DISEASES AND IMMUNITY

BIOLOGY
SUMMER
PROJECT

By: Karishma Chatani

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Glossary of Terms
Active immunity - Active immunity is immunity that is gained from exposure to a pathogen.
Antibodies are made by the individual to fight against the pathogens and long term immunity is
gained from this as after the infection some of those antibodies are kept as memory cells which can
help the body to defend itself if the same pathogen attacks again.

Antibodies - Antibodies are large Y-shaped proteins. They are recruited by the immune system to
identify and neutralize foreign objects like bacteria and viruses.

Antigens - a toxin or other foreign substance which induces an immune response in the body,
especially the production of antibodies.

Disease - a condition of the living animal or plant body or of one of its parts that impairs normal
functioning and is distinguished by specific signs and symptoms.

Immune response - the reaction of the cells and fluids of the body to the presence of a substance
which is recognized as a foreign object.

Lymphocytes - are white blood cells that produce antibodies in response to foreign harmful cells,
these antibodies identify, bind to and destroy the foreign cells.

Memory cells - a long-lived lymphocyte that carries the antibody for fighting against a specific
antigen after a first exposure to the antigen.

Passive immunity - is when the individual is not required to make the antibodies to fight against
the pathogens. The antibodies are introduced from outside the organism. This results in short term
immunity as no memory cells were created. E.g. Antibodies from mothers breast milk

Pathogen - a bacterium, virus, or other microorganism that can cause disease.

Phagocytes - are white blood cells found in the bloodstream and protect the body by ingesting and
destroying foreign cells. These include, bacteria, dead or dying cells and other invading cells.

Phagocytosis - the engulfing of harmful microorganisms or other cells and foreign particles by
phagocytes.

Transmissible Diseases - a contagious disease where the pathogen is transmissible from

one host to another through direct contact or through a vector.

Vaccine - a substance used to stimulate the production of antibodies and provide immunity
against one or several diseases by injecting an unharmful version of the pathogen.

Vaccination -a treatment with a vaccine to produce active immunity against a disease.

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Questions
1.With the use of a table, describe the three main types of pathogen, giving
an example of a disease it causes and the symptoms of the disease. [10]
Bacteria Virus Fungi

Description Single celled organisms Thread-like particles Simple organisms

without a nucleus that reproduce by taking including mushroom
over living cells and yeasts, that grow as
single cells

Disease Tuberculosis Common cold Ringworm

Symptoms Coughing, chest pain,
weight loss, fatigue,
fever, loss of appetite,
night sweats, chills
Runny or stuy nose, Itchy skin, red and scaly
sore throat, cough, skin, ringed shaped rash
congestion, body aches,
mild headaches,
sneezing, fever

Picture

2.With the aid of a clearly labelled diagram, distinguish between the

action of phagocytes and lymphocytes. [4+4]
Phagocytes and lymphocytes are both white blood cells and fight against pathogens which
enter the body. However phagocytes protect the body by engulfing and ingesting foreign
particles such as bacteria and by destroying them through action of enzymes, while
lymphocytes protect the body by recognizing the pathogens and then producing antibodies
which bind to and destroy the pathogens. (Diagram below)

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3. Specific antibodies are produced in response to the specific shapes of

antigens. Describe how antibodies work in response to antigens,
explaining the importance of the proper match/fit of antibodies to
antigen, to the destruction of pathogens. Include diagrams to illustrate
this relationship. [6]
Antibodies are proteins produced by lymphocytes, that respond to a specific antigen. The
antibodies recognize the antigen of the pathogen, bind to it and destroy it. Antibodies are Y -
shaped and have a binding site on each arm of the Y (as shown below). The binding sites of
each antibody has a specific shape and therefore only antigens that match this shape will fit
into them, if they don't then the antibody wont be able to bind to that pathogen and destroy
it. (Diagram below)

4. Pathogens are transmitted either through direct contact or indirectly.

Outline, using examples, the differences between these two modes of
transmission, explaining how pathogens for transmissible diseases are
transmitted. Include examples of transmissible diseases. [4]
Pathogens can be transmitted in two ways: through direct and indirect contact. Direct
contact is when the disease causing microbe is passed from one person to another through
body contact. For example 1. vertical transmission; when microbes pass from mother to
unborn baby through the placenta and 2. horizontal transmission; when microbes pass from
one person to another by touching, kissing etc, for example chicken pox and meningitis.
Indirect contact is when microbes are carried from person to person by 1. vehicle-borne
transmission which includes food and water and 2. vector-borne transmission which
involves animals carrying the microbe. For example malaria transmitted by mosquitoes and
cholera from water.

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5. The body has natural defences against disease which result in active
immunity. These defences against disease can be categorised as
mechanical barriers, chemical barriers, and cells. Outline, using examples,
how these defences give the body protection. Use images to illustrate.[9]
Mechanical barriers
1. Skin - The skin covers the whole body, protecting it against physical damage, microbe
infection and dehydration. Its dry, dead outer cells are difficult for microbes to penetrate,
and the sebaceous glands produce oils that help kill microbes.
2. Nasal hairs - Nasal hairs keep out dust and larger microorganisms.
3. Cilia - The cilia sweeps mucus and dust out of the trachea.
Chemical barriers
1. Mucus - Mucus traps dust and microbes
2. Tears - Tears contain an enzyme which destroys microorganisms to protect the eye.
3. Stomach Acid - Stomach acid contains hydrochloric acid which destroys microorganisms.
Cells
1. Platelets - Platelets clot cuts to prevent loss of blood and entry of harmful microorganisms.
2. Lymphocytes - Lymphocytes release antibodies which bind to and destroy pathogens.
3. Phagocytes - Phagocytes engulf and digest pathogens.

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6. Vaccination is a process which enhances the bodys natural defences.

(a) Explain the process of vaccination, including how pathogens trigger an

immune response, the role of lymphocytes, and how long-term immunity
is achieved by memory cells. [5]
Vaccination involves exposing the bodys immune system to a weakened or harmless version
of the pathogen. This pathogens antigens will then trigger an immune response as the body
will detect a foreign particle which stimulates white blood cells (lymphocytes) to produce
antibodies. These antibodies will then kill the pathogen and memory cells are produced
which gives the individual long term immunity.

(b) Explain the role of vaccination in controlling the spread of diseases.

[2]
Vaccinations are important as the control the spread of diseases. Once a person is vaccinated
they have long term immunity against this disease due to memory cells and this means that
they can neither catch nor spread the disease any further. The more and more people are
vaccinated against a particular disease, the less cases of the disease thus the controlling of
that disease.

(c) State three specific examples of vaccines. [3]

1. Chicken pox vaccine

2. MMR vaccine (Measles, mumps and rubella)

3. Influenza vaccine

7. Man also has a part to play in controlling the spread of diseases.

Explain the importance of: [6]
Many harmful microorganisms can pass from one person or thing to another person so man is said to
play a role in controlling the spread of diseases. The below are important in controlling this:

1. Hygienic food preparation - Food can have harmful microbes in and on it. The microbes get into
the body when the food is eaten, causing food poisoning. Thorough cooking kills most microbes, but
they can survive under-cooking. Careless handling of food increases the risk from harmful microbes.

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2. Good personal hygiene - Microbes can be passed from one person to another when people
touch each other, or when they touch something an infected person has handled. This is why
it is important to wash your hands using antiseptics which can kill bacteria on your skin.

3. Waste disposal - This is important as if waste isn't handled properly it has the potential to
cause diseases and be a hazard to human health. e.g. polluted air can cause respiratory
illness.

4. Sewage treatment in controlling the spread of disease - This needs to be treated effectively
as it can cause disease from bacteria to be spread to other people.

8. (a) Describe, using ONE example, how an individual acquires

passive immunity. [2]
Antibodies can be passed across the placenta and to the baby during pregnancy and through breast
milk while feeding, thus giving the baby passive immunity.

(b) Why is passive immunity not long-term? [2]

Passive immunity is short-term because since the antibodies aren't actually made by you in your
immune system, memory cells which provide immunity aren't actually created, so if you come in
contact with that disease again you will not be immune.

(c) Breast-feeding is said to be best for infants. Explain, in context of

passive immunity, why this is said to be so. [4]
Passive immunity is good for infants because it means that you gained resistance to ta
disease without having to do anything. You have received the antibodies that you needed to
fight off an infection without your own immune system having to create the antibodies. This
is useful because babies immune system is not well developed yet and is weak, so the
mothers antibodies can protect the baby against any disease she is immune to, for the first
few months of its life until its immune system develops properly.

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(d) Construct a table to show FIVE differences between active and

passive immunity. [5]

Active Immunity Passive Immunity

Antibodies are produced in the persons own body Antibodies are supplied from another source other
than the person himself.

It takes some time to provide immunity It is rapid as the antibodies are already made and
action is fast.

It provides immunity for a long time sometimes even Immunity is provided for a short time only as
for life. antibodies weren't made by the person himself and
no memory cells were created.

No harmful side eects. Sometimes antitoxins made from animals can cause
side eects.

Immune system activated by antigen No immune system activation

Immune response can be maintained via stimulation Immunity cannot be maintained and wears o
of memory cells (booster shots/immunizations) quickly

9. (a) Define the term autoimmune disease. [2]

It is a disease in which the body produces antibodies that attack its own tissues, leading to
the deterioration and in some cases to the destruction of such tissue.

(b) Outline how Type 1 diabetes is an example of an autoimmune

disease. [3]

The immune system is the body's protection against harmful substances such as bacteria,
viruses and toxins.To counter this, the immune system produces and sends antibodies to
identify destroy these antigens. However, in some cases the immune system cannot identify
the healthy, harmless tissue from the harmful antigens and, as a result, it attacks and
destroys normal tissue. In the case of type 1 diabetes, the immune system mistakes healthy
cells in the pancreas for foreign, antigens and attacks them, leaving the body unable to
produce its own insulin and keep levels of blood glucose under control.

(c) Outline how allergies and transplant rejection are examples of the
immune response reducing the likelihood of survival. [2+3]
Allergies are the result of your immune systems response to a substance. Allergic reactions
begin in your immune system. When a harmless substance like dust, mold or pollen is
encountered by a person who is allergic to that substance, the immune system may overreact

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by producing antibodies that attack the allergen. This can cause wheezing, itching, a runny
nose, watery or itchy eyes and other symptoms.

Your body's immune system usually protects you from substances that may be harmful, such
as germs, poisons, and sometimes, cancer cells and these harmful substances have proteins
called antigens coating their surfaces. As soon as these antigens enter the body, the immune
system recognizes that they are not from that person's body and that they are "foreign," and
attacks them. When a person receives an organ from someone else during transplant
surgery, that person's immune system may recognize that it is foreign. This is because the
person's immune system detects that the antigens on the cells of the organ are different from
the bodys cells and then thinking it is harmful, attacks it. (transplant rejection)

(d) Explain the importance of using (i) immunosuppressive drugs

and (ii) matching tissues. [4]
To help prevent transplant rejection, doctors try to do two things:
i) Doctors try to closely match the tissues of both the organ donor and the person who is
receiving the organ. This is important as the more similar the antigens are between the
donor and recipient, the less likely that the organ will be rejected. This tissue typing ensures
that the organ or tissue is as similar as possible to the tissues of the recipient and the match
is usually not perfect as no two people, except identical twins, have identical tissue antigens.
ii) Doctors use medicines to suppress the recipient's immune system. This prevents the
immune system from attacking the newly transplanted organ when the organ is not closely
matched. If these medicines are not used, the body will almost always launch an immune
response and destroy the foreign tissue so it is very important that this is done in order to
avoid rejection of the transplant.

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Bibliography
http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/ringworm-body/symptoms-causes/dxc-20232319

http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/tuberculosis/symptoms-causes/dxc-20188557

http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/common-cold/symptoms-causes/dxc-20199808

http://www.scienceclarified.com/Al-As/Antibody-and-Antigen.html

https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/007603.htm

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