Fundamental of Computer

Input/ Output, Processing and Memory Device

Computer is an electronic device which is capable of receiving information (data) in a
particular form and of performing a sequence of operations in accordance with a
predetermined but variable set of procedural instructions (program) to produce a result in the
form of information or signals.

The term computer is derived from the Latin termcomputare, this means
to calculate or programmable machine. Computer can not do anything without a Program. It
represents the decimal numbers through a string of binary digits. The Word 'Computer'
usually refers to the Center Processor Unit plus Internal memory.

Four Functions about computer are:

accepts data Input

processes data Processing

produces output Output

stores results Storage

Types of Computer
The four basic types of computers are as under:

1. Supercomputer
2. Mainframe Computer
3. Minicomputer
4. Microcomputer
 Supercomputer
The most powerful computers in terms of performance and data
processing are the Supercomputers. These are specialized and
task specific computers used by large organizations. These
computers are used for research and exploration purposes, like
NASA uses supercomputers for launching space shuttles,
controlling them and for space exploration purpose.

The supercomputers are very expensive and very large in size. It

can be accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms; some
super computers can span an entire building.

Although Mainframes are not as powerful as supercomputers, but

certainly they are quite expensive nonetheless, and many large
firms & government organizations uses Mainframes to run their
business operations. The Mainframe computers can be
accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms because of its size.
Super-computers are the fastest computers with large data
storage capacity, Mainframes can also process & store large
amount of data. Banks educational institutions & insurance
companies use mainframe computers to store data about their
customers, students & insurance policy holders.

Minicomputer
Minicomputers are used by small businesses & firms. Minicomputers
are also called as Midrange Computers. These are small machines
and can be accommodated on a disk with not as processing and data
storage capabilities as super-computers & Mainframes. These
computers are not designed for a single user. Individual departments
of a large company or organizations use Mini-computers for specific
purposes. For example, a production department can use Mini-
computers for monitoring certain production process.

Microcomputer
Desktop computers, laptops, personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets &
smartphones are all types of microcomputers. The micro-computers
are widely used & the fastest growing computers. These computers are
the cheapest among the other three types of computers. The Micro-
computers are specially designed for general usage like entertainment,
education and work purposes. Well known manufacturers of Micro-
computer are Dell, Apple, Samsung, Sony & Toshiba.
Desktop computers, Gaming consoles, Sound & Navigation system of a
car, Netbooks, Notebooks, PDAs, Tablet PCs, Smartphones,
Calculators are all type of Microcomputers.
Personal computer:
It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an
individual user. In price, personal computers range anywhere from a few hundred
pounds to over five thousand pounds. All are based on the microprocessor technology
that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal
computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running
spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most popular use
for personal computers is for playing games and recently for surfing the Internet.
Personal computers first appeared in the late 1970s. One of the first and most popular
personal computers was the Apple II, introduced in 1977 by Apple Computer. During
the late 1970s and early 1980s, new models and competing operating systems seemed
to appear daily. Then, in 1981, IBM entered the fray with its first personal computer,
known as the IBM PC. The IBM PC quickly became the personal computer of choice,
and most other personal computer manufacturers fell by the wayside. P.C. is short for
personal computer or IBM PC. One of the few companies to survive IBM's onslaught
was Apple Computer, which remains a major player in the personal computer
marketplace. Other companies adjusted to IBM's dominance by building IBM clones,
computers that were internally almost the same as the IBM PC, but that cost less.
Because IBM clones used the same microprocessors as IBM PCs, they were capable
of running the same software. Over the years, IBM has lost much of its influence in
directing the evolution of PCs. Therefore after the release of the first PC by IBM the
term PC increasingly came to mean IBM or IBM-compatible personal computers, to
the exclusion of other types of personal computers, such as Macintoshes. In recent
years, the term PC has become more and more difficult to pin down. In general,
though, it applies to any personal computer based on an Intel microprocessor, or on an
Intel-compatible microprocessor. For nearly every other component, including the
operating system, there are several options, all of which fall under the rubric of PC
Today, the world of personal computers is basically divided between Apple
Macintoshes and PCs. The principal characteristics of personal computers are that
they are single-user systems and are based on microprocessors. However, although
personal computers are designed as single-user systems, it is common to link them
together to form a network. In terms of power, there is great variety. At the high end,
the distinction between personal computers and workstations has faded. High-end
models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics
capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and DEC.
III, Personal Computer Types
Actual personal computers can be generally classified by size and chassis / case. The
chassis or case is the metal frame that serves as the structural support for electronic
components. Every computer system requires at least one chassis to house the circuit
boards and wiring. The chassis also contains slots for expansion boards. If you want to
insert more boards than there are slots, you will need an expansion chassis, which
provides additional slots. There are two basic flavors of chassis designsdesktop
models and tower modelsbut there are many variations on these two basic types.
Then come the portable computers that are computers small enough to carry. Portable
computers include notebook and subnotebook computers, hand-held computers,
palmtops, and PDAs.
Tower model
The term refers to a computer in which the power supply, motherboard, and mass
storage devices are stacked on top of each other in a cabinet. This is in contrast to
desktop models, in which these components are housed in a more compact box. The
main advantage of tower models is that there are fewer space constraints, which
makes installation of additional storage devices easier.
Desktop model
A computer designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk, typically with the monitor
sitting on top of the computer. Desktop model computers are broad and low, whereas
tower model computers are narrow and tall. Because of their shape, desktop model
computers are generally limited to three internal mass storage devices. Desktop
models designed to be very small are sometimes referred to as slimline models.
Notebook computer
An extremely lightweight personal computer. Notebook computers typically weigh
less than 6 pounds and are small enough to fit easily in a briefcase. Aside from size,
the principal difference between a notebook computer and a personal computer is the
display screen. Notebook computers use a variety of techniques, known as flat-panel
technologies, to produce a lightweight and non-bulky display screen. The quality of
notebook display screens varies considerably. In terms of computing power, modern
notebook computers are nearly equivalent to personal computers. They have the same
CPUs, memory capacity, and disk drives. However, all this power in a small package
is expensive. Notebook computers cost about twice as much as equivalent regular-
sized computers. Notebook computers come with battery packs that enable you to run
them without plugging them in. However, the batteries need to be recharged every
few hours.
Laptop computer
A small, portable computer -- small enough that it can sit on your lap. Nowadays,
laptop computers are more frequently called notebook computers.
Subnotebook computer
A portable computer that is slightly lighter and smaller than a full-sized notebook
computer. Typically, subnotebook computers have a smaller keyboard and screen, but
are otherwise equivalent to notebook computers.
Hand-held computer
A portable computer that is small enough to be held in ones hand. Although
extremely convenient to carry, handheld computers have not replaced notebook
computers because of their small keyboards and screens. The most popular hand-held
computers are those that are specifically designed to provide PIM (personal
information manager) functions, such as a calendar and address book. Some
manufacturers are trying to solve the small keyboard problem by replacing the
keyboard with an electronic pen. However, these pen-based devices rely on
handwriting recognition technologies, which are still in their infancy. Hand-held
computers are also called PDAs, palmtops and pocket computers.
Palmtop
A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size computers,
palmtops are severely limited, but they are practical for certain functions such as
phone books and calendars. Palmtops that use a pen rather than a keyboard for input
are often called hand-held computers or PDAs. Because of their small size, most
palmtop computers do not include disk drives. However, many contain PCMCIA slots
in which you can insert disk drives, modems, memory, and other devices. Palmtops
are also called PDAs, hand-held computers and pocket computers.
PDA
Short for personal digital assistant, a handheld device that combines computing,
telephone/fax, and networking features. A typical PDA can function as a cellular
phone, fax sender, and personal organizer. Unlike portable computers, most PDAs are
pen-based, using a stylus rather than a keyboard for input. This means that they also
incorporate handwriting recognition features. Some PDAs can also react to voice
input by using voice recognition technologies. The field of PDA was pioneered by
Apple Computer, which introduced the Newton MessagePad in 1993. Shortly
thereafter, several other manufacturers offered similar products. To date, PDAs have
had only modest success in the marketplace, due to their high price tags and limited
applications. However, many experts believe that PDAs will eventually become
common gadgets.
PDAs are also called palmtops, hand-held computers and pocket computers.
Another classification of computers is analog, digital and hybrid computers. Analog
computers process analog data and so on.
Characteristics of computer
Basic characteristics about computer are:
1. Speed: - As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for
calculations that we take hours to complete. You will be surprised to know that
computer can perform millions (1,000,000) of instructions and even more per second.
Therefore, we determine the speed of computer in terms of microsecond (10-6 part of a
second) or nanosecond (10 to the power -9 part of a second). From this you can imagine
how fast your computer performs work.
2. Accuracy: - The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is
performed with the same accuracy. The accuracy level is 7
determined on the basis of design of computer. The errors in computer are due to
human and inaccurate data.
3. Diligence: - A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It
can work for hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be
performed, a computer will perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to
this capability it overpowers human being in routine type of work.
4. Versatility: - It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You
may use your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for
inventory management or to prepare electric bills.
5. Power of Remembering: - Computer has the power of storing any amount
of informationor data. Any information can be stored and recalled as long as you require
it, for any numbers of years. It depends entirely upon you how much data you want to
store in a computer and when to lose or retrieve these data.
6. No IQ: - Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction
from the user. It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is
you to decide what you want to do and in what sequence. So a computer cannot take its
own decision as you can.
7. No Feeling: - It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience.
Thus it does not get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between
users.
8. Storage: - The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of
data. You can also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be
kept outside your computer and can be carried to other computers.
Generation of Computer- final answer assignment
1940 1956: First Generation Vacuum Tubes
 These early computers used vacuum tubes as circuitry and magnetic drums for
memory. As a result they were enormous, literally taking up entire rooms and costing
a fortune to run. These were inefficient materials which generated a lot of heat,
sucked huge electricity and subsequently generated a lot of heat which caused
ongoing breakdowns.
These first generation computers relied on machine language (which is the most
basic programming language that can be understood by computers). These
computers were limited to solving one problem at a time. Input was based on
punched cards and paper tape. Output came out on print-outs.

1956 1963: Second Generation Transistors

The replacement of vacuum tubes by transistors saw the advent of the second
generation of computing. Although first invented in 1947, transistors werent used
significantly in computers until the end of the 1950s. They were a big improvement
over the vacuum tube, despite still subjecting computers to damaging levels of heat.
However they were hugely superior to the vacuum tubes, making computers smaller,
faster, cheaper and less heavy on electricity use. They still relied on punched card
for input/printouts.
The assembly language was used in 2nd generation. This meant programmers
could create instructions in words. At the same time high level programming
languages were being developed (COBOL and FORTRAN). Transistor-driven
machines were the first computers to store instructions into their memories
1964 1971: Third Generation Integrated Circuits
By this phase, transistors were now being miniaturised and put on silicon chips
(called semiconductors). This led to a massive increase in speed and efficiency of
these machines. These were the first computers where users interacted using
keyboards and monitors which interfaced with an operating system, a significant
leap up from the punch cards and printouts. This enabled these machines to run
several applications at once using a central program which functioned to monitor
memory.
As a result of these advances which again made machines cheaper and smaller, a
new mass market of users emerged during the 60s.
1972 2010: Fourth Generation Microprocessors
This revolution can be summed in one word: Intel. The chip-maker developed the
Intel 4004 chip in 1971, which positioned all computer components (CPU, memory,
input/output controls) onto a single chip. What filled a room in the 1940s now fit in
the palm of the hand. The Intel chip housed thousands of integrated circuits. The
year 1981 saw the first ever computer (IBM) specifically designed for home use and
1984 saw the MacIntosh introduced by Apple. Microprocessors even moved beyond
the realm of computers and into an increasing number of everyday products.
2010- : Fifth Generation Artificial Intelligence
Computer devices with artificial intelligence are still in development, but some of these
technologies are beginning to emerge and be used such as voice recognition.
AI is a reality made possible by using parallel processing and superconductors. Leaning
to the future, computers will be radically transformed again by quantum computation,
molecular and nano technology.
The essence of fifth generation will be using these technologies to ultimately create
machines which can process and respond to natural language, and have capability
to learn and organise themselves.
Generation of Computer
1940 1956: First Generation Vacuum Tubes
These early computers used vacuum tubes as circuitry and magnetic drums for
memory. As a result they were enormous, literally taking up entire rooms and costing
a fortune to run. These were inefficient materials which generated a lot of heat,
sucked huge electricity and subsequently generated a lot of heat which caused
ongoing breakdowns.
These first generation computers relied on machine language (which is the most
basic programming language that can be understood by computers). These
computers were limited to solving one problem at a time. Input was based on
punched cards and paper tape. Output came out on print-outs. The two notable
machines of this era were the UNIVAC and ENIAC machines the UNIVAC is the
first every commercial computer which was purchased in 1951 by a business the
US Census Bureau.
1956 1963: Second Generation Transistors
The replacement of vacuum tubes by transistors saw the advent of the second
generation of computing. Although first invented in 1947, transistors werent used
significantly in computers until the end of the 1950s. They were a big improvement
over the vacuum tube, despite still subjecting computers to damaging levels of heat.
However they were hugely superior to the vacuum tubes, making computers smaller,
faster, cheaper and less heavy on electricity use. They still relied on punched card
for input/printouts.
The language evolved from cryptic binary language to symbolic (assembly)
languages. This meant programmers could create instructions in words. About the
same time high level programming languages were being developed (early versions
of COBOL and FORTRAN). Transistor-driven machines were the first computers to
store instructions into their memories moving from magnetic drum to magnetic
core technology. The early versions of these machines were developed for the
atomic energy industry.
1964 1971: Third Generation Integrated Circuits
By this phase, transistors were now being miniaturised and put on silicon chips
(called semiconductors). This led to a massive increase in speed and efficiency of
these machines. These were the first computers where users interacted using
keyboards and monitors which interfaced with an operating system, a significant
leap up from the punch cards and printouts. This enabled these machines to run
several applications at once using a central program which functioned to monitor
memory.
As a result of these advances which again made machines cheaper and smaller, a
new mass market of users emerged during the 60s.
 1972 2010: Fourth Generation Microprocessors
This revolution can be summed in one word: Intel. The chip-maker developed the
Intel 4004 chip in 1971, which positioned all computer components (CPU, memory,
input/output controls) onto a single chip. What filled a room in the 1940s now fit in
the palm of the hand. The Intel chip housed thousands of integrated circuits. The
year 1981 saw the first ever computer (IBM) specifically designed for home use and
1984 saw the MacIntosh introduced by Apple. Microprocessors even moved beyond
the realm of computers and into an increasing number of everyday products.
The increased power of these small computers meant they could be linked, creating
networks. Which ultimately led to the development, birth and rapid evolution of the
Internet. Other major advances during this period have been the Graphical user
interface (GUI), the mouse and more recently the astounding advances in lap-top
capability and hand-held devices.
2010- : Fifth Generation Artificial Intelligence
Computer devices with artificial intelligence are still in development, but some of these
technologies are beginning to emerge and be used such as voice recognition.
AI is a reality made possible by using parallel processing and superconductors. Leaning
to the future, computers will be radically transformed again by quantum computation,
molecular and nano technology.
The essence of fifth generation will be using these technologies to ultimately create
machines which can process and respond to natural language, and have capability to
learn and organise themselves.
S.No Generation & Description

First Generation
1
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.

Second Generation
2
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.

Third Generation
3
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.

Fourth Generation
4
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.

Fifth Generation
5
The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based.

Application of computer
The various applications of computers in today's arena :
1. Business
2. Education
3. Marketing
4. Banking
5. Insurance
6. Communication
7. Health Care
8. Military
9. Engineering Design

Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or
versatility which made it an integrated part in all business organisations.
Computer is used in business organisations for: Payroll calculations, Sales
analysis, Budgeting, Financial forecasting, Managing employees database and
Maintenance of stocks etc.

Education
Computers have its dominant use in the education field which can
significantly enhance performance in learning. Even distance learning is made
productive and effective through internet and video-based classes.
Researchers have massive usage of these computers in their work from the
starting to till the end of their scholarly work.

Marketing
In marketing, uses of computer are :
Advertising - With computers, advertising professionals create art and
graphics, write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of
selling more products.
Home Shopping - Home shopping has been made possible through use of
computerised catalogues that provide access to product information and
permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.
 Banking
Today banking is almost totally dependent on computer. Banks provide the
facilities of:
Banks provide online accounting facility, which includes current balances,
deposits, overdrafts, interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.

Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of
computers. The insurance companies, finance houses and stock broking firms
are widely using computers for their concerns.
Communication
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that
is received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is
meant for. Some main areas in this category are: Chatting, E-mail, Usenet,
FTP, Video-conferencing and Telnet.

HealthCare
Most of the medical information can now be digitized from the prescription to
reports. Computation in the field of medicine allows us tooffer varied
miraculous therapies to the patients. ECGs, radiotherapy wasnt possible
without computers.

Military
Computers are the main tools which help in developing missiles and other
equipment in the deference system. Designing and the maintenance are
possible only through computers. Computer builds the links between the
soldiers and commanders through the satellite. Construction of weapons and
controlling their function is not possible without the aid of computers. The list
of the criminals and the records of the cops are maintained regularly in the
system.

EngineeringDesign
As per the title,computers aid in designing buildings, magazines, prints,
newspapers, books and many others. The construction layouts are designed
beautifully on system using different tools and softwares.
Charles Babbage was considered to be the father of computing after his
invention and concept of the Analytical Engine in 1837. The Analytical Engine contained an
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), basic flow control, and integrated memory; hailed as the first
general-purpose computer concept.