The deterioration of water quality of

Wangchhu river that flows through

Thimphu city

By Jechen Ladree

Enrollment no: 103331

ENM202

2017

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Contents
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 2
Agriculture ............................................................................................................................................ 4
Urban runoff.......................................................................................................................................... 4
2.4Adverse effects on human life and economy ...................................................................................... 5
3. Statement of the problem .......................................................................................................................... 6
7. Study area ................................................................................................................................................. 8
7.1Study area of the case study ................................................................................................................ 9
7.3 The total dissolved solids in different sites in city ............................................................................ 12
7.4 Turbidity and dissolve oxygen........................................................................................................... 12
7.5 Wangchu contaminatd with E-coli bacteria ...................................................................................... 13
8. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................... 16
References .................................................................................................................................................. 16

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 1. Introduction

Life on earth was first believed to be originated in water. Water is the one of the valuable natural
resource which is vital to all living things including both terrestrial and aquatic living organisms.
It is a liquid which is used for many purposes such as drinking, washing, cooking, sanitation, and
irrigation, recreational and industrial uses. The health and well-being of all the living beings on
earth is closely related with the quality of water (UNEP, 2009).

Bhutan, one of Asias smallest nations situated on the southern slope of the eastern Himalayas
(latitude 2640 2820N; Longitude 8845 9225E). It has a geographical area of 38 394
km with mountainous and heavily forested landscapes. Bhutan has lots of fresh water resources
from streams to large flowing rivers. The quality of these aquatic resources is being deteriorated
day by day. The Wanghchu river which flows through the Thimphu city is subjected to pollution
from both point and non point sources, which results in poor quality of the surface waters.
The s
2. Literature review
Water is the only component that every living thing requires. Without water life is not possible
as one cannot survive without it. Many rivers around the world are being polluted due to
anthropogenic activities and as well due to climate change. The increased in the number of
industries around the world has led to urbanization and rapid pollution growth which has
increased negative impact on environment. The urbanization and modernization has led to
increase in the settlements near water bodies which has adverse affect on the water quality and
the aquatic organisms as well (OS1BANJO, 1981).

2.1 Pollution of river that flows through cities

Most of the major streams and rivers have been deteriorated since many years. Pollution of the
river are from both point and non-point sources. The chemical nutrients and the organic
pollutants are mostly seen in the polluted water. This seems that the polluted water source from
the river becomes unsustainable for human consumption. In recent times many studies have
found out that most of the rivers flowing through heavily populated cities and most of the great
industries are placed are severely polluted such as rivers in Europe, North America, USSR
(Stigliani W. M et al., 1993). The riverine system of Litheos river is mainly affected by human
activities adding significant amount of pollutants into the river (M. Dassenaki et al., 1996). Most

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of the riverine system are bening polluted by heavy metals and it s introduced to the aquatic
system through as a resut form human activities such as mining and uses of different substances
containing metals and also form volcanic eruption and weathering of soil and rocks (Jain, 2003).
The pollution of Yamuna river in India is mainly due to metal sediments on the bed of the river
caused due to above mentioned sources (Jain, 2003) .

Right now is there is no regular and systematic monitoring of water quality in Bhutan. The
WQMS of WRCD, NECs are the two organizations that started basic operations of water quality
in 2011-2012 (NEC, Wangchhu basin management, 2016). The untreated effluent discharge from
workshops has been increasing and causing lot of water pollution and affecting aquatic
organisms.

2.2 Non-point source pollution of riverine system with Phosphorus and nitrogen
Most non-point source pollution occurs due to runoff caused by rains. Aquatic ecosystem is
mostly affected by chemicals such as phosphorus and nitrogen which arises from urban activities
and agriculture. To measure the inputs of these nutrients are difficult as it cover large area or
land. These nutrients cause various problems in an aquatic ecosystem such as loss of oxygen,
fish population decline, algae blooms and even loss of biodiversity such as loss of aquatic bed
plants. Such quality of water becomes diminish for drinking, industrial use, agriculture,
recreation and for other purposes (Carpenter, 1998) . The degradation of surface water bodies is
increasing worldwide leading to loss of natural ecosystem and their species (Postal, 1997). The
contamination of water causes water scarcity which can ultimately increase cost for the
treatment.

Eutrophication
Eutrophication is caused by uncontrolled amount of phosphorus and nitrogen in the water. This
water becomes unsuitable for drinking and to use for other purposes. 50% of the lakes and 60%
of the rivers are impaired due to eutrophication in India (EPA, 1998). Eutrophication is rapidly
increasing in estuaries and coastal areas of developed cities. This cause increase growth of algae
and introduction of invasive aquatic weeds. It causes the loss of aquatic habitats and biodiversity.
The eutrophication of river can recover by proper management which includes control over
inputs methods. There must be active intervention with the water bodies. Eutrophication impact

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humans and animals health adversely as phosphorus and high nitrogen content is toxic
(Sandstedt, 1990).

Agriculture
Most of the nutrients are being used in agricultural land as fertilizers to increase crop production.
Globally more nutrients are added as fertilizer in farmlands. These nutrients such as phosphorus
and nitrogen get accumulated in the soil, which are then eroded into groundwater and other water
bodies and added into the atmosphere. NO2 in the atmosphere causes global warming which
deplete ozone layer. Much of the NO2 in the atmosphere eventually fall on the ground and water
bodies as the precipitation (Carpenter, 1998). The amount of NO2 in the atmosphere can be
reduced by proper handling of animal waste and efficient use of fertilizers. Reduction of burning
fossil fuel can also reduce N in the atmosphere (Vitousek, 1997).

Urban runoff
Significant amount of nitrogen and phosphorus enters surface water bodies through runoff. Non-
point sources can be runoff form constructions and fertilizers lawn. The important cause of lakes
deterioration in U.S is the urban runoff (EPA, 1998) making quality of the water poor. Erosions
in urban centers are extensively high causing eutrophication. Urban runoff can be reduced by
proper management systems which include waste control and cleaning of streets and other
important remedy is to build greener way by planting more tress.

The need for understanding non-point sources of pollution is important and it is becoming clearer
and the analysis tools are becoming more developed and are improving.

2.3 Point source pollution of riverine system

The U.S Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines point source pollution as any source of
pollution where pollutants are discharged and are identifiable. The sources can be effluents from
factory, ship, swage and other pipes. From factories and sewerage treatment plants chemicals,
oils and other pollutants are being discharged.

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 a) Effluent discharge
Some factories directly discharge the effluents into nearby rivers or surface waters and others
treat them and discharge into sewage treatment plants where effluents gets discharged eventually
into rivers. This effluents discharge can affect humans health and the environment (NOAA,
2017). Some chemicals from point source pollution are harmless but some are toxic and can
impact aquatic systems.

b) Livestock farms
Farms that raise numerous livestock (such as chicken and pigs) are one of the point source
pollution. The waste from these animals is the source of some pollutants and if their wastes are
not treated it might probably go into nearby water bodies. To control pollutants entering water
bodies any organizations must have the permit to discharge effluents form various industries
form the government. They must use the advanced technologies as possible to reduce pollutants
(NOAA, 2017).

2.4Adverse effects on human life and economy

The concentrated amount of heavy metals in rivers due to urbanization and increased agricultural
practices has caused environmental hazards to aquatic organisms (invertebrates and fishes) and
humans. (E, 2007). Metals which are deposited in river get accumulated in river sediments and
aquatic food chain effects fish and cause reduction in the population of the fishes. The lower part
of river which is called benthic zone, it consists of various aquatic plants and animals and they
are also being affected by pollutants. The fishes gets in contact with various chemicals which
when consumed by humans eventually impact human health (Yujun Yi, 2011).

Health risk from consuming fish

Many people living near coastal cities consume fishes, for example most cities in China (Jiang
Q.T, 2005). The consumption of certain fishes caused severe health impact on humans. As fishes
are important food in daily diet but the increase in the metals accumulation in fishes clearly
suggests us to control its consumption. Correlation analysis and PCA illustrated that heavy
metals (Hg,Cd, Pb, Cr, Cu, and Zn) may originate from metal processing, electroplating
Industries, industrial wastewater, and domestic sewage (Yujun Yi, 2011). The best practices to

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reduce river pollution are to reduce inputs pollutants which drain into river system affecting
aquatic organisms and human health.

3. Statement of the problem

As most of the river that flows mainly through developed cities having greater number of
population are being deteriorated severely effecting human health and loss of aquatic
biodiversity.
Wanghchu river that flows through Thimphu city is in the phase of being polluted. The water
quality of Thimphu river is being significantly deteriorated day by day. There are various sources
of river pollution from both point and non-point pollution sources. There has been no systematic
study of water quality in Bhutan but it is very important for each individual to know as its effect
will have severe impact on human and aquatic system. As there are no scientific and empirical
data about Thimphu water deterioration, ideas are untested and unknown. If further study on
such important basin is not studied earlier then it might lead to significant amount of problems
and issues later on. The proper treatment of such effluents from urban centers needs serious
proper management to reduce further deterioration of water quality of the Thimphu river.

4. Objective of this study

This case study identifies how Thimphu river is being deteriorated and how problems might arise
in later future. As few places in Bhutan such as wangdue, Mongar and Pemagatshel are having
water scarcity and its conflicts. Such problems will even deteriorate life of people and their
health. The loss of aquatic biodiversity would be another great impact on natural environment
due to water pollution. Though the pollution was river is not that serious in some places, the
deterioration of water quality is becoming serious and it is increasing so it is very important for
decisions and policy makers. The proper treatment of such effluents from urban centers needs
serious proper management to reduce further deterioration of water quality of the Thimphu river.

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5. Methodologies used
The data used for this case study are secondary data. The secondary data are mostly collected
from online research and journals articles, scholar websites, international reports and books from
College library.

6. Case study
Thimphu, the capital of Bhutan is located in the North West at an altitude of 2320 meters above
sea level. The urban area of Thimphu lies in the valley surrounded by forests. Through Thimphu
urban area the Wangchhu river flows (Giri & Singh, 2013). The water quality was good before
but it is deteriorating within the downstream of the Thimphu. The increase in urban settlements
and industries near and by the Thimphu river has polluted the quality of the water. The water
quality has been degraded thoroughly due to effluents that are discharged from various industries
and also due to disposal of solid waste into the river by the people (NEC, Wangchhu basin
management, 2016). The study which was done in 2013 reveled that most of the input pollution
was taking place in downstream of Thimphu than the upstream (Singh, 2013). Most of the
benthic macro invertebrates were dominant in upstream and as it goes downstream the
population of the macro invertebrates are decreasing.
The main threat to deteriorate the quality of water of Wangchu river is the urban development
and untreated effluents that is being deposited into the river directly. Most of the effluent
discharge is taking place in Chang gewog in Thimphu (NEC, 2016).

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7. Study area

Fig1 Thimphu river

Source: NEC of Bhutan online

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Fig.2Wangchu river that flows through Thimphu city.
Source: (Singh, 2013) Urban growth and Water quality in Thimphu

7.1Study area of the case study

The study area cover Dodena which is about 50km, located at an altitude of 2600meters above
sea level till Chrakilo located at an altitude of 2160 meters. The study done by (Singh, 2013)
pointed samples taken from various places in Thimphu to study the impact of urbanization. The
samples were taken from six different sites which are upstream I and II, within the urban area
which are III and IV and downstream which are V and VI. The details from these samples are in

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Table 1 which includes all study of benthic macro invertebrates and physiochemical analysis
from six different sites. This study was carried to during the year 2008-2009. The collections of
samples were done in a standard method and further testing in laboratory. The various water
quality parameters are shown in table 2. The land use change and cover has drastically changed
from the year 1990-2008 form forested and shrubs areas to urban centers and roads expansion
(Singh, 2013). The water bodies increased in Thimphu city due to creation of sewerage in
Babesa in 1998.

Table1: Sampeling sites in Thimphu

Table 2: Summary of procedures used for the measurement of Physico-chemical and biological
parameters of water samples.

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7.2Quality of water

In 2005 National Environment Commission of Bhutan conducted water quality baseline study
from Dodena to Babesa in Wang Chhu and recorded that water temperature increased gradually
as the river flows downward (NEC, 2001). The physico-chemical parameters of water analyzed
at upstream, within the urban area and downstream were water temperature, pH, conductivity,
total dissolved solids, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, nitrate, phosphate, chloride, sulphate and
biochemical oxygen demand. There is lack of man power and equipments to test water quality so
this work was proposed to NEC to monitor, collect data and to analyze data in regular basis
(NEC, Wangchhu basin management, 2016). National commission of Bhutan (2001) reported
that fresh water in Bhutan is slightly alkaline. The Ph variations in Thimphu study area is given
below in table 3. The water in downstream seems highly alkaline than the upstream in Thimphu
urban area mainly due to discharge of effluents and domestic waste from the settlements. One of
the major causes of the pollution of water quality is the urbanization which is further added by
dumping waste and sewerage directly into the river (Paul et al, 2001). The N content was found
to be a little over 0.20mg/l at Pangrizampa. This increased to over 0.25mg/l on reaching the
bridge near India House. Further down, it increased to 0.40mg/l on reaching Lanjuphakha zam. It
goes beyond 0.70mg/l on reaching Lungtenzampa and the highway bridge at Chang Jiji, and
reaches about 1mg/l after crossing Babesa. Average P was found high at Babesa with 0.09,mg/l,
followed by Lungtenzampa at about 0.08mg/l, compared to 0.06mg/l upstream of Pangrizampa
(BEA, 2011).

Table 3: seasonal variation in pH at different sampeling sites

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Fig2. Wangchu river

Source : kuensel online

7.3 The total dissolved solids in different sites in city

The total dissolve solids in Wangchu River were recorded lower in upstream and higher in
downstream. The increase in temperature and ions is directly proportional to total solid dissolve
in water which is basically increased due to addition of effluents from various industries, urban
area and agricultural filed (Singh, 2013). WHO stated that water with 500mg/L is suitable for
drinking, however total solid dissolve in urban area is high.

7.4 Turbidity and dissolve oxygen

The turbidity was seen higher in downstream and as usual lower in upstream. Due to less
settlements in upstream the water is quiet clean compared to downsteam. The turbidity seems to
be higher during monsoon season and lower during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon. The
increase in turbidity in Thimphu river is due to soil erosion during heavy rainfall and as well due
to discharge of waste water in to the river. The land use change has also increased runoff leading
to turbidity of water and deteriorating water quality (NEC, 2001).

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It has shown that dissolve oxygen is extremely higher in upstream and lower in downstream.
The composition of nitrate and phosphate is even higher in downstream than upstream in
Thimphu river. The higher amount of nitrate and phosphorus is mainly due to discharge of waste
effluents into the river. The increase number of vehicles has also increased waste water discharge
from car wash into rivers. This shows that more urbanization has led to deterioration of water
quality in the city. Other chemicals like chloride and coliform was also seem to be lower in
upstream and higher in downstream (Singh, 2013).

The presence of benthic macro-invertebrates in river indicates good water quality. Most of the
macro-invertebrates which are found to be tolerant to pollution are mostly identified in lower
stream and most diversity and rich macro-invertebrates were seen in upstream sampling sites
(Singh, 2013). The study done by Duran (2006) stated that compared to upper area, lower area
was seems to be having lower diversity of benthic macro-invertebrates in Turkey which was due
to discharge of phosphate and nitrogen into the river.

7.5 Wangchu contaminatd with E-coli bacteria

The global waterkeeper alliance in Thimphu recently tested water quality of Thimphu river
initiative with Clean Bhutan and stated that the river was contaminated with E-coli bacteria. The
testing was done in there different places which include Dodena as the starting point,
Lungtenzampa and Damchu as the end point. While examining Dodena was free form any
bacterial contamination. As the river flows down the valley the contamination is increasing. As
there are many different E-coli bacteria found, many of them are harmless. However some of
them can be harmful in the case of diseases such as bloody diarrhea. E-coli bacteria can also
cause severe anemia and even lead to kidney failure (Dendup, 2017) . The further testing need to
be done and if there is an alarming rate the issue needs to be informed to the government.

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Fig3. Water testing alliance
Source : Kuensel online

7.6 The expansion of city and the improper regulation

Fig.4 Land use and land cover change in the year 1990 and 2008
Source: (Singh, 2013). Urban growth and water quality in Thimphu Bhutan

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Early days Thimphu had only some houses to be seen but now the increase in population has
lead to urban development causing lots of problems such as deforestations and deterioration of
water quality. Chief Urban Planner of Thimphu City Cooperation, Galay Norbu said that the city
approves 150 constructions of building a year. He also included that the building of septic tank
and soak pits was necessary to manage wastewater. He said that sewage which is being treated
goes into the river is clean and within the acceptable limit according to World Health
organization. However many land owners do not build the septic tanks properly which eventually
gets leak and goes into the rivers. People are seen disposing plastics and other rags which block
sewage channels. Increase in population has even increased in thieves where they steal manhole
lid and sale it to the scrap dealers.
Thimphu City cooperation concluded that city itself produces 30 metric tons of waste every day
which are then deposited in land fill in Mamay Lhakha. The leaking of toxins in this land fill
drains into the river directly which are further being added by waste water from workshops and
dumping of waste into rivers. JICA with Solid Waste management of Bhutan are working to
build pipes underneath of land fill to collect leachate and it can even reduce the toxins draining
into river system during monsoon season (Gyelmo, 2011).

Fig 6 source: Thimphu city cooperation online

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8. Conclusion
Bhutan forest land has been decreasing and on the other hand urbanization is increasing. The
urban development and population growth has brought many new challenges such as
deforestation, expansion of agricultural land, and increase in number of industries and factories,
large solid waste land fill expansions. From all theses, urbanization has caused the serious threats
to water system in terms of its quality and quantity. Though the problem has not been that
serious but the trend has been increasing rapidly. The proper treatment of effluents from various
industries and urban centers need to be taken into control and consideration to reduce pollution
that deteriorates water quality. From such studies done there has been a evidence on the degrade
water quality of the Thimphu river so Bhutan government need strong implementation and
policy strategies to improve water quality and to reduce furher deterioration of rivers.

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