MANAGEMENT

OFENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS
 MANAGEMENT
OFENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS

ALANDRA KAHL
Management of Environmental Impacts
Copyright Momentum Press, LLC, 2018.

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First published in 2018 by

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ISBN-13: 978-1-94664-691-0 (print)

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Momentum Press Environmental Engineering Collection

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 Abstract

The various types of environmental impacts of projects are discussed in sufficient

detail as to provide a concise and useful overview for the graduate or professional
student. Subjects approached herein include impacts on water bodies, genera-
tion of hazardous materials, and alternative energy sources and their impacts,
and management of sustainable projects. The intent of this volume is to provide
a repository of general information for consultation and reference of the user.

KEYWORDS

design, environment, environmental impacts, life cycle, project management,

risk, sustainability
 Contents

List of figures ix
Acknowledgments xi
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Chapter 2 Ecological Impacts ofProjects 3
2.1 Construction Impacts 3
2.1.1 Projects on Land 3
2.1.2 Projects in Wetlands 9
2.1.3 Projects in Lacustrine/Marine/Estuary
Environments 12
2.2 Long-Term Impacts 14
2.2.1 Wildlife Impacts 14
2.2.2 Water/Mineral Resource Impacts 21
2.2.3 Sustainability of Life Impacts 23
Chapter 3 Agricultural Practices Management 27
3.1 Slash and Burn Farming Impacts andControls 36
3.2 Overwatering and Riparian Rights Issues 39
Chapter 4 Resource ExtractionIssues 43
4.1 Open-Pit Mining 43
4.2 Deforestation 54
4.3 Oil Extraction/Fracking 58
Chapter 5 Risk Perception andManagement 63
5.1 Introduction 63
5.2 Risk Perception 65
5.3 Risk Assessment 65
5.3.1 Identification of Points of Exposure 69
5.3.2 Identification of Contaminants of Concern 69
5.4 Risk Characterization 69
5.5 Risk Management 70
viiiContents

Chapter 6 Scheduling for Impact Mitigation 73

6.1 Nesting/Spawning Season ImpactMitigation 73
6.2 Habitat Destruction Mitigation 77
Chapter 7 Ecological Resource Restoration 85
7.1 Habitat Valuation Concepts andPractices 85
7.2 Wetlands Restoration and Replication Projects 94
7.3 Forest Resource Restoration andReplication 101
Bibliography 107
Author Biography 115
Index 117
 List of Figures

Figure 3.1. Before and after. An 1843 oil painting

of Brazils Atlantic rainforest, and a recent burning
event in the same forest. 37
Figure 3.2. Cattle ranching and cultivation within the Amazon. 38
Figure 3.3. Illustration of riparian water rights. 40
Figure 3.4. Don Gentry, chairman of the Klamath Tribes, says
the tribes have not been able to fish for suckerfish
for past 27 years. The condition of our fish is just
so dire, he says. 41
Figure 3.5. In 2000 (left), Asias Aral Sea had already shrunk
to a fraction of its 1960 extent (black line). Further
irrigation and dry conditions in 2014 (right) caused the
seas eastern lobe to completely dry up for the first time
in 600 years. 42
Figure 4.1. Simple schematic of an open-pit mine. 43
Figure 4.2. Strip mining machines working at the
Garzweiler mine. 44
Figure 4.3. Image of the Samarco Mining disaster. 45
Figure 4.4. The Animas River flows through the center of Durago
on August 7, 2015, following the failure of a dam
associated with the Gold King mine. 46
Figure 4.5. Conceptual cross section of aquifer dewatering
fromgroundwater drawdown. 47
Figure 4.6. Illustration of heap leaching followed by solvent
extraction and electrowinning. 50
Figure 4.7. Progressive revegetation of a mining site. 52
Figure 4.8. Flux Tower measuring temperature. 55
x List of Figures

Figure 4.9. Forest transition curve. 57

Figure 4.10. Major shale gas plays in the lower 48 United States. 59
Figure 4.11. Total volume (barrels) of oil and gas wastewater
discharged to surface water bodies in Pennsylvania. 60
Figure 6.1. Schematic of gravel augmentation below a damn
within a riffle. 76
Figure 6.2. Revegetation of hillside slope with fern. 81
Figure 6.3. Wildlife crossing over a roadway in the Netherlands. 83
Figure 7.1. Dollar-based ecosystem valuation methods
and categories: 1 market price method,
2 circumstantial evidence method,
and 3 survey method. 87
Figure 7.2. Increased value of ecosystem services following
habitat restoration. 88
Figure 7.3. Restoration of natural hydrology by removal of dikes
andditches. 95
Figure 7.4. Restoration of a forested swamp in Lake Long,
Louisiana. 97
Figure 7.5. Restoration of salt water marsh in Louisiana. 98
Figure 7.6. Vernal pool in Northern California. 99
Figure 7.7. Fen and wet meadow complex restoration
between earthwork in 1998 (A), planting in 1999 (B),
early plant growth in 2003 (C), and mature sedge,
willow, and moss dominated vegetation in 2013 (D). 100
Figure 7.8. Restored cranberry bog, New Jersey pine barrens. 101
Figure 7.9. Bark beetle infestation in the western United States. 103
 Acknowledgments

Dr. Kahl would like to acknowledge the support of friends and family during the
writing of this book.
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

The management of environmental impacts is a topic that is critical

to the health of the greater environment as well as relevant to science,
engineering, and industry. To best ensure a sustainable world for the f uture,
the impacts of industry on the environment need to be effectively managed
and assessed. Most major industries have an assessment framework in
place that aims to assess and reduce their impact on the environment.
This framework frequently includes an environmental impact a ssessment
plan and individuals devoted to the compliance and management of
environmental regulations.
The assessment of environmental impact entails evaluation of p otential
harm to the environment from a project as well as the repair of previous
impacts from earlier projects. Impact statements may address one or both
of these aspects. Assessment of environmental impacts is done with regard
to impacts of all aspects of the environment, including species harm, land,
water, and air impacts. Each of these aspects must be enumerated fully for
an environmental impact statement to be complete.
Environmental impact studies ensure that developers take respon-
sibility for the safe protection of the environment during their proposed
actions as well as those actions that may take place in the future by the
same individuals on the same site. They also require that any impacts that
may occur during the lifetime of the project are properly managed and
mitigated. Environmental issues that arise during a project review may
include managements of waste products, habitat impacts, or land and air
impacts, such as particulate pollution.
Assessment and management of environmental impacts inform
regulators and developers about the viability and longevity of a proposed
development as well as whether that project should proceed. In order
to move forward, a project must effectively balance the health of the
environment with the growth of the industry. This includes compliance
with and management of local, state and federal environmental regulation.
2 MANAGEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

Effective monitoring of environmental conditions is a key component

of the management of environmental impacts. Monitoring can be on a
small scale for an individual site, or a large scale for a facility. E
xamples
of monitored conditions include water quality metrics, soil analysis, and
air quality. Data from these studies inform decisions related to p roject
outcomes and goals. Environmental monitoring is also an important aspect
of permitting and regulatory compliance, which are important to the
effective management strategy for the environmental impacts of a project.
Community and stakeholder views are also an important part of the
management of environmental impacts as these groups inform and drive
the management process. Stakeholders include both the developers and
the local community which are impacted by the development of a project.
It is important to engage all groups in the management and assessment of
the long-term vision of a project to best inform environmental decisions.
The evolution of the environmental impacts from a project can also be
driven by stakeholder views as these views shape the regulatory framework
and can determine the proper pathway for management and assessment.
 INDEX

A Artisanal mining, 49
Acid mine drainage, 46, 51 ASM mining, 49
Acid rain, 51
Active risk mitigation, 6768 B
Agricultural expansion, 39 Baia Mare, 4950
Agricultural practices Bark beetle infestation, 102103
management, 2736 role of climate change in, 104
best management practices, Barrier effects, 82
2730 Beach erosion, nesting and, 75
buffering, 3334 Benefit transfer method, 93
fertilizer and nutrient Benefitcost analysis, 94
management, 3033 Best management practices
integrated pest management, 30 (BMPs), 2728
overwatering and riparian rights BHC, 29
issues, 3942 Big Cypress Everglades, 10
pesticide and nutrient management Bioengineering, 96
practices, 2930 Bird banding, 76
slash and burn farming impacts Black carbon, 3839
and controls, 3639 Bogs, 100, 101
water resources management, Bordeaux Mixture, 29
3436 Boron (B), 32
Air quality, degraded, 51 Boundary nibbling, 17
Aldrin, 29 Bridge fuel, 58
Alternative nesting sites, 74, Bridges, for wildlife, 9
7576 Buffering, 3334
Aluminum extraction, 49 Business risk, 65
Amazon, 36, 3738, 56
Ammonium sulphate, 29 C
Amu Darya River, 42 Calcium (Ca), 32
Anthropogenic nesting substrates, 75 Canopy fires, 103
Aquifer, 47 Captan, 29
Artificial nesting areas, 74 Capturing runoff, 31
118 INDEX
Carbon (C), 32
Central Arizona Project, 40
Chesapeake Bay Foundation, 28
Chlordane, 29
Chlorine (Cl), 32
Chlorophenols, 29
Circumstantial evidence method, 87
Clean Water Act, 27, 30, 49, 79, 98
Climate change
in BARK beetle infestation, 104
deforestation and, 55
eutrophication and, 36
transport and transformation of
nutrients, 33
in water contamination, 48
Coal
extraction, 49
mining, 9
Coastal areas, spawning and
nesting seasons and, 75
Compaction, 53
Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Conservation,
Recovery, and Liability Act, 49
Concrete, 12
Construction impacts
in lacustrine/marine/estuary
environments, 1214
on land, 39
in wetlands, 911
Contaminants of concern,
identification of, 69
Contingent choice method, 9293
Contingent ranking method, 92
Contingent valuation method
(CVM), 9192, 93
Copper (Cu), 32
Cost-based methods, 9091
Costbenefit analysis, 68
Cowbird, 7
Cradle to grave evaluation, 24
Creosote, 29
Crops, monitoring and sampling
of, 31
Crusaders, 29
Cultural artifacts, 7
Cultural controls, of integrated
pest management, 30
Cultural services, 8586
Culverts, 9, 10
D
Dam failure, due to mining, 45
Damage cost method, 90
DDT, 29
Defoliation of plants, 81
Deforestation, 5458
causes of
commercial industry, 56
expansion of infrastructure, 56
fire, 56
logging, 55
slash and burn farming
technique, 5455
and irresponsible forestry, 55
and land temperature, 5556
plant harvesting, 5658
Degradation, 16
agriculture as a driver of, 1718
poverty and demographic effects
of, 18
Deicing fluid, 6
Derived value method. See
Productivity method
Dewatering, 47
Dieldrin, 29
Discrete choice method, 92
Ditches, 10
DoD risk management guide, 71
Dose-response risk assessment, 66
Drip systems, 31
Drummond Press, 56
E
Eagle Ford formation, 59
Ecological resource restoration
forest resource restoration and
replication, 101105
habitat valuation concepts and
practices, 8594

wetlands restoration and
replication projects, 94101
Ecosystem
processes, 16
services
categories of, 8586
important for habitat valuation,
8586
increased value of, 88
steps of, 8687
Edge effect, 67
Edge species, 82
Eelgrass, 98
Effective monitoring of
environmental conditions, 2
Effective nutrient management, 32
Effluent, 48
Endrin, 29
Environmental impact statements
(EIAs), 49
Environmental monitoring, 2
Environmental Protection Agency,
96, 102
Ephemeral pools/ponds, 22
Erosion, 21
of soils, 45
Estuaries, 94
construction impacts on, 1214
Eutrophication, 3436
Evapotranspiration of water, 31
Exposed steel, 12
Exposure risk assessment, 66
F poverty, 20
Fens, 99100
Ferruginous hawks, 7475
Fertilizer and nutrient
management, 3031
Filter strips, 3334
Fire management, 102105
Fish and Wildlife Service, 78
Fish spawning, 7677
Fisheries Act, 49
Flux Tower, 55
Forest-interior species, 82
INDEX 119
Forest resource, restoration and
replication, 101105
Forest transition curve, 56, 57
Forested swamp, restoration of, 97
Fracking, 5861
G
Gas Research Institute (GRI), 58
Gentry, Don, 41
Geologic resources, construction
on land and, 78
Georgia Pacific, 56
Gold King acid mine drainage
discharge, 46
Golden eagles, 74
Gravel augmentation, 7677
Groundwater, 99100
pollution, 4546
quality, 47
H
Habitat
degradation. See Degradation
destruction
categories of, 78
due to construction, 82
by linear infrastructure, 8081
mitigation, 7783
fragmentation, 5, 1416
loss, 94
dominant factor of, 14
fragmentation for, 1416
outright, 1820
valuation. See also Ecosystem
services
concepts and practices, 8594
dollar-based, 87. See also
specific methods
Habitats Directive, 98
Hazards, 64
identification of, 6566
Healthy Forest Initiative, 102
Heap leaching, 5051
Heavy metals, 51
120 INDEX

Hedonic method, 89 temperature, deforestation and,

Hendra virus, 15 5556
Herbaceous wetlands, 97 Lark, Horned, 82
Herbicides, 30 Leachate, 48
High risk, 67 wastewater, 5051
Horizontal drilling to oil Leaching, 31
production, 58 of black carbon, 3839
Hull Rust open-pit mine, 44 heap, 5051
Human population pressure, 20 Life cycle assessment (LCA), 24
Hydraulic fracturing, 58 Lodgepole pine forests, 104
Hydrogen (H), 32 Logging, 55
Hydropower projects, 18 Long-term impacts
Hypoxia, 35 sustainability of life impacts,
2325
I water/mineral resource impacts,
Identified risk, 70 2123
In situ monitoring, 22 wildlife impacts, 1420
Increased agricultural production, 35 Low risks, 67
Infill, in estuary, 13
Insecticides, 2930
M
Integrated pest management
Macronutrients, 32
(IPM), 30
Magnesium (Mg), 32
Integrated Resource Restoration
Management risk, 65
(IRR) program, 101
Manganese (Mn), 32
Interception, 47
Marcellus Shale formation, 59
International Cyanide
Marine, construction impacts on,
Management Code, 4950
1214
Interviewing, 66
Market price methods, 8788
Invasive species
Material disposal, 25
elimination of, 104105
Mechanical controls, of integrated
spread, construction and, 6
pest management, 30
Invertebrate populations, 34
Micro-irrigation, 31
Iron (Fe), 32
Mill water, 4748
Irrigation
Mine water, water contamination
management, 31
by, 4849
projects, 18
Mineral
scheduling, 31
extraction projects, 21
K long-term impacts on, 2123
Klamath Indian Tribe, 41 Mining waste, 45, 53
nutrient status of, 54
L Mitigation
Lacustrine, construction impacts banking, 7879
on, 1214 habitat destruction, 7783
Land nesting/spawning seasons, 7377
construction impacts on, 39 Moderate risk, 67
nesting site mitigation and, 75 Moisture holding capacity, 53

Molybdenum (Mo), 32
Mortality, road, 34
Mount Polley open-pit gold, 45
Muller, Paul, 29
Municipal water authority, 88
N air quality, degraded, 51
Nanomaterials, 24
Naphthalene, 29
National Environmental Policy
Act, 49
Natural defense mechanisms, 4
Natural flow doctrine, 40
Nesting
alternative sites, 74, 7576
anthropogenic substrates, 75
area destruction, minimization
of, 7374
artificial areas, 74
coastal areas during nesting
seasons, 75
disturbances in sites, 7576
land cover, 75
mitigation, 7375
success, 7375
unconventional oil and gas
development, 74
Nestle India, 64
Neutral risk taker, 68
Nez Pierce, 77
Nitrates, 31
Nitrogen (N), 32
Nitrophenols, 29
NOAA Habitat Conservation, 85
Noise, in construction
project, 5
Nonnative species, elimination
of, 96
Nutrient management
effective, 32
fertilizer and, 3031
pesticide and, 2930
Nutrients
budget, 33
imbalances, 32
pollution. See Eutrophication
INDEX 121
O
Objective observation, 66
Off-site mitigation, 79
Oil extraction, 5861
Oil painting of Atlantic rainforest, 37
Open-pit mining, 4354
changes in water quality, 46
description of, 43
Earths surface alteration and,
4445
plants contamination, 5152
soil and groundwater pollution,
4546
terrestrial environment, 51
and water contamination. See
Water, contamination
water usage in, 4748
Ore extraction process, 48
Organic material testing, 3233
Overflow water retention, 31
Overwatering and riparian rights
issues, 3942
Oxygen (O), 32
P
Paired rating method, 92
Parathion, 29
Parkland areas, 17
Passive risk mitigation, 68
Payment for ecosystem services
policy, 56
Performance risk, 63
Persians, 29
Personal protective equipment
(PPE), 69
Pesticide, 2930
application of, 30
development of, 30
and nutrient management, 29
Petroleum oils, 29
Phosphates, 31
Phosphorous (P), 32
Phytoremediation, 54
Phytosphere, 79
Plants
122 INDEX

contamination, 5152 Reusing, 24

of exposure, identification of, 69
planting, 79
Pollution, 23. See also specific
pollutions
land impact during construction, 5
Ponderosa pine forests, 104
Population dynamics, 16
Potassium (K), 32
Poverty, habitat loss and, 20
Process water, 48
Productivity method, 8889
Programme for the Endorsement
of Forest Certification
(PEFC), 57
Project risk, 63
Protection of existing trees, 79
Provisioning services, 8586
Pyrethrum, 29
Pyrite, 9
Q definitions of, 70
Qualitative risk analysis, 6667
Quantifying risk, 70
R mitigation, 65, 67
Recycling, 24
Red-tailed hawks, 74
Referencing, 66
Regulating services, 8586
Remote monitoring, 73
Replacement or substitute cost
method, 90
Reservoir reduction, 7374
Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act, 49
Resource extraction issues
deforestation, 5458
oil extraction/fracking, 5861
open-pit mining, 4354
Restoration and replication
forest resource, 101105 Safety risk, 65
sub-actions within management
framework, 105
wetlands, 94101 Salt corrosion, 12
Revegetation, 5253
of cleared areas, 81
Riparian buffers, 33
Riparian rights issues, 3942
Riparian water, 39
Risk
assessment, 6568
contaminants of concern,
identification of, 69
points of exposure,
identification of, 69
avoider, 68
calculating magnitude of, 7071
characterization, 6970
contingency, 65
definitions of, 63
external and internal sources of,
6465
identification, 66
management, 7071
methodologies of, 71
objectives of, 7071
process of, 71
perception, 65
primary components of, 64
quantification, 67
seeker, 68
River water contamination, 46
Road barrier effects, 82
Road building, 39
and access pathways, 6
deforestation and, 56
habitat fragmentation, 5
impacts of, 34
species fragmentation due to
migration, 4
S
Sagebrush grouse, 7374
Salmon, 77

Salt water marsh, restoration of, 98
San Joaquin Valley, 28
Sand accretion, nesting and, 75
Seagrass, 9798
Sediment, 13
Sedimentation, rate of, 13
Self-sufficient restoration plan, 95
Silent Spring (Carson), 2930
Slash and burn farming, 5455, 56
impacts of, 3639
method of control, 39
Smart material choice during
construction, 2425
Smelting process, 51
Smooth cordgrass, 98
Sodium arsenate, 29
Soil
construction on land and, 78
erosion of, 45
monitoring and sampling of, 31
quality, mining and, 4546
testing and nutrient assessment, 32
Spawning
coastal areas during spawning
seasons, 75
fish, 7677
mitigation efforts for, 7577
nesting mitigation technique, 73
Species diversity, 16
Species fragmentation due to
migration, 4
Steelhead fish, 77
Steep slopes, 53
Stormwater Runoff, 21
Strip mining machines, 44
Sulfur (S), 32
Supporting services, 8586
Surface Mining Control and
Reclamation Act (SMCRA), 52
Surface mining operations, 44
Surface water, 100
impact of natural resource
extraction on, 60
Survey method, 87
Sustainability of life, 2325
INDEX 123
additional strategies for, 24
definition of, 2324
life cycle assessment, 24
material disposal, 25
Sustainable Forest Management
(SFM), 57
Synthetic pesticides, 29
T
Tail water return, 31
Tailing ponds, 49
Technical risk, 65
Terrestrial environment, 51
Tidal hydrodynamics,
reestablishment of, 98
Tidal Waters Act, 98
Total dissolved solids (TDS),
6061
Tourism, impact on nesting, 75
Toxic Substances Control Act, 49
Traditional soil testing, 32
Trail construction, 17
Travel cost method, 8990
Tree loss mitigation
location and ownership for, 80
management objectives
associated with, 80
tactics for, 79
Tree mortality, from infestations, 104
Turbidity, 13
2,4 D, 29
U
Unconventional oil and gas
development, and nesting, 74
extraction, 58
United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA), 101, 102
United States Forest Service, 3, 46,
101, 102
management of invasive
species, 104
Upstream development, 95
U.S. Department of Energy
(DOE), 58
124 INDEX
V resources management, 3436
Vegetated barriers, 33, 34
Vegetated waterways, 33
Vegetation
loss, 81
removal during wetlands
construction, 11
Vehicle traffic, reducing, 73
Vernal pool, 99
Vertebrate populations, 3
Visual resources, construction on
land and, 8
W natural hydrology of, 9495
Warmer water temperatures, 36
Wastewater
leachate, 5051
mining, 46, 49, 50
oil and gas, 59, 6061
Water
construction impacts on, 910
contamination
acid mine drainage, 46
from aquifer, 47
artisanal mining and, 49
climate in, 48
coal or aluminum extraction, 49
groundwater, 4546, 47
heap leaching, 5051
by mine water, 4849
by oil extraction/fracking,
5961
ore extraction process and, 48
tailing ponds, 4950
long-term impacts on, 2123
quality metrics, 21
quality monitoring program, 21
Water-borne waste, 45
Watershed Tracking, Assessment,
and Environmental Results
(WATERS) tool, 96
West Nile virus, 7374
Wetlands
construction impacts on, 911
ditches and culverts, 10
draining of, 1011
removal of vegetation, 11
water flows upstream, 910
herbaceous, 97
restoration and replication,
94101
benefits of, 96
passive and active
restoration, 95
resources and guides to, 96
success of, 97
trees and shrubs, 97
Weyerhaeuser, 56
Wildlife
crossing, construction impacts
on, 8283
habitat
degradation, 16
fragmentation, 1416
loss, 1420
population pressure, 20
long-term impacts on, 1920
World Resources Institute, 55
Wyoming study, 74
Z
Zinc (Zn), 32
 OTHER TITLES IN OUR ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING COLLECTION
Francis J. Hopcroft, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Editor
Engineering Economics for Environmental Engineers by Francis J. Hopcroft
Ponds, Lagoons, and Wetlands for Wastewater Management by Matthew E. Verbyla
Environmental Engineering Dictionary of Technical Terms and Phrases: English to Farsi
and Farsi to English by Francis J. Hopcroft and Nima Faraji
Environmental Engineering Dictionary of Technical Terms and Phrases: English to
Turkish and Turkish to English by Francis J. Hopcroft and A. Ugur Akinci
Environmental Engineering Dictionary of Technical Terms and Phrases: English to
Vietnamese and Vietnamese to English by Francis J. Hopcroft and Minh N. Nguyen
Environmental Engineering Dictionary of Technical Terms and Phrases: English to
Hungarian and Hungarian to English by Francis J. Hopcroft and Gergely Sirokman

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