will not be
able to switch to charge a battery

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CHAP IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

IV.1. CONCLUSION

It is my pleasure to say that this project has achieved all of its goals; I worked out my best to
learn and implement everything concerning the working principle of the 12V BATTERY
CHARGER, I have provided clear detail and helpful information to make a 12v battery
charger device. I suggest introducing 12V BATTERY CHARGER as a solution to charger a
rechargeable battery .

IV.2. RECOMMENDATIONS

I recommend WDA and the school to provide easy means of getting the components students
need so the students may submit successful projects I also recommend the school to improve
supervision and follow-up of the projects. I finally recommend WDA to check and weigh the
projects submitted, because we think some of them can be helpful to the society when im-
plemented on a nationwide basis.

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REFERENCES

Books:

Fundamentals of electrical engineering and electronics

Memotechlctronique- circuits et corposantsfourth (4th) edition by

J.C chaudeau, G.chevalier, and B.chevalier.

Fondement lctronique

Internet research engines:

www.circuiteasy.com

http://google.com/electroschematics/12v battery charger

http:// google.com/Wikipedia/12v battery charger-circuit/detail

http://google.com/all-about-circuits/12v battery charger

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39