1

A GUIDE
TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR

2
 A GUIDE
TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR
Explanations, examples and exercises
for first year students

3
 THE NOUN

Countable and uncountable nouns

In English, nouns can be divided into countable and uncountable nouns.

Most common nouns are countable: i.e. they have both singular and plural forms: ex.
hand hands.
Other common nouns are uncountable: they have a singular, but no plural: ex. bread -
*breads.

1. Examples of countable and uncountable nouns

1a. Countable nouns can be both singular and plural:
singular plural
the baby the babies
a rose some roses
that cup those cups
the bird the birds
a key some keys
that shout those shouts

1b. Uncountable nouns have no plural: they refer to things you cannot count. Here are
examples of concrete nouns (referring to the physical world) which are not countable.

Substances: bread - *breads; dust - *dusts; steel - *steels.

Liquids: blood - *bloods; milk - *milks; alcohol - *alcohols.
Gases: air - *airs; steam - *steams; oxygen - *oxygens.

Many abstract nouns are also uncountable.

peace - *peaces; evidence - *evidences; information - *informations; history -

*histories; work (=job) - *works, advice *advices; gratitude - *gratitudes

2. What are uncountables?

4
Uncountables refer to masses which we cannot easily think of as consisting of separate
items: i.e. liquids, powders. We can divide many of these masses into subgroups, which
are also uncountable:
material: cotton, wool, silk, nylon
meat: beef, pork, lamb, chicken
ex.: Are these socks made of wool or of cotton?
I prefer lamb to chicken.

Types of uncountables
To remember easily, think of substances, liquids, gases, and abstract ideas as
uncountable. In the lists of words in a e, those uncountable nouns which have
subgroups of uncountable nouns are marked in bold italic type.

a. Substances:
wood, plastic, leather, cement, chalk, plaster, paint, sand, coal, rock, paper
material: cloth, cotton, silk, wool, nylon
metal: iron, gold, silver, brass, lead
food: flour, rice, bread, wheat, rye, sugar, salt, pepper, meat, fish, fruit, butter, cheese,
jam
fur, skin, hair, ice, snow, rain, soil, grass, land, ground

b. Liquids:
water, milk, coffee, tea, oil, petrol <G.B.>, gasoline <U.S.>, juice, alcohol

c. Gases:
air, smoke, steam, oxygen, hydrogen

d. Others (You might expect some of these to be plural, but they are not!):
furniture, luggage, baggage, money, pay, noise, traffic, music, accomodation

e. Abstract ideas:
information, knowledge, advice, education, fiction, (outer) space, time, power,
experience, history

NOTE: News looks like a plural noun, but in fact it is singular uncountable.
Ex.: Theres not much news on the radio today.

5
 Note also that work, homework and housework are uncountable.

3. How countables and uncountables behave

3a. Countable nouns

(i) can follow a, an or one
(ii) can follow many, few, these, those
(iii) can follow a number such as two, three, four,

countable uncountable
(i) Do you have a pleasant job? (But not: *a pleasant work)
(ii) Those meals you cooked were delicious (But not: *Those foods)
(iii) I bought two loaves (of bread) (But not: *two breads)

3b. Uncountable nouns

(i) can have no article and can follow some in the singular. They take only a
singular verb.
(ii) can follow much or little
(iii) can easily follow expressions like most of the, all of the, all the , half the (in
the singular)

uncountable countable
(i) Its made of wood. (But not: *made of tree)
(ii) Theres too much traffic. (But not: *too much vehicle)
(iii) I sold all the furniture. (But not: *all the table)

Some and all the are occasionally followed by a singular countable noun. But this is
exceptional.
Ex.: That was some party! (= a very special party)
Ive eaten all the loaf. (=the whole loaf)

Many nouns have both countable and uncountable uses. Some common examples:
countable uncountable
A dozen (=12) eggs, please. Theres some egg on your chin.
Ive told him so many times. Weve wasted so much time.
The crowd threw rocks at us. a tunnel through hard rock.
a strong wind; light winds Theres a lot of wind about.
She gave a talk on sailing. Thats foolish talk.
the bright lights of the city Light travels very fast.

6
 Some more examples: a glass (some) glass; a cake (some) cake; two papers (some)
paper.
For many nouns, the countable use is for separate items or things, but the uncountable use
is for (an amount of) the material or substance. For example: two onions (some) onion; a
(whole) cheese (some) cheese; a chicken (some) chicken.
A countable noun can also describe a kind or type of X, where X is the uncountable
noun.
Ex.: Gold and silver are valuable metals. (kinds of metal)
This store sells health foods and baby food(s).
Oak is a hard wood.

We sometimes change an uncountable noun into a countable noun. For instance, nouns
for liquids as tea and coffee are usually uncountable, but we can use them as countable nouns
meaning (a) a glass or cup of X, or (b) a type of X.
Ex.: A tea and two coffees, please.
This is an excellent mineral water from Belgium.

NOTE: The meaning of a noun does not always help us to decide whether it is
uncountable. For example, traffic, furniture, baggage (G.B. luggage), money, news refer to a
group of separate things. But English treats them as uncountable; we could say that English
sees these as a mass.

7
 The plural

The nouns which have a plural form are called countable nouns. Most nouns are
countable.
The regular plural form of a noun adds s (or es) to the singular.
Ex.: week weeks; cup cups; plan plans; law laws; uncle uncles; toy toys
Most nouns add s, but if the noun already ends in s or z, -x, -ch, -sh, it adds es.
Ex.: bus buses; buzz buzzes; box boxes; peach peaches; bush bushes

The formation of the plural can be describes as follows:

regular spelling singular plural

-s after most nouns: cat cats
tub tubs
-es after nouns ending in o: potato potatoes
-s class classes
-x box boxes
-ch watch watches
-sh bush bushes
consonant + -y becomes ies: country countries
Note that vowel + -y adds s: -ay: day days
-ey: key keys
-oy: boy boys
-uy: guy guys
proper nouns ending in y add s in the Fry Frys
plural: Kennedy Kennedys
irregular spelling singular plural
Some endings in f/-fe take ves: wife wives
Internal vowel change: man men
Nouns with plurals in en: ox oxen
No change: sheep sheep
Foreign plurals: analysis analyses

1. Collective noun + singular or plural verb

1a. Collective nouns which have plural forms

8
 Some collective nouns such as audience, class, club, committee, company,
congregation, council, crew, crowd, family, gang, government, group, jury, mob, staff, team
and union can be used with singular or plural verbs. They are singular and can combine with the
relative pronouns which/that and be replaced by it when we think of them in an impersonal
fashion, i.e. as a whole group:
The present government, which hasnt been in power long, is trying to control inflation.
It isnt having much success.
They are plural and can combine with who and be replaced by they or them when we
think of them in a more personal way, i.e. as the individuals that make up the group:
The government, who are looking for a quick victory, are calling for a general election
soon. They expect to be re-elected. A lot of people are giving them their support.
These collective nouns can also have regular plural forms:
Governments in all countries are trying to control inflation.

1b. Collective nouns which do not have plural forms

The following collective nouns have no regular plural but can be followed by a singular
or plural verb: the aristocracy, the gentry, the proletariat, the majority, the minority, the public,
the youth of today:
Give the public what it wants/they want.
Offspring has no plural form but can be followed by a singular verb to refer to one or a
plural verb to refer to more than one:
Her offspring is like her in every respect. (one child)
Her offspring are like her in every respect. (more than one child)
The youth of today (=all young people) should not be confused with a/the youth (=a/the
young man), which has a regular plural youths:
The youth of today is/are better off than we used to be.
The witness said he saw a youth/five youths outside the shop.
Youth (=a time of life) is used with singular verbs:
Youth is the time for action; age is the time for repose.

2. Collective noun + plural verb

9
 The following collective nouns must be followed by a plural verb; they do not have plural
forms: cattle, the clergy, the military, people, the police, swine, vermin:
Some people are never satisfied.
The police/the military have surrounded the building.
People should not be confused with a/the people, meaning nation or tribe, which is
countable:
The British are a sea-faring people.
The English-speaking peoples share a common language.
3. Nouns with a plural form + singular verb

The following nouns, though plural in form, are always followed by a verb in the
singular:
- the noun news, as in: The news on TV is always depressing.
- games, such as billiards, bowls, darts, dominoes: Billiards is becoming more
and more popular.
- names of cities such as Athens, Brussels, Naples: Athens has grown rapidly
in the past decade.

4. Nouns with a plural form + singular or plural verb

The following nouns ending in ics take a singular verb: athletics, gymnastics,
linguistics, mathematics and physics:
Mathematics is a compulsory subject in school.
However, some words ending in ics, such as acoustics, economics, ethics, phonetics
and statistics take a singular or plural verb. When the reference is to an academic subject (e.g.
acoustics = the scientific study of sound) then the verb must be singular:
Acoustics is a branch of physics.
When the reference is specific, (e.g. acoustics = sound quality) then the verb must be
plural:
The acoustics in the Festival Hall are extremely good.
Plural-form nouns describing illnesses have a singular verb:
German measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women.
However, a plural verb is sometimes possible:
Mumps are (or is) fairly rare in adults.

10
 Some plural-form nouns can be regarded as a single unit (+verb in the singular) or
collective (+verb in the plural). Examples are: barracks, bellows, crossroads, gallows,
gasworks, headquarters, kennels, series, species and works (=factory).
-single unit: This species of rose is very rare.
-more than one: There are thousands of species of butterflies.
The word means (=a way to an end) is followed by a singular or plural verb, depending
on the word used before it:
All means have been used to get him to change his mind.
One means is still to be tried.

5. Nouns with a plural form + plural verb

Nouns with a plural form only (+plural verb) are:

-nouns which can combine with a pair of:
My trousers are torn.
Used with a pair of, these words must have a singular verb:
A pair of glasses costs quite a lot these days.
We cannot normally use numbers in front of these words, but we can say two, etc. pairs
of:
Two pairs of your trousers are still at the cleaners.
Some of these nouns can have a singular form when used in compounds: e.g. pyjama top,
trouser leg:
Where did I put my pyjama top?
-a few words which occur only in the plural and are followed by a plural verb. Some of
these are: antipodes, belongings, brains (=intellect), clothes, congratulations, earnings, goods,
greens (=green vegetables), lodgings, looks (=good looks), means (=money or material
possessions), oats, odds (in betting), outskirts, particulars, quarters (=accommodation),
remains, riches, stairs.
All my belongings are in this bag.

6. Nouns with different singular and plural meanings

Some nouns have different meanings in the singular and plural. Typical examples:
air/airs, ash/ashes, content/contents, custom/customs, damage/damages, drawer/drawers,
fund/funds, glass/glasses, look/looks, manner/manners, minute/minutes, pain/pains,

11
scale/scales, saving/savings, spectacle/spectacles, step/steps, work/works. Sometimes the
meanings are far apart (air/airs), sometimes they are quite close (fund/funds).
One small step for man; one giant leap for mankind.
You can only reach that cupboard with a pair of steps.
Of course, the countable nouns in the above list have their own plurals: dirty looks, five
minutes, sharp pains, two steps, etc.

12
 QUANTITY

General introduction to quantity

1. Quantifiers: what they are and what they do

Quantifiers are words and phrases like few, little, plenty (of), which often modify nouns
and show how many things or how much of something we are talking about. Some quantifiers
combine with countable nouns, some with uncountable and some with both kinds.
1.1 Quantifiers combining with countable nouns answer How many?:
How many eggs are there in the fridge? There are a few.
1.2 Quantifiers combining with uncountable nouns answer How much?:
How much milk is there in the fridge? There is a little.
1.3 Quantifiers combining with uncountable or with countable nouns answer How
many? or How much?:
How many eggs are there in the fridge? There are plenty.
How much milk is there in the fridge? There is plenty.

2. Quantifier + noun combinations

Quantifiers combine with different types of nouns:
2.1 Quantifier + plural countable noun: not many books; any number more than one (2,
3 etc.), both, a couple of, dozens/hundreds of, (a) few, fewer, the fewest, a/the
majority of, (not) many, a minority of, a number of, several:
We have fewer students specializing in maths than in English.
2.2 Quantifier + uncountable noun: not much sugar; a (small) amount of, a bit of, a drop
of (liquid), a great/good deal of, (a) little, less, the least, (not) much:
Id like a bit of bread with this cheese.
2.3 Quantifier + plural countable noun (a lot of books) or + (singular) uncountable noun
(a lot of sugar): some (of the), any (of the), all (the), hardly any, enough, half of
the/half the, a lot of, lots of, more, most, most of the, no, none of the, the other, part
of the, plenty of, the rest of the:
There arent any cars on the road at the moment.
There isnt any traffic on the road at the moment.

13
 2.4 Quantifier + singular countable noun: each book; all (of) the, another, any (of the),
each, either, every, half (of) the, most of the, neither, no, none of the, one, the only,
the other, some (of the), the whole (of the):
Its each/every man for himself in this business.

3. Degrees of indefinite quantity

References to quantity can be definite: that is, we can say exactly how many or how
much:
We need six eggs and half a kilo of butter.
However, most quantifiers are indefinite, that is, they do not tell us exactly how many or
how much.
Some, any and zero refer to an indefinite number or amount:
Are there (any) apples in the bag?
There are (some) apples in the bag. (We are not told how many.)
Is there (any) milk in the fridge?
There is (some) milk in the fridge. (We are not told how much.)
No + noun indicates a complete absence of the thing mentioned:
There are no apples. There is no milk.
Most quantity words give us more information than some and any, telling us the
comparative degree of the number or amount:
plural countable nouns uncountable nouns
Approximately how many Approximately how much
There are too many eggs. There is too much milk.
plenty of eggs. plenty of milk.
a lot of/lots of eggs. a lot of/lots of milk.
(not) enough eggs. (not) enough milk.
a few eggs. a little milk.
very few eggs. very little milk.
not many eggs. not much milk.
hardly any eggs. hardly any milk.
no eggs. no milk.

14
 4. The use of of after quantifiers
Some quantity phrases used as determiners always take of:
Weve had a lot of answers. (a lot of answers=determiner + noun)
But when they are used as pronouns, of is dropped:
Weve had a lot. (a lot as a pronoun)

4.1 General references with quantifiers

Quantifiers which always take of before nouns/pronouns include:
a couple of
dozens of/hundreds of people/books
the majority/a minority of (plural countable)
a number of

a large/small amount of cheese

a bit of (uncountable)

a lot of books/cheese
lots of (plural countable
plenty of or uncountable)

These references are general, i.e. we are not saying which particular people, etc.
Other quantifiers (any, (a) few, more, most, some, etc.) go directly before the noun (no
of) in general references:
There are hardly any eggs/a few eggs in the fridge.
There is some butter/no butter in the dish.

4.2 Specific references with quantifiers

If we need to be specific (i.e. point to particular items) we can follow a quantifier with of
+ a determiner (the, this, my).
Have some of this/a little of my wine. (e.g. the wine in this bottle)
Ill lend you some of these/a few of my books. (specified books)
In the same way we can make specific references with quantifiers which are always
followed by of by using determiners after them. Compare:
A lot of students missed my lecture yesterday. (general reference)
A lot of the students who missed my lecture yesterday want to borrow my notes. (specific
reference)
15
 Note the following quantifiers which are always specific and which must therefore be
followed by of + determiner:
None of the/this milk can be used.
Part of /The rest of this food will be for supper.
Put the rest of these biscuits in the tin.
Note the omission and use of of in:
How much is left? None (of it). Part of it. The rest of it.
How many are left? None (of them). Part of/The rest of them.

Particular quantifiers and their uses

1. Numbers
Exact indications of quantity can be conveyed by means of numbers.

1.1 Cardinal numbers

Cardinal numbers can be used as quantifiers (two apples) or pronouns (I bought two). The
number one will combine with any noun used as a singular countable noun:
Weve got one micro and two electric typewriters in our office.
All other numbers combine with plural countable nouns:
Two cabbages, three kilos of tomatoes and twelve oranges.
Note also ordinals followed by cardinals (the first three, the second two, etc.) and: the
next/last two, etc.:
The first three runners won medals.

1.2 Counting
A number of adverbial expressions can be used to describe quantities and groups: one at
a time; one by one; two by two; by the dozen; by the hundred; in tens; in five hundreds:
How would you like your money? In fives please.

1.3 Fractions
We can say: (a/one half), (a/one quarter, or one fourth, AmE) and 1/3 (a/one
third). Otherwise, we make use of cardinal and ordinal numbers when referring to a fraction on
its own: 9/16 (nine sixteenths) or to a whole number + fraction: 2 2/3 (two and two thirds):
2 (Two and a quarter) plus 3 (three and a half) equals 5 (five and three
quarters).

16
 We use a (Not one) with fractions for weights and measures:
I bought half a pound of tea and a quarter of a pound of coffee.
This could also be expressed as: a half pound of tea, a quarter pound of coffee.

1.4 Decimals
Fractions expressed as decimals are referred to as follows: 0.5 (nought point five or
point five); 2.05 (two point nought five or two point oh five); 2.5 (two point five):
The front tyre pressure should be 1.8 (one point eight) and the rear pressure 1.9 (one
point nine).

1.5 Multiplying and dividing quantity

The following can be used to refer to quantity: double (the quantity or amount); twice as
much (or twice the quantity or amount); half as much (or half the quantity or amount), etc.:
We need double/twice/three times the quantity/amount.

1.6 Approximate number and quantity

Numbers can be modified by: e.g. about, almost, exactly, fewer than, at least, less than,
more than, nearly, over, under:
There were over seventy people at the party. (= more than)
You cant vote if you are under eighteen. (= less than)

2. The use of some and any

Some and any are the most frequently used quantity words in the language. They never
answer How many? and How much?:
How much do you want? Just a little. (Not *some)
How many do you want? Just a few. (Not *some)
We generally use some and any when it is not important to state exactly how great or
how small the quantity is. They often function as if they were the plural of a/an:
There are some letters for you. (unspecified number)
How many (letters are there)? Seven. (number specified)
Theres some bread in the bread-bin. (unspecified amount)
How much (bread is there)? Half a loaf. (amount specified)
It is sometimes possible to omit some or any:
My wife bought me medicine and pastilles for my cough.

17
 SOME (= indefinite quantity or amount) is normally used
- in the affirmative:
There are some eggs in the fridge. (i.e. an unstated number)
There is some milk in the fridge. (i.e. an unstated quantity)
- in questions when we expect (or hope to get) the answer Yes:
Have you got some paper-clips in that box? (i.e.: I know or I think youve got some and
expect you to say Yes.)
- in offers, requests, invitations and suggestions when we expect the answer Yes or
expect implied agreement. The following are in the form of questions, though we are
not seeking information:
Would you like some (more) coffee? (expecting Yes)
May I have some (more) coffee? (expecting Yes)
- to mean certain, but not all:
Some people believe anything they read in the papers.
Notsome can be used in certain contexts to mean not all:
I didnt understand some of the lectures/some of the information.

Some + countable or uncountable noun is normally unstressed:

There are some letters for you.
Some, meaning certain but not all is usually stressed. It can be stressed at the beginning
of a statement to emphasize a contrast:
Some people have no manners.
It can be stressed to refer to an unspecified person/thing:
Some boy left his shirt in the cloakroom.

ANY (= indefinite quantity or amount) is normally used

- in negative statements containing not or nt:
We havent got any shirts in your size.
There isnt any milk in the fridge.
- in questions when we are not sure about the answer or expect No:
Have you got any paper-clips in the box? (i.e. I dont know if youve got any and
wouldnt be surprised if you said No)
- in sentences containing a negative word other than not, such as hardly, never,
seldom or without, or when there is any suggestion of doubt, e.g. with if or whether
(implied negatives):
Theres hardly any petrol in the tank.

18
 We got to Paris without any problems.
I dont know if/whether theres any news from Harry.
- with at all and (more formally) whatever for special emphasis:
I havent got any idea at all/whatever about what happened.

3. The use of notany, no and none

3.1 Notany and no

An alternative way of forming a negative is with no:
notany: There arent any buses after midnight.
no: There are no buses after midnight.
A clause can contain ONLY ONE NEGATIVE WORD, so that not and e.g. no or never
cannot be used together:
I could get no information. (Not *I couldnt)
When used in preference to notany, no is slightly more formal and makes a negative
idea more emphatic. Negatives with notany are used in normal conversation, but we must
always use no (Never *not any) if we wish to begin a sentence with a negative:
No department stores open on Sundays.
No can combine with a singular noun:
Theres no letter for you. (= There isnt a letter for you.)
Im no expert, but I think this paper is a fake.
No at the beginning of a statement strongly emphasizes a negative idea.

3.2 No and none

No meaning notany is a determiner and can only be used before a noun; none stands on
its own as a pronoun:
There isnt any bread. Theres no bread. Theres none.
There arent any sweets. There are no sweets. There are none.
Like no, none is more emphatic that notany. When no or none are used, not cannot be
used as well:
I couldnt get any information about flights to the USA.
I could get no information about flights to the USA.
Do you have any new diaries? Weve got none at the moment.

19
 4. Special uses of some, any and no

4.1 Some
Apart from its common use as a quantifier, some can be used to refer to an unspecified
person or thing etc. When used in this way it can mean:
- several: I havent seen Tom for some years.
- approximately: There were some 400 demonstrators.
- extraordinary: Thats some radio youve bought! (informal)
- an unknown: There must be some book which could help.
- no kind of: Thats some consolation, I must say! (ironic)
With abstract nouns some can be used to mean an amount of:
Weve given some thought to your idea and find it interesting.

4.2 Any
Apart from its common use as a quantifier, any can be used to refer to an unspecified
person or thing and can occur in affirmative statements. When used in this way it can mean:
- usual: This isnt just any cake. (its special)
- the minimum/maximum: Hell need any help he can get.
- I dont care which: Give me a plate. Any plate/one will do.

4.3 Any and no + adjective or adverb

Any and no, used as adverbs to mean at all, will combine with adjectives and adverbs
in the comparative:
Is he any better this morning? No, hes no better.
Any and no used as adverbs combine with a few positive adjectives, e.g. good (any
good) and different (any different):
Is that book any good? Its no good at all.

5. Common uses of much and many

We normally use much (+ uncountable) and many (+ plural countable):

- in negative statements:
I havent much time. There arent many pandas in China.
- in questions:
Is there much milk in that carton? Have you had many inquiries?

20
 In everyday speech we usually avoid using much and many in affirmative statements.
We use other quantifiers, especially a lot of. Much and many occur in formal affirmative
statements:
Much has been done to improve conditions of work.
Many teachers dislike marking piles of exercise books.

Combinations like as much as and as many as are used in the affirmative or negative:
You can/cant have as much as (as many as) you like.
When much and many are modified by much and far (much/far too much, much/far
too many) they tend to be used in the affirmative:
Your son gets much/far too much pocket money.
There are far too many accidents at this junction.
Many in time expressions occurs in the affirmative or negative:
I have lived here/havent lived here (for) many years.

Not much and not many commonly occur in short answers:

Have you brought much luggage? No, not much.
Have you written many letters? No, not many.
Not much and not many can be subjects or part of the subject:
Not much is really known about dinosaurs.
Not many people know about Delias past.

Much occurs in a number of expressions (e.g. theres not much point in; its a bit
much; hes not much of a):
Theres not much point in telling the same story again.

Not so much occurs in comparisons:

Its not so much a bedroom, more a studio.
Dennis is not so much a nuisance as a menace.
Its not so much that he dislikes his parents, as that/but that he wants to set up on his
own.

Many (like few) can be modified by the, my, your, etc.:

One of the many people he knows can help him to get a job.

21
 6. (A) few and (a) little

6.1 Few and a few

Few and a few are used with plural countables.
Few is negative, suggesting hardly any at all, and is often used after very:
Mona has had very few opportunities to practise her English.
In everyday speech we prefer notmany or hardly any:
Mona hasnt had many opportunities to practise her English.
Mona has had hardly any opportunities to practise her English.
Few can also convey the idea of not as many as were expected:
A lot of guests were expected, but few came.

A few is positive, suggesting some, a (small) number:

The police would like to ask him a few questions.
A few can mean a very small number, or even quite a lot. The size of the number
depends on the speakers viewpoint:
I dont know how much hes got, but it must be a few million.
A few can be used to mean more than none, more than expected:
Have we run out of sardines? No, there are a few tins left.

A few can also combine with other words:

just: How many do you want? Just a few please. (i.e. a limited number, not
many)
only: There are only a few seats left. (i.e. very few, hardly any)
quite: How many do you want? Quite a few please. (i.e. quite a lot)
a good: We had a good few letters this morning. (i.e. quite a lot)
dozen, 100, The film director employed a few hundred people as extras.
1000 : (i.e. several hundred)
the, my, etc.: The few people who saw the film enjoyed it.
Her few possessions were sold after her death. (i.e. the small number of)

6.2 Little and a little

Little and a little are used with (singular) uncountables.
Little (like few) is negative, suggesting hardly any at all and is often used after very:
He has very little hope of winning this race.

22
 In everyday speech we prefer notmuch or hardly any:
He hasnt much hope of winning this race.
He has hardly any hope of winning this race.
Little can also convey the idea of not as much as was expected:
We climbed all day but made little progress.
Little occurs in idiomatic negative phrases such as little point, little sense, little use, etc:
Theres little point in trying to mend it.

A little and, in very informal contexts, a bit (of) are positive, suggesting some, a (small)
quantity:
Id like a little (or a bit of) time to think about it please.
The size of the amount depends on the viewpoint of the speaker:
Mrs. Lacey left a little money in her will about $1,000,000!
A little can also mean more than none, more than expected:
Have we got any flour? Yes, theres a little in the packet.

A little can combine with other words:

just: How much do you want? Just a little please. (i.e. a limited quantity, not much)
only: Theres only a little soup left. (i.e. very little, hardly any)

Few and little can be modified by e.g. extremely, relatively:

There are relatively few jobs for astronauts.
A few and a little can modify other quantifiers, as in a few more, a little less etc.

6.3 Fewer/the fewest and less/the least

These are the comparative and superlative forms of few and little. In theory, fewer/the
fewest should be used only with plural countables (fewer/the fewest videos) and less/the least
only with uncountables (less/the least oil):
Fewer videos were sold this year than last.
Less oil was produced this year than last.
In practice, however, the informal use by native speakers of less and the least with plural
countables or collective words like people is commonly heard (less people, less newspapers) but
is not generally approved:
Less and less people can afford to go abroad for their holidays.
Political programmes on TV attract the least viewers.
Less (not fewer) is used before than for prices and periods of time:

23
 It costs less than $5. Ill see you in less than three weeks.

6.4 The modification of fewer andless

Fewer is modified by even, far, many, a good deal/many and a lot:
There are far fewer/a lot fewer accidents in modern factories.
Less is commonly modified by even, far, a good deal, a little, a lot, many (many less)
and much:
Ive got much/a lot/far less free time than I used to have.

Activities

1. Give the abstract nouns of:

boy; partner; wise; humid; to discover; proud; to know; long; deep; patient; illiterate;
brother.

2. Give the plural number of the following nouns:

table; chair; window; flower; bush; glass; brush; horse; half; roof; knife; class; rose;
peach; bus; box; bridge; city; lady; key; fly; leaf; ray; bath; path; child; piano; pencil; goose;
woman; man; tooth; cry; mouse; basis; formula; datum; analysis; phenomenon; hypothesis;
crisis; sanatorium; schoolboy; cupboard; camera-man; highway; afternoon; footstep; passer-by;
man-servant; sister-in-law; looker-on; race-horse; forget-me-not.

3. Use the verbs in brackets in the singular or in the plural (present tense) as required by
the subject:
1. My family (be) at the seaside.
2. Our basketball team (play) tonight.
3. Mathematics (be) an exact science.
4. People (like) travelling today.
5. Our group (be) made up of fifteen students.
6. The crowd (be) gathered in front of the stadium gates.
7. The government (agree) to take the necessary steps to improve the living conditions.
8. The staff (be) composed of almost twenty persons.

24
 9. The army (be) camped near the river.

4. Choose the correct verb:

1. The information (is, are) not correct.
2. The furniture in this room (is, are) very old.
3. People (is, are) interested in computers nowadays.
4. Toms trousers (was, were) new.
5. My scissors (is, are) in the drawer.
6. The 9 oclock news (was, were) good.

5. Use the singular or plural, as required:

1. The crowd (was, were) cheering the speaker.
2. The whole gang (was, were) arrested.
3. The pack of cards (was, were) lying all over the table.
4. When the audience (has, have) settled (itself, themselves) in (its, their) chairs, the
play will begin.
5. A bunch of flowers (was, were) offered to her.
6. The herd (was, were) in the field.
7. The class (is, are) the best in the school.
8. A lot of people (has, have) flu this autumn.

6. Translate into Romanian:

a stack of wood; a herd of deer; a bunch of flowers; a swarm of flies; a flock of sheep; a
crowd of people; a bundle of sticks; a series of events; a cluster of stars; a gang of thieves; a
chain of mountains; a flight of steps; a chest of drawers; a bunch (cluster) of grapes; a fleet of
ships; a pack of wolves; a flight of birds; a team of workers.

7. Supply (the) little, a little, (the) few, a few in the following sentences:
1. Id like to make remarks in connection with the topic under discussion.
2. I know of the men.
3. I know about the man. Theres nothing definite that I could say.
4. Please, hurry, there is time left. spare time I have after work is always spent on
shopping or doing a lot of housework. Now there is time left, so we can go to the
next bookshop to buy the latest books and magazines.
5. She has a fairly good command of French and, besides, knows German.
6. weeks from now hell be miles and miles away.

25
7. There are books on civil law in our library. books on civil law I have read are
very difficult.
8. Its no use asking him about it. He has experience in this matter.
9. He had very friends (hardly any friends).
10. The chairman said words (some words).
11. There was very water in the flowerpot.
12. May I have wine, please?
13. She had biscuits and milk and felt much better.
14. There is soup left so I cannot give you a second helping.

8. Insert much, many, very, such, such as, such a, as needed:

1. Nick is the image of his father.
2. You have eaten too cakes and drunk too lemonade, no wonder you feel sick.
3. How books do you want to borrow? As as you can give me.
4. On fine day it is a pity to stay indoors.
5. So people had come to the party that you could hardly find a chair to sit down.
6. Cities London and Glasgow are very crowded.

9. Substitute (a) few, many, (a) little, much, a lot of in place of a small quantity, a
large number, etc.
For example:
John drinks a large quantity of coffee. John drinks a lot of coffee.
Mary had a small number of good friends. Mary had a few good friends.
He doesnt eat a large quantity of bread. He doesnt eat much bread.

1. The students dont bring a large number of books to school.

2. Children need a large quantity of milk.
3. He doesnt usually buy a large number of pens.
4. Has John got a large number of shirts?
5. Mary drinks a small quantity of coffee.
6. We havent got a large number of classes today.
7. They have a small quantity of money.
8. He had a small number of toys.

10. Choose the correct adjective:

1. There is (little, few) water in this well.

26
2. There are (much, many) mountains in Canada.
3. We have received (much, many) valuable information.
4. She made (little, few) mistakes in her last composition.
5. How (much, many) pages have you translated?
6. (much, many) cars passed over here.
7. There is (little, few) ink in this inkpot.

11. Supply some or any:

1. Wasnt there telephone in the house?
2. May I give you more milk?
3. Give me cold milk to drink, said Mary.
4. He may turn up time.
5. The driver can stop the engine at moment he pleases.
6. people are very interesting to talk to; others are boring.
7. Is there reason for his refusal?
8. Youll have to do it way.

27
 VERBS, VERB TENSES, IMPERATIVES

General information about verbs and tenses

1. Verb tenses: simple and progressive

Some grammarians believe that tense must always be shown by the actual form of the
verb, and in many languages present, past and future are indicated by changes in the verb forms.
On this reckoning, English really has just two tenses, the present and the past, since these are the
only two cases where the form of the basic verb varies: love, write (present); loved, wrote (past).
However, it is usual (and convenient) to refer to all combinations of be + present
participle and have + past participle as tenses. The same goes for will + bare infinitive to refer to
the future (It will be fine tomorrow). But we must remember that tense in English is often only
loosely related to time.
Tenses have two forms, simple and progressive (sometimes called continuous). The
progressive contains be + present participle:

simple progressive
present: I work. I am working.
past: I worked. I was working.
present perfect: I have worked. I have been working.
past perfect: I had worked. I had been working.
future: I will work. I will be working.
future perfect: I will have worked. I will have been working.

Both simple and progressive forms usually give a general idea of when an action takes
place. But the distinction between the two is not according to the time when an action takes place
(time is indicated by tense), but to our perception of it (how we perceive the action). For
instance, the progressive forms tell us that an activity is (or was, or will be, etc.) in progress (or
under development), or thought of as being in progress.
This activity may be in progress at the moment of speaking:
What are you doing? Im making a cake.
or not in progress at the moment of speaking, but during a limited period of time:

28
 Im learning to type. (i.e. but not at the moment of speaking)
Or the activity may be temporary or changeable:
Fred was wearing a blue shirt yesterday.
Or the activity may be uncompleted:
Vera has been trying to learn Chinese for years.
Our decision about which tense to use depends on the context and the impression we
wish to convey.

2. Stative and dynamic verbs

Some verbs are not generally used in progressive forms. They are called stative because
they refer to states (e.g. experiences, conditions) rather than to actions. In a sentence like:
She loves/loved her baby more than anything in the world.
loves (or loved) describes a state over which the mother has no control: it is an involuntary
feeling. We could not use the progressive forms (is/was loving) here.
Dynamic verbs, on the other hand, usually refer to actions which are deliberate or
voluntary (Im making a cake) or they refer to changing situations (Hes growing old), that is, to
activities, etc., which have a beginning and an end. Dynamic verbs can be used in progressive as
well as simple forms. Compare the following:
progressive forms simple forms
1. Dynamic verbs with progressive and simple forms:
Im looking at you. I often look at you.
Im listening to music. I often listen to you.
2. Verbs which are nearly always stative (simple forms only):
- I see you.
- I hear music.
3. Verbs that have dynamic or stative uses:
deliberate actions states
Im weighing myself. I weigh 65 kilos.
Im tasting the soup. It tastes salty.
Im feeling the radiator. It feel hot.

Stative verbs usually occur in the simple form in all tenses. We can think of states in
categories like:
1. Feelings: like, love, etc.
2. Thinking/believing: think, understand, etc.

29
 3. Wants and preferences: prefer, want, etc.
4. Perception and the senses: hear, see, etc.
5. Being/seeming/having/owning: appear, seem, belong, own, etc.
Sometimes verbs describing physical sensations can be used in simple or progressive
forms with hardly any change of meaning:
Ooh! It hurts! = Ooh! Its hurting.
Can/cant and could/couldnt often combine with verbs of perception to refer to a
particular moment in the present or the past where a progressive form would be impossible:
I can smell gas. = I smell gas.

The sequence of tenses

1. The sequence of tenses

In extended speech or writing we usually select a governing tense which affects all other
tense forms. The problem of the sequence of tenses is not confined to indirect speech. Our
choice of tense may be influenced by the following factors:

1.1 Consistency in the use of tenses

If we start a narrative or description from the point of view of now, we usually maintain
now as our viewpoint. This results in the following combinations:
- present (simple/progressive) accords with present perfect/future:
Our postman usually delivers our mail at 7 every morning. Its nearly lunch-time and the
mail still hasnt arrived. I suppose the mail will come soon. Perhaps our postman is ill.
If we start a narrative or description from the point of view of then, we usually maintain
then as our viewpoint. This results in the following combinations:
- past (simple/progressive) accords with past perfect/future in the past:
When I lived in London the postman usually delivered our mail at 7 every morning.
Usually no one in our household had got up when the mail arrived.

1.2 The proximity rule

A present tense in the main clause (for example, in a reporting verb) normally attracts a
present tense in the subordinate clause:
He tells me hes a good tennis-player.

30
 A past tense normally attracts another past:
He told me he was a good tennis-player.
In the second example only a more complete context would tell us whether he was a good
tennis-player refers to the past (i.e. when he was a young man) or to present time. A speaker or
writer can ignore the proximity rule and use a present tense after a past, or a past after a present
in order to be more precise:
He told me he is a good tennis-player. (i.e. he still is)
He tells me he used to be a good tennis player.
However, combinations such as you say you are or you told me you were tend to form
themselves automatically. That is why we can refer to the idea of sequence of tenses in which
present usually combines with present, and past usually combines with past.

1.3 Particular tense sequences

Refer to the following for particular sequences:
Indirect speech
Conditional sentences
Temporal clauses
After wish, Id rather, etc.
Clauses of purpose.

The simple present tense

1. Form of the simple present tense

1.1 We add s or es to the base form of the verb in the third person singular

I work We work
You work You work
He works
She works They work
It works

1.2 In the interrogative and negative, we add the auxiliary DO, conjugated in the present.
The main verb following the auxiliary is in the bare infinitive:

31
 Do I work? Do we work?
Do you work? Do you work?
Does he work?
Does she work? Do they work?
Does it work?

I do not work. We do not work.

You do not work. You do not work.
He does not work.
She does not work. They do not work.
It does not work.

The function of the auxiliary verb (DO) is grammatical, while the function of the main
verb (work) is lexical. As we have the verb DO conjugated, we no longer need to conjugate the
main verb, and that is why we cannot have combinations like *Does he works? or *She does not
works.

2. Uses of the simple present tense

2.1 Permanent truths

We use the simple present for statements that are always true:
Summer follows spring. Gases expand when heated.

2.2 The present period

We use the simple present to refer to events, actions or situations which are true in the
present period of time and which, for all we know, may continue indefinitely. What we are
saying, in effect, is this is the situation as it stands at present:
My father works in a bank. My sister wears glasses.

2.3 Habitual actions

The simple present can be used with or without an adverb of time to describe habitual
actions, things that happen repeatedly:
I get up at 7. John smokes a lot.
We can be more precise about habitual actions by using the simple present with adverbs
of indefinite frequency (always, never, etc.) or with adverbial phrases such as every day.

32
 I sometimes stay up till midnight.
She visits her parents every day.
We commonly use the simple present to ask and answer questions which begin with How
often?:
How often do you go to the dentist? I go every six months.
Questions relating to habit can be asked with ever and answered with e.g. never and
sometimes notever:
Do you ever eat meat? No, I never eat meat.

2.4 Future reference

This use is often related to timetables and programmes or to events in the calendar:
The exhibition opens on January 1st and closes on January 31st.
The concert begins at 7.30 and ends at 9.30.
We leave tomorrow at 11.15 and arrive at 17.50.
Wednesday, May 24th marks our 25th wedding anniversary.

2.5 Observations and declarations

We commonly use the simple present with stative and other verbs to make observations
and declarations in the course of conversation, e.g.
I hope/assume/suppose/promise everything will be all right.
I bet you were nervous just before your driving test.
It says here that the police expect more trouble in the city.
I declare this exhibition open.
I see/hear there are roadworks in the street again.
I love you. I hate him.
We live in difficult times. I agree.

33
 The present progressive tense

1. Form of the present progressive tense

The progressive is formed with the present of BE + the ing form:

I am working. We are working.

You are working. You are working.
He is working.
She is working. They are working.
It is working.

The interrogative is formed by the inversion between the subject and auxiliary verb:
Am I working? Are we working?
Are you working? Are you working?
Is he working?
Is she working? Are they working?
Is it working?

The negative is formed by adding the negation (not) after the auxiliary:
I am not working. We are not working.
You are not working. You are not working.
He is not working.
She is not working. They are not working.
It is not working.

2. Uses of the present progressive tense

2.1 Actions in progress at the moment of speaking

We use the present progressive to describe actions or events which are in progress at the
moment of speaking. To emphasize this, we often use adverbials like now, at the moment, just,
etc.:
Someones knocking at the door. Can you answer it?
What are you doing? Im just tying up my shoe-laces.

34
 Hes working at the moment, so he cant come to the telephone.
Actions in progress are seen as uncompleted:
Hes talking to his girlfriend on the phone.
We can emphasize the idea of duration with still:
Hes still talking to his girlfriend on the phone.

2.2 Temporary situations

The present progressive can be used to describe actions and situations which may not
have been happening long, or which are thought of as being in progress for a limited period:
Whats your daughter doing these days? Shes studying English at Durham University.
Such situations may not be happening at the moment of speaking:
Dont take that ladder away. Your fathers using it. (i.e. but perhaps not at the moment)
Shes at her best when shes making big decisions.
Temporary events may be in progress at the moment of speaking:
The river is flowing very fast after last nights rain.
We also use the present progressive to describe current trends:
People are becoming less tolerant of smoking these days.

2.3 Planned actions: future reference

We use the present progressive to refer to activities and events planned for the future. We
generally need an adverbial unless the meaning is clear from the context:
Were spending next winter in Australia.
This use of the present progressive is also commonly associated with future arrival and
departure and occurs with verbs like arrive, come, go, leave, etc., to describe travel
arrangements:
Hes arriving tomorrow morning on the 13.27 train.
The adverbial and the context prevent confusion with the present progressive to describe
an action which is in progress at the time of speaking:
Look! The trains leaving. (i.e. its actually moving)

2.4 Repeated actions

The adverbs always (in the sense of frequently), constantly, continually, forever,
perpetually and repeatedly can be used with progressive forms to describe continually-repeated
actions:
Shes always helping people.
Some stative verbs can have progressive forms with always, etc.:

35
 Im always hearing strange stories about him.
Sometimes there can be implied complaint in this use of the progressive when it refers to
something that happens too often:
Our burglar alarm is forever going off for no reason.

3. The present tenses in typical contexts

3.1 The simple present and present progressive in commentary

The simple present and the present progressive are often used in commentaries on events
taking place at the moment, particularly on radio and television. In such cases, the simple present
is used to describe rapid actions completed at the moment (instantaneous) of speaking and the
progressive is used to describe longer-lasting actions:
MacFee passes to Franklin. Franklin makes a quick pass to Booth. Booth is away with
the ball, but hes losing his advantage.

3.2 The simple present and the present progressive in narration

When we are telling a story or describing things that have happened to us, we often use
present tenses (even thought the events are in the past) in order to sound more interesting and
dramatic. The progressive is used for background and the simple tense for the main events:
Im driving along this country road and Im completely lost. Then I see this old fellow.
Hes leaning against a gate. I stop the car and ask him the way. He thinks a bit, then says, Well,
if I were you, I wouldnt start from here.

3.3 The simple present in demonstrations and instructions

This use of the simple present is an alternative to the imperative. It illustrates step-by-step
instructions:
First (you) boil some water. Then (you) warm the teapot. Then (you) add three teaspoons
of tea. Next, (you) pour on boiling water

3.4 The simple present in synopses (e.g. reviews of books, films, etc.)
Kate Foxs novel is an historical romance set in London in the 1880s. The action takes
place over a period of 30 years

36
 3.5 The performative simple present
We use the simple present tense to describe performative utterances, that is, utterances
that in themselves constitute actions (e.g. in rituals, customs): uttering the verb is actually
performing an activity. Sometimes the adverb hereby is used:
I baptize you John.
I pronounce you man and wife.
I declare the session open.
I hereby consent to your decision.

3.6 The simple present and present progressive in newspaper headlines and e.g.
photographic captions
The simple present is generally used to refer to past events:
FREAK SNOW STOPS TRAFFIC
DISARMAMENT TALKS BEGIN IN VIENNA

The abbreviated progressive refers to the future. The infinitive can also be used for this
purpose:
CABINET MINISTER RESIGNING SOON (or: TO RESIGN SOON)

The simple past tense

1. Form of the simple past tense with regular verbs

The simple past is formed by adding ed to the base verb. The form is the same for all
persons:
I worked. We worked.
You worked. You worked.
He worked.
She worked. They worked.
It worked.

The interrogative and negative are formed with the auxiliary do conjugated in the simple
past, i.e. DID:
Did I work? Did we work?
Did you work? Did you work?
Did he work?

37
 Did she work? Did they work?
Did it work?

I did not work. We did not work.

You did not work. You did not work.
He did not work.
She did not work. They did not work.
It did not work.
The auxiliary has the same function as in the simple present, i.e. grammatical (indicating
tense, person, number); the main verb also has the same merely lexical function. Therefore we
cannot have utterances like: *Did they worked? or *I did not worked.

2. The regular past: pronunciation and spelling

2.1 Pronunciation of the regular past

Verbs in the regular past always end with a d in their spelling, but the pronunciation of
the past ending is not always the same:
play/played /d/
The most common spelling characteristic of the regular past is that ed is added to the
base form of the verb: opened, knocked, stayed, etc. Except in the cases noted below, this ed is
not pronounced as if it were an extra syllable, so played is pronounced: /pleid/, knocked: /nokt/,
stayed: /steid/, etc.
arrive/arrived /d/
Verbs which end in the following sounds have their past endings pronounced /d/: /b/
rubbed; /g/ tugged; /dj/ managed; /l/ filled; /m/ dimmed; /n/ listened; vowel + /r/ stirred; /v/
loved; /z/ seized. The ed ending is not pronounced as an extra syllable
work/worked /t/
Verbs which end in the following sounds have their past endings pronounced /t/: /k/
packed; /s/ passed; -tch watched; -sh washed; /f/ laughed; /p/ tipped. The ed ending is not
pronounced as an extra syllable.
dream/dreamed /d/ or dreamt /t/
A few verbs function as both regular and irregular and may have their past forms spelt
ed or t pronounced /d/ or/t/: e.g. burn, dream, lean, learn, smell, spell, spill, spoil.
post/posted /id/
Verbs which and in the sounds /t/ or /d/ have their past endings pronounced /id/: posted,
added. The ed ending is pronounced as an extra syllable added to the base form of the verb.

38
 2.2 Spelling of the regular past
The regular past always ends in d:
arrive/arrived
Verbs ending in e add d: e.g. phone/phoned, smile/smiled. This rule applies equally to
agree, die, lie, etc.
wait/waited
Verbs not ending in e add ed: e.g. ask/asked, clean/cleaned, follow/followed.
stop/stopped
Verbs spelt with a single vowel letter followed by a single consonant letter double the
consonant: beg/begged, rub/rubbed.
occur/occurred
In two-syllable verbs the final consonant is doubled when the last syllable contains a
single vowel letter followed by a single consonant letter and is stressed: pre`fer/preferred,
re`fer/referred. Compare: `benefit/benefited, `differ/differed and `profit/profited, which are
stressed on their first syllables and which therefore do not double their final consonants. In AmE
labeled, quarreled, signaled and traveled follow the rule. In BE labelled, quarrelled, signalled
and travelled are exceptions to the rule.
cry/cried
When there is a consonant before y, the y changes to i before we add ed: e.g.
carry/carried, deny/denied, fry/fried, try/tried. Compare delay/delayed, obey/obeyed,
play/played, etc. which have a vowel before y and therefore simply add ed in the past

3. Form of the simple past tense with irregular verbs

The form of the past tense simple is the 2nd form in the list of irregular verbs. The form is
the same for all persons:
I left. We left.
You left. You left.
He left.
She left. They left.
It left.
The interrogative and negative are formed with the auxiliary DID + the bare infinitive of
the main verb:
Did I leave? Did we leave?
Did you leave? Did you leave?

39
 Did he leave/
Did she leave? Did they leave?
Did it leave?

I did not leave. We did not leave.

You did not leave. You did not leave.
He did not leave.
She did not leave. They did not leave.
It did not leave.
Because of the reasons exposed above (the auxiliary takes over the grammatical
functions), we cannot say, e.g. *Did he left? or *They did not left.
Unlike regular verbs, irregular verbs (about 150 in all) do not have past forms which can
be predicted:
shut/shut
A small number of verbs have the same form in the present as in the past: e.g. cut/cut,
hit/hit, put/put. It is important to remember, particularly with such verbs, that the third person
singular does not change in the past: e.g. he shut (past); he shuts (present).
sit/sat
The past form of most irregular verbs is different from the present: bring/brought,
catch/caught, keep/kept, leave/left, lose/lost.

4. Uses of the simple past tense

4.1 Completed actions

We normally use the simple past tense to talk about events, actions or situations which
occurred in the past and are now finished. They may have happened recently:
She phoned a moment ago.
or in the distant past:
The Goths invaded Rome in A.D. 410.
A time reference must be given:
I had a word with Julian this morning.
or must be understood from the context:
I saw Fred in town. (i.e. when I was there this morning)
I never met my grandfather. (i.e. he is dead)
When we use the simple past, we are usually concerned with when an action occurred,
not with its duration (how long it lasted).

40
 4.2 Past habit
Like used to, the simple past can be used to describe past habits:
I smoked forty cigarettes a day till I gave up.

4.3 The immediate past

We can sometimes use the simple past without a time reference to describe something
that happened a very short time ago:
Jimmy punched me in the stomach.
Did the telephone ring?
Who left the door open? (Whos left the door open?)

4.4 Polite inquiries, etc.

The simple past does not always refer to past time. It can also be used for polite inquiries
(particularly asking for favours), often with verbs like hope, think or wonder. Compare:
I wonder if you could give me a lift.
I wondered if you could give me a lift. (more tentative/polite)

5. Adverbials with the simple past tense

The association of the past tense with adverbials that tell us when something happened is
very important. Adverbials used with the past tense must refer to past (not present) time. This
means that adverbials which link with the present (before now, so far, till now, yet) are not used
with past tenses.
Some adverbials like yesterday, last summer and combinations with ago are used only
with past tenses:
I saw Jane yesterday/last summer.
Ago, meaning back from now, can combine with a variety of expressions to refer to the
past: e.g. two years ago; six months ago; ten minutes ago; a long time ago:
I met Robert Parr many years ago in Czechoslovakia.
The past is often used with when to ask and answer questions:
When did you learn about it? When I saw it in the papers.
When often points to a definite contrast with the present:
I played football every day when I was a boy.

41
 Other adverbials can be used with past tenses when they refer to past time, but can be
used with other tenses as well:
adverbs: I always liked Gloria.
I often saw her in Rome.
Did you ever meet Sonia?
adverbial/prepositional phrases: We left at 4 oclock/on Tuesday.
We had our holiday in July.
adverbial clauses: I waited till he arrived.
I met him when I was at college.
as + adverb + as: I saw him as recently as last week.

The past progressive tense

1. Form of the past progressive tense

The past progressive is formed with the auxiliary be conjugated in the past
(WAS/WERE) + the ing form of the main verb:
I was working. We were working.
You were working. You were working.
He was working.
She was working. They were working.
It was working.

The interrogative is formed by the inversion of the auxiliary and the subject:
Was I working? Were we working?
Were you working? Were you working?
Was he working?
Was she working? Were they working?
Was it working?

The negative is formed by adding the negation (NOT) to the auxiliary:

I was not working. We were not working.
You were not working. You were not working.

42
 He was not working.
She was not working. They were not working.
It was not working.

2. Uses of the past progressive tense

2.1 Actions in progress in the past

We use the past progressive to describe past situations or actions that were in progress at
some time in the past:
I was living abroad in 1987, so I missed the general election.
Often we dont know whether the action was completed or not:
Philippa was working on her essay last night.
Adverbials beginning with all emphasize continuity:
It was raining all night/all yesterday/all the afternoon.
In the same way, still can emphasize duration:
Jim was talking to his girlfriend on the phone when I came in and was still talking to
her when I went out an hour later.

2.2 Actions which began before something else happened

The past progressive and the simple past are often used together in a sentence. The past
progressive describes a situation or action in progress in the past, and the simple past describes a
shorter action or event. The action or situation in progress is often introduced by conjunctions
like when and as, just as, while:
Just as I was leaving the house, the phone rang.
Jane met Frank Sinatra when she was living in Hollywood.
Or the shorter action can be introduced by when:
We were having supper when the phone rang.
We can often use the simple past to describe the action in progress, but the progressive
puts more emphasis on the duration of the action, as in the second of these two examples:
While I fumbled for some money, my friend paid the fares.
While I was fumbling for some money, my friend paid the fares.

2.3 Parallel actions

We can emphasize the fact that two or more actions were in progress at the same time by
using e.g. while or at the time (that):
While I was working in the garden, my wife was cooking dinner.

43
 2.4 Repeated actions
This use is similar to that of the present progressive:
When he worked here, Roger was always making mistakes.

2.5 Polite inquiries

This use is even more polite and tentative than the simple past:
I was wondering if you could give me a lift.

3. Past tenses in typical contexts

The simple past combines with other past tenses, such as the past progressive and the past
perfect, when we are talking or writing about the past. Note that the past progressive is used for
scene-setting. Past tenses of various kinds are common in story-telling, biography,
autobiography, reports, eye-witness accounts, etc.:
On March 14th at 10.15 a.m. I was waiting for a bus at the bus stop on the corner of
Dover Road and West Street when a black Mercedes parked at the stop. Before the driver (had)
managed to get out of his car, a number 14 bus appeared
It was evening. The sun was setting. A gentle wind was blowing through the trees. In the
distance I noticed a Land Rover moving across the dusty plain. It stopped and two men jumped
out of it.
It was just before the Second World War. Tom was only 20 at the time and was living
with his mother. He was working in a bank and travelling to London every day. One morning, he
received a mysterious letter. It was addressed to Mr Thomas Parker.

The simple present perfect tense

1. Form of the simple present perfect tense

The present perfect is formed with the present of have + the past participle (the third
form of the verb). For regular verbs, the past participle has the same form as the simple past
tense: e.g. arrive, arrived, have/has arrived. For irregular verbs, the simple past and the past
participle can be formed in a variety of ways: e.g. drink, drank, have drunk.

44
 I have worked. We have worked.
You have worked. You have worked.
He has worked.
She has worked. They have worked.
It has worked.

The interrogative is formed by means of the inversion between the subject and the
auxiliary have:
Have I worked? Have we worked?
Have you worked? Have you worked?
Has he worked?
Has she worked? Have they worked?
Has it worked?

The negative is formed by adding the negation NOT after the auxiliary:
I have not worked. We have not worked.
You have not worked. You have not worked.
He has not worked.
She has not worked. They have not worked.
It has not worked.

2. Present time and past time

Students speaking other European languages sometimes misuse the present perfect tense
in English because of interference from their mother tongue. The present perfect is often wrongly
seen as an alternative to the past, so that a student might think that Ive had lunch and I had
lunch are interchangeable. It is also confused with the present, so that an idea like Ive been here
since February is wrongly expressed in the present with I am.
The present perfect always suggests a relationship between present time and past time. So
Ive had lunch implies that I did so very recently. However, if I say I had lunch, I also have to
say or imply when: e.g. I had lunch an hour ago. Similarly, Ive been here since February shows
a connection between past and present, whereas I am here can only relate to the present and
cannot be followed by a phrase like since February.
In the present perfect tense, the time reference is sometimes undefined; often we are
interested in present results, or in the way something that happened in the past affects the
present situation. The present perfect can therefore be seen as a present tense which looks

45
backwards into the past (just as the past perfect is a past tense which looks back into an earlier
past). Compare the simple past tense, where the time reference is defined because we are
interested in past time or past results. The following pairs of sentences illustrate this difference
between present time and past time:
I havent seen him this morning. (i.e. up to the present time: it is still morning)
I didnt see him this morning. (i.e. the morning has now passed)

Have you ever flown in Concorde? (i.e. up to the present time)

When did you fly in Concorde? (i.e. when, precisely, in the past)

3. Uses of the simple present perfect tense

The present perfect is used in two ways in English:

1. To describe actions beginning in the past and continuing up to the present
moment (and possibly into the future).
2. To refer to actions occurring and not occurring at an unspecified time in the
past with some kind of connexion to the present.
These two uses are discussed in detail in the sections below.

4. Actions, etc. continuing into the present

4.1 The present perfect + adverbials that suggest up to the present

We do not use the present perfect with adverbs relating to past time (ago, yesterday, etc.).
Adverbial phrases like the following are used with the present perfect because they clearly
connect the past with the present moment: before (now), Its the first time, so far, so far this
morning, up till now, up to the present. Adverbs like ever (in questions), and notever or
never (in statements) are commonly (but not exclusively) used with the present perfect:
Ive planted fourteen rose-bushes so far this morning.
Shes never eaten a mango before. Have you ever eaten a mango?
Its the most interesting book Ive ever read.
Olga hasnt appeared on TV before now.

4.2 The present perfect with since and for

We often use since and for with the present perfect to refer to periods of time up to the
present. Since (+ point of time) can be:
- a conjunction: Tom hasnt been home since he was a boy.

46
 - an adverb: I saw Fiona in May and I havent seen her since.
- a preposition: Ive lived here since 1980.
Since, as a conjunction, can be followed by the simple past or present perfect:
I retired in 1980 and came to live here. Ive lived here since I retired. (i.e. the point when
I retired: 1980)
I have lived here for several years now and Ive made many new friends since I have
lived here. (i.e. up to now)
For + period of time often occurs with the present perfect but can be used with any tense.
Compare:
Ive lived here for five years. (and I still live here)
I lived here for five years. (I dont live here now)
I am here for six weeks. (thats how long Im going to stay)

5. Actions, etc. occurring at an unspecified time

5.1 The present perfect without a time adverbial

We often use present perfect without a time adverbial, especially in conversation. We do
not always need one, for often we are concerned with the consequences now of something which
took place then, whether then was very recently or a long time ago. If further details are required
(e.g. precise answers to questions like When?, Where?) we must generally use the simple past:
Have you passed your driving test? (Depending on context, this can mean at any time up
to now or after the test youve just taken.)
Yes, I passed when I was 17. (simple past: exact time reference)
Jason Villiers has been arrested. (Depending on context, this can imply today or
recently or at last.) He was seen by a Customs Officer who alerted the police. (simple past
with details)
However, adverbs like just, used with the present perfect, can provide more information
about actions in unspecified time.

5.2 The present perfect for recent actions

The following adverbs can refer to actions, etc. in recent time:
- just: Ive just tidied up the kitchen.
- recently, etc.: Hes recently arrived from New York.
- already in questions and affirmative statements: Have you typed my letter already?
Yes, Ive already typed it.

47
 - yet, in questions, for events we are expecting to hear about: Have you passed your
driving test yet? or in negatives, for things we havent done, but expect to do: I
havent passed my driving test yet.
- still, at last, finally: I still havent passed my driving test. (despite my efforts)/ I
have passed my driving test at last. (after all my efforts)

5.3 The present perfect for repeated and habitual actions

This use is associated with frequency adverbs (often, frequently) and expressions like
three/four/several times:
Ive watched him on TV several times. (i.e. and I expect to again)
Ive often wondered why I get such a poor reception on my radio.
Shes attended classes regularly. Shes always worked hard.

6. The simple present perfect tense in typical contexts

The present perfect is never used in past narrative (e.g. stories told in the past, history
books). Apart from its common use in conversation, it is most often used in broadcast news,
newspapers, letters and any kind of language-use which has connexion with the present.

6.1 Broadcast reports, newspaper reports

Interest rates rose again today and the price of gold has fallen by $10 an ounce.
Industrial leaders have complained that high interest rates will make borrowing expensive for
industry.

6.2 Implied in newspaper headlines

VILLAGES DESTROYED IN EARTHQUAKE (= have been destroyed)

6.3 Letters, postcards, etc.

Weve just arrived in Hong Kong, and though we havent had time to see much yet, were
sure were going to enjoy ourselves.

48
 The simple past perfect tense

1. Form of the simple past perfect tense

The past perfect is formed with the auxiliary have conjugated in the past = HAD + the
past participle (the 3rd form of the verb):
I had worked. We had worked.
You had worked. You had work.
He had worked.
She had worked. They had worked.
It had worked.

The interrogative is formed by the inversion of the subject and the auxiliary:
Had I worked? Had we worked?
Had you worked? Had you worked?
Had he worked?
Had she worked? Had they worked?
Had it worked?

The negative is formed by adding the negation to the auxiliary:

I had not worked. We had not worked.
You had not worked. You had not worked.
He had not worked.
She had not worked. They had not worked.
It had not worked.

2. Uses of the past perfect tense

It is sometimes supposed that we use the past perfect simply to describe events that
happened a long time ago. This is not the case. We use the simple past for this purpose:
Anthony and Cleopatra died in 30 B.C.

2.1 The past perfect referring to an earlier past

The main use of the past perfect is to show which of two events happened first. Here are
two past events:
The patient died. The doctor arrived.
49
 We can combine these two sentences in different ways to show their relationship in the
past:
The patient died when the doctor arrived. (i.e. the patient died at the time or just after the
doctor arrived)
The patient had died when the doctor arrived. (i.e. the patient was already dead when the
doctor arrived)
The event that happened first need not be mentioned first:
The doctor arrived quickly, but the patient had already died.
Some typical conjunctions used before a past perfect to refer to an earlier past are:
when and after, as soon as, by the time that. They often imply a cause-and-effect relationship:
We cleared up as soon as our guests had left.

Adverbs often associated with the present perfect: already, ever, for (+ period of time),
just, never, neverbefore, since (+ point of time) are often used with the past perfect to
emphasize the sequence of events:
When I rang, Jim had already left.
The boys loved the zoo. They had never seen wild animals before.

2.2 The past perfect as the past equivalent of the present perfect
The past perfect sometimes functions simply as the past form of the present perfect:
Juliet is excited because she has never been to a dance before.
Juliet was excited because she had never been to a dance before.
This is particularly the case in indirect speech.
Used in this way, the past perfect can emphasize completion:
I began collecting stamps in February and by November I had collected more than 2000.

Yet can be used with the past perfect, but we often prefer expressions like until then or
by that time. Compare:
He hasnt finished yet.
He hadnt finished by yesterday evening.

2.3 The past perfect for unfulfilled hopes and wishes

We can use the past perfect (or the past simple or progressive) with verbs like expect,
hope, mean, suppose, think, want, to describe things we hoped or wished to do but didnt:
I had hoped to send him a telegram to congratulate him on his marriage, but I didnt
manage it.

50
 3. Obligatory and non-obligatory uses of the past perfect

We do not always need to use the past perfect to describe which event came first.
Sometimes this is perfectly clear, as in:
After I finished, I came home.
The sequence is often clear in relative clauses as well:
I wore the necklace (which) my grandmother (had) left me.

We normally use the simple past for events that occur in sequence:
I got out of the taxi, paid the fare, tipped the driver and dashed into the station.
I came, I saw, I conquered, Julius Caesar declared.

But there are instances when we need to be very precise in our use of past or past perfect,
particularly with when:
When I arrived, Anne left. (i.e. at that moment)
When I arrived, Anne had left. (i.e. before I got there)
In the first sentence, I saw Anne, however briefly. In the second, I didnt see her at all.

We normally use the past perfect with conjunctions like no soonerthan or

hardly/scarcely/barelywhen:
Mrs Winthrop had no sooner left the room than they began to gossip about her.
Mr Jenkins had hardly/scarcely/barely begun his speech when he was interrupted.

4. Simple past and simple past perfect in typical contexts

The past perfect combines with other past tenses (simple past, past progressive, past
perfect progressive) when we are talking or writing about the past. It is used in story-telling,
biography, autobiography, reports, eye-witness accounts, etc. and is especially useful for
establishing the sequence of events:
When we returned from our holidays, we found our house in a mess. What had happened
while we had been away? A burglar had broken into the house and had stolen a lot of out things.
(Now that the time of the burglary has been established relative to our return, the story can
continue in the simple past). The burglar got in through the kitchen window. He had no difficulty
in forcing it open. Then he went into the living-room

51
 Note the reference to an earlier past in the following narrative:
Silas Badley inherited several old cottages in our village. He wanted to pull them down
and build new houses which he could sell for high prices. He wrote to Mr Harrison, now blind
and nearly eighty, asking him to leave his cottage within a month. Old Mr Harrison was very
distressed. (The situation has been established through the use of the simple past. What follows
now is a reference to an earlier past through the use of the simple past perfect.) He had been
born in the cottage and stayed there all his life. His children had grown up there; his wife had
died there and now he lived there all alone

The present perfect progressive and past perfect progressive

tenses

1. Form of the present/past perfect progressive tenses

The present perfect progressive is formed with the auxiliary be conjugated in the present
perfect = HAVE BEEN + the ING form. The past perfect progressive is formed with the
auxiliary be conjugated in the past perfect = HAD BEEN + the ING form.
present/past perfect progressive
I have/had been working. We have/had been working.
You have/had been working. You have/had been working.
He has/had been working.
She has/had been working. They have/had been working.
It has/had been working.

The interrogative is formed by the inversion of the first auxiliary (have/had) and the
subject.
Have/had I been working? Have/had we been working?
Have/had you been working? Have/had you been working?
Has/had he been working?
Has/had she been working? Have/had they been working?
Has/had it been working?

The negative is formed by adding the negation to the first auxiliary (have/had):
I have/had not been working. We have/had not been working.

52
 You have/had not been working. You have/had not been working.
He has/had not been working.
She has/had not been working. They have/had not been working.
It has/had not been working.

2. Uses of the present/past perfect progressive tenses

2.1 Actions in progress throughout a period

We use the present perfect progressive when we wish to emphasize that an activity has
been in progress throughout a period, often with consequences now. Depending on context, this
activity may or may not still be in progress at the present time. This use often occurs with all +
time references: e.g. all day.
She is very tired. Shes been typing letters all day. (Depending on context, she is still
typing or has recently stopped)
The past perfect progressive, in the same way, is used for activities in progress during an
earlier past, often with consequences then:
She was very tired. She had been typing letters all day. (Depending on context, she was
still typing or had recently stopped.)
Some verbs like learn, lie, live, rain, sit, sleep, stand, study, wait, work naturally suggest
continuity and often occur with perfect progressives with since or for and also in questions
beginning with How long?
Ive been working for Exxon for 15 years. (Depending on context, I am still now, or I
may have recently changed jobs or retired.)
When I first met Ann, she had been working for Exxon for 15 years. (Depending on
context, Ann was still working for Exxon or she had recently changed jobs or retired.)
With continuity verbs, simple and progressive forms are often interchangeable, so in the
above examples Ive worked and she had worked could be used. The only difference is that
the progressive puts more emphasis on continuity.

2.2 The present/past perfect progressive for repeated actions

The perfect progressive forms are often used to show that an action is (or was) frequently
repeated:
Jim has been phoning Jenny every night for the past week.
Jenny was annoyed. Jim had been phoning her every night for a whole week.

53
 2.3 The present/past perfect progressive for drawing conclusions
We use the progressive (seldom the simple) forms to show that we have come to a
conclusion based on direct or indirect evidence:
Your eyes are red. Youve been crying.
Her eyes were red. It was obvious she had been crying.
The present perfect progressive often occurs in complaints:
This room stinks. Someones been smoking here.

2.4 The present/past simple and progressive compared

The difference between an activity still in progress and one that has definitely been
completed is marked by context and by the verbs we use. The simple and progressive forms are
not interchangeable here:
Ive been painting this room.
Ive painted this room.
In the first example, the activity is uncompleted. In the second example, the job is
definitely finished.
When I got home, I found that Jill had been painting her room.
When I got home, I found that Jill had painted her room.
In the first example, the activity was uncompleted then. In the second example, the job
was definitely finished then.

The simple future tense

1. Form of the simple future tense

The simple future is formed with WILL and the base form of the verb:
I will work. We will work.
You will work. You will work.
He will work.
She will work. They will work.
It will work

The interrogative is formed by inversion between the subject and the auxiliary:
Will I work? Will we work?

54
 Will you work? Will you work?
Will he work?
Will she work? Will they work?
Will it work?

The negative is formed by adding the negation to the auxiliary:

I will not work. We will not work.
You will not work. You will not work.
He will not work.
She will not work. They will not work.
It will not work.

2. Notes on the form of the simple future tense

2.1 Shall and will

Will is used with all persons, but shall can be used as an alternative with I and we in pure
future reference.
Shall is usually avoided with you and I:
You and I will work in the same office.

2.2 Contractions
Shall does not contract to ll in writing. Will contracts to ll in writing and in fluent, rapid
speech after vowels, but ll can also occur after consonants. So we might find ll used: e.g.
-after names: Tomll be here soon.
-after common nouns: The concertll start in a minute.
-after question-words: Whenll they arrive?

2.3 Negatives
Will not contracts to ll not or wont; shall not contracts to shant.
I/We wont or shant go. (I/We will not or shall not go.)
In AmE shant is rare and shall with a future reference is unusual.

2.4 Future tense

When we use will/shall for simple prediction, they combine with verbs to form tenses in
the ordinary way:
- simple future: I will see.

55
 - future progressive: I will be seeing.
- future perfect: I will have seen.
- future perfect progressive: I will have been seeing.

3. Uses of the will/shall future

3.1 Will/shall for prediction briefly compared with other uses

Will and shall can be used to predict events, for example, to say what we think will
happen, or to invite prediction:
Tottenham will win on Saturday.
It will rain tomorrow. Will house prices rise again next year?
I dont know if I shall see you next week.
This is sometimes called the pure future, and it should be distinguished from many
other uses of will and shall:
Ill buy you a bicycle for your birthday. (promise)
(Note that will is not used to mean want to)
Will you hold the door open for me please? (request)
Shall I get your coat for you? (offer)
Shall we go for a swim tomorrow? (suggestion)
Just wait youll regret this! (threat)
Though all the above examples point to future time, they are not predicting; they are
coloured by notions of willingness, etc. Will/shall have so many uses as modal verbs that some
grammarians insist that English does not have a pure future tense.

3.2 Will in formal style for scheduled events

Will is used in preference to be going to when a formal style is required, particularly in
the written language:
The wedding will take place at St Andrews on June 27th. The reception will be at the
Anchor Hotel.

3.3 Will/shall to express hopes, expectations, etc.

The future is often used after verbs and verb phrases like assume, be afraid, be sure,
believe, doubt, expect, hope, suppose, think:
I hope shell get the job shes applied for.
The present with a future reference is possible after hope:
I hope she gets the job shes applied for.

56
 Lack of certainty, etc. can be conveyed by using will with adverbs like perhaps, possibly,
probably, surely:
Ask him again. Perhaps hell change his mind.

4. Time adverbials with the will/shall future tense

Some adverbials like tomorrow are used exclusively with future reference; others like at
4 oclock, before Friday, etc. are used with other tenses as well as the future:
Ill meet you at 4 oclock.
Now and just can also have a future reference:
This shop will now be open on June 23rd.
Im nearly ready. Ill just put my coat on.

5. Other ways of expressing the future

We can express the future in other ways, apart from will/shall:

be going to: Im going to see him tomorrow.
be to: Im to see him tomorrow.
present progressive: Im seeing him tomorrow.
simple present: I see him tomorrow.
These ways of expressing the future are concerned less with simple prediction and more
with intentions, plans, arrangements, etc.

The future progressive tense

1. Form of the future progressive tense

The future progressive is formed with the auxiliary be conjugated in the future:
WILL/SHALL BE + the ING form:
I will/shall be working. We will/shall be working.
You will be working. You will be working.
He will be working.
She will be working. They will be working.

57
 It will be working.

The interrogative is formed by inversion of the subject and the first auxiliary (will):
Will/shall I be working? Will/shall we be working?
Will you be working? Will you be working?
Will he be working?
Will she be working? Will they be working?
Will it be working?

The negative is formed by adding the negation to the first auxiliary (will):
I will/shall not be working. We will/shall not be working.
You will not be working. You will not be working.
He will not be working.
She will not be working. They will not be working.
It will not be working.

2. Uses of the future progressive tense

2.1 Actions in progress in the future

The most common use of the progressive form is to describe actions which will be in
progress in the immediate or distant future:
Hurry up! The guests will be arriving at any minute!
A space vehicle will be circling Jupiter in five years time.

2.2 The softening effect of the future progressive

Sometimes the future progressive is used to describe simple futurity, but with a
softening effect that takes away the element of deliberate intention often implied by will:
Ill work on this tomorrow. (intention, possibly a promise)
Ill be working on this tomorrow. (futurity)

In some contexts, the future progressive sounds more polite than will, especially in
questions when we do not wish to appear to be pressing for a definite answer:
When will you finish these letters? (e.g. boss to assistant)
When will you be seeing Mr White? (e.g. assistant to boss)

58
 Sometimes there really is a difference in meaning:
Mary wont pay this bill. (she refuses to)
Mary wont be paying this bill. (futurity)
Will you join us for dinner? (invitation)
Will you be joining us for dinner? (futurity)
Wont you come with us? (invitation)
Wont you be coming with us? (futurity)

2.3 Arrangements and plans

The future progressive can be used like the present progressive to refer to planned events,
particularly in connexion with travel:
Well be spending the winter in Australia. (= we are spending)
Professor Craig will be giving a lecture on Etruscan pottery tomorrow evening. (= is
giving)

The future perfect simple and future perfect progressive tenses

1. Form of the future perfect simple and progressive tenses

The future perfect simple is formed with WILL HAVE + the past participle (3rd form)
of the main verb:
I will/shall have worked. We will/shall have worked.
You will have worked. You will have worked.
He will have worked.
She will have worked. They will have worked.
It will have worked.

The future perfect progressive is formed with WILL HAVE BEEN + the ING form of
the main verb:
I will/shall have been working. We will/shall have been working.
You will have been working. You will have been working.
He will have been working.
She will have been working. They will have been working.

59
 It will have been working.

The interrogative is formed by inversion of the first auxiliary (will) and the subject:
future perfect simple/progressive
Will/shall I have worked/been working? Will/shall we have worked/been working?
Will you have worked/been working? Will you have worked/been working?
Will he have worked/been working?
Will she have worked/been working? Will they have worked/been working?
Will it have worked/been working?

The negative is formed by adding the negation to the first auxiliary:

future perfect simple/progressive
I will/shall not have worked/been working. We will/shall not have worked/been working.
You will not have worked/been working. You will not have worked/been working.
He will not have worked/been working.
She will not have worked/been working. They will not have worked/been working.
It will not have worked/been working.

2. Uses of the future perfect simple and progressive tenses

2.1 The past as seen from the future

We often use the future perfect to show that an action will already be completed by a
certain time in the future:
I will have retired by the year 2020. (That is, before or in the year 2020, my retirement
will already be in the past.)
This tense is often used with by and nottill/until + time and with verbs which point to
completion: build, complete, finish, etc. We also often use the future perfect after verbs like
believe, expect, hope, suppose:
I expect you will have changed your mind by tomorrow.

2.2 The continuation of a state up to the time mentioned

What is in progress now can be considered from a point in the future:
By this time next week, I will have been working for this company for 24 years.
We will have been married a year on June 25th.

60
 The going to future

1. Form of the going to future

The going to future is formed with the verb be conjugated in the present + going to +
the base form of the main verb:
I am going to work. We are going to work.
You are going to work. You are going to work.
He is going to work.
She is going to work. They are going to work.
It is going to work.

The interrogative is formed by inversion of the subject and the verb be:
Am I going to work? Are we going to work?
Are you going to work? Are you going to work?
Is he going to work?
Is she going to work? Are they going to work?
Is it going to work?

The negative is formed by adding the negation to the verb be:

I am not going to work. We are not going to work.
You are not going to work. You are not going to work.
He is not going to work.
She is not going to work. They are not going to work.
It is not going to work.
2. Uses of the going to future

2.1 The going to future for prediction

The going to future is often used, like will, to predict the future. It is common in
speech, especially when we are referring to the immediate future. The speaker sees signs of
something that is about to happen:
Oh, look! Its going to rain!
Look out! Shes going to faint!
This use of going to includes the present, whereas It will rain is purely about the future.
Alternatively, the speaker may have prior knowledge of something which will happen in the near
future:
61
 Theyre going to be married soon. (Her brother told me.)
A future time reference may be added with such predictions:
Its going to rain tonight. Theyre going to be married next May.
We usually prefer will to the going to future in formal writing and when there is a need
for constant reference to the future as in, for example, weather forecasts.

2.2 The going to future for intentions, plans, etc.

When there is any suggestion of intentions and plans, we tend to use the going to future
rather than will in informal style:
Im going to practise the piano for two hours this evening. (i.e. Thats my intention: what
I have planned/arranged to do.)
However, we generally prefer will to going to when we decide to do something at the
moment of speaking:
Were really lost. Ill stop and ask someone the way.

Intention can be emphasized with adverbs like now and just which are generally
associated with present time:
Im now going to show you how to make spaghetti sauce.
Im just going to change. Ill be back in five minutes.
The use of be going to refer to the remote future is less common and generally requires a
time reference:
She says shes going to be a jockey when she grows up.

If we want to be precise about intentions and plans, we use verbs like intend to, plan to,
propose to, rather than going to:
Theyre going to build a new motorway to the west. (vague)
They propose to build a new motorway to the west. (more precise)

2.3 The going to future in place of the present progressive

The going to future may be used where we would equally expect to have the present
progressive with a future reference:
Im having dinner with Janet tomorrow evening.
Im going to have dinner with Janet tomorrow evening.
However, we cannot use the present progressive to make predictions, so it would not be
possible in a sentence like this:
Its going to snow tonight.

62
 Though be going to can combine with go and come, the present progressive is preferred
with these verbs for reasons of style. We tend to avoid going to next to go or come (e.g. going to
go/going to come):
Im going/coming home early this evening.

2.4 The going to future after if

We do not normally use will after if to make predictions, but we can use be going to to
express an intention:
If youre going to join us, well wait for you.
Be going to can often be used in the main clause as well:
If you invite Jack, theres going to be trouble.

Other ways of expressing the future

1. Forms of future substitutes

BE TO/BE DUE TO/BE ABOUT TO

I am (due/about) to work. We are (due/about) to work.
You are (due/about) to work. You are (due/about) to work.
He is (due/about) to work.
She is (due/about) to work. They are to work.
It is (due/about) to work

Am I (due/about) to work? Are we (due/about) to work?

Are you (due/about) to work? Are you (due/about) to work?
Is he (due/about) to work?
Is she (due/about) to work? Are they (due/about) to work?
Is it (due/about) to work/

I am not (due/about) to work. We are not (due/about) to work.

You are not (due/about) to work. You are not (due/about) to work.
He is not (due/about) to work.
She is not (due/about) to work. They are not (due/about) to work
It is not (due/about) to work.

63
 BE ON THE POINT OF + -ING
I am on the point of working. We are on the point of working.
You are on the point of working.
He is on the point of working. Etc.

2. Uses of future substitutes

2.1 The use of be to

Be to is used to refer to the future when the actions are subject to human control. Thus
statements such as Im going to faint or Its going to rain cannot be expressed with be to, which
has restricted uses: e.g.
Formal arrangements/public duties:
OPEC representatives are to meet in Geneva next Tuesday.
Formal appointments/instructions:
Active: Youre to deliver these flowers before 10.
Passive: Three tablets to be taken twice a day.
Prohibitions/public notices:
Youre not to tell him anything about our plans. (=you mustnt)
POISON: NOT TO BE TAKEN

2.2 The use of be about to, be on the point of

These constructions are used to refer to the immediate future:
Look! The race is about to start.
On the point of conveys even greater immediacy:
Look! Theyre on the point of starting!
The use of just with be about to and be on the point of increases the sense of immediacy,
as it does with the present progressive:
Theyre just starting!

2.3 The use of be due to

This is often used in connexion with timetables and itineraries:
The BA 561 is due to arrive from Athens at 13.15.
The BA 561 is not due till 13.15.

64
 The future-in-the-past

1. The future-in-the-past

The future-in-the-past can be expressed by was going to, was about to, was to, was to
have + past participle, was on the point of, was due to and (in more limited contexts) would.
These forms can refer to events which were planned to take place and which did take place.
I couldnt go to Toms party as I was about to go into hospital.
or refer to an outcome that could not be foreseen:
Little did they know they were to be reunited ten years later.
However, the future-in-the-past can also be used to describe events which were
interrupted (justwhen):
We were just going to leave when Jean fell and hurt her ankle.
or to describe events which were hindered or prevented (but):
I was to see/was going to see/was to have seen Mr Kay tomorrow, but the appointment
has been cancelled.
Note the possible ambiguity of:
I was going to see Mr Kay. (the meeting did or did not take place)
compared with:
I was to have seen Mr Kay. (I did not see him)

2. Future-in-the-past: typical contexts

The future-in-the-past is often used in narrative to describe events that were destined to
happen:
Einstein was still a young man. His discoveries had not yet been published, but they were
to change our whole view of the universe.
Would can also express future-in-the-past in such contexts:
We had already reached 5.000 meters. Soon we would reach the top.

65
 The imperative

1. Form of the imperative

The imperative form is the same as the bare infinitive:

Affirmative form (base form of the verb): Wait!
Negative short form (Dont + base form): Dont wait!
Emphatic form (Do + base form): Do wait a moment!
Addressing someone (e.g. pronoun + base form): You wait here!
Imperative + question tag: Wait here, will you?
Imperatives joined by and: Go and play outside.

2. Some common uses of the imperative

We use the imperative for direct orders and suggestions and also for a variety of other
purposes. Stress and intonation, gesture, facial expression, and, above all, situation and context,
indicate whether the use of this form is friendly, abrupt, angry, impatient, persuasive, etc. The
negative form is usually expressed by Dont. The full form (Do not) is used mainly in public
notices. Here are some common uses:
1. Direct commands, requests, suggestions:
Follow me. Shut the door (please). Dont worry!
2. Warnings:
Look out! Theres a bus! Dont panic!
3. Directions:
Take the 2nd turning on the left and then turn right.
4. Instructions:
Use a moderate oven and bake for 20 minutes.
5. Prohibitions (e.g. in public notices):
Keep off the grass! Do not feed the animals!
6. Advice (especially after always and never):
Always answer when youre spoken to! Never speak to strangers!
7. Invitations:
Come and have dinner with us soon.
8. Offers:
Help yourself. Have a biscuit.
9. Expressing rudeness:
66
 Shut up! Push off!

3. Uses of the imperative with do

We use do (always stressed) before the imperative when we particularly wish to

emphasize what we are saying: e.g.
- when we wish to be polite:
Do have another cup of coffee.
- or when we wish to express impatience:
Do stop talking!
- or when we wish to persuade:
Do help me with this maths problem.
In response to requests for permission, offers, etc. do and dont can be used in place of a
full imperative:
May/Shall I switch the light off? Yes, do. No, dont.

4. The use of the imperative to address particular people

The imperative, e.g. Wait here!, might be addressed to one person or several people: you
is implied. However, we can get the attention of the person or people spoken to in the following
ways:
1. You + imperative:
You wait here for a moment.
Intonation and stress are important. If, in the above example you is unstressed, the
sentence means this is where you wait. If it is stressed, it means this is what I want you to do.
When you is stressed, it might also convey anger, hostility or rudeness:
You mind your own business!
You try teaching 40 noisy children five days a week!
Dont (not you) is stressed in the negative:
Dont you speak to me like that!
2. You + name(s) or name(s) + you:
You wait here, Jim and Mary, you wait there.
3. Imperative + name or name + imperative:
Drink up your milk, Sally! Sally, drink up your milk!

4. Imperative + reflexive:

67
 Enjoy yourself. Behave yourself.
5. We can use words like everybody, someone with the imperative when we are talking to
groups of people:
Everyone keep quiet! Keep still everybody!
Nobody say a word! Somebody answer the phone please.
Any compounds are used after negative commands:
Dont say a word anybody! Dont anybody say a word!
6. We use lets for 1st person plural imperative:
Lets take a taxi!
Lets is often associated with shall we?:
Lets take a taxi, shall we?
The negative of Lets in suggestions is:
Lets not/Dont lets argue about it.
Informally, Lets can relate to I in e.g. offers and requests:
Lets give you a hand. (=Ill) Lets have a look. (=Can I?)

7. The imperative with question tags

Tags like will you?, wont you?, can you?, cant you?, could you? and would you?
can often be used after an imperative for a variety of purposes: e.g.
- to express annoyance/impatience with will/wont/cant you? (rising tone):
Stop fiddling with that TV, will you/wont you/cant you?
- to make a request (can you? for neutral requests; could/would you? for more polite
ones); or to sound less abrupt:
Post this letter for me can you?/could you?/would you?
- to offer polite encouragement or to make friendly offers and suggestions (will you?
and wont you?):
Come in, will you/wont you? Take a seat, will you/wont you?
- to obtain the co-operation of others with Dontwill you?:
Dont tell anyone I told you, will you?
And note why dont you as a tag in: e.g.
Go off for the weekend, why dont you?

68
 8. Double imperatives joined by and

Some imperatives can be followed by and and another imperative where we might expect
a to-infinitive:
Go and buy yourself a new pair of shoes. (Not *Go to buy)
Come and see this goldfish. (Not *Come to see)
Come and play a game of bridge with us. (Not *Come to play)
Wait and see. (Not *Wait to see)
Try and see my point of view. (Note: Try to is also possible)
In American English go is sometimes followed by a bare infinitive:
Go fetch some water. (=Go and fetch)
A to-infinitive can follow an imperative to express purpose:
Eat to live; do not live to eat.

Activities

1. Read the following in the third person singular. Do not change the object if it
is plural. Note that after certain consonants the final es is pronounced as a
separate syllable.
1. They wish to speak to you. (he)
2. Buses pass my house every hour.
3. They help their father. (he)
4. We change planes at Heathrow.
5. You watch too much TV. (he)
6. They worry too much. (he)
7. I cash a cheque every month. (he)
8. I always carry an umbrella. (she)
9. They wash the floor every week. (she)
10. His sons go to the local school.
11. These hens lay brown eggs.
12. Rubber balls bounce.
13. These figures astonish me.
14. Do you like boiled eggs? (he)
15. These seats cost $10.

69
16. They fish in the lake. (he)
17. Elephants never forget.
18. They usually catch the 8.10 bus.
19. They sometimes miss the bus.
20. I mix the ingredients together.
21. The rivers freeze in winter.
22. They fly from London to Edinburgh.
23. The carpets match the curtains.
24. They realize the danger.
25. I use a computer.

2. Read the following (a) in the negative (b) in the interrogative.

1. You know the answer.
2. He has breakfast at 8.00.
3. He loves her.
4. Some schoolgirls wear uniforms.
5. He trusts you.
6. He tries hard.
7. The park closes at dusk.
8. He misses his mother.
9. The children like sweets.
10. He finishes work at 6.00.
11. He lives beside the sea.
12. This stove heats the water.
13. He usually believes you.
14. She dances in competitions.
15. You remember the address.
16. She plays chess very well.
17. He worries about her.
18. These thieves work at night.
19. He leaves home at 8.00.
20. Ann arranges everything.
21. She agrees with you.
22. Their dogs bark all night.
23. Their neighbours often complain.
24. Tom enjoys driving at night.

70
25. The last train leaves at midnight.

3. Put the verbs in brackets into the present continuous tense. In Nr. 25, have is
used as an ordinary verb and can therefore be used in the continuous.
1. She (not work), she (swim) in the river.
2. He (teach) his boy to ride.
3. Why Ann (not wear) her new dress?
4. The aeroplane (fly) at 2,000 metres.
5. What Tom (do) now? He (clean) his shoes.
6. This fire (go) out. Somebody (bring) more coal?
7. It (rain)? Yes, it (rain) very hard. You cant go out yet.
8. Why you (mend) that old shirt?
9. You (not tell) the truth. How do you know that I (not tell) the truth?
10. Who (move) the furniture about upstairs? Its Tom. He (paint) the front bedroom.
11. Mrs. Jones (sweep) the stairs outside her house.
12. What you (read) now? I (read) Crime and Punishment.
13. It is a lovely day. The sun (shine) and the birds (sing).
14. Someone (knock) at the door. Shall I answer it? I (come) in a minute. I just (wash)
my hands.
15. She always (ring) up and (ask) questions.
16. Why you (make) a cake? Someone (come) to tea?
17. Where is Tom? He (lie) under the car.
18. Can I borrow your pen or you (use) it at the moment?
19. You (do) anything this evening? No, Im not. Well, I (go) to the cinema. Would
you like to come with me?
20. We (have) breakfast at 8.00 tomorrow as Tom (catch) an early train.
21. Ann usually does the shopping, but I (do) it today as she isnt well.
22. Why you (type) so fast? You (make) a lot of mistakes.
23. Mother (rest) now. She always rests after lunch.
24. They (dig) an enormous hole just outside my gate. Why they (do) that for?: - I dont
know. Perhaps they (look) for oil.
25. What (make) that terrible noise? Its the pneumatic drill. They (repair) the road.

4. Put the verbs in brackets into the simple present or the present continuous.
1. Cuckoos (not build) nests. They (use) the nests of other birds.
2. You cant see Tom now; he (have) a bath.

71
3. He usually (drink) coffee but today he (drink) tea.
4. What she (do) in the evenings? She usually (play) cards or (watch) TV.
5. I wont go out now as it (rain) and I (not have) an umbrella.
6. The last train (leave) the station at 11.30.
7. He usually (speak) so quickly that I (not understand) him.
8. Ann (make) a dress for herself at the moment. She (make) all her own clothes.
9. Hardly anyone (wear) a hat nowadays.
10. Im afraid Ive broken one of your coffee cups. Dont worry. I (not like) that set
anyway.
11. I (wear) my sunglasses today because the sun is very strong.
12. Tom cant have the newspaper now because his aunt (read) it.
13. Im busy at the moment. I (redecorate) the sitting room.
14. The kettle (boil) now. Shall I make the tea?
15. You (enjoy) yourself or would you like to leave now? I (enjoy) myself very much. I
(want) to stay to the end.
16. How you (get) to work as a rule? I usually (go) by bus but tomorrow I (go) in
Toms car.
17. Why you (put) on your coat? I (go) for a walk. You (come) with me? Yes, Id
love to come. You (mind) if I bring my dog?
18. How much you (owe) him? I (owe) him $5. You (intend) to pay him?
19. You (belong) to your local library? Yes, I do. You (read) a lot? Yes, quite a lot.
How often you (change) your books? I (change) one every day.
20. Mary usually (learn) languages very quickly but she (not seem) able to learn modern
Greek.
21. I always (but) lottery tickets but I never (win) anything.
22. You (like) this necklace? I (give) it to my daughter for her birthday tomorrow.
23. I wont tell you my secret unless you (promise) not to tell anyone. I (promise).
24. You always (write) with your left hand?
25. You (love) him? No, I like him very much but I (not love) him.
26. You (dream) at night? Yes, I always (dream) and if I (eat) too much supper I (have)
nightmares.
27. The milk (smell) sour. You (keep) milk a long time?
28. These workmen are never satisfied; they always (complain).
29. We (use) this room today because the window in the other room is broken.
30. He always (say) that he will mend the window but he never (do) it.
31. You (know) why an apple (fall) down and not up?

72
32. You (write) to him tonight? Yes, I always (write) to him on his birthday. You
(want) to send any message?
33. Tom and Mr Pitt (have) a long conversation. I (wonder) what they (talk) about.
34. You (believe) all that the newspapers say? No, I (not believe) any of it. Then why
you (read) newspapers?
35. This car (make) a very strange noise. You (think) it is all right? Oh, that noise (not
matter). It always (make) a noise like that.
36. The fire (smoke) horribly. I cant see across the room. I (expect) that birds (build) a
nest in the chimney. Why you (not put) wire across the tops of your chimneys?
Tom (do) that sometimes but it (not seem) to make any difference.

5. Put the verbs in the following sentences into the simple past tense.
1. I go to work by bus.
2. I meet her on Tuesdays.
3. He always wears black.
4. I make cakes every day.
5. She gets up at 6.30.
6. He understands me.
7. He shuts the shop at 6.00.
8. She speaks slowly.
9. He leaves the house at 9.00.
10. I read a chapter every night.
11. You eat too much.
12. I see him every day.
13. He cries when he is hurt.
14. Who knows the answer?
15. I think I know it.
16. The curtain rises at 8.00.
17. He takes the dog out twice a day.
18. We buy them here.
19. I dream every night.
20. He often feels ill.
21. I know what he wants.
22. I usually pay him $5.
23. It smells odd.
24. It costs $50.

73
25. My back hurts.
26. We drink water.
27. His roses grow well.
28. He rides every day.
29. He puts up his prices every year.
30. He sleeps badly.

6. Put the verbs in the following sentences into (a) the negative and (b) the
interrogative.
1. She saw your brother.
2. We heard a terrible noise.
3. He slept till 10.00.
4. He looked at the picture.
5. They drank all the wine.
6. They set out early enough.
7. She thought about him.
8. The police caught the thief.
9. He hid the letter.
10. She found her watch.
11. His nose bled.
12. My mother chose this hotel.
13. She lent you enough money.
14. Keiko taught Japanese.
15. Tom hurt his foot.
16. He broke his arm.
17. His wife came at 8.00.
18. He lost his wallet.
19. His son wrote a novel.
20. They flew to New York.
21. Ann drew you a map.
22. Tom laid the table.
23. Mr Pitt fell downstairs.
24. She lost her way.
25. He forbade her to leave.
26. I sent it to the laundry.
27. Jack kept the money.

74
28. He drove slowly.
29. They spent it all.
30. She sold the car.
31. Jean rang the bell.
32. The sun rose at 6.00.
33. The boys ran home.
34. He shook the bottle.
35. He forgave her.
36. They broadcast an appeal for money.

7. Put the verbs in brackets into the past continuous tense.

1. The children were frightened because it (get) dark.
2. It was a fine day and the roads were crowded because a lot of people (rush) to the
seaside.
3. The house was in great disorder because he (redecorate) it.
4. The car had nobody in it but the engine (run).
5. I was alone in the house at that time because Mr Jones (work) in the garage and Mrs
Jones (shop).
6. Are you going to Rome? I thought that you (go) to Milan.
7. My wife and I (talk) about you the other day.
8. When I first met him he (study) painting.
9. Who you (talk) to on the telephone as I came in? I (talk) to Mr Pitt.
10. As she (climb) the ladder it slipped sideways and she fell off it.
11. When I first met him he (work) in a restaurant.
12. He watched the children for a moment. Some of them (bathe) in the sea, others (look)
for shells, others (play) in the sand.
13. Where he (live) when you saw him last?
14. She (stand) at the bus stop. I asked her what bus she (wait) for.
15. From the sounds it was clear that Mary (practise) the piano.
16. There had been an accident and men (carry) the injured people to an ambulance.
17. Two men (fight) at a street corner and a policeman (try) to stop them What they
(fight) about? Nobody seemed to know.
18. Tom (sit) in a corner with a book. I told him that he (read) in very bad light.
19. When I arrived at the meeting the first speaker had just finished speaking and the
audience (clap).
20. The traffic (make) so much noise that I couldnt hear what he (say).

75
21. While he (learn) to drive he had twenty-five accidents.
22. He had a bad fall while he (repair) the roof.
23. The exam had just began and the candidates (write) their names at the top of their
papers.
24. Just as I (wonder) what to do next, the phone rang.
25. Detective: Im afraid I must ask you both what you (do) yesterday at 10.20 p.m.
Mr X: I (play) cards with my wife.
Mr Y: I (listen) to a play on the radio.

8. Put the verbs in brackets into the simple past or the past continuous tense.
1. I lit the fire at 6.00 and it (burn) brightly when Tom came in at 7.00.
2. When I arrived the lecture had already started and the professor (write) on the
blackboard.
3. I (make) a cake when the light went out. I had to finish it in the dark.
4. I didnt want to meet Paul so when he entered the room I (leave).
5. Unfortunately when I arrived Ann just (leave), so we only had time for a few words.
6. He (watch) TV when the phone rang. Very unwillingly he (turn) down the sound and
(go) to answer it.
7. He was very polite. Whenever his wife entered the room he (stand) up.
8. The admiral (play) cards when he received news of the invasion. He (insist) on
finishing the game.
9. My dog (walk) along quietly when Mr Browns Pekinese attacked him.
10. When I arrived she (have) lunch. She apologized for starting without me but said that
she always (lunch) at 12.30.
11. He always (wear) a raincoat and (carry) an umbrella when he walked to the office.
12. What you (think) about his last book? I (like) it very much.
13. I (share) a flat with him when we were students. He always (complain) about my
untidiness.
14. He suddenly (realize) that he (travel) in the wrong direction.
15. He (play) the guitar outside her house when someone opened the window and (throw)
out a bucket of water.
16. I just (open) the letter when the wind (blow) it out of my hand.
17. The burglar (open) the safe when he (hear) footsteps. He immediately (put) out his
torch and (crawl) under the bed.
18. When I (look) for my passport I (find) this old photograph.
19. You looked very busy when I (see) you last night. What you (do)?

76
20. The boys (play) cards when they (hear) their fathers step. They immediately (hide)
the cards and (take) out their lesson books.
21. He (clean) his gun when it accidentally (go) off and (kill) him.
22. He (not allow) us to go out in the boat yesterday as a strong wind (blow).
23. When I last (see) her she (hurry) along the road to the station. I (ask) her where she
(go) and she (say), London, but I dont think she (speak) the truth because there (not
be) any train for London at that time.
24. The tailor said, Your suit will be ready on Monday. But when I (call) on Monday he
still (work) on it.
25. The teacher (come) into the classroom unusually early and one of the boys, who
(smoke) a cigarette, (have) no time to put it out. So he (throw) it into the desk and
(hope) for the best.
26. A little later the teacher (notice) that smoke (rise) from the desk. You (smoke) when
I (come) in? he (ask).
27. While I (swim) someone (steal) my clothes and I (have to) walk home in my
swimsuit.
28. The men (say) that they (work) on the road outside my house and that they (want)
some water to make tea.
29. He (say) that he (build) himself a house and that he (think) it would be ready in two
years.
30. At 3.00 a.m. Mrs White (wake) her husband and (say) that she (think) that someone
(try) to get into the house.
31. Why you (lend) him that book? I still (read) it. Im sorry. I (not know) that you still
(read) it.
32. I (come) in very late last night and unfortunately the dog (wake) up and (start) to
bark. This (wake) my mother who (come) to the top of the stairs and (say), Who is
there?
33. I (say), It is me, but she (not hear) me because the dog (bark) so loudly, so she (go)
back to her room and (telephone) the police.

9. Put the verbs in brackets into the present perfect tense, and fill the spaces by
repeating the auxiliary.
1. Where you (be)? I (be) to the dentist.
2. You (have) breakfast? Yes, I .
3. The post (come)? Yes, it .
4. You (see) my watch anywhere? No, Im afraid I .

77
5. Someone (wind) the clock? Yes, Tom .
6. I (not finish) my letter yet.
7. He just (go) out.
8. Someone (take) my bicycle.
9. The phone (stop) ringing.
10. You (hear) from her lately? No, I .
11. I just (wash) that floor.
12. The cat (steal) the fish.
13. You (explain) the exercise? Yes, I .
14. There arent any buses because the drivers (go) on strike.
15. You (have) enough to eat? Yes, I (have) plenty, thank you.
16. Charles (pass) the exam? Yes, he .
17. How many bottles the milkman (leave)? He (leave) six.
18. I (live) here for ten years.
19. How long you (know) John? I (know) him for ten years.
20. Would you like some coffee? I just (make) some.
21. Mary (water) the flowers? Yes, I think she .
22. You (not make) a mistake? No, Im sure I .
23. Why you (not mend) the car? I (not have) time.
24. You ever (leave) a restaurant without paying the bill? No, I .
25. I (ask) him to dinner several times.
26. He always (refuse).
27. You ever (ride) a camel?
28. I (buy) a new carpet. Come and look at it.
29. He (post) the letter?
30. Why he (not finish)? He (have) plenty of time.
31. I often (see) him but I never (speak) to him.
32. You ever (eat) caviar? Yes, I .
33. We just (hear) the most extraordinary news.

10. The present perfect and the simple past.

(a) Fill the spaces by repeating the auxiliary used in the question,
putting it into the negative where necessary.
(b) Put the verb in brackets into the present perfect or the simple past
tense.
1. Have you seen that play?

78
 (a) Yes, I .
(b) Yes, I (be) there last night.
2. Have you wound the clock?
(a) Yes, I .
(b) Yes, I (wind) it on Monday.
3. Have you ever eaten snails?
(a) No, I .
(b) Yes, I (eat) some at Toms party last week.
4. Has she fed the dog?
(a) Yes, I think she .
(b) Yes, she (feed) him before lunch.
5. Have they repaired the road?
(a) No, they .
(b) They only (repair) part of it so far.
6. Have they done their homework?
(a) Yes, they (do) it all.
(b) Yes, they (do) it before they left school.
7. Have you found the matches?
(a) No, I .
(b) No, I (not find) them yet.
8. Have you made the coffee?
(a) Yes, I .
(b) I (make) some yesterday: we can use that.
9. Have you seen him lately?
(a) No, I .
(b) No, I (not see) him since Christmas.
10. Have you been here before?
(a) No, I .
(b) Yes, I (be) here several times.
11. Have you been to the opera this week?
(a) Yes, I .
(b) Yes, I (go) to Faust on Friday.
12. Have you ever driven this car?
(a) Yes, I (drive) it once or twice.
(b) Yes, I (drive) it when you were away.
13. Has he missed the train?

79
 (a) No, he .
(b) Yes, he .It (go) five minutes ago.
14. Have they been through Customs?
(a) Yes, they .
(b) Yes, their luggage (be) examined at Dover.
15. Has he spoken to her?
(a) Yes, he .
(b) Yes, he (speak) to her on Friday.
16. Have you spent all your money?
(a) No, I only (spend) half of it.
(b) Yes, I .
17. Has his temperature gone down?
(a) No, it .
(b) Yes, it (go) down last night.
18. How much have you saved since Christmas?
(a) I (not save) anything.
(b) I (save) $100.
19. Have you seen his garden?
(a) No, I (not see) it yet.
(b) I (see) the house on Monday but I (not see) the garden.
20. Have you paid the bill?
(a) Yes, I .
(b) Yes, I (pay) it while you were away.
21. Have you ever flown a plane?
(a) No, I .
(b) Yes, I (fly) when I was at university.
22. Has your dog ever bitten anyone?
(a) Yes, he (bite) a policemen last week.
(b) Yes, he (bite) me twice.
23. Have you planted your flowers?
(a) Yes, I (plant) them on Tuesday.
(b) No, I yet.
24. Has he written to the paper?
(a) Yes, he .
(b) Yes, he (write) at once.
25. Have you ever drunk vodka?

80
 (a) No, I .
(b) I (drink) it once in Russia but I (not drink) it since.

11. Put the verbs in brackets into the present perfect or simple past tense. Fill the
spaces by repeating the auxiliary used in the preceding verb.
1. Where is Tom? I (not see) him today, but he (tell) Mary that hed be in for dinner.
2. I (buy) this in Bond Street. How much you (pay) for it? I (pay) $100.
3. Where you (find) this knife? I (find) it in the garden.
4. I (lose) my black gloves. You (see) them anywhere? No, Im afraid I . When you
last (wear) them? I (wear) them at the theatre last night. Perhaps you (leave) them
at the theatre.
5. Do you know that lady who just (leave) the shop? Yes, that is Miss Thrift. Is she a
customer of yours? Not exactly. She (be) in here several times but she never (buy)
anything.
6. He (leave) the house at 8.00. Where he (go)? I (not see) where he (go).
7. He (serve) in the First World War. When that war (begin)? It (begin) in 1914 and
(last) for four hours.
8. Who you (vote) for at the last election? I (vote) for Mr Brown. He (not be)
elected, (be) he? No, he (lose) the election.
9. You (like) your last job? I (like) it but then I (quarrel) with my employer and he
(dismiss) me. How long you (be) there? I (be) there for two weeks.
10. I (not know) that you (know) Mrs Pitt. How long you (know) her? I (know) her for
ten years.
11. That is Mr Minus, who teaches me mathematics, but he (not have) time to teach me
much. I only (be) in his class for a week.
12. You (hear) his speech on the radio last night? Yes, I . What you (think) of it?
13. I (not know) that you (be) here. You (be) here long? Yes, I (be) here two months.
You (be) to the Cathedral? Yes, I (go) there last Sunday.
14. You ever (try) to give up smoking? Yes, I (try) last year, but then I (find) that I was
getting fat so I (start) again.
15. You (see) todays paper? No, anything interesting (happen)? Yes, two convicted
murderers (escape) from the prison down the road.
16. Mary (feed) the cat? Yes, she (feed) him before lunch. What she (give) him?
She (give) him some fish.
17. How long you (know) your new assistant? I (know) him for two years. What he
(do) before he (come) here? I think he (be) in prison.

81
18. I (not see) your aunt recently. No. She (not be) out of her house since she (buy) her
colour TV.
19. The plumber (be) here yet? Yes, but he only (stay) for an hour. What he (do) in
that time? He (turn) off the water and (empty) the tank.
20. Where you (be)? I (be) out in a yacht. You (enjoy) it? Yes, very much. We
(take) part in a race. You (win)? No, we (come) in last.
21. How long that horrible monument (be) there? It (be) there six months. Lots of
people (write) to the Town Council asking them to take it away but so far nothing
(be) done.
22. I just (be) to the film War and Peace. You (see) it? No, I .Is it like the book? I
(not read) the book. I (read) when I (be) at school. When Tolstoy (write) it? He
(write) it in 1868. He (write) anything else?
23. Hannibal (bring) elephants across the Alps. Why he (do) that? He (want) to use
them in battle.
24. Where you (be)? I (be) to the dentist. He (take) out your bad tooth? Yes, he .
It (hurt)? Yes, horribly.
25. She (say) that shed phone me this morning, but it is now 12.30 and she (not phone)
yet.
26. I just (receive) a letter saying that we (not pay) this quarters electricity bill. I (not
give) you the money for that last week? Yes, you but Im afraid I (spend) it on
something else.
27. How long you (be) out of work? Im not out of work now. I just (start) a new job.
How you (find) the job? I (answer) an advertisement in the paper.
28. You (finish) checking the accounts? No, not quite. I (do) about half so far.
29. I (cut) my hand rather badly. Have you a bandage? Ill get you one. How it
(happen)? I was chopping some wood and the axe (slip).
30. How you (get) that scar? I (get) it in a car accident a year ago.
31. You (meet) my brother at the lecture yesterday? Yes, I . We (have) coffee
together afterwards.
32. He (lose) his job last month and since then he (be) out of work. Why he (lose) his
job? He (be) very rude to his boss.
33. What are all those people looking at? There (be) an accident. You (see) what
(happen)? Yes, a bicycle (run) into a lorry.
34. I (phone) you twice yesterday and (get) no answer.
35. Originally horses used in bull fights (not wear) any protection, but for some time now
they (wear) special padding.

82
36. That house (be) empty for a year. But they just (take) down the For Sale sign, so I
suppose someone (buy) it.

12. Put the verb in brackets into the present perfect continuous tense.
1. I (make) cakes. That is why my hands are all covered with flour.
2. Her phone (ring) for ten minutes. I wonder why she doesnt answer it.
3. He (overwork). That is why he looks so tired.
4. Have you seen my bag anywhere? I (look) for it for ages.
5. What you (do)? I (work) in the laboratory.
6. He (study) Russian for two years and doesnt even know the alphabet yet.
7. How long you (wait) for me? I (wait) about half an hour.
8. It (rain) for two days now. Therell be a flood soon.
9. We (argue) about this for two hours now. Perhaps we should stop!
10. I (bathe). Thats why my hair is all wet.
11. You (drive) all day. Let me drive now.
12. How long you (wear) glasses?
13. Im sorry for keeping you waiting. I (try) to make a telephone call to Rome.
14. You (not eat) enough lately. Thats why you feel irritable.
15. He (speak) for an hour now. I expect hell soon be finished.
16. The radio (play) since 7 a.m. I wish someone would turn it off.
17. I (shop) all day and I havent a penny left.
18. We (live) here since 1977.
19. Im on a diet. I (eat) nothing but bananas for the last month.
20. The children (look) forward to this holiday for months.
21. That pipe (leak) for ages. We must get it mended.
22. Tom (dig) in the garden all afternoon and I (help) him.
23. I (ask) you to mend that window for six weeks. When are you going to do it?
24. How long you (drive)? I (drive) for ten years.
25. The trial (go) on for a long time. I wonder what the verdict will be.
26. It (snow) for three days now. The roads will be blocked if it doesnt stop soon.
27. Mary (cry)? No, she (not cry), she (peel) onions.
28. He walked very unsteadily up the stairs and his wife said, You (drink)!
29. You usually know when someone (eat) garlic.
30. Ever since he came to us that man (try) to make trouble.

83
13. Put the verbs in brackets into the present perfect or the present perfect
continuous tense. (In some cases either could be used.)
1. We (walk) ten kilometres.
2. We (walk) for three hours.
3. You (walk) too fast. Thats why you are tired.
4. I (make) cakes for the party all the morning.
5. How many you (make)? I (make) 200.
6. That boy (eat) seven ice-creams.
7. He (not stop) eating since he arrived.
8. The driver (drink). I think someone else ought to drive.
9. I (plant) 100 flowers.
10. I (plant) flowers all day.
11. What you (do)? We (pick) apples.
12. How many you (pick)? We (pick) ten basketfuls.
13. I (sleep) on every bed in this house and I dont like any of them.
14. He (sleep) since ten oclock. Its time he woke up.
15. He (ride); thats why he is wearing breeches.
16. I (ride) all the horses in this stable.
17. What a lovely smell! Mary (make) jam.
18. The students (work) very well this term.
19. I only (hear) from him twice since he went away.
20. I (hear) from her regularly. She is a very good correspondent.
21. I (grease) my car. Thats why my hands are so dirty.
22. I (polish) this table all the morning and she isnt satisfied with it yet.
23. I (work) for him for ten years and he never once (say) Good morning to me.
24. He (teach) in this school for five years.
25. I (teach) hundreds of students but I never (meet) such a hopeless class as this.
26. Why you (be) so long in the garage? The tyres were flat; I (pump) them up.
27. I (pump) up three tyres. Would you like to do the fourth?
28. I (look) for mushrooms but I (not find) any.
29. He (cough) a lot lately. He ought to give up smoking.
30. You (hear) the news? Tom and Ann are engaged! Thats not new; I (know) it for
ages!
31. I (try) to finish this letter for the last half-hour. I wish youd go away or stop talking.
I hardly (say) anything.
32. The driver of that car (sound) his horn for the last ten minutes.

84
33. It (rain) for two hours and the ground is too wet to play on, so the match (be)
postponed.
34. He (hope) for a rise in salary for six months but he (not dare) to ask for it yet.
35. Mr Smith, you (whisper) to the student on your right for the last five minutes. You
(help) him with his exam paper or he (help) you?
36. Why you (make) such a horrible noise? I (lose) my key and I (try) to wake my wife
by throwing stones at her window. You (throw) stones at the wrong window. You
live next door.

14. Fill the spaces in the following sentences by using for or since.
1. Weve been fishing two hours.
2. Ive been working in this office a month.
3. Theyve been living in France 1970.
4. He has been in prison a year.
5. Ive known that a long time.
6. That man has been standing there six oclock.
7. She has driven the same car 1975.
8. Things have changed I was a girl.
9. The kettle has been boiling a quarter of an hour.
10. The central heating has been on October.
11. That trunk has been in the hall a year.
12. He has been very ill the last month.
13. Ive been using this machine twelve years.
14. Weve been waiting half an hour.
15. Mr Pitt has been in hospital his accident.
16. He hasnt spoken to me the last committee meating.
17. I have been very patient with you several years.
18. They have been on strike November.
19. The strike has lasted six months.
20. It has been very foggy early morning.
21. They have been quarrelling ever they got married.
22. Ive been awake four oclock.
23. Ive been awake a long time.
24. Weve had no gas the strike began.
25. Ive earned my own living I left school.
26. Nobody has seen him last week.

85
27. The police have been looking for me four days.
28. I havent worn low-heeled shoes I was at school.
29. He had a bad fall last week and then he hasnt left the house.
30. He has been under water half an hour.
31. That tree has been there 2,000 years.
32. He has been Minister of Education 1983.
33. Ive been trying to open this door forty-five minutes.
34. He hasnt eaten anything twenty-four hours.
35. Weve had terrible weather the last month.
36. Nobody has come to see us we bought these bloodhounds.

15. Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the word in capitals and so that the
meaning stays the same.
a) You have missed the beginning of the film. HAS
The film has already started.
b) I cant seem to stop sneezing lately. BEEN
..
c) Paul is different from what he used to be. HAS
..
d) This has been my home for thirty years. HAVE
..
e) Eating Chinese food is new to me. BEFORE
..
f) Is there any news? HAPPENED
..
g) I bought my car in 1985 and Im still driving it. BEEN
..
h) I dont know where my keys are. HAVE
..
i) Sue doesnt have her dictionary with her; its at home.HAS
..
j) Tony hasnt been to Paris before. FIRST
..

86
 16. Put each verb in brackets into a suitable tense. All sentences refer to past time.
a) I realised that someone was stealing (steal) my wallet when I felt
(feel) their hand in my pocket.
b) When I (phone) Helen last night she (wash) her hair
and she (not finish) when I finally (get to) her house.
c) Peter (offer) me another drink but I decided I (drink)
enough.
d) Nobody (watch), so the little boy (take) the packet of
sweets from the shelf and (put) it in his pocket.
e) I (not realise) that I (leave) my umbrella on the bus
until it (start) to rain.
f) At school I (dislike) the maths teacher because he
(always pick) on me.
g) Wherever Marion (find) a job, there was someone who
(know) that she (go) to prison.
h) It was only much later I (find out) that during all the time I
(write) to my penfriend, my mother (open) and
reading the replies!
i) I (not understand) what (go on). Several people
(shout) at me, and one (wave) a newspaper in front
of my face.
j) I (know) I (do) well in my exams even before I
(receive) the official results.

17. Put each verb in brackets into a suitable past tense. Only use the past perfect
where this is absolutely necessary.
This time last year I (1) was cycling (cycle) in the rain along a country road in France
with a friend of mine. We (2) (decide) to go on a cycling holiday in Normandy. Neither
of us (3) (go) to France before, but we (4) (know) some French from our time at
school and we (5) (manage) to brush up on the basics. Now we (6) (wonder) if
we (7) (make) the right decision. We (8) (plan) our route carefully in advance,
but we (9) (forget) one important thing, the weather. It (10) (rain) solidly since
our arrival and that night we (11) (end up) sleeping in the waiting room at a railway
station. Then the next morning as we (12) (ride) down a steep hill my bike (13)
(skid) on the wet road and I (14) (fall off). I (15) (realise) immediately that I (16)
(break) my arm, and after a visit to the local hospital I (17) (catch) the next train

87
to Calais for the ferry home. Unfortunately my parents (18) (not expect) me home for a
fortnight, and (19) (go) away on holiday. So I (20) (spend) a miserable couple of
weeks alone, reading Teach Yourself French.

18. Put the verb in brackets into a suitable tense.

a) In twenty four hours time Ill be relaxing (relax) on my yacht.
b) Theres someone at the door. That (be) the postman.
c) By the time you get back Harry (leave).
d) Its only a short trip. I (be) back in an hour.
e) What (you do) this Saturday evening? Would you like to go
out?
f) By the end of the week we (decide) what to do.
g) It (not be) long before Doctor Smith is here.
h) Ive pressed the red button. Now what (I do)?
i) Its very hot in here. I think I (faint).
j) What (you give) Ann for her birthday? Have you decided
yet?

19. Choose the most appropriate continuation for each sentence.

a) Paulas flight is bound to be late although
A) it arrives at 6.00. B) its due at 6.00. C) its arriving at
6.00.
b) Its no use phoning Bob at the office, he
A) will be leaving. B) is leaving. C) will have left.
c) Everyone says that this year City
A) are going to win the Cup. B) are winning the Cup. C)
win the Cup.
d) I dont feel like visiting my relatives this year so
A) I wont go. B) Im not going. C) I dont go.
e) According to the latest forecast, the tunnel
A) will be finished next year. B) will have been finished
next year. C) is finishing next year.
f) You can borrow this calculator, I
A) am not going to need it. B) wont have been needing it.
C) am not needing it.
g) Im sorry dinner isnt ready yet, but it

88
 A) is going to be ready in a minute. B) will have been
ready in a minute. C) will be ready in a minute.
h) Can you send me the results as soon as you
A) hear anything? B) are hearing anything? C) will have
heard anything?
i) You can try asking Martin for help but
A) it wont do you any good. B) its not doing you any
good. C) it wont be doing you any good.
j) Dont worry about the mistake you made, nobody
A) will notice. B) is noticing. C) will be noticing.

20. Rewrite each sentence, beginning as shown, so that the meaning stays the same.
a) I dont suppose you have heard the news.
You wont have heard the news.
b) The Prime Minister expects a victory for his party.
The Prime Minister believes that
c) A new manager will take Mr Browns place in the new year.
Mr Brown is
d) Ive been in this company for three years, come the end of the
month.
By the end of the month I ...
e) Why dont you come to see us during lunch?
Why dont you come to see us when we
f) What exactly do you intend to do?
What exactly are you ..
g) The arrival of the train has been delayed, Im afraid.
The train will ..
h) Lets leave at the end of the next lecture.
As soon as ..
i) There will be a team members meeting tomorrow.
The team members .
j) This book will take me two years to write.
In two years time ..

21. Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the word in capitals. Do not change
the word in any way.

89
 a) What time is the train for Nottingham? LEAVE
What time does the train for Nottingham leave?
b) What do you intend to do now? GOING

c) Youll find me waiting outside the station. BE

d) Who will be your assistant on this project? WORKING

e) Scientists are on the point of making a vital ABOUT
breakthrough.

f) Maria is pregnant again. HAVE

g) Ill be home late. UNTIL

h) No one knows who is going to win the match. WHAT

i) David is bound to be here on time. WONT

j) Mary and Alans wedding is next weekend. MARRIED

22. Decide whether the pairs of sentences A) and B) could be equally acceptable in
the context given, or whether one is more appropriate.
a) You cant leave early,
A) were having a meeting.
B) were going to have a meeting.
(both acceptable, but A more appropriate)
b) Weve run out of fuel.
A) What are we doing now?
B) What are we going to do now?
c) Oh dear, Ive broken the vase.
A) What will your mother say?
B) What is your mother going to say?
d) According to the weather forecast,
A) itll rain tomorrow.

90
 B) its going to rain tomorrow.
e) Id like to call round and see you.
A) Whatll you be doing in the morning?
B) What are you doing in the morning?
f) Ive got nothing to do tomorrow so
A) Ill get up late.
B) Im going to get up late.
g) Its my eighteenth birthday next month so
A) Im having a party.
B) Ill be having a party.
h) Why dont you come with us?
A) Itll be a great trip.
B) Its going to be a great trip.
i) When you get to the airport
A) someone will wait for you.
B) someone will be waiting for you.
j) Shut up, will you!
A) Im getting angry in a minute.
B) Im going to get angry in a minute.

23. Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the word or words in capitals. Do not
change the words in any way.
a) I intended to call you yesterday, but I forgot. GOING
I was going to call you yesterday, but I forgot.
b) We used to spend Sunday afternoons working in WOULD
the garden.

c) Paul had the irritating habit of making trouble. ALWAYS

d) Diana wasnt always as rude as that. BE

e) I felt happy about the improvement in Jeans BETTER
condition.

f) I wasnt very keen on sport in those days. USE

91
 g) I might possibly go to the theatre tonight. WAS

h) I had to go past your house so I decided to drop in. PASSING

i) Susan booked out before we got to her hotel. BY THE
TIME

j) What did you do at the moment of the explosion? WHEN

24. Put each verb in brackets into a suitable past tense. Only use the past perfect
where this is absolutely necessary.
Harry went back to the camp the following morning, but it was in some confusion.
Soldiers (1) were wandering (wander) around carrying equipment from one place to another, but
there (2) (not seem) to be any purpose to what they (3) (do). Harry (4)
(never be) in an army camp before, but it (5) (not take) a genius to realise that most of
the officers (6) (take) the first opportunity to abandon the men and head for safety. He
(7) (try) to phone the newspaper, but something (8) (happen) to the telephone
lines. He (9) (try) to find out what exactly (10) (go on), when the first plane (11)
(fly) low over the camp. A wooden building a few hundred yards away suddenly (12)
(disappear) in an explosion of flame. Before long bombs (13) (explode) all
around him, and then everything (14) (go) quiet. The planes (15) (vanish) as
suddenly as they (16) (appear). Smoke (17) (rise) from burning buildings. A
dead man (18) (lie) next to Harry, the first dead person he (19) (ever see). And
suddenly it (20) (begin) to rain.

92
 MODAL AUXILIARIES

General characteristics of modal verbs

1. Which verbs are modal auxiliaries and what they do?

Verbs like can and may are called modal auxiliaries, though we often refer to them
simply as modal verbs or modals. We frequently use modals when we are concerned with our
relationship with someone else. We may, for example, ask for permission to do something; grant
permission to someone; give or receive advice; make or respond to requests and offers, etc. We
can express different levels of politeness both by the forms we choose and the way we say
things.
Modals sharing the same grammatical characteristics are:
can could
may might
will would
shall should
must
ought to
Verbs which share some of the grammatical characteristics of modals are: need, dare,
used to.
By comparison, need to and dare to are full verbs.
Modals have two major functions which can be defined as primary and secondary.

2. Primary function of modal verbs

In their primary function, modal verbs closely reflect the meanings often given first in
most dictionaries, so that:
- can/could relate mainly to ability: I can lift 25 kg./I can type.
- may/might relate mainly to permission: You may leave early.
- will/would relate mainly to prediction: It will rain soon.
- shall after I/we relates mainly to prediction: Can we find our way home? Im sure
we shall.
- should/ought to relate mainly to escapable obligation or duty: You should do (or
ought to do) as youre told.
- must relates mainly to inescapable obligation: You must be quiet.
- neednt relates to absence of obligation: You neednt wait.

93
 3. Secondary function of modal verbs
In their secondary function, nine of the modal auxiliaries (not shall) can be used to
express the degree of certainty/uncertainty a speaker feels about a possibility. They can be
arranged on a scale from the greatest uncertainty (might) to the greatest certainty (must). The
order of modals between might and must is not fixed absolutely. It varies according to situation.
For example, one arrangement might be:
might very uncertain
may
could
can be right
You should
ought to have been right
would
will
must almost certain
You are right cetain

4. Some ways in which modals resemble be, have, do

Structurally, modal auxiliaries resemble the auxiliaries be, have and do in some ways and
differ completely from them in others. Some of the most important similarities are noted in this
section and some differences are explained in section 5.
4.1 The negative
The negative is formed (as it is for be, have and do) by the addition of not after the
modal. In informal spoken English not is often reduced to the unemphatic nt:
be (is) not (is)nt
have (have) not (have)nt
do (do) not (do)nt
can cannot cant
could could not couldnt
may may not -
might might not mightnt
will will not wont
would would not wouldnt
shall shall not shant
should should not shouldnt

94
 must must not mustnt
ought to ought not to oughtnt to
need need not neednt
dare dare not darent

4.2 Questions
Yes/No questions are formed as for be, have and do. We begin with the modal, followed
by the subject and then the main verb:
May we leave early?
In question-word questions, the question-word precedes the modal:
When may we leave?
With Yes/No questions, the modal used in the answer is normally the same as the one
used in the question:
Can you come and see me tomorrow? Yes, I can./No, I cant.
Modals also behave like be, have and do in tag questions:
You can do it, cant you?

4.3 Negative questions

As with be, have and do, the full form of negative questions with modals requires not
after the subject (Can you not help me?). This is formal and rare. Contracted forms are normally
used:
Cant you help me?

5. Some ways in which modals differ from be, have, do

5.1 Defective verbs
Modals are sometimes called defective verbs because they lack forms ordinary full verbs
have. For example:
1) Modals cannot be used as infinitives (compare to be, to have,
to do). If ever we need an infinitive, we have to use another
verb:
If you want to apply for this job, you have to be able to type at least 60
words a minute. (Not *to before can or can alone)
2) We do not use a to-infinitive after modals (compare be to,
have to). Only the bare infinitive can be used after modals
(except ought, which is always followed by to):
You must/mustnt phone him this evening. (Not *to phone)

95
 3) Modals have no ing form (compare being, having, doing).
Instead of ing, we have to use another verb or verb-phrase:
I couldnt go/I wasnt able to go home by bus, so I took a taxi. (=Not
being able to go home by bus, I took a taxi.)
4) Modals have no (e)s in the 3rd person singular (compare is,
has, does):
The boss/He can see you now. (No s on the end of can)
5) Each modal has a basic meaning of its own. By comparison,
as auxiliaries, be/have/do have only a grammatical function.

5.2 One modal at a time

Only one modal can be used in a single verb phrase:
We may call the doctor.
We must call the doctor.
But not may and must together.
If we wish to combine the two ideas in the above sentences, we have to find a suitable
paraphrase:
It may be necessary (for us) to call a doctor.
By comparison, we can use e.g. be and have together:
It has been necessary to call a doctor.

6. Forms and uses of modals compared with verb tenses

The labels we use to describe the verb tenses (e.g. present, progressive, past, perfect)
cannot easily be applied to modals.
6.1 Present
All modals can refer to the immediate present or the future, therefore present is not
always a reliable label:
I can/may (etc.) phone now. I can/may (etc.) phone tomorrow.

6.2 Progressive
There is no progressive form for modals. But we can put the verb that follows a modal
into the progressive form:
Meg is phoning her fianc. (present progressive)
Meg may be phoning her fianc. (modal + be + verb-ing)
Meg may have been phoning her fianc. (modal + have been + -ing)
It is the phoning that is or was in progress, not may.

96
 6.3 Past
Would, could, might and should can be said to be past in form, but this usually has little
to do with their use and meaning. They can be called past when used in indirect speech:
He says you can/will/may leave early. (present)
He said you could/would/might leave early. (past)

Might can have a past reference in historical narrative:

In the 14th century a peasant might have the right to graze pigs on common land.
However, might usually expresses more uncertainty than may:
I might see you tomorrow.
is less certain than:
I may see you tomorrow.

Could sometimes expresses ability in the past:

He could (or was able to) swim five miles when he was a boy.
but could is not possible in:
I managed to/was able to finish the job yesterday.
However, couldnt and wasnt able to are usually interchangeable:
I couldnt/wasnt able to finish the job yesterday.
The other main use of could, as a more polite alternative to can in requests, has nothing to
do with time:
Could you help me please?

Would expresses the past in:

When we were young we would spend our holidays in Brighton.
Otherwise, would and should have special uses.

Must can express past time only in indirect speech; otherwise it has to be replaced by
have to:
He told us we must wait (or we had to wait) until we were called.
She asked her boss if she must work (or had to work) overtime.

6.4 Perfect and past

Forms with modal + have + past participle or with modal + have been + progressive are
not necessarily the equivalent of the present perfect. The modal refers to the present, while have
+ past participle refers to the past. So, depending on context,

97
 You must have seen him can mean:
I assume (now) you have seen him. (i.e. before now; equivalent to the present perfect)
I assume (now) you saw him. (i.e. then; equivalent to the past)
I assume (now) you had seen him. (i.e. before then; equivalent to the past perfect)

6.5 Modal + be/have been + progressive

Two observations need to be made here:
1. Modal + be/have been + progressive is not always possible in the primary
function. For example:
He cant leave yet. (= its not possible for him to leave yet)
is quite different from the secondary function:
He cant be leaving yet. (= I dont think he is)
But compare the primary and secondary functions of must in:
Primary: You must be working when the inspector comes in. (i.e. it is necessary (for
you) to be working.)
Secondary: You must be joking! (i.e. Im almost certain you are joking.)
2. Occasionally, in the primary function, a modal + be + progressive has a
softening effect similar to the use of the future progressive. So:
We must/may/should (etc.) be leaving soon.
is more polite than:
We must/may/should (etc.) leave soon.

Uses of modals to express ability

1. Can = ability: the present

1.1 Can + verb (natural ability)
Natural ability can be expressed as follows:
Can you run 1500 metres in 5 minutes? (=Are you able to run? Are you capable of
running?)
Can and be able to are generally interchangeable to describe natural ability, though able
to is less common:
Bill is only 9 months old and he can already stand up.
Bill is only 9 months old and he is already able to stand up.

98
 However, be able to would be unusual when we are commenting on something that is
happening at the time of speaking:
Look! I can stand on my hands!

1.2 Can + verb (learned ability or know-how

Learned ability can be expressed as follows:
Can you drive a car? (= Do you know how to? Have you learnt how to?)
I can/cannot/cant drive a car.
Verbs such as drive, play, speak, understand indicate skills or learned abilities. Can, and
to a lesser extent, be able to, often combine with such verbs and may generally be used in the
same way as the simple present tense:
I can/cant play chess. (= I play/dont play chess.)

2. Could/couldnt = ability: the past

2.1 Past ability (natural and learned) expressed with could
Could, couldnt or was/were (not) able to can describe natural and learned ability in the
past, not related to any specific event:
Jim could/couldnt run very fast when he was a boy.
Barbara could/couldnt sing very well when she was younger.
Jim was able to/was unable to run fast when he was a boy.
We also often use used to be able to to describe past abilities:
I used to be able to hold my breath for one minute under water.
Could and was (or would be) able to occur after reporting verbs:
He said he could see me next week.

2.2 The past: could + verb: achievement after effort

Could and was/were able to can be interchangeable when we refer to the acquisition of a
skill after effort:
I tried again and found I could swim/was able to swim.

2.3 Specific achievement in the past

Could cannot normally be used when we are describing the successful completion of a
specific action; was/were able to, managed to or succeeded in + -ing must be used instead:
In the end they were able to rescue/managed to rescue/succeeded in rescuing the cat on
the roof.
If an action was not successfully completed, we may use couldnt:

99
 They tried for hours, but they couldnt rescue the cat. (or werent able to, didnt manage
to, etc.)
Could can be used when we are asking about a specific action (as opposed to describing
it):
Could they rescue the cat on the roof? (= did they manage to?)
-No, they couldnt. It was too difficult.
However, an affirmative response requires an alternative to could:
-Yes, they managed to. (Not *could)

3. Can/could + verbs of perception

Verbs of perception like see, hear, smell, rarely occur in the progressive. Can, and to a
lesser extent, be able to, combine with such verbs to indicate that we can see, hear, etc.
something happening at the moment of speaking. In such cases can has a grammatical function
equivalent to the simple present in statements and to do/does in questions and negatives:
I can smell something burning. (= I smell something burning.)
I cant see anyone. (= I dont see anyone.)
Could can be used in place of the simple past in the same way:
I listened carefully, but couldnt hear anything. (= I listened carefully, but didnt hear
anything.)
Can/could can be used with verbs suggesting understanding:
I can/cant understand why he decided to retire at 50.
I could/couldnt understand why he had decided to retire at 50.
Cant/couldnt cannot be replaced by the simple present or simple past when conveying
the idea beyond (my) control (impossible):
I cant (couldnt) imagine what it would be like to live in a hot climate. (Not *I
dont/didnt imagine)

4. Ability in tenses other than present and past

If we need to express ability in other tense combinations (e.g. the future or the present
perfect), then the appropriate forms of be able to, manage to or succeed in must be used:
Ill be able to pass my driving test after Ive had a few lessons.
Ive been trying to contact him, but I havent managed to.
Can, referring to ability, skill, or perception, is usable in clauses after if and when to refer
to the future:
If you can pass (or are able to pass) your driving test at the first attempt, Ill be very
surprised.

100
 5. Can/could = capability/possibility
Can + be + adjective or noun has the effect of is sometimes or is often and refers to
capability or possibility. It can be replaced by be capable of + -ing, but not be able to:
It can be quite cold in Cairo in January. (= It is sometimes or often quite cold.)
He can be very naughty. (or a very naughty boy)
(When used for people, the effect is generally negative, even when the adjective is
favourable: She can look quite attractive when she wants to which implies she doesnt usually
look attractive.)
Could has the same effect in the past:
It could be quite cold in Cairo in January when I lived there. (= It was sometimes or
often quite cold.)
Could can also have a future reference in this kind of context:
It could be quite cold when you get to Cairo.

Uses of modals to express permission and prohibition

1. Asking for permission/responding: can/could/may/might

Requests for permission can be graded on a hesitancy scale, ranging from a blunt
request to an extremely hesitant one. Requests for permission can refer to the present or future.
The basic forms are:
Can
Could
May
Might
1. Can is the commonest and most informal:
Can I borrow your umbrella (please)?
A few (old-fashioned) native speakers still hold that can is the equivalent of be able to
and therefore may must be used instead. The idea of e.g. asking for a favour is less strong in can
than in could/may/might.
2. Could is more hesitant and polite than can. We often use it when we are not sure
permission will be granted:
Could I borrow your umbrella (please)?
3. May is more formal, polite and respectful than can and could:

101
 May I borrow your umbrella (please)?
4. Might is the most hesitant, polite and respectful and is rather less common than the
other three:
Might I borrow your umbrella (please)?
In practice, can, could and may are often interchangeable in neutral requests.
Common responses with modals are: e.g.
- affirmative: Of course you can/may. (Not *could/might)
- negative: No, you cant/may not. (Not *could not/might not)
Numerous non-modal responses are possible, ranging from the polite Of course
(affirmative), Im afraid not, Id rather you didnt (negative) to blunt refusal like Certainly not.
A polite refusal is usually accompanied by some kind of explanation (Im afraid you cant
because).
Permission to ask an indiscreet question may be requested with the formulas if I may ask
and (more tentative) if I might ask:
How much did you pay for this house if I may/might ask?

2. Granting and refusing permission

Permission can be granted or refused as follows:
You can(not)/may (not) watch TV as long as you like.
You may/may not carries the authority of the speaker and is the equivalent of I
(personally) give you permission. You can/cannot is more general and does not necessarily
imply personal permission. Permission issuing from some other authority can be granted or
withheld more emphatically with be allowed to, be permitted to, and be forbidden to, as follows:
You can/cannot or Youre allowed/not allowed to
You can/cannot or Youre permitted/not permitted to
You mustnt or Youre forbidden to
Granting/refusing permission is not confined to 1st and 2nd persons:
John can/may/cant/may not/mustnt stay up late.
This can be extended to:
- rule-making e.g. for games: Each player may choose five cards.
- other contexts: Candidates may not attempt more than three questions.
Permission may also be given by a speaker with shall in the 2nd and 3rd persons (formal
and literary):
You shall do as you please. (i.e. you have my permission to)
He shall do as he pleases. (i.e. he has my permission to)
Permission may also be denied with shant in British English only:

102
 If you dont behave yourself, you shant go out.
If he doesnt behave himself, he shant go out.
Numerous alternative forms are available to express anything from mild refusal (Id
rather you didnt if you dont mind) to strong prohibition (I forbid you to). Formal and strong
statements with non-modal forms are often found in public notices:
Thank you for not smoking. (i.e. please dont)
Passengers are requested to remain seated till the aircraft stops.
Trespassing is strictly forbidden.

3. Permission/prohibition in other tenses

The gaps in the defective verbs may and must can be filled with the verb phrases be
allowed to and the more formal be permitted to. Examples of other tenses:
present perfect: Mrs James is in hospital and hasnt been allowed to have any
visitiors.
past We were allowed to stay up till 11 last night.
Could can only express past permission in general:
When we were children we could watch (or were allowed to watch) TV whenever we
wanted to.

Uses of modals to express certainty and possibility

1. Certainty, possibility and deduction

If we are certain of our facts, we can make statements with be or any other full verb:
Jane is (or works) at home. (a certain fact)
If we are referring to possibility, we can use combinations of may, might or could + verb:
Jane may/might/could be (or work) at home. (a possibility)
We may draw a distinction between the expression of possibility in this way (which
allows for speculation and guessing) and deduction based on evidence. Deduction, often
expressed with must (affirmative) and cant (negative), suggests near-certainty:
Janes light is on. She must be at home. She cant be out.

103
 2. Forms of tenses (certainty) versus modals (possibility)
certain
(expressed by verb tenses)
He is at home.
He will be at home tomorrow.
He was at home yesterday.
He leaves at 9.
He will leave tomorrow.
He has left.
He left last night.
He will have left by 9.
He is working today.
He will be working today.
He was working today.
He has been working all day.
He will have been working all day.
possible/less than certain
(expressed by may, might and could)
He may/might/could be at home (now).
He may/might/could be at home tomorrow.
He may/might/could have been at home yesterday.
He may/might/could leave at 9.
He may/might/could leave tomorrow.
He may/might/could have left.
He may/might/could have left last night.
He may/might/could have left by 9.
He may/might/could be working today.
He may/might/could be working today.
He may/might/could have been working today.
He may/might/could have been working all day.
He may/might/could have been working all day.

3. Notes on modal forms expressing possibility

3.1 Should be and ought to be to express possibility

In addition to the above examples, we can also express possibility with should be and
ought to be:
John should be/ought to be at home.
John should be/ought to be working.
John should have left/ought to have left by tomorrow.
However, because should and ought to also express obligation, they can be ambiguous,
so are not used as much as may/might/could to express possibility. For example, He should have
arrived (ought to have arrived) yesterday could mean I think he probably has arrived or He
failed in his duty to arrive yesterday.

3.2 Questions about possibility

When we are asking about possibility, we may use Might?, Could? and sometimes
Can? and (rarely) May?. (We do not normally use should and ought to in affirmative
questions about possibility because of the risk of confusion with obligation):
Might/could/can this be true?
Might/could he know the answer?

104
 Might/could/can he still be working? (or be still working)
Might/could he be leaving soon?
Might/could/can he have been waiting long?
Might/could he have left by tomorrow?

Can is not always possible in questions like these, probably because of the risk of
confusion with can = ability. However, in questions like Can this be true?, can often indicates
disbelief. Can is possible in some indirect questions:
I wonder where he can have left the key?

3.3 Negative questions about possibility

Negative questions about possibility can be asked with Mightnt and Couldnt, May not
can sometimes be used, as can Shouldnt and Oughtnt to:
Mightnt he be at home now?
Couldnt he know the answer?

3.4 Negative possibility

Negative possibility is expressed with may not, mightnt, cant and couldnt, but not
usually with shouldnt and oughtnt to:
He may not be (or have been) here.
He may not be (or have been) working late.
Cant + be often suggests disbelief:
What youre saying cant be true! I can hardly belief it!
Can may be used in negative indirect questions:
I dont think he can have left home yet.
Or in semi-negatives: He can hardly be at home yet. Its only 6.

4. Modals on a scale of certainty

Degrees of certainty can be expressed on a scale:
He is at home. (= its a certain fact: non-modal be)
He could be at home. (=doubtful possibility)
He should be at home. (= doubtful possibility)
He ought to be at home. (= doubtful possibility)
He may be at home. (= its possible, but uncertain)
He might be at home. (= less certain than may)

105
 He isnt at home. (= its a certain fact )
He cant be at home. (= its nearly certain)
He couldnt be at home. ( = more tentative than cant)
He may not be at home. (= possible, but uncertain)
He mightnt be at home. (= less certain than may not)
In speech, the element of doubt is increased with heavy stress:
He `could be at home. (i.e. but I very much doubt it)
Particular stress is also used in exclamations:
It `cant be true! You `cant mean it! You `must be mistaken!

5. Certain and uncertain responses to questions

Yes/No answers to questions can reflect varying degrees of certainty felt by the speaker.
For example, a certain question may elicit an uncertain answer:
Does he like ice-cream? (direct question)
- Yes, he does./No, he doesnt. (certain answer)
- He might (do). He may (do). He could (do). (possibility)
- He mightnt. He may not. (uncertainty)
Similarly, an uncertain question may elicit a certain answer:
Can he still be working? (disbelief)
Mightnt he be working? (possibility)
- Yes, he is./No, he isnt. (certain response)
- He might (be). He may (be). (possibility)
- He may not be. I dont think he can be. (possibility)
- He cant be. He couldnt be. (disbelief)
Of course, any other answer, not necessarily involving the use of a modal verb, may be
available, depending on circumstances:
- I dont know. Im not sure. I dont think so, etc.
Be and have been are normally used in answers to questions with be:
Is he ill? He may be.
Was he ill? He may have been.
Do often replaces other verbs:
Will you catch an early train? I may do.
Has he received my message? He could have/could have done.

106
 Uses of modals to express deduction

1. Examples of modal forms for deduction

must and cant
present reference:
Certainty expressed by verb tenses:
He is here. He lives here. He is leaving.
He isnt here. He doesnt live here. He isnt leaving.
Deduction expressed by must and cant:
He must be here. He must live here. He must be leaving.
He cant be here. He cant live here. He cant be leaving.
perfect and past reference:
Certainty expressed by verb tenses:
He was here. He has left./He left early. He has been/was working late.
Deduction expressed by must + have + past participle and cant/couldnt + have + past
participle:
He must have been here. He must have left early. He must have been working late.
He cant have been here. He cant have left early. He cant have been working late.
He couldnt have been here. He couldnt have left early. He couldnt have been working
late.

2. Expressing deduction with must and cant

The distinction between possibility (often based on speculation) and deduction (based on
evidence) has already been drawn. The strongest and commonest forms to express deduction are
must and cant. For teaching and learning purposes, it is necessary to establish the following
clearly:
1. cant (not *mustnt) is the negative of must
2. cant have + 3rd form (not *must have + 3rd form) is the negative of must have + 3rd
form

Have to/have got to (affirmative) can express deduction in AmE:

This has to be/has got to be the most stupid film I have ever seen.
Compare deduction (secondary use of modals) in:

107
 He cant be thirsty. He must be hungry.
He cant have been thirsty. He must have been hungry.
with inescapable obligation (primary use of modals) in:
He mustnt be careless. He must be careful.
He didnt have to be at the dentists. He had to be at the doctors.

We also use may/might/could and should/ought to for making deductions (as well as for
expressing possibility); and, when we are almost certain of our evidence, we may use will and
wont:
This will be Roland. I can hear him at the door.
That will have been Roland. He said hed be back at 7.
That wont be Roland. Im not expecting him yet.
That wont have been Roland. Im not expecting him till 7.
Again, it is possible to give varying responses to a question:
Is Roland in his room?
- Yes, he is./No, he isnt. (certainty)
- Yes, he must be. I heard him come in. (deduction)
- No, he wont be. He had to go out. (near-certainty)
- No, he cant be. Theres no light in his room. (deduction)

Uses of modals for offers, requests, suggestions

1. General information about offers, requests and suggestions

Modal verbs are used extensively for language acts or functions such as offering, asking
for things, expressing preferences. Fine shades of meaning are conveyed not only by the words
themselves, but particularly by stress, intonation, and gesture. (Note that we can also make
suggestions, etc. with non-modal forms, e.g. Have a drink., Lets go to the zoo.). In this section,
offers, requests, etc. are considered from six points of view under two headings:
Things and substances
- Offering things and substances + appropriate responses
- Requests for things and substances + appropriate responses
Actions
- Making suggestions, inviting actions + appropriate responses

108
 - Requesting others to do things for you + appropriate responses
- Offering to do things for others + appropriate responses
- Suggestions that include the speaker.

2. Things and substances: offers with modals

2.1 Typical offers inviting Yes/No responses
Can/Could I offer you a sandwich/some coffee?
Will/Wont you have a sandwich/some coffee?
Would/Wouldnt you like a sandwich/some coffee?

2.2 Typical responses

There are many non-modal forms (Yes please, No thank you, etc.) and a few modal ones:
Yes, Id like one/some please. Yes, Id love one/some please.
However, we dont usually repeat the modal when we refuse an offer. A reply like No, I
wont in answer to Will you have? could sound rude.

2.3 Typical offers with What

What will you have? What would you like to have?
What would you prefer? What would you rather have?

3. Things and substances: requests with modals

3.1 Typical requests inviting Yes/No responses
Can/Could/May/Might I have a sandwich/some coffee (please)?

3.2 Typical responses

Of course you can/may. (not *could/might)
No, you cant/may not (Im afraid).
These answers with modals would be likely where e.g. a parent is addressing a child.
Adult responses would be e.g. Certainly or Im afraid there isnt any, etc.

4. Actions: suggestions/invitations with modals

4.1 Typical suggestions inviting Yes/No responses
Will you/Wont you come for a walk (with me)?
Would you/wouldnt you like to come for a walk (with me)?

109
 4.2 Typical responses
(Yes.) Id like to. Id love to.
(No.) Id prefer not to, thank you.

4.3 Typical inquiry with What to invite suggestions

What would you like to do?

5. Actions: using modals to ask someone to do something

5.1 Typical requests inviting Yes/No responses
Will you?, Would you? in these requests refer to willingness. Can you?, Could
you? refer to ability.
Will you (please) open the window (for me)?
Can/Could you (please) open the window (for me)?
Would you (please) open the window (for me)?
Would you like to open the window (for me)?
Would you mind opening the window (for me)?
Will/Would you sounds even more polite with the addition of kindly and can/could with
the addition of possibly:
Will/Would you kindly? Can/Could you possibly?
We cannot use May you? in requests for help.

5.2 Typical responses

Yes, of course (I will). No, Im afraid I cant (at the moment).

6. Actions: using modals to offer to do things for others

6.1 Typical offers to do things
Offers beginning Shall I ?, Shall we ? are very common:
Can I/Could I/Shall I open the window (for you)?
Would you like me to open the window (for you)?
Thats the phone. Ill get it for you, (shall I)?
What shall/can I do for you?
And note very polite offers with may in e.g.:
May I take your coat?

110
 6.2 Typical responses
The usual responses are Yes please, No thank you, or tag responses like
Can/Could/Would you? Thats very kind, but not Yes, you can/No, you cant, which could
sound rude.

7. Actions: suggestions that include the speaker

7.1 Typical suggestions inviting Yes/No responses
Shall we go for a swim? We can/could/might go for a swim.

7.2 Typical responses

Yes, lets, (shall we)?
No, Id rather we didnt./No, Id rather not.

7.3 Typical inquiries with What

What shall/can/could we do this afternoon?

Advisability, duty/obligation and necessity

1. Examples of forms expressing advisability, etc.

present advisability
I should stop smoking.
I ought to stop smoking.
Id better stop smoking.
(I still smoke.)
past advisability not acted upon
I should have stopped smoking.
I ought to have stopped smoking.
(I was advised to stop but
ignored the advice.)

present inescapable obligation past inescapable obligation

I must stop smoking. I had to stop smoking.
(I am obliged to stop smoking (I was obliged to stop smoking
and I shall: it is my duty.) and I did: it was my duty.)

2. Advisability necessity: a scale of choice

We can use modals and other verbs to express advisability on a scale which reflects a
degree of choice. This scale may vary according to the subjective point of view of the speaker.

111
 advisability should: generally means in my opinion, it is advisable to or it is
(your) duty.
ought to: can be slightly stronger than should in that it is sometimes
used to refer to regulations or duties imposed from the
outside: You ought to vote (= it is your public duty).
Should is more likely than ought to in questions and
negatives.
had better: is stronger than should and ought to. It is used to
recommend future action on a particular occasion, not in
general. It carries a hint of threat, warning or urgency:
Youd better see a doctor.
be to: can be used for instructions:
Youre to report for duty at 7.
need (to): (= it is necessary to).
have to: is an alternative to must and fills the gaps in that defective
verb.
have got to: like have to, but more informal.
necessity must: like have to and have got to, suggests inescapable
obligation. In the speakers opinion there is no choice at all.

3. Must, have to and have got to

As far as meaning is concerned, these three forms are largely interchangeable. However,
there are differences between them. When used in the 1st person, have to and have got to can
refer to an external authority and might be preferable to must in: e.g.
We have to/Weve got to send these VAT forms back before the end of the month. (i.e. we
are required to do so by law)
On the other hand, must can express a speakers authority over himself and might be
preferable to have to/have got to in:
I/We really must do something about the weeds in this garden. (i.e. but I dont have to
account to anybody if I dont)
In other persons (you, etc.) must always conveys more strongly than have to the idea of
inescapable obligation or urgency in: e.g.
You must phone home at once. Its urgent.
Have to and have got to are interchangeable for single actions:
I have to/have got to check the oil level in the car.

112
 However they are not always interchangeable when we refer to habitual actions. The
following are possible:
I have to/I have got to leave home every morning at 7.30.
But when one-word adverbs of frequency (always, sometimes, etc.) are used have to is
always preferable to have got to:
I often have to get up at 5. Do you ever have to get up at 5?
Must (not have to or have got to) is used in public notices or documents expressing
commands:
Cyclists must dismount. Candidates must choose five questions.
We generally prefer Must you? to Do you have to?/Have you got to ? to mean
Cant you stop yourself?
Must you always interrupt me when Im speaking?
Must is also used in pressing invitations, such as:
You really must come and see us some time.
and in emphatic advice, such as:
You really must take a holiday this year.
Even when heavily stressed, these uses of must do not mean or imply inescapable
obligation.

4. Need as a modal
Need has only some of the characteristics of modal verbs in that it occurs in questions,
Need you go?, and negatives, You neednt go. In Yes/No questions, a negative answer is often
expected:
Need you leave so soon? (= surely not/I hope not)
Yes/No questions with Need? can be answered with must or neednt:
Need I type this letter again? Yes, you must./No, you neednt.

Need + have + past participle behaves in the same way:

Need you have told him about my plans?
You neednt have told him about my plans.

Yes/No questions with Need have ? can be answered:

Yes, I had to. (no choice)
No, I neednt have. (I had a choice)

113
 Need as a modal verb also occurs in combination with negative-type adverbs like hardly,
never, seldom, rarely and scarcely to make what are effectively negative statements:
She need never know what you have just told me.
I need hardly tell you how badly I feel about her departure.
All you need do is to take a taxi from the airport. (i.e. you need to do nothing except take
a taxi)
Need can also occur in clauses with a negative main clause:
I dont think you need leave yet.

Need as a modal verb is mostly used in the negative (I neednt go) to express lack of
necessity. Otherwise we generally use the full verb need to (used like any regular verb):
I need to/I needed to go to the dentist this morning.
I dont need to/I didnt need to go to the dentist.
When will you next need to go to the dentist?
Why did you need to go to the dentist? Etc.

5. Advisability/necessity: the present and future

Should, ought to, etc. refer to present time (except in indirect speech). With the addition
of adverbials such as this afternoon, tomorrow, etc., they refer to future time.
should
ought to
had better
have to be at the office (before 9 tomorrow)
I have got to leave (before 9 tomorrow)
must
be leaving (before 9 tomorrow)

Will/shall will combine with have to and need to (full verb) for explicit future reference:
need to be at the office before 9 (tomorrow).
London before 9 (tomorrow).
Ill leave
London before 9 (tomorrow).
have to be leaving

6. Advisability/necessity: the perfect and past

114
 Reference to the past can be made in the following ways:
should have been at the office before 9.
London before 9.
I left
London before 9.
ought to have been leaving
be at the office before 9.
London before 9.
I had to leave
London before 9.
be leaving

Should have and ought to have could be followed (here) by but I wasnt/didnt to suggest
that whatever was advisable or necessary did not happen:
I should have left London before 9, but I didnt.
Had to suggests that the action was performed in the past because this was necessary. It
could be followed by and I was/did:
I had to leave London before 9 and I did.
The form had got to also exists, but it is not always suitable; had to is generally preferred.

When other tenses are required, appropriate forms of have to must be used to fill the gaps
of the defective modal must:
I have had to remind him several times to return my book.
Because of the bus strike Ive been having to walk to work every day.
The reason for our late arrival was that we had had to wait for hours while they checked
the plane before take-off.
If he had asked me, I would have had to tell him the truth.

Lack of necessity, inadvisability, prohibition

1. Examples of modal forms to express inadvisability, etc.

present lack of necessity
You neednt go there.
Or: You dont need to go there.
You dont have to go there.
You havent got to go there.
past lack of necessity
You neednt have gone there.
(= you went there unnecessarily)
You didnt have to go there.
Or: You didnt need to go there.
(= there was no necessity to go there,
whether you did go or not)

115
 present inadvisability past inadvisability, not acted upon
You shouldnt start smoking. You shouldnt have started smoking.
You ought not to start smoking. You oughtnt to have started smoking.
(but e.g. you ignored this advice)

present prohibition failure to observe a prohibition

You cant park here. You shouldnt have parked there.
You mustnt park here. You ought not to have parked there.

Shouldnt have and oughtnt to have are not ambiguous in the way that should have and
ought to have can sometimes be ambiguous.
Have to can replace must in the present, but dont/didnt have to cannot replace mustnt
in the present and past.

2. Lack of necessity: neednt/dont have to/havent got to

Lack of necessity can be expressed by neednt, dont have to and the more informal
havent got to (where got is often stressed):
You neednt work such long hours.
You dont have to work such long hours.
You havent got to work such long hours.
(i.e. you can work fewer hours, if you choose to)
The above forms can be used to express the subjective point of view of the speaker that
the listener has a choice or has permission not to do something. Note that havent to is a regional
BE variation of dont have to.

3. Inadvisability prohibition: a scale of choice

We can use modals and other verbs to express inadvisability prohibition on a scale
which reflects a degree of choice. This scale may vary according to the subjective view of the
speaker. This is particularly the case when we are addressing others directly with you, or when
we are referring to others with he, she, and they. At one end of the scale the advice (however
strong) can be ignored. At the other end of the scale, the prohibition is total and, in the speakers
opinion, there is no choice at all.

inadvisability shouldnt: generally means in my opinion, it is inadvisable to/

it is (your) duty not to.

116
 oughtnt to: can be slightly stronger than shouldnt. It is
sometimes used to refer to regulations and duties
imposed from the outside. You oughtnt to park so
near the crossing suggests its your public duty not
to do this.
had better not: is stronger than shouldnt and oughtnt to. It is used
to recommend future action on a particular
occasion, not in general. It carries a hint of threat,
warning, or urgency: Youd better not overtake
here!
be to: can be used for instructions
cant: is nearly as strong as mustnt to suggest something
is prohibited: You cant park here.
prohibition mustnt: conveys absolute prohibition. In the opinion of the
speaker, there is no choice at all. This opinion may
be subjective or may be supported by some outside
authority, as in You mustnt turn left. (e.g. theres a
road sign forbidding it).

4. Mustnt, neednt, dont have to, havent got to

Though must, have to and have got to are generally interchangeable in the affirmative,
dont have to and havent got to can never replace mustnt to convey prohibition. Like neednt
they convey lack of necessity.
Mustnt conveys the strongest possible opinion of the speaker:
You really mustnt say things like that in front of your mother.
Julian mustnt hitchhike in Turkey on his own.
Prohibition reflecting external authority (e.g. in public notices, documents) is often
expressed as must not (in full):
Life belts must not be removed.
Candidates must not attempt more than four questions.
Havent got to should be avoided with adverbs of frequency (always, sometimes, etc.)
for reasons of style. So:
I neednt always be at the office by 9.
I dont always have to be at the office by 9.
is usually preferred to: I havent always got to be

117
 5. Lack of necessity, etc.: present/future

5.1 Lack of necessity: neednt, dont have to, havent got to

Reference to present or future time can be made as follows. These forms are normally
interchangeable:
neednt be at the office (until 9 tomorrow).
until 9 (tomorrow).
I dont have leave
until 9 (tomorrow)
to be leaving

Havent got to is not generally used with progressive forms.

Wont (and shant in BE) will combine with have to and need to (full verb) for explicit
reference to the future:
I wont need to/have to be at the office before 9 tomorrow.

5.2 Inadvisability/prohibition: shouldnt/oughtnt to/mustnt, etc.

You shouldnt/oughtnt to/cant/mustnt be late for meetings. (present/habitual)
You shouldnt/oughtnt to/had better not/cant/mustnt be late tomorrow. (future)
Shouldnt, oughtnt to, had better not, cant and mustnt are used to refer to the future,
although they do not have future forms. Possible alternatives are:
Shouldnt/oughtnt to/had better not can be replaced by:
It wont be advisable (for her) to play games for the next month.
Cant and mustnt can be replaced by:
We wont be allowed to park here for long.
You will be forbidden to enter the courtroom before 9.30.
Traffic in this street will be prohibited by law.

6. Lack of necessity/inadvisability/prohibition: perfect/past

6.1 Lack of necessity: neednt have, didnt have to, didnt need to
These forms can mean roughly the same thing in: e.g.
I neednt have gone to the office yesterday.
I didnt have to (or I didnt need to) go to the office yesterday.
(have and need are stressed)
(= I went there, but it was unnecessary)

When have and need are unstressed, they mean something different from neednt have:
I didnt have to/I didnt need to go to the office yesterday.
118
(= I knew it was unnecessary and I didnt go)

Because modals are defective, appropriate alternatives must be used in some tenses:
It wouldnt have been necessary to change at Leeds if we had caught the earlier train.
I havent had to cancel my appointment after all.
If he had asked me, I would have had to tell him the truth.

6.2 Inadvisability: shouldnt have and oughtnt to have

Both these forms suggest criticism of an action:
You shouldnt have paid the plumber in advance.
You oughtnt to have paid the plumber in advance.
or failure to observe a prohibition:
You shouldnt have/oughtnt to have stopped on the motorway.

Activities

1. Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the word in capitals, and so that the
meaning stays the same.
a) Im sure thats Marion. WILL
Thatll be Marion.
b) Jim keeps giving me presents. WILL
.
c) It makes no difference if we call it off. MAY
.
d) Dont bother lying to me. HAVE
.
e) The burglar might come back, so change all the locks. CASE
.
f) Although its summer, the temperature is more like winter. MAY
.
g) You should leave before Jack gets back. HAD
.
h) That is not typical of Helens behaviour. WOULDNT

119
 .
i) It would be impossible to tell Sally the truth. POSSIBLY
.

2. Complete each sentence with a suitable word or phrase.

a) What about this meat? Should/Shall I roast it or stew it?
b) Thank you for offering but I possibly accept.
c) Harry studies a lot. He know all the answers.
d) Oh well, things much worse I suppose.
e) Its no use waiting here. We well start walking.
f) Jack refuses. He says its wrong and he do it.
g) Any letters from Italy be for Tina.
h) Cairo be quite cold in winter.
i) I love these trees. Without them the garden the same.
j) Rule 6. No member enter the bar area wearing sports kit.

3. Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the word in capitals, and so that the
meaning stays the same.
a) I expect this beach will be deserted. SHOULD
This beach should be deserted.
b) This climb is possibly dangerous. COULD
..
c) Arthur is sometimes really irritating! CAN
..
d) You cant borrow my car! WONT
..
e) How about going to the theatre instead? COULD
..
f) Do you want me to turn off the oven, or not? SHOULD
..
g) I dont think Harry is likely to resign. WOULD
..
h) Im not sure this isnt the way to Norwich. CANT
..
i) It would be all the same if we gave up now. MIGHT
..

120
 j) Please turn off the light before leaving. SHOULD
..

4. Choose the sentence closest in meaning to the sentence given.

a) Its possible that well know the answers tomorrow.
A) We may know all the answers tomorrow.
B) We should know all the answers tomorrow.
b) I dont think you should ring him now. Its rather late.
A) You might not ring him now. Its rather late.
B) Youd better not ring him now. Its rather late.
c) You neednt come if you dont want to.
A) You wont come if you dont want to.
B) You dont have to come if you dont want to.
d) I think its wrong for you to work so hard.
A) You dont have to work so hard.
B) You shouldnt work so hard.
e) Perhaps these are the keys.
A) These might be the keys.
B) These must be the keys.
f) I know. Why dont we go out to eat instead.
A) I know. We must go out to eat instead.
B) I know. We could go out to eat instead.
g) It would be quite wrong for us to lock the cat in the house for a week.
A) Wed better not lock the cat in the house for a week.
B) We cant lock the cat in the house for a week.
h) Its possible that the decision will be announced next week.
A) The decision might be announced next week.
B) The decision will be announced next week.

5. Complete each sentence with a suitable word or phrase.

a) How funny that you should say that!
b) The heating comes on automatically. You turn it on.
c) The people here be really unfriendly.
d) Of course Ill help! I possibly let you do it on your own.
e) The team good without Sue at centre-forward.
f) Of course you cant sleep if you drink so much coffee!

121
 g) Its a lovely hotel. And the staff more helpful.
h) You be very critical sometimes.
i) George it there if he has stayed there for so long.
j) You right, but I still dont agree with you.

6. Insert the correct form of may/might except in 10 and 36, where a be allowed
form is necessary.
1. It rain, youd better take a coat.
2. He said that it rain.
3. We as well stay here till the weather improves.
4. I borrow your umbrella?
5. You tell me! (I think I have a right to know.)
6. Candidates not bring textbooks into the examination romm.
7. People convicted of an offence (have a right to) appeal.
8. If he knew our address he come and see us.
9. I come in? Please do.
10. When he was a child he (they let him) do exactly as he liked.
11. I think I left my glasses in your office. You ask your secretary to look for them for
me. (request)
12. He be my brother (I admit that he is) but I dont trust him.
13. I never see you again.
14. He be on the next train. We as well wait.
15. If we got there early we get a good seat.
16. The police (have a right to) ask a driver to take a breath test.
17. You ought to buy now; prices go up.
18. Ill wait a week so that he have time to think it over.
19. He isnt going to eat it; I as well give it to the dog.
20. You at least read the letter. (I think you should)
21. You have written. (I am annoyed/disappointed that you didnt.)
22. Wed better be early; there a crowd.
23. Nobody knows how people first came to these islands. They have sailed from
South America on rafts.
24. You (have permission to) use my office.
25. He said that we use his office whenever we liked.
26. I dont think Ill succeed but I as well try.
27. You ought to go to his lectures, you learn something.

122
28. If we can give him a blood transfusion we be able to save his life.
29. Two parallel white lines in the middle of the road mean that you not overtake.
30. If I bought a lottery ticket I win $1000.
31. If you said that, he be very offended.
32. I wonder why they didnt go. The weather have been too bad.
33. Warning: No part of this book be reproduced without the publishers permission.
34. He has refused, but he change his mind if you asked him again.
35. I see your passport, please?
36. He (negative) drive since his accident. (They havent let him drive.)

7. Use must not or need not to fill the spaces in the following sentences.
1. You ring the bell; I have a key.
2. Notice in cinema: Exit doors be locked during performances.
3. You drink this: it is poison.
4. We drive fast; we have plenty of time.
5. You drive fast; there is a speed limit here.
6. Candidates bring books into the examination room.
7. You write to him for he will be here tomorrow.
8. We make any noise or well wake the baby.
9. You bring an umbrella. It isnt going to rain.
10. You do all the exercise. Ten sentences will be enough.
11. We reheat the pie. We can eat it cold.
12. Mother to child: You tell lies.
13. You turn on the light; I can see quite well.
14. You strike a match; the room is full of gas.
15. You talk to other candidates during the exam.
16. We make any more sandwiches; we have plenty now.
17. You put salt in any of his dishes. Salt is very bad for him.
18. You take anything out of a shop without paying for it.
19. You carry that parcel home yourself; the shop will send it.
20. You clean the windows. The window-cleaner is coming tomorrow.
21. Mother to child: You play with matches.
22. Church notice: Visitors walk about the church during a service.
23. I go to the shops today. There is plenty of food in the house.
24. You smoke in a non-smoking compartment.
25. Police notice: Cars be parked here.

123
 8. Fill the spaces in the following sentences by using must, cant/couldnt or
neednt + the perfect infinitive of the verbs in brackets.
must + perfect infinitive is used for affirmative deductions.
cant/couldnt + infinitive is used for negative deductions.
neednt + perfect infinitive is used for a past action which was unnecessary but was
performed.

1. Did you hear me come in last night? No, I (be) asleep.

2. I wonder who broke the wineglass; it (be) the cat for she was out all day.
3. You (help) him. (You helped him but he didnt need help.)
4. I had my umbrella when I came out but I havent got it now. You (leave) it on
the bus.
5. He (escape) by this window because it is barred.
6. I (give) $10. $5 would have been enough.
7. I saw a rattlesnake near the river yesterday. You (see) a rattlesnake. There arent
any rattlesnakes in this country.
8. He is back already. He (start) very early.
9. He returned home with a tiger cub. His wife (be) very pleased about that.
10. I bought two bottles of milk. You (buy) milk; we have heaps in the house.
11. I phoned you at nine this morning but got no answer. Im sorry. I (be) in the
garden.
12. I left my bicycle here and now its gone. Someone (borrow) it.
13. When she woke up her watch had vanished. Someone (steal) it while she slept.
14. Ive opened another bottle. You (do) that. Weve only just started this one.
15. The machine said You weigh 65 kilos and I said Thank you. You (say)
anything.
16. I told him to turn left and he immediately turned right! He (understand) you.
17. Perhaps he swam across. No, he (do) that; he cant swim.
18. Do you remember reading about it in the newspapers? No, I (be) abroad at the
time.
19. He (walk) from here to London in two hours. It isnt possible.
20. He was very sick last night. The meat we had for supper (be) good.
21. There was a strike and the ship couldnt leave port. The passengers (be) furious.
22. We went to a restaurant and had a very good dinner for $10. You (have) a very
good dinner if you only paid $10.

124
23. I have just watered the roses. You (water) them. Look, its raining now!
24. That carpet was made entirely by hand. It (take) a long time.
25. The door was open. It (be) open. I had locked it myself and the key was in my
pocket.

9. Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the word in capitals, and so that the
meaning stays the same.
a) It wasnt very nice of you not to invite me to your party! MIGHT
You might have invited me to your party!
b) Thank you very much for buying me flowers! SHOULDNT

c) It wouldnt have been right to let you do all the work on your own.
COULDNT

d) I dont believe that you have lost your keys again! CANT

e) Mary was a talented violinist at the age of ten. PLAY

f) Perhaps they didnt notice the tyre was flat. MIGHT

g) The results are expected tomorrow. KNOW

h) They escaped possible injury when the car crashed. HAVE

i) A visa wasnt necessary after all. NEED

j) Apparently someone has borrowed the cassette player. HAVE

10. Complete each sentence with a suitable word or phrase.

a) Dont worry that Carol is late, she might/could have missed the train.
b) I begged David to accept some money, but he hear of it.
c) That was a lucky escape! You been killed!
d) It was supposed to be a secret! You told her!
e) I spent last week at the beach because I didnt go to school.
f) The plane is late. It landed by now.

125
 g) You met my brother. I havent got one!
h) There is only one solution. The butler done it.
i) It was lovely. We a better holiday.
j) So it was you who set off the fire alarm for a joke! I known!

11. Complete the comment at the end of each sentence.

a) Pay no attention to what Martin said. He cant have been serious.
b) Fancy accepting the job just like that! You asked me first!
c) The rest was no problem at all. It easier, in fact!
d) Im sure Jack didnt mean to ignore you. He noticed you.
e) The meat is a bit burnt. You cooked it for so long. I did tell you!
f) There were plenty of tickets left for the concert. We them in
advance.
g) Sally got home at four oclock this morning. The party really
good!
h) This homework is not as good as usual. I think you more time on
it.

12. Put one suitable word in each space. Words with nt count as one word.
a) I could have become a millionaire, but I decided not to.
b) You have been here when Helen told the boss not to be so lazy!
c) Peter wasnt here then, so he have broken your vase.
d) I have bought the car, but I decided to look at a few others.
e) If you felt lonely, you have given me a ring.
f) Dont take a risk like that again! We have lost because of you.
g) Its been more than a week! You have some news by now!
h) We were glad to help. We have just stood by and done nothing.
i) You really have gone to so much trouble!
j) I have thought that it was rather difficult.

13. Complete each sentence with a suitable word or phrase.

a) You should have seen Jims face! He happier!
b) Im sorry. I suppose I been a bit rude.
c) Surely it been Ann who told you.
d) You really so much trouble over me.
e) One thing is for sure, someone known about it.

126
 f) Was it really necessary? You to tell the police, you know.
g) They saved her from the fire, but the ladder didnt reach her
window.
h) Keep your fingers crossed! The traffic warden noticed the car is
parked on double yellow lines!
i) Its funny bought exactly the same dress as me!
j) I should would know better.

14. Rewrite each sentence so that it contains a modal auxiliary and so that the
meaning stays the same.
a) The police refused to do anything about my noisy neighbours.

b) Jeans boss was extremely kind to her.

c) Why didnt you back me up!

d) Our worrying so much was a waste of time.

e) Its just not possible for the cat to have opened the fridge!

f) George knew how to ride a bicycle when he was five.

g) I wanted to go to the party, but it was snowing hard.

h) It would have been possible for Helen to give us a lift.

i) Its possible that the last person to leave didnt lock the door.

j) School uniform wasnt compulsory at my school.

15. Rewrite each sentence, beginning as shown, so that the meaning stays the
same.
a) Although you are in charge, it doesnt give you the right to be rude.

127
 You may be in charge, but it doesnt give you the right to be rude.
b) I recommend going to Brighton for a week.
I think
c) Its typical of Steve to lose his keys!
Steve would ...
d) I suppose Kate is quite well off.
I should ..
e) I am as happy as possible at the moment.
I couldnt
f) Although I tried hard, I couldnt lift the suitcase.
Try ..
g) Im sure that Peter will be on time.
Peter is
h) Fancy you and I having the same surname!
Its odd ...
i) If I were you Id take up jogging.
I think .
j) Do we have to leave so early?
Need ..

128
 THE PASSIVE AND THE CAUSATIVE

Passive 1

1. Basic uses of the passive

1.1 Agent and instrument
The person who performs an action in a passive sentence is called the agent, introduced
by by. The agent may or may not be mentioned.
My purse was found by one of the cleaners.
An object which causes something to happen is called an instrument, introduced by with.
He was hit on the head with a hammer.

1.2 Transitive and intransitive verbs

Most verbs with an object (transitive verbs) can be made passive. Common verbs not
used in the passive include:
become, fit (be the right size), get, have, lack, let, like, resemble, suit
Some verbs have both transitive and intransitive meanings.
We arrived at the hotel at 8. (cannot be made passive)
How was the answer arrived at? (passive with a different meaning)

1.3 Verbs with two objects

Verbs which have two objects can be made passive in two ways.
I was handed a note. A note was handed to me.
Other common verbs of this type are: bring, give, lend, pass, pay, promise, sell, send,
show, tell.

1.4 Verbs with object and complement

Some verbs have a noun or adjective which describes their object.
We elected Jim class representative.
Everyone considered him a failure.
When these are made passive, the complement goes directly after the verb.
Jim was elected class representative.
He was considered a failure.

129
 1.5 Tenses
Although it is possible to form a wide range of passive tenses, the most used are present
simple and continuous, past simple and continuous, present perfect simple, past perfect simple,
will future, and future perfect. There are also present and past passive infinitives.
present simple: BE (conjugated in the present) + past participle of the main verb
The damage is done.
present continuous: BE (conjugated in the present) + BEING + past participle of the main
verb
The damage is being done.
The house is being painted.
past simple: BE (conjugated in the past) + past participle of the main verb
The damage was done.
past continuous: BE (conjugated in the past) + BEING + past participle of the main verb
The damage was being done.
The house was being painted.
present perfect simple: BE (conjugated in the present perfect) + past participle of the
main verb
The damage has been done.
The house has been painted.
past perfect simple: BE (conjugated in the past perfect) + past participle of the main verb
The damage had been done.
The house had been painted.
will future: BE (conjugated in the future) + past perfect of the main verb
The damage will be done.
The house will be painted.
future perfect: BE (conjugated in the future perfect) + past participle of the main verb
The damage will have been done.
The house will have been painted.
present infinitive: BE (in the infinitive) + past participle of the main verb
The damage is said to be done.
past infinitive: BE (in the past infinitive = to have been) + past participle of the main verb
The damage is said to have been done.

130
 2. Using and not mentioning the agent
2.1 Change of focus
The passive can change the emphasis of a sentence.
Jack won the prize. (focus on Jack)
The prize was won by Jack. (focus on the prize)

2.2 Unknown agent

The agent is not mentioned if unknown.
My wallet has been stolen.
In this case, there is no point in adding an agent: by somebody.

2.3 Generalised agent

If the subject is people in general or you the agent is not mentioned.
Bicycles are widely used in the city instead of public transport.

2.4 Obvious agent

If the agent is obvious or has already been mentioned, it need not be mentioned again.
Linda has been arrested! (we assume by the police)
The company agreed to our request and a new car-park was opened.

2.5 Unimportant agent

If the agent is not important to the meaning of the sentence it is not mentioned.
I was advised to obtain a visa in advance.

2.6 Impersonality
Using the passive is a way of avoiding the naming of a specific person who is responsible
for an action.
It has been decided to reduce all salaries by 10%.
In descriptions of processes, there is emphasis on the actions performed rather than on the
people who perform them.
Then the packets are packed into boxes of twenty-four.

131
 Passive 2. The causative

1. Have and get something done, need doing

1.1 Have something done
This usually describes a service performed for us by someone else.
Ive just had my car serviced.
It can also describe something unfortunate that happens to someone.
We have had our cars stolen so we need a lift.
This applies to a range of tenses:
Im having my flat painted next week.
I have it done every year.
Sheila had her hair done yesterday.
I was having the roof repaired when it happened.
Note the quite different colloquial expressions have someone round/over. In this case,
there is no sense of a service.
We had some friends round for dinner last night.

1.2 Get something done

Get cannot be used in all the same contexts as have in this case. Get is common where
there is a feeling that something must be done:
I must get my car serviced.
It is also common in orders and imperatives:
Get your hair cut!
There is also a feeling of eventually managing something in some uses:
I eventually got the car fixed.
Sue always gets things done in this office.

1.3 Need doing

The need to have a service done can be described with need doing.
Your hair needs cutting.

2. Passive get
Get can be used instead of be to form the passive in spoken language.
Martin got arrested at a football match.

3. Reporting verbs

132
 3.1 Present reference
With verbs such as believe, know, say, think which report peoples opinions, a passive
construction is often used to avoid a weak subject, and to give a generalised opinion.
With present reference, the passive is followed by the present infinitive.
People think that Smith is in England.
Smith is thought to be in England.

3.2 Past reference

With past reference, the passive is followed by the perfect infinitive.
People believe that Smith left England last week.
Smith is believed to have left England last week.

3.3 Past reporting verb

If the reporting verb is in the past, the perfect infinitive tends to follow, though not
always if the verb be is used.
People thought Sue had paid too much.
Sue was thought to have paid too much.
The police thought that the thief was still in the house.
The thief was thought to still be in the house.

3.4 With passive infinitive

Everyone knows the portrait was painted by an Italian.
An Italian is known to have painted the portrait.

3.5 Two objects

If there are two objects, two versions are possible.
The portrait is known to have been painted by an Italian.
An Italian is known to have painted the portrait.

3.6 Continuous infinitive

Past and present continuous infinitives are also used.
Mary is thought to be living in Scotland.
The driver is thought to have been doing a U-turn.

4. Verbs with prepositions

4.1 Ending a sentence with a preposition
133
 It is possible to end a sentence with a preposition in a sentence where a prepositional verb
is made passive.
Someone broke into our house.
Our house was broken into.

4.2 By and with

With is used after participles such as filled, packed, crowded, crammed.
The train was packed with commuters.
The difference between by and with may involve the presence of a person:
Dave was hit by a branch. (an accident)
Dave was hit with a branch. (a person hit him with one)

4.3 Make to
Make is followed by to when used in the passive.
My boss made me work hard.
I was made to work hard by my boss.

4.4 Verbs + by, with

Cover and verbs which involve similar ideas, such as surround, decorate can use with or
by. Cover can also be followed by in.

5. Common contexts for the passive

5.1 Formality
The passive is probably more common in written English, where there tends to be less
use of personal reference in some contexts, since the audience may be unknown.

5.2 Change of focus

The passive is used to change the focus of the sentence, to avoid generalised subjects, and
to make an action impersonal. It is common in descriptions of processes, and in scientific and
technical language in general.

134
 Activities

1. Both sentences in each pair have the same meaning. Complete the second sentence.
a) The crowd was slowly filling the huge stadium.
The huge stadium was slowly being filled by the crowd.
b) The invention of the computer simplified the work of accountants.
Since the computer the work of the accountants ..
simplified.
c) Someone has suggested that the shop should close.
It that the shop should close.
d) Id take out some travel insurance if I were you, Mr Smith.
Mr Smith take out some travel insurance.
e) The waitress will bring your drinks in a moment.
Your drinks in a moment.
f) Someone used a knife to open this window.
This window a knife.
g) You will hear from us when we have finished dealing with your complaint.
After your complaint , you will hear from us.
h) An announcement of their engagement appeared in the local paper.
Their engagement in the local paper.
i) Nobody ever heard anything of David again.
Nothing David again.
j) They paid Sheila $1000 as a special bonus.
$1000 Sheila as a special bonus.

2. Rewrite each sentence so that it does not contain the words underlined and so that it
contains a passive form.
a) Someone left the phone off the hook all night.
The phone was left off the hook all night.
b) The government has announced that petrol prices will rise tomorrow.

c) A burglar broke into our house last week.

d) People asked me the way three times.

e) The fruit-pickers pick the apples early in the morning.
135

f) Its time the authorities did something about this problem.
.
g) Lots of people had parked their cars on the pavement.
.
h) The government agreed with the report and so they changed the law.
.
i) You have to fill in an application form.
.
j) They dont know what happened to the ship.
.

3. Put each verb in brackets into the passive in an appropriate tense.

a) The boxes have not been packed (not pack) yet.
b) Your food (still prepare).
c) The new ship (launch) next week.
d) Luckily by the time we got there the painting (not sell).
e) We had to go on holiday because our house (decorate).
f) Im afraid that next weeks meeting (cancel).
g) If we dont hurry, all the tickets (sell) by the time we get there.
h) All main courses (serve) with vegetables or salad.
i) The second goal (score) by Hughes in the 41st minute.
j) The cathedral (build) in the fourteenth century.

4. Rewrite each sentence, beginning as shown, so that the meaning stays the same.
a) A friend lent George the motorbike he rode in the race.
The motorbike George rode in the race was lent to him by a friend.
b) At the time my aunt was looking after the children for us.
At the time our children
c) The police have issued a description of the wanted man.
A description .
d) It was a mistake to enter Brian for the exam.
Brian should not
e) They said they would rather Diana didnt listen to music at work.
Diana .
f) Johnson first became a member of parliament in 1983.

136
 Johnson was first ..
g) My legal advisers have told me not to say any more at this time.
I have
h) Nobody had invited Jean to the party, which annoyed her.
As she
i) Tony has another six months to finish his thesis.
Tony has been
j) There is no definite decision yet about the venue of the next Olympic Games.
Nothing ..

5. Rewrite each sentence in a more formal style so that it contains a passive form of the
word given in capitals.
a) Sorry, but weve lost your letter. MISLAY
Unfortunately your letter has been mislaid.
b) The police are grilling Harry down at the station. QUESTION
..
c) Theyve found the remains of an old Roman villa nearby. DISCOVER
..
d) Youll get a rise in salary after six months. RAISE
..
e) You go in the cathedral from the south door. ENTER
..
f) They stopped playing the match after half an hour. ABANDON
..
g) Theyve stopped traffic from using the centre. BAN
..
h) They took Chris to court for dangerous driving. PROSECUTE
..
i) You usually eat this kind of fish with a white sauce. SERVE
..
j) I dont know your name. INTRODUCE
..

6. Put each verb in brackets into the passive in an appropriate tense.

137
 a) Nothing has been seen (see) of Pauline since her car (find) abandoned
near Newbury last week.
b) As our new furniture (deliver) on Monday morning Ill have to stay at
home to check that it (not damage) during transit.
c) The new Alhambra hatchback, which in this country (sell) under the
name Challenger, (fit) with electric windows as standard.
d) For the past few days I (work) in Jacks office, as my own office
(redecorate).
e) The last time I went sailing with friends the boat (sink) in a gale.
Luckily I (not invite) again since then!
f) It (announce) that the proposed new office block . (now not
build) because of the current economic situation.
g) A major new deposit of oil (discover) in the North Sea. It
(think) to be nearly twice the size of the largest existing field.
h) Pictures of the surface of the planet Venus (receive) yesterday from
the space probe Explorer which (launch) last year.
i) A large sum (raise) for the Fund by a recent charity concert but the
target of $250.000 (still not reach).
j) No decision (make) about any future appointment until all suitable
candidates (interview).

7. Rewrite each sentence, beginning as shown, so that the meaning stays the same.
a) People think that neither side wanted war.
Neither side is thought to have wanted war.
b) Everyone knows that eating fruit is good for you.
Eating fruit .
c) Everyone thought the painting had been destroyed.
The painting
d) People say that the company bid fifty million pounds for the shares.
The company ..
e) People say that the late Mr Johnson was difficult to work with.
The late ..
f) People think the jewels were stolen by one of the guests.
One of the guests ...
g) It is believed that the Chinese invented gunpowder.
The Chinese ...

138
 h) Apparently the ship did not sustain any damage.
The ship .
i) It is thought that the two injured men were repairing high-tension cables.
The two injured men
j) There is a rumour that the escaped prisoner is living in Spain.
The escaped prisoner

8. Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the word in capitals.

a) We believe that the government has prepared a plan. HAVE
The government is believed to have prepared a plan.
b) We are thinking of getting someone to paint the outside of the house.
PAINTED
.
c) In the end I was unable to find a garage to service my car. GET
.
d) People say that Mrs Turner was having business difficulties. BEEN
.
e) The treasure is thought to date from the thirteenth century. IT
.
f) The police towed away Alans car. GOT
.
g) Your hair needs cutting GET
.
h) The police believe that a professional thief stole the statue. BEEN
.
i) Jills parents are making her study hard. MADE
.
j) Everyone thought that Helen had missed the train. TO
.

9. Rewrite each sentence so that it ends with the word underlined.

a) Another company has taken over our company.
Our company has been taken over.
b) We are dealing with your complaint.

c) We have not accounted for all the missing passengers.

139
 .
d) Someone had tampered with the lock of the front door.
.
e) We dont know how they disposed of the body.
.
f) I must insist that you keep to the rules.
.
g) We are looking into this allegation.
.
h) We will frown upon any attempts to cheat in the exam.
.
i) The youngest complained that people were picking on him.
.
j) Ann was well provided for in her husbands will.
.

10. Put a suitable preposition in each space.

a) The tree had been decorated with coloured balls.
b) The answers have been included the book.
c) After the rugby match, Jims shorts were covered mud.
d) The victim was struck from behind a heavy object.
e) The house was built money that David borrowed from the bank.
f) The cat narrowly escaped being run over a car.
g) When the accident happened, Sue was struck flying glass.
h) The turkey was stuffed chestnuts, and was very tasty.
i) No one knew that Peter had been involved the investigation.
j) When I left the casino, my pockets were crammed money.

11. Rewrite each sentence so that it begins It.

a) They have decided to cancel the match.
It has been decided to cancel the match.
b) We thought it was necessary to send a telegram.
It ..
c) We have agreed to meet again in a fortnight.
It ..
d) There is a rumour that the couple are to seek a divorce.

140
 It ...
e) There is confirmation of Mr Jacksons resignation.
It .
f) We believe that the ship has sunk.
It .
g) There was a proposal that a new offer should be made.
It .
h) We didnt think it was a good idea.
It .
i) We didnt think it was a good idea.
It .
j) There has been a suggestion that I should take a holiday.
It .

12. Rewrite the text using the passive where possible and so that the words underlined do
not appear.
Nobody knows exactly when someone invented gunpowder. People know for a fact that
the Chinese made rockets and fireworks long before people used gunpowder in Europe, which
occurred at about the beginning of the thirteenth century. We generally believe that gunpowder
brought to an end the Age of Chivalry, since anyone with a firearm could bring down a
mounted knight. In fact, people did not develop efficient firearms until the sixteenth century.
They used gunpowder mainly in siege cannon when people first introduced it. Later they used it
in engineering work and in mining, but they found that it was extremely dangerous. Modern
explosives have now replaced gunpowder, but we still use it for making fireworks, just as the
Chinese did.

It is not known exactly..

141
 UNREAL TENSES AND SUBJUNCTIVES

1. Its time
1.1 Its time, Its high time
These are followed by past simple or continuous, though the time referred to is unreal.
Its time we left. Its high time I was/were going.

1.2 Was or were

As in conditional sentences, were can be used for all persons of be, though was is more
common in everyday speech.

2. Wishes
2.1 Present
These are wishes where you want to change a present state.
I wish I had a motorbike. (I dont have one now.)
I wish you werent leaving. (You are leaving.)
I wish I was going on holiday with you. (I am not going.)

2.2 Would and could

If the verb is an event verb, the reference is to the future. We use would or could after
wish. Would here means decided to.
I wish you would leave.
I wish I could come on holiday with you next year.
The use with would is often used to describe an annoying habit.
I wish you wouldnt make such a mess.

2.3 Past
These are wishes referring to a past event, which cannot be changed.
I wish I hadnt eaten so much.
This use is common after if only to express regrets.

2.4 Hope
Wishes about simple future events are expressed with hope.
I hope it doesnt rain tomorrow.
I hope hell stop talking soon!
142
 3. Id rather/I prefer (followed by a clause)
3.1 Id rather
It is followed by past tenses in the same way as wishes about the present. It expresses a
personal preference about actions.
Id rather you didnt smoke in here.
Id sooner works in the same way.
Both Id rather and Id sooner are used with normal tenses when comparing nouns or
phrases.
Id rather be a sailor than a soldier. (present)
Id rather have lived in Ancient Greece than Ancient Rome. (past)

3.2 Id prefer
Id prefer can be used as part of a conditional 2 sentence. Note that prefer in this type of
sentence has an object it.
Id prefer it if you didnt go.
Id prefer is not followed by an unreal tense.
Id prefer tea to coffee.
Id prefer you not to go.

4. As if, As though
4.1 Real and unreal
The tense here depends on whether the comparison is true or unreal.
He acts as if he were in charge. (He isnt in charge.)
He acts as if he is in charge. (He is in charge.)
The difference is clearer with obviously unreal comparisons.
You look as if you had just seen a ghost!
In everyday speech, there is often no obvious difference made.

4.2 Present and past reference

Present and past reference are both possible.
I feel as if I were flying. (Im not.)
I feel as if an express train had hit me. (It didnt.)

5. Suppose and imagine

143
 5.1 Understood conditions
The conditional part of these sentences is often understood but not stated.
Imagine we won the prize! (Imagine what we would do if)
Suppose someone told you that I was a spy! (What would you say?)
As with conditional sentences, if the event referred to is a real possibility, rather than
imaginary, a present tense is possible:
Suppose it starts raining, whatll we do?

5.2 Present or past

Present and past reference are both possible.
Imagine wed never met!
Suppose we went to Wales for a change.

6. Formal subjunctives
6.1 Insisting, demanding etc
After verbs such as demand, insist, suggest, require which involve an implied
obligation, the subjunctive may be used in formal style. This has only one form, that of the
infinitive, and there is no third person s, or past form. The verb be has be for all forms.
They demanded that he leave at once.
The same applies after expressions such as it is necessary/essential/important that
It is essential that you arrive before six.

6.2 Less formal usage

Less formally, should can be used, and colloquially no tense change is made, or an
infinitive construction is used.
They demanded that he should leave.
They demanded that he left. (informal)
It is essential for you to arrive before six.

7. Formulaic subjunctive
These are fixed expressions all using subjunctive. Typical examples are:
God save the Queen!
Be that as it may
Come what may

144
 Activities

1. Put each verb in brackets into a suitable tense.

a) I would say it was time you started (start) working seriously.
b) Id rather you (not watch) television while Im reading.
c) I wish I (spend) more time swimming last summer.
d) Helen is so bossy. She acts as if she (own) the place.
e) I wish you (not keep) coming late to class.
f) Suppose a complete stranger (leave) you a lot of money in their will!
g) I wish I (go) to your party after all.
h) Id rather you (sit) next to Susan, please.
i) The government demanded that the ambassador (be) recalled.
j) You are lucky going to Italy. I wish I (go) with you.

2. Complete each sentence with a suitable word or phrase.

a) I wish you would stop making so much noise late at night!
b) Id rather the children on the television without permission.
c) I rather not go by bus, if possible.
d) that as it may, it doesnt alter the seriousness of the problem.
e) I wish Carol be here to see you all.
f) We both wish you staying longer.
g) You as if you had played in the match instead of watching it!
h) they offered you the job of managing director!
i) I really wish we married.
j) I you didnt mind my phoning so late.

3. Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the word in capitals, and so that the meaning
stays the same.
a) Do you ever regret not going to university? WISH
Do you ever wish you had gone to the university?
b) I should really be leaving. TIME

c) Id rather have beer than wine. PREFER

d) Jack doesnt know all the answers, though he pretends to. ACTS

145
 e) Id love to be able to go with you to the opera. WISH
...
f) I wish I hadnt sold that old painting. PITY
...
g) It would be better if you didnt stay long. RATHER

h) The management insisted on our wearing dark suits. WEAR

i) Why do you have to complain all the time? WISH

j) I dont want to go to the meeting. RATHER

4. Rewrite each sentence, beginning as shown, so that the meaning stays the same.
a) It would be nice to be able to fly.
I wish I could fly!
b) I wish I hadnt heard that!
Id rather you .
c) Everyone wished they had listened more carefully to the lecture.
Everyone regretted .
d) Unfortunately Ive got to work late tonight.
I wish .
e) Is it better for me to leave?
Would you .
f) Its a pity I cant borrow your car.
I wish you would ...
g) We really must discuss this again.
Its important that ..
h) Its a pity you were driving so fast.
I wish you ..
i) May the President live a long time!
Long ...
j) Jack prefers me not to say anything about the missing money.
Jack would rather

146
 CONDITIONALS AND IF SENTENCES

Types of conditional sentences

Conditional sentences are usually divided into three basic types referred to as Type 1,
Type 2 and Type 3. Each has its own variations, but the elements are as follows:

1. Type 1: if + simple present + ll future

IF clause main clause

1. present tenses future
If I lose my job, Ill go abroad.
2. present tenses modal
If its fine tomorrow, we can/could/may/might/should/ought to/must go out.
If she has arrived, she must phone me.
3. should imperative
If you should see him, tell him Ill be back soon.
If + should instead of if + present makes the condition more doubtful. The main clause
is not necessarily always an imperative:
If I should see him, Ill ask him to ring you.
4. imperative conjunction shall/will future
Fail to pay and theyll cut off the electricity. (comment)
Tell us what to do and well get on with it. (request)
Stop eating sweets, or you wont get any dinner. (threat)
Take a taxi, otherwise youll miss the train. (advice)
Note the difference between imperative + or and imperative + and in threats:
Drop that gun, or Ill shoot you. (i.e. if you dont drop it)
Drop that parcel, and Ill kill you. (i.e. if you do drop it)

2. Type 2: if + simple past + would/should

IF clause main clause

1. simple past would
If you went by train, you would get there earlier.

147
If you didnt stay up so late every evening, you wouldnt feel so sleepy in the morning.
2. were/was would/should
If I was/were qualified, Id apply for the job.
Were is preferable in purely imaginary statements:
If I were you (Jane)/in your (Janes) position, Id walk out on him.
3. past tense modal
If John were here, he could help us.
If she were here now, she could be helping us.
If he was in New York, he could have met my sister.
4. were to/was to would/should
If Sue were to make an effort, she could do better.
If you were to ask him, he might help you.

3. Type 3: if + past perfect + would have/should have

1. past perfect would have/should have

If he had worked harder at school, hed have got a better job.
If I hadnt been wearing a raincoat, I would have got wet.
If I had been you, I would have walked out on him years ago.
2. past perfect modal
If she had been here, she could have met my sister.

Supplementary explanations

I. Basic contrasts

1. What is always true: present + present

Both present simple and continuous are possible after if meaning when.
If I work late, I get tired.
If the water is boiling, it means the food is nearly ready.

2. What was always true: past + past

Both past simple and continuous are possible after if meaning when.
We went home early if it was foggy.
If it was snowing, we stayed at home.
148
 3. Real situations: present + will
Here we think that the outcome is really possible.
If you keep driving like that, youll have an accident.

4. Hypothetical situations: past + would

These are imaginary situations.
If I knew the answer, Id tell you.
The verb be usually takes the form were for all persons in these sentences, though was is
used in everyday speech. Note that in the first person it is possible to use should instead of
would.
If I left home, I think I should be lonely.

5. Hypothetical past situations: past perfect + would have

These refer to past events.
If I had known you were coming, I would have met you at the station.

6. With modals
Possible situations in the present
If you get wet, you should change your clothes immediately.
If you come early, we can discuss the problem together.
Hypothetical situations
If I had the money, I could help you.
Hypothetical past situations
If you hadnt reminded me, I might have forgotten.

7. If only
This adds emphasis to hypothetical situations. With past events it adds a sense of regret.
The second part of the sentence is often left out.
If only I had enough time!
If only I hadnt drunk too much, this wouldnt have happened!

8. Unless and other alternatives to if

Unless means only if not. Not all negative if sentences can be transformed into unless
sentences.
If he wasnt told by Jane, he couldnt have known.

149
 Unless he was told by Jane, he couldnt have known. (can be changed)
If Mr Smith doesnt come back, hell phone you. (cannot be changed)
If one situation depends on another, if can be replaced by as/as long as, provided or only
if.
Ill do what you say provided the police are not informed.
Even if describes how something will happen whatever the condition.
Even if it rains, well still go for a picnic.

9. Past events with results in the present: past perfect + would

If Jim hadnt missed the plane, he would be here by now.

I. Other tenses in conditional sentences

1. Going to
Going to can replace will.
If you fall, youre going to hurt yourself.
It can also be used to mean intend to after if.
If youre going to make trouble, well call the police.

2. Present perfect
This can be used to emphasize completion after if.
If youve finished, then well go.
It is also possible in both parts of the sentence.
If Ive told you once, Ive told you a hundred times!

3. Doubt and uncertainty

An additional not can be added in formal expressions involving doubt. This emphasizes
the uncertainty and does not add a negative meaning.
I wouldnt be surprised if it didnt rain. (I think it will rain.)

4. Should
After if, this makes the possibility of an event seem unlikely.
If you should see Ann, could you ask her to call me?
This implies that I do not expect you to see Ann.

5. Were to
This also makes an event seem more hypothetical.
150
 If I were to ask you to marry me, what would you say?

6. Happen to
This emphasizes chance possibilities. It is often used with should.
If you happen to see Helen, could you ask her to call me?
If you should happen to be passing, drop in for a cup of tea.

7. If it were not for/If it hadnt been for

This describes how one event depends on another.
If it werent for Jim, this company would be in a mess.
If it hadnt been for their goalkeeper, United would have lost.

8. Will and would: politeness and emphasis

These can be used as polite forms.
If you will/would wait here, Ill see if Mrs Green is free.
Will can also be used for emphasis, meaning insist on doing.
If you will stay out late, no wonder you are tired!

II. Other ways of making a conditional sentence

1. Supposing, otherwise
Supposing or suppose can replace if, mainly in everyday speech.
Supposing you won, what would you do?
Otherwise means or if not. It can go at the beginning or end of the sentence.
If you hadnt given us directions, we wouldnt have found the house.
Thanks for your directions to the house. We wouldnt have found it otherwise.

2. But for
This can replace if not. It is used in formal language, and must be followed by a noun
form.
If you hadnt helped us, we would have been in trouble.
But for your help, we would have been in trouble.

3. If so/If not
These can refer to a sentence understood but not stated.

151
 There is a possibility that Jack will be late. If so, I will take his place.

4. Colloquial omission of if
An imperative can be used instead of an if clause in everyday speech.
Sit down, and Ill make us a cup of tea. (If you sit down)

5. If and adjectives
In expressions such as if it is necessary/possible it is possible to omit the verb be.
If interested, apply within. If necessary, take a taxi.

6. Formally if can mean although, usually as if + adjective.

The room was well-furnished, if a little badly decorated.

Activities

1. Put each verb in brackets into an appropriate tense:

a) Now were lost! If you had written down (write down) Marys
directions, this (not happen).
b) Why dont we emigrate? If we (live) in Australia, at least the
weather (be) better!
c) Im afraid that Smith is a hardened criminal. If we (not punish)
him this time, he (only commit) more crimes.
d) Thanks to Dr Jones, Im still alive! If it (not be) for her, I
(be) dead for certain!
e) Im sorry I cant lend you any money. You know that if I
(have) it, I (lend) it to you.
f) Dont be afraid. If you (touch) the dog, it (not bite).
g) In those days, if you (have) a job, you (be) lucky.
h) Its always the same! If I (decide) to leave the office early, my
boss (call) me after Ive left!
i) What a terrible thing to happen! Just think, if we (not miss) the
plane, we (be killed) in the crash.
j) Did you enjoy your meal? If you (finish) eating, I (clear
away) the plates

152
2. Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the word in capitals.
a) If you do have any time free, could you give me a ring? SHOULD

b) We dont go away if the weather is bad. UNLESS

c) I didnt have the money so I didnt buy a new suit. WOULD

d) I regret not studying hard last term. ONLY
.
e) If you hurry up, you wont be late. GOING
.
f) If they offered you the job, would you accept? WERE
.
g) If you are in London by any chance, come and see me. HAPPEN
.
h) Without you, I would have given up years ago. BEEN
..
i) If you insist on doing everything yourself, of course you feel tired.
WILL
...
j) Please take a seat, and Ill inquire for you. WILL

3. Complete each sentence with a suitable word or phrase.

a) That was a narrow escape! If I had fallen, I would have broken my leg.
b) If it hadnt , gone out for a walk.
c) If you , then Id like it back please.
d) I .. if Harry didnt win the competition!
e) Unless Brenda lost the race.
f) If you see Mary, give her my love.
g) I wouldnt accept the job, even to me.
h) If I were . loved you, what would you say?
i) Thanks for your help with the garden. I .. otherwise.
j) But for Sally, Jim .. drowned.

153
4. Rewrite each sentence, beginning as shown, so that the meaning stays the same.
a) Working so much will make you tired.
If you work so much, you will get tired.
b) I regret drinking so much last night!
If only ..
c) What would you do if there was an earthquake?
Supposing .
d) If you do the shopping, Ill cook lunch.
You ....
e) What would you do if you found some buried treasure?
If you were
f) If Pauline hadnt been interested, the project would have been
abandoned.
But for ...
g) If by any chance you find my wallet, could you let me know?
If you happen
h) I might be late. If so, start without me.
If I ..
i) The fire was brought under control thanks to the night-watchman.
If it hadnt ..
j) Dick is in prison because a detective recognised him
If a detective ..

5. Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the word in capitals.

a) Dont take this job if you dont really want it. UNLESS
Dont take this job unless you really want it.
b) I wasnt tall enough to reach the shelf. TALLER
..
c) I wont sell the painting, not even for $1000. IF
..
d) If the ship sank, what would you do? WERE
..
e) If you should notice whats on the cinema, let me know. HAPPEN
..
f) If you hadnt encouraged me, I would have given up. BUT
..

154
 g) Although it is a good car, it is expensive. IF
..
h) If you insist on smoking so much, of course you feel ill. WILL
..
i) I dont have any scissors so I cant lend you any. IF
..
j) But for Helen, the play would be a flop. WERE
...

6. Rewrite each sentence, beginning as shown, so that the meaning stays the same.
a) Its a pity your parents cant be here too.
If only your parents could be here too.
b) If Jane hadnt refused to work overtime, she would have got promotion.
If it hadnt
c) If you left out that chapter, you cant really say you read the whole
book.
Unless ..
d) If you want my advice, Id think twice about buying a car like that.
If I
e) It wont make any difference if City score first, United will still win.
United will still win .
f) If the painting is finished by Saturday, well pay you extra.
Finish
g) Provided your voice is audible, the audience will get the point of this
scene.
As long as the audience .
h) If you refuse to stop eating sweets, you cant expect to lose weight
easily.
If you wont ...
i) Without your help, I wouldnt have found the house.
If you .
j) Getting up early makes me feel hungry.
If

7. Complete each sentence with a suitable word or phrase.

155
a) If you had really wanted to come, you could have left a few hours
earlier.
b) Ill lend you my radio as .. you bring it back before Saturday.
c) the phone bill today, the phone will be cut off.
d) I shall call off the sale to pay me the whole amount in cash.
e) If I your tools, I wouldnt have been able to fix the car.
f) If youd told me you were coming, I something to eat.
g) If you took more time over your work so many mistakes in it.
h) Those wires look a bit dangerous; I were you.
i) If youve finished home.
j) If Sue had known her sister wasnt coming, she to such trouble.

156
 INDIRECT SPEECH AND REPORTING

Explanations

I. Problems
1. Indirect speech with the imperative
When reported, the imperative becomes infinitive.
Come with me! He told me to come with him.
Dont shut the window. He asked me not to shut the window.

2. Tenses in the indirect speech (the sequence of tenses)

If the reporting verb is in a present tense (present tense simple and continuous, present
perfect simple and continuous) or a future tense, the tenses of the verbs in the reported clause do
not change.
She is telling/has told me you are nice.
She is telling/has told me that the party was great.
She is telling/has told me that you will leave.
I will tell you what I know.
If the reporting verb is a past tense (past tense simple or continuous), then the tenses in
the subordinate clause will change as follows:
present simple/continuous past simple/continuous
am/are/is etc. going to was/were going to
am/are/is to was/were to
past tense simple/continuous past perfect simple/continuous
present perfect simple/continuous past perfect simple/continuous
will future future in the past (would + the infinitive of the
verb)
She told me you were nice.
She told me that the party had been great.
She told me you were going to leave.
She told me that you were to/were just about to leave.
She told me you would leave soon.
I told you what I knew.

157
 3. Changes of viewpoint
In reported speech, the viewpoint and the perspective change. As a consequence, the
pronouns, adverbs and the words indicating time and place are changed.
Pronouns
You are nice. He told me I was nice.
You are nice. He told her she was nice.
You are nice. She told him he was nice.
You are nice. He told them they were nice.
You are nice. They told us we were nice.
This is not a nice thing to do - He told me that was not a nice thing to do.
These are not your books. He told me those were not my books.
These are not your books. He told her those were not her books.
Adverbs
here there; now then
Ill be here on time. He told me he would be here on time. (I am still here)
Ill be here on time. He told me he would be there on time. (I am not there any
longer)
Ill be there on time. He told me he would be there on time.
You have to decide now. He told me I had to decide then.
Place and time objects
tomorrow the next day; today that day; yesterday the day before; a
week/month etc. ago a week/month etc before; two weeks/ten years etc from now/two
weeks/ten years etc. from then; last night/week etc. the night/week before; next
year/month etc. the next year/month etc.; from now on from then on; this year/month
etc. that year/month etc.
Ill leave tomorrow. She said she would leave the next day.
I am very busy today. He told me he was very busy that day.
I was at home yesterday. He told me he had been at home the day before.
I am very busy this month. She told me she was very busy this month. (the month
is not over yet)
I am very busy this month. She told me she was very busy that month. (the
respective month has passed)

158
 4. Indirect speech with modal auxiliaries
If the reporting verb is in a past tense, modals change where there is a past equivalent.
will would can could may might
Could, would and might do not change.
I might be late. She said (that) she might be late.
Should changes to would if it is used as a first person form of would.
I should love to come. She said that she would love to come.
Otherwise should remains unchanged.
You should rest. They said (that) I should rest.
Must can be reported as either had to or remain as must.

5. Indirect speech with conditional sentences

After a past tense reporting verb, real situations include tense changes.
If we leave now, well catch the train. I told him that that if we left wed catch
the train.
In reported hypothetical situations, tense changes are not made if the event has reference
to a possible future.
If you came back tomorrow, Id be able to help you. She said that if I came back
the next day, shed be able to help me.
If the event is clearly hypothetical and impossible, time changes are made.
If I had a telephone, I could call him. She said that if she had had a telephone,
she could have called him.
Hypothetical past conditional sentences do not change

II. Reporting verbs

There are numerous reporting verbs, which report the words of others, or our own words
or thoughts. Only a selection is given here. Other examples are included in the activities.

1. Verbs followed by that + clause (with * can be followed by a person)

add decide mean reply
admit deny mention report*
agree doubt object say
announce estimate persuade state
argue expect* predict suggest
believe explain promise* suppose
claim feel reassure* tell*

159
 complain hope reckon think
confirm imply remark threaten*
consider insist repeat warn*

2. Verbs followed by person + to

advise forbid invite persuade tell
ask instruct order remind warn

3. Verbs followed by subjunctive or should

Most of these verbs can also be used in the other ways given.
As these verbs contain the sense that someone should do something, should can follow
them.
They suggested that she should apply again.
More formally, the subjunctive can be used instead of should. This is formed from the
base of the verb (without third person s).
They suggested that she apply again.
Some other verbs of this type are:
advise (also: someone to do/against something)
agree (also: to do something, that + clause without should)
demand (also: to do something)
insist (also: on someone doing something)
prefer (also: someone to do something)
propose (also: doing something)
recommend (also: doing something)
request (also: someone to do something)
suggest (also: that + clause without should)
urge (also: someone to do something)

4. Verbs which can be impersonal with it

The speaker may not want to take personal responsibility for a statement, or may be
reporting the views of a group of people. These verbs can be used in the passive, introduced by
it.
It has been agreed to close most of the coal mines.
agree decide imply rumour
announce estimate know say
believe expect predict state

160
claim fear reckon suggest
confirm feel recommend suppose
consider hope report think

III. Functions

1. Functions
Many verbs describe a function, rather than report words.
Look, if I were you, Id leave early She advised me to leave early.
Examples are:
admit complain request threaten
advise invite remind warn
agree persuade suggest

2. Actions
Some verbs describe actions.
-Hi, Dave, how are you? He greeted me.
Examples are: accept, congratulate, decide, greet, interrupt, introduce

Activities

1. Choose the most suitable word underlined.

a) The government spokesperson denied/refused that there was a crisis.
b) Jane said me/told me there was nothing wrong.
c) Peter persuaded me/insisted me to stay for dinner.
d) The director of studies advised me/suggested me to spend more time in the
library.
e) Sheila explained me/warned me not to leave the heater on all night.
f) The chairperson mentioned us/reminded us that time was extremely short.
g) Bill answered them/replied them with a detailed description of his plans.
h) Michael and Sarah announced/reported that they were going to get married.
i) Paul accepted/expected that he had made a mistake, and apologised.

161
 j) The manager confirmed/reassured that our room had been reserved.

2. Match each report 1) to 10) with the actual words spoken from a) to j).
IV. Jim admitted that he might have taken it.
V. Sue denied that she had taken it.
VI. Harry doubted whether he had taken it.
VII. Diana explained that she had taken it.
VIII. Bill insisted he had taken it.
IX. Mary suggested that she had taken it.
X. Ted confirmed that he had taken it.
XI. Ruth claimed that she had taken it.
XII. Charles repeated that he had taken it.
XIII. Sally reassured us that she had taken it.

a) No, Ive definitely taken it.

b) I dont think I took it.
c) Dont worry, Ive taken it. Its all right!
d) What about me? Perhaps I took it?
e) OK, perhaps I did take it after all.
f) Yes, I took it. I took it, I tell you!
g) Yes, thats quite correct, I took it.
h) No, I certainly didnt take it, I can assure you.
i) You may not believe me, but actually I took it.
j) You see, its like this. Ive taken it.

3. Rewrite each sentence in indirect speech beginning as shown.

a) I wouldnt cook the fish for too long, Bill, if I were you, said Jean.
Jean advised Bill not to cook the fish for too long.
b) Helen, would you like to come to lunch on Sunday? said Mary.
Mary
c) Well, in the end I think Ill take the brown pair, said the customer.
The customer finally ...
d) Me? No, I didnt take Sues calculator, said Bob.
Bob denied ..
e) Dont forget to buy some milk, Andy, said Clare.
Clare reminded

162
 f) Look, I might not be able to come on Saturday, said David.
David told us ...
g) Why dont you go and see The Sound of Music again, Brian? I said.
I suggested ...
h) No, you really must stay the night, Sophia, Ann said.
Ann insisted
i) Make sure you dont take the A20 in the rush hour, Tim, said Jack.
Jack warned
j) You are not allowed to smoke in your room, John, said his mother.
Johns mother .

4. Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the word in capitals, and so that the meaning
stays the same.
a) He was warned by the fireman not to re-enter the house.
The fireman warned him not to re-enter the house.
b) There has been a rumour that the president is ill.

c) Sue thought it would be a good idea for me to see a doctor.

d) The minister proposed regular meetings for the committee.

e) The management claimed that all strikers had returned to work.

f) The travel agent recommended our staying near the airport.

g) There has been no report that any lives were lost.

h) Jack demanded action from the police.

i) David supposed that we didnt want to watch television.

j) My bank manager invited me to visit him alone.

5. Match each report 1) to 10) with the actual words spoken from a) to j).
1) Ann told me that I should take a holiday.

163
 2) Ann expected me to take a holiday.
3) Ann insisted that I should take a holiday.
4) Ann invited me to take a holiday.
5) Ann agreed that I could take a holiday.
6) Ann reminded me to take a holiday.
7) Ann proposed that I should take a holiday.
8) Ann asked whether I would take a holiday.
9) Ann reassured me that I could take a holiday.
10) Ann preferred that I take a holiday.

1. Would you like to come on holiday with me?

2. Dont worry. Of course you can take a holiday.
3. Dont forget to take a holiday, will you!
4. You should take a holiday.
5. Are you going to take a holiday?
6. Its all right by me if you take a holiday.
7. Actually, Id rather you took a holiday.
8. I thought you were going to take a holiday.
9. Taking a holiday would be a good idea.
10. You really must take a holiday.

6. Put the following into indirect speech.

1. I have something to show you, I said to her.
2. Nothing grows in my garden. It never gets any sun, she said.
3. Im going away tomorrow, mother, he said.
4. Ive been to London for a month but so far I havent had time to visit the Tower,
said Rupert.
5. It isnt so foggy today as it was yesterday, I remarked.
6. The new underpass is being officially opened the day after tomorrow, said the BBC
announcer.
7. We have moved into our new flat. We dont like it nearly so much as our last one,
said my aunt.
8. We have a lift but very often it doesnt work, they said.
9. From one of the windows of my flat I can see the Eiffel Tower, he said.
10. Ive no idea what the time is but Ill dial 8081 and find out, said his daughter.
11. He said, My wife has just been made a judge.

164
12. Ill come with you as soon as I am ready, she replied.
13. I have a German lesson this afternoon and I havent done my homework yet, said
the small boy.
14. If you let the iron get too hot you will scorch your clothes, I warned her.
15. You havent given me quite enough. The bill is for $14 and youve paid me only
$13, he pointed out.
16. Ann said, Englishmen make good husbands because they are nearly always willing
to help in the house.
17. Mary answered, I like men to be useful but I dont like them to be too domesticated.
I prefer them to keep out of the kitchen altogether. Men look silly in aprons anyway.
18. Motoring report: The new Rolls Royce runs so quietly that all you can hear is the
ticking of the clock. Managing director of the Rolls Royce company: In that case
well have to do something about the clock.
19. I dont know what to do with all my plums. I suppose Ill have to make jam. The
trouble is that none of us eats jam, she said.
20. We like working on Sundays because we get double pay, explained the builders.
21. He said, I am quite a good cook and I do all my washing and mending too.
22. You can keep that one if you like, Joan, he said, Ive got plenty of others.
23. Im going fishing with my father this afternoon, said the small boy, and we are
going into the garden to dig for worms.
24. Youve got my umbrella, I said crossly. Yours is in your bedroom.
25. I know exactly what they said, the private detective explained to his client, because
I bugged their phone.
26. Ill sit up till she comes in, but I hope she wont be late, he said.
27. If you give me some wire, Ill hang that picture for you, said my cousin.
28. I have a Turkish bath occasionally, but it doesnt seem to make any difference to my
weight, she said.
29. This is quite a good model, madam, I use one of these myself, said the salesman.
30. My new house is supposed to be haunted, but so far I havent seen any ghosts, she
said.
31. The advertisement said, If you answer the questions correctly you may win $100.
32. If I press my ear against the wall, I can hear what the people in the next flat are
saying, he said.

7. Put the following into indirect speech.

1. Why are you looking through the keyhole? I said.

165
2. Who put salt in my coffee? he asked.
3. Which of you knows how to make Irish coffee? said the bartender.
4. Why did you travel first class? I asked him.
5. What is your new house like? I asked them.
6. How can I run in high-heeled shoes? she enquired.
7. He said, Where am I supposed to go now? (Omit now)
8. Whose car did you borrow last night? I said to him.
9. What was she wearing when you saw her last? the policeman asked me.
10. Who owns this revolver? said the detective.
11. Where were you last night, Mr Jones? he said.
12. What else did you see? I asked the boy.
13. Have you done this sort of work before? said his new employer.
14. Can you read the last line on the chart? the oculist asked her.
15. Did they understand what you said to them? he asked me.
16. Are you being attended to, sir? said the shop assistant.
17. Will you go on strike when the others do? the shop steward asked him.
18. Do you see what I see, Mary? said the young man.
19. Who left the banana skin on the front doorstep? said my mother.
20. Have you gone completely mad? I asked, Do you want to blow us all up?
21. Why is your house so full of antiques? she asked. Was your father a collector?
22. Are you leaving today or tomorrow morning? said his secretary.
23. How far is it? I said, and how long will it take me to get there?
24. Could I speak to Mrs Pitt? said the caller. Im afraid shes out, said the girl,
Could I take a message?
25. Are you going to see him off at the station? I asked her.
26. Would you mind if I looked inside your bag, Madam? said the policeman.
27. Are you sorry for what you did? the mother asked the little boy.
28. If someone faint at your feet would you know what to do? said the instructor in
First Aid.
29. Why do you think it may be dangerous? he asked her.
30. Do you know that the shoes you are wearing arent a pair? I asked him.

8. Put the following into indirect speech using ask, advise, beg, invite, offer, order,
remind, tell, warn.
1. Switch off the TV, he said to her.
2. Shut the door, Tom, she said.

166
3. Lend me your pen for a moment, I said to Mary.
4. Dont believe everything you hear, he said.
5. Dont hurry, I said.
6. Please fill up this form, the secretary said.
7. Dont touch that switch, Mary, I said.
8. Would you like to have lunch with me on Sunday? he said to me.
9. Would you like a cigarette? said one of the guests.
10. Would you mind not smoking between courses? said the hostess.
11. Take these letters to the post, will you? And shut the door as you go out, said the
boss.
12. Will you help me, please? she said. I cant reach the top shelf.
13. This is a horrible room. Why dont you ask for something better? he said.
14. If I were you Id try to get a room on the top floor, he said.
15. Ill wait for you if you like, she said.
16. Would you like to wait here? said the receptionist, showing me into the waiting
room.
17. Remember to switch off when youve finished, he said.
18. You might check these figures for me, he said.
19. Youd better apologize for being late, said my mother.
20. Could you check the oil, please? I asked the mechanic.
21. I wish youd sit still! said the artist. How do you expect me to paint you when you
keep moving your head?
22. Why dont you go by train? Its much less tiring than driving, I said.
23. Hotel notice: Will guests please not play radios loudly after midnight?
24. You must see this exhibition! said all my friends.
25. I should plant roses, if I were you, I said to them.
26. If youd just sign the back of the cheque, said the bank clerk.
27. Id be very grateful if youd forward my letters while I am away, he said.
28. Police announcement: Will anyone who saw this accident please get in touch with
their nearest police station?
29. Dont leave your room at night, he said. Our hosts dogs might mistake you for a
burglar.
30. Answer this letter for me, will you? he said. And remember to keep a copy.
31. Would you mind moving your car? he said. Its blocking my gate.
32. (in a letter) Perhaps youd let me know when your new stock comes in. (Mrs Jones)

167
33. Could you sew on this button for me? Tom asked Ann. Youd better sew it
yourself, said Mary. Buttons sewn on by Ann usually come off the next day.
34. If you will kindly sit down the doctor will be with you in a moment, the girl said.

9. Put the following into indirect speech, avoiding as far as possible the verbs say, ask
and tell, and choosing instead from the following: accept, accuse, admit, advise,
agree, apologize, assure, beg, call (= summon), call (+ noun/pronoun + noun),
complain, congratulate, deny, exclaim, explain, give, hope, insist, introduce,
invite, offer, point out, promise, protest, refuse, remark, remind, suggest, thank,
threaten, warn, wish.

1. He said, Dont walk on the ice; it isnt safe.

2. Miss Brown, this is Miss White. Miss White, Miss Brown, he said.
3. Here are the car keys. Youd better wait in the car, he said to her.
4. Please, please, dont tell anyone, she said. I wont, I promise, I said.
5. Would you like my torch? I said, holding it out. No, thanks, he said, I have one
of my own.
6. Tom: Ill pay. Ann: Oh no, you mustnt! Tom: I insist on paying!
7. Come in and look round. Theres no obligation to buy, said the shopkeeper.
8. If you dont pay the ransom, well kill the boy, said the kidnappers.
9. I wont answer any questions, said the arrested man.
10. He expects a lot of work for very little money, complained one of the typists.
Yes, he does, agreed the other.
11. I wish it would rain, she said.
12. You pressed the wrong button, said the mechanic. Dont do it again. You might
have a nasty accident.
13. Your weights gone up a lot! I exclaimed. - Im afraid it has, she said sadly.
14. I hope youll have a good journey, he said. Dont forget to send a card when you
arrive.
15. Hurrah! Ive passed the first exam! he exclaimed. Congratulations! I said, and
good luck with the second.
16. All right, Ill wait a week, she said. (Omit all right)
17. Many happy returns of your birthday! we said. Thanks, said the boy.
18. Your door is the shabbiest in the street, said the neighbour. It is, I said.
19. Cigarette? Thanks, I said.

168
20. Ill sell the TV set if you keep quarrelling about the programme, said their mother.
No, dont do that! We wont quarrel any more, said the children.
21. Ill give you $500 to keep your mouth shut, he said to me.
22. Ill wait for you, I promise, he said to me.
23. Im sorry Im late, she said. The bus broke down.
24. Youve been leaking information to the Press! said his colleagues. No, I havent,
he said. Liar! said Tom.
25. Ill drop you from the team if you dont train harder, said the captain.
26. If the boys do anything clever, you call them your sons, complained his wife. But if
they do anything stupid, you call them mine.
27. Lets have a rest, said Tom. Yes, lets, said Ann.

169
THE NOUN.........................................................................................................................4
Countable and uncountable nouns...................................................................................4
The plural.........................................................................................................................8
QUANTITY.......................................................................................................................13
General introduction to quantity....................................................................................13
Particular quantifiers and their uses...............................................................................16
Activities........................................................................................................................24
VERBS, VERB TENSES, IMPERATIVES......................................................................28
General information about verbs and tenses..................................................................28
The sequence of tenses..................................................................................................30
The simple present tense................................................................................................31
The present progressive tense........................................................................................34
The simple past tense.....................................................................................................37
The past progressive tense.............................................................................................42
The simple present perfect tense....................................................................................44
The simple past perfect tense.........................................................................................49
The present perfect progressive and past perfect progressive tenses.............................52
The simple future tense..................................................................................................54
The future progressive tense..........................................................................................57
The future perfect simple and future perfect progressive tenses...................................59
The going to future...................................................................................................61
Other ways of expressing the future..............................................................................63
The future-in-the-past....................................................................................................65
The imperative...............................................................................................................66
Activities........................................................................................................................69
MODAL AUXILIARIES..................................................................................................93
General characteristics of modal verbs..........................................................................93
Uses of modals to express ability..................................................................................98
Uses of modals to express permission and prohibition................................................101
Uses of modals to express certainty and possibility....................................................103
Uses of modals to express deduction...........................................................................107
Uses of modals for offers, requests, suggestions.........................................................108
Advisability, duty/obligation and necessity.................................................................111
Lack of necessity, inadvisability, prohibition..............................................................115
Activities......................................................................................................................119
THE PASSIVE AND THE CAUSATIVE......................................................................129

170
 Passive 1......................................................................................................................129
Passive 2. The causative..............................................................................................132
Activities......................................................................................................................135
UNREAL TENSES AND SUBJUNCTIVES..................................................................142
Activities......................................................................................................................145
CONDITIONALS AND IF SENTENCES......................................................................147
Types of conditional sentences....................................................................................147
Supplementary explanations........................................................................................148
Activities......................................................................................................................152
INDIRECT SPEECH AND REPORTING......................................................................157
Explanations.................................................................................................................157
Activities......................................................................................................................161

171