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WASTE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT
ORGANIC WASTE
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES,
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND
EMERGING REGULATIONS
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ORGANIC WASTE
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES,
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND
EMERGING REGULATIONS
MARK COLLINS
EDITOR

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CONTENTS
Preface vii
Chapter 1 Food Waste Management Options:
A Case Study of Hope Park Campus,
Liverpool Hope University, United Kingdom 1
Shayeb Shahariar and Paul Rooney
Chapter 2 Zero-Emission Management of Organic Fisheries
Waste and Its Favorable Impact on the Environment 39
Joong Kyun Kim, Hyun Yi Jung and Ja Young Cho
Chapter 3 The Use of CFD in Design and Optimization of
Wastewater Treatment Units: A Review 71
Leonardo Machado da Rosa, Daniela Maria Koerich
and Saulo Varela Della Giustina
Chapter 4 Industrial Symbiosis: A Sustainable Approach
for Territorial Development through the
Reuse of Biomass 141
G. Vinci, M. Musarra, A. Esposito and F. DAscenzo
Chapter 5 Biogas Production from Organic Waste:
Focus on Microbial Methanogenesis 161
Habiba M. Raji and Bishir Musa
Chapter 6 The Environmental Impact of Biosolids'
Land Application 185
Silvana Irene Torri and Marisol Natalia Cabrera
Index 209

PREFACE
The accumulation of solid organic waste is thought to be reaching critical

levels in almost all regions of the world. Organic waste needs to be managed
in a sustainable way to avoid depletion of natural resources, minimize risk to
human health, reduce environmental burdens and maintain an overall balance
in the ecosystem. This book reviews different management strategies for
organic waste, as well as its environmental impact and regulations that have
emerged.
Chapter 1 - Biodegradable organic waste including food waste is the
largest kind of municipal solid waste produced in the UK each year. Although
there is enormous annual variation in the composition and characteristics
depending on the source of waste produced, the portion of biodegradable
organic waste including food waste is relatively high in the UKs waste
stream. The vast majority of these food wastes end up in a landfill without any
recycling. It was found that a major portion of the UKs total greenhouse gas
(GHGs) emission is sourced in the food supply chain. As part of the targets set
in Climate Change Act, 2008 the UKs HEIs need to play a role in meeting
national goals for GHGs emission reduction. The EU Landfill Directive also
has a target set for the reduction of biodegradable waste that is landfilled. The
reduction of GHGs emissions in the UKs higher education sector for all
carbon emission sectors including the waste management is a necessity rather
than a choice. This because government capital allocations for universities are
linked to their carbon reduction capability. Because of associated problems
with landfilling and increasing public concerns about degradation of
environmental quality, recycling of organic waste including food waste to
produce bioenergy, fertilizers through composting and/or anaerobic digestion
(AD) are becoming more economically viable and are seen as an environment-

viii Mark Collins
friendly approach to the challenge of food waste management. The objective

of the study was to estimate the amounts and types of food waste generated at
Liverpool Hope University, Hope Park campus (UK) and to explore its on-site
recycling potential through composting and/or anaerobic digestion. The study
was conducted between December 2012 and August 2013. It involved a survey
of food waste produced on the Hope Park campus, an assessment of the nature
and types of the food waste produced, and a site audit together with a
compositional analysis of the mixed food waste. It is estimated that the
average annual food waste production at the Hope Park campus, Liverpool
Hope University is 89.07 metric tons. Among the types of food waste,
vegetables and fruit items were the greatest by weight. Condiments, sauces,
herbs, and spices items were found less frequently occurring and also less
wasted by weight. Whereas bread, rice, pasta, and bakery products were the
most frequently occurring food waste in comparison to meat, fish and dairy.
The study concluded that composting was the most suitable option as a method
of on-site food waste recycling rather than anaerobic digestion (AD). It was,
however, dependent on the amount and nature of the food waste produced. The
cost of in-vessel composting in the UK is relatively high in comparison to
windrow or open composting. However, it is more favorable because of the
efficient control of odor. The composition and types of food waste produced
also suggest on-site composting over AD because of the volume of vegetables,
fruit and bakery products within the waste stream making it more suitable for
composting. However, AD is a preferable option for biodegradable organic
waste management from an environmental perspective because of the benefit
of carbon savings, but its establishment and operation need expert personnel
and there is a higher setup cost. It was estimated that 44.525 metric tons of
carbon emission (CO2e) per year could saved by diverting food waste from
landfill to on-site recycling through AD and/or composting. Total potential
cost savings from diverting waste away from landfill to composting or AD was
found to be 997.55 per year at 2013 prices.
Chapter 2 - This chapter provides a brief review of the zero-emission
management of fisheries waste and its favorable impacts on the environment.
First, the current situation and problems facing fisheries waste, and plans to
overcome these issues, are discussed. Finally, microbes for efficient treatment,
eco-friendly processes, uses, and the related regulations of fisheries waste are
addressed to alleviate the environmental impacts.
The annual amount of fisheries waste has increased steadily due to
increases in the consumption of marine products and their inefficient
treatment. This situation has prompted the urgent review of waste policies with

Preface ix
improved regulations, encouraging efficient recycling of fish-processing

waste. Eco-friendly zero-emission management in which fisheries waste is
turned into valuable resources is discussed, and a zero-emission fisheries
waste management model is proposed. No additional production of waste
and/or wastewater is generated during the entire treatment process through
biodegradation using a microbial consortium. Eventually, this management of
fisheries waste will result in more favorable impacts on the environment, and
the use of fisheries waste as a valuable resource will expand.
Chapter 3 - Human progress has promoted major technological challenges.
The increasing generation of effluents, for example, requires efficient
solutions in order to establish sustainable development. However, the design
of wastewater treatment units is traditionally based on empirical calculations,
thus there is still room to increase their efficiency, since more precise methods
can be used to obtain more reliable predictions of the behavior of these units.
Therefore, it is possible to develop innovative projects, as well as the
optimization of units in operation, reducing costs associated to wastewater
treatment. Various processes can be adopted for the treatment of organic
effluents, including the Conventional Activated Sludge Systems (CAS) and its
variants, UASB reactors, Membrane Biological Reactors (MBRs) and
Sequencing Batch Reactors (SBRs). The applications cover today a wide range
of wastes, with physicochemical and rheological characteristics completely
different. There is a need for significant contributions to the development of
these bioprocesses, challenges for which the Computational Fluid Dynamics is
suitable. The aim of this review is to present the progress achieved with the
use of this technique in wastewater treatment processes with biological
reactors. Several factors that affects the fluid dynamic characteristics, and thus
the efficiency of the treatment process, are addressed. Then, the contributions
present in the literature are reviewed. Finally, strategies for obtaining valid
predictions in numerical simulations are also discussed, and perspectives for
the increasing use of computational fluid dynamics in design and scale-up of
bioprocesses are presented.
Chapter 4 - The worldwide demand of raw materials is facing an
exponential increase since the economic boom registered in the second post-
war scenario. The energy and the manufacturing industries are strictly
dependent on the employment of non-renewable resources in the
transformation and production processes, by contributing to the improvement
of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere and to the loss of natural
capital. With the aim of increasing the environmental preservation in terms of
biodiversity and raw materials access, this study contributes to examine the

x Mark Collins
benefits of the circular economy approach for the promotion of industrial

symbiosis practices, based on the horizontal collaboration and cooperation.
According to this approach, the waste of one company can become secondary
raw materials for other companies operating in the same or even in different
sectors, by implementing territorial integration and networks in the industrial
system.
Chapter 5 - The accumulation of solid organic waste is thought to be
reaching critical levels in almost all regions of the world. These organic wastes
need to be managed in a sustainable way to avoid depletion of natural
resources, minimize risk to human health, reduce environmental burdens and
maintain an overall balance in the ecosystem. A number of different methods
are currently applied in the treatment and management of different solid
organic wastes most commonly through anaerobic microbial metabolism. As
with all biological processes, optimum environmental conditions are essential
for successful operation of anaerobic digestion. The archaeal metabolic
processes of organic compounds depend on several parameters which must
therefore be considered and carefully controlled in practice. Interestingly, the
environmental requirements of acidogenic bacteria differ from the
requirements of methanogenic archaea. Provided that all steps of the
degradation process have to take place in one single reactor (one-stage
process), the requirements of the methanogenic archaea must be considered
with priority. These requirements include; longer regeneration time, much
slower growth, and being more sensitive to environmental conditions than
other bacteria present in the mixed culture. This chapter focuses on the role of
different organic wastes as well as the metabolic process of anaerobic
digestion of wastes by archaea in biogas production in biogas production
which is considered to be one of the most viable options for recycling the
organic fraction of solid wastes. This manuscript provides a broad overview of
the digestibility and energy production (biogas) yield of a range of substrates.
The involvement of a diverse array of microorganisms and role played by
methanogens as well as the effects of co-substrates and environmental factors
on the efficiency of the process has been comprehensively addressed. The
recent literature indicates that anaerobic digestion could be an appealing
option for converting raw solid organic wastes into useful products such as
biogas and other energy-rich compounds, which may play a critical role in
meeting the worlds ever-increasing energy requirements in the future.
Chapter 6 - Increasing urbanization and industrialization have resulted in a
dramatic increase in the volume of wastes generated worldwide. The treatment
of wastewater results in large amounts of municipal treated sewage sludge, or

Preface xi
biosolids. Sludge has traditionally been disposed through ocean-dumping,

landfilling, or incineration. But due to increasingly stringent environmental
regulations, these disposal methods are being phased out. With increasing
populations worldwide, biosolids production is likely to continue to increase in
a near future. The safe disposal of biosolids is a major environmental
challenge. Land application of biosolids is largely considered the best option
of disposal because it offers the possibility of recycling plant nutrients,
provides organic material, improves soils chemical and physical properties
and enhances crop yields. The use of biosolids is increasingly being
considered as a feasible and technical solution to reverse degraded and less
productive lands, and to promote the reestablishment of a vegetative cover.
However, benefits have to be carefully weighed against potential deleterious
effects related to non-point source pollution. Environmental risks include
increased potentially trace elements (PTE) input, leaching of nitrogen (N) in
subsurface drainage and groundwater, contamination of surface water with
soluble and particulate phosphorus (P), vector attraction, and reduced air
quality by emission of volatile organic compounds, among others. Most
countries regulate concentrations of PTE and pathogens in biosolids and
mandate maximum permissible loading rates into soil to manage contaminants.
Nevertheless, concerns associated with adverse environmental effects due to
land application of biosolids continue. This chapter investigates the
environmental impact of biosolids land application related to soil properties.

In: Organic Waste ISBN: 978-1-53610-920-7
Editor: Mark Collins 2017 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1
FOOD WASTE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS:

A CASE STUDY OF HOPE PARK CAMPUS,
LIVERPOOL HOPE UNIVERSITY,
UNITED KINGDOM
Shayeb Shahariar1,* and Paul Rooney2

1
Department of Soil Science, College of Agriculture and Bioresources,
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
2
Department of Geography and Environmental Science,
Faculty of Science, Liverpool Hope University, Liverpool, UK
ABSTRACT
Biodegradable organic waste including food waste is the largest kind
of municipal solid waste produced in the UK each year. Although there is
enormous annual variation in the composition and characteristics
depending on the source of waste produced, the portion of biodegradable
organic waste including food waste is relatively high in the UKs waste
stream. The vast majority of these food wastes end up in a landfill
without any recycling. It was found that a major portion of the UKs total
greenhouse gas (GHGs) emission is sourced in the food supply chain. As
part of the targets set in Climate Change Act, 2008 the UKs HEIs need
to play a role in meeting national goals for GHGs emission reduction.
* Correspondence Author Email: shayeb.shahariar@usask.ca.

2 Shayeb Shahariar and Paul Rooney
The EU Landfill Directive also has a target set for the reduction of
biodegradable waste that is landfilled. The reduction of GHGs emissions
in the UKs higher education sector for all carbon emission sectors
including the waste management is a necessity rather than a choice. This
because government capital allocations for universities are linked to their
carbon reduction capability. Because of associated problems with
landfilling and increasing public concerns about degradation of
environmental quality, recycling of organic waste including food waste to
produce bioenergy, fertilizers through composting and/or anaerobic
digestion (AD) are becoming more economically viable and are seen as
an environment-friendly approach to the challenge of food waste
management. The objective of the study was to estimate the amounts and
types of food waste generated at Liverpool Hope University, Hope Park
campus (UK) and to explore its on-site recycling potential through
composting and/or anaerobic digestion. The study was conducted
between December 2012 and August 2013. It involved a survey of food
waste produced on the Hope Park campus, an assessment of the nature
and types of the food waste produced, and a site audit together with a
compositional analysis of the mixed food waste. It is estimated that the
average annual food waste production at the Hope Park campus,
Liverpool Hope University is 89.07 metric tons. Among the types of food
waste, vegetables and fruit items were the greatest by weight.
Condiments, sauces, herbs, and spices items were found less frequently
occurring and also less wasted by weight. Whereas bread, rice, pasta, and
bakery products were the most frequently occurring food waste in
comparison to meat, fish and dairy. The study concluded that composting
was the most suitable option as a method of on-site food waste recycling
rather than anaerobic digestion (AD). It was, however, dependent on the
amount and nature of the food waste produced. The cost of in-vessel
composting in the UK is relatively high in comparison to windrow or
open composting. However, it is more favorable because of the efficient
control of odor. The composition and types of food waste produced also
suggest on-site composting over AD because of the volume of vegetables,
fruit and bakery products within the waste stream making it more suitable
for composting. However, AD is a preferable option for biodegradable
organic waste management from an environmental perspective because of
the benefit of carbon savings, but its establishment and operation need
expert personnel and there is a higher setup cost. It was estimated that
44.525 metric tons of carbon emission (CO2e) per year could saved by
diverting food waste from landfill to on-site recycling through AD and/or
composting. Total potential cost savings from diverting waste away from
landfill to composting or AD was found to be 997.55 per year at 2013
prices.

Food Waste Management Options 3
Keywords: food waste, biodegradable organic waste, composting, anaerobic

digestion, waste management
ABBREVIATIONS
AD Anaerobic Digestion
BMW Biodegradable Municipal Waste
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CO2e Carbon dioxide equivalent
CMP Carbon Management Plan
C/N ratio Carbon/Nitrogen ratio
DCLG Department for Communities and Local Government
DECC Department of Energy and Climate Change
DEFRA Department of Environment Food and Rural Affairs
EC European Commission
EDEN Education and Enterprise
EU European Union
FML Frances Mary Lescher
GHG Green House Gas
GWh Gigawatt Hour
HECM Higher Education Carbon Management
HEFCE Higher Education Funding Council for England
HEIs Higher Education Institutes
IVC In-Vessel Composting
kg Kilogram
L Liter
LATS Landfill Allowance Trading Scheme
LHU Liverpool Hope University
PROjEN Project Management and Engineering Solutions
QSRs Quick Service Restaurants
UK United Kingdom
WRAP Waste and Resources Action Program
1. INTRODUCTION
Worldwide about 1.3 billion metric tons of food waste are produced per
year (FAO, 2011) that require significant environmental considerations

concerning sustainable recycling and management options (Opatokun et al.,

2016). Annually, around 16 million metric tons of post-farm gate food waste is
produced in the UK, of which half is from households with the rest mostly
coming from manufacture, retail, hospitality, other businesses and the public
sectors (DEFRA, 2011a). The amount of food waste produced by households
and commercial sources account for around one third of all of the food that the
UKs people buy each year (Friends of the Earth, 2007). Biodegradable
organic waste, including food waste, is the largest kind of municipal solid
waste produced in the UK each year. The composition and characteristics of
food wastes can be highly variable depending on their sources. Therefore,
quantification and characterization of wastes are one of the key aspects of its
management strategy (Karak et al., 2012). Though there has been a change in
the characteristics of waste produced each year, the proportion of
biodegradable waste including food waste is still high in the UKs waste
stream (DEFRA, 2011b). The opportunity to produce renewable energy or
organic fertilizers through recycling of these biodegradable wastes is very
high. Unfortunately, 78% of this waste stream goes to landfill, of which nearly
10 million metric tons each year come from households and commercial
sources (Quested and Johnson, 2009). Food and other biodegradable waste
should be separated from the general waste stream to enable composting
and/or anaerobic digestion which can produce renewable energy and
fertilizers. For example, if just 5.5 million metric tons of food waste were
treated by anaerobic digestion it could generate between 477 and 761 GWh of
electricity each year; enough to meet the needs of up to 164,000 households
(Hogg et al., 2007a). However, at present only about 5% of the UKs food
waste is recycled by composting and 0.4% by anaerobic digestion (Mills and
Andrews, 2009).
The most frequently employed option for biodegradable waste disposal,
including food waste, is landfilling. This can cause the release of greenhouse
gases (e.g., methane) which are a significant contributor to climate change,
while alternatives such as incineration can cause atmospheric pollution (Zhang
et al., 2007). In the UK the vast majority of food waste ends up in a landfill.
Around 20% of the UKs total greenhouse gas emissions take place from the
food supply chain (Friends of the Earth, 2007). The European Commission
(1999) through Council Directive 1999/31/EC (known as the Landfill
Directive) sets a policy target to member states to reduce biodegradable
municipal wastes that are going to landfill. The Landfill Directive establishes
fixed targets for the reduction of biodegradable waste that can be landfilled by
2006, 2009 and 2016. It does this by relating the quantity allowed to be

landfilled to the quantity produced in 1995. By 2016 the Directive requires

member states to reduce the amount of biodegradable waste going in to
landfills by 65% compared to 1995 levels, i.e., if biodegradable waste
production doubles between 1995 and 2016, only 17.5% of biodegradable
waste produced in 2016 can be landfilled. The situation in 2006 was that
member states of the European Union were restricted to landfill a maximum of
75% by mass of the total amount of biodegradable municipal waste produced
in 1995. This became 50% in 2009 and then 35% in 2016. However, member
states are not obligated under the Landfill Directive on the methods of disposal
for biodegradable waste that is not sent to landfill. The European Commission
(2001) introduced targets for the reduction of biodegradable waste that is sent
to landfill, and affirmed that each member state has to establish a national
implementation strategy for biodegradable organic waste going to landfill that
includes, in particular, recycling, composting, biogas production or energy
recovery through anaerobic digestion. The UKs Climate Change Act 2008
sets minimum targets for carbon emission reduction in relation to a 1990
baseline of 34% by 2020 and 80% by 2050. This aims to improve carbon
management and assist the transition towards a low-carbon economy (HM
Government, 2008). As a part of the targets set in Climate Change Act 2008,
the UKs HEIs needs to play a role in meeting national targets for carbon
reduction. According to HEFCE, reducing carbon emissions in UK higher
education sector is a necessity rather than a choice for all carbon emission
sectors, including waste management, because from 2011 capital allocations
are linked to carbon reduction (HEFCE, 2010). The UKs HEIs are estimated
to produce half a million metric tons of waste per year, of which about 18% is
food and biodegradable waste (Waste Watch, 2005). When foods are thrown
away, all the carbon generated as it was produced, processed, transported and
stored becomes waste. It is estimated that the equivalent CO2 carbon savings
to taking 1 in 5 cars off the road is possible if throwing edible food away to
landfill is avoided (Quested and Johnson, 2009). Apart from helping the
environment, recycling food waste can also considerable positive economic
impacts. Due to the problems associated with sending waste to landfill and the
increasing public concerns about degradation of environmental quality,
conversion of food wastes to fertilizer through composting (Adhikari et al.,
2008) or biogas energy through anaerobic digestion (Zhang et al., 2007) is
becoming more economically viable and is seen as an environmentally
friendly approach to waste management.
Recycling biodegradable waste reduces the environmental impacts
associated with its disposal, helps to increase resource efficiency and avoids

the production of the greenhouse gas methane from landfill. Although

biodegradable organic waste (including food waste) is one of the largest
fractions of the UKs waste stream, it is estimated that only around 5% of the
total amount is collected separately for composting and/or anaerobic digestion
(Mills and Andrews, 2009). It is evident from the literature that there is a
strong rationale to recycle more food and other biodegradable waste. Small-
scale and community-based biodegradable organic waste recycling through
composting and/or anaerobic digestion can make a significant reduction in the
amount that is currently being sent to landfill. This will help the UK to meet
the EU Landfill Directive targets and the carbon emission reduction target sets
in the Climate Change Act. There is an opportunity to deal with biodegradable
organic waste, including food waste, in a sustainable and environmentally
friendly way through improved resource management. Managing food waste
by composting and/or anaerobic digestion is more cost efficient and
sustainable for the environment as it avoids the adverse impacts of landfilling,
provides a renewable energy source and reduces carbon emissions. These
alternative management options to landfill have greenhouse gas benefits, and
in the long run they can make a significant contribution to the UKs efforts to
tackle climate change. In addition, the recycled materials from composting
and/or anaerobic digestion system can be used as high-quality compost or
organic fertilizers for gardens, parks, and other field planting sites.
This research was conducted as part of an MSc in Environmental
Management, based at Hope Park campus, Liverpool Hope University, UK.
The overall objective of the study was to determine the amounts and types of
food waste generated at the Hope Park campus, Liverpool Hope University,
and to explore the recycling potential through composting and/or anaerobic
digestion. Specific objectives of the study were to: a) understand the scale and
nature of the food waste generated, b) identify carbon and financial costs
associated with the waste generated, and c) assess the viability of establishing
a composting and/or anaerobic digestion plant for on-site food waste
recycling.
2. AN OVERVIEW OF FOOD WASTE IN THE UK

Food waste is a major environmental problem in the UK, just as it is in
many other countries. About one-third of all food is purchased, and at least
half of this is thrown away in the UK annually, despite being edible (WRAP,
2007). According to the report by WRAP (2007), the vast majority of food

waste in the UK ends up in a landfill. Methane (CH4), one of the most potent
greenhouse gases and a significant contributor to climate change, is produced
from food waste as it rots anaerobically in landfill. When foods are thrown
away, all the carbon generated while the food was produced, processed,
transported and stored is wasted. Wasting food that could have been eaten is
not only a waste of money, but also damages the environment. WRAP
(2007).suggest that a typical household throws away between 4.80 and 7.70
of food each week that could have been eaten, equivalent to 250-400 a year.
2.1. Food Waste: Generation and Characteristics
In the UK households generate 6.7 million metric tons of food waste

annually, which is around one-third of the food that is purchased (Ventour,
2008). On average, each household in the UK throws away around 270kg of
food each year, an average 5.3kg per household per week (Ventour, 2008).
The total quantity of food and drink disposed to the sewer by UK households
each year is estimated to be 1.8 million metric tons (Gray, 2009). In 2009 it
was estimated that hotels, pubs, restaurants and Quick Service Restuarants
(QSRs) in the UK produced just over 3.4 million metric tonnes of waste, of
which 1.6 million metric tonnes (47%) was recycled, reused or composted and
nearly 1.5 (43%) million metric tonnes was mixed waste that went for
disposal, mainly to landfill (Williams et al., 2011). The remaining 10%
consisted of relatively uncommon waste types and disposal/treatment routes.
Businesses in England disposed of just over 1.2 million metric tons; Scotland
just under 133,000 metric tons; Wales just over 72,000 metric tons; and
Northern Ireland just over 42,000 metric tons of the almost 1.5 million metric
tons of waste that were sent for disposal in the UK (Williams et al., 2011).
Waste disposed of mainly to landfill represents an opportunity for reuse,
recycling, and recovery. According to WRAP, more than 78% of total waste is
made up of potentially recyclable materials of which 41% or 600,000 metric
tons are food waste (Williams et al., 2011). A survey conducted by WRAP
found that the most frequently cited uncooked food waste items (56%) are
inedible peelings and bones (Cox and Downing, 2007). Research supported
this, but went further finding that the inedible food items most commonly
thrown away are tea bags, banana skins, peelings and egg shells (WRAP,
2007). According to Gray (2009), the most frequently wasted food items are
fruit and vegetables (30%), bread and cakes (20%), raw meat and fish (16%)
and ready meals/convenience foods (16%). The food that is bought and then

thrown away uneaten in the greatest proportion is salad; in the UK 45% by

mass of all purchased salad is thrown away. Among the types of food waste in
the largest quantity is potato with 359,000 metric tons of potato going uneaten
every year; slices of bread with 328,000 metric tons a year, apples with
190,000 metric tons a year, and meat and fish meals at 161,000 metric tons a
year (Ventour, 2008).
By mass rather than volume, 1.5 million metric tons of food and drink
disposed of through the sewer could have been avoided had it been better
stored in the home, or with better planning or preparation (Gray, 2009). Truly
unavoidable food waste, like vegetable peelings, meat carcasses and teabags,
accounts for 1.3 million metric tons a year, or 19% of the total 6.7 million
metric tons, with the remainder being possibly avoidable food waste
(Ventour, 2008). In the UK the combined cost of avoidable food and drink
disposed of via the sewer is estimated at 2.7 billion per annum by households
(Gray, 2009). Households in the UK throw away 14.5 billion of food waste
each year, of which around six tenths (10.2 billion) could have been avoided
or managed better (Ventour, 2008).
2.2. Environmental Impacts of Food Waste
Food waste is important concern because of the adverse environmental

and economic impacts. Worldwide, food is one of the most important drivers
of environmental pressures. The emissions of greenhouse gases during the life-
cycle of food, including agriculture, manufacture, packaging, distribution,
retail, transport to the home, storage, preparation in the home and waste
disposal, is the major undesirable environmental impact of food waste (EC,
2013). In addition to the greenhouse gas emissions, there are other damaging
environmental impacts and resource issues relating to food waste including
land and water use, eutrophication of water bodies, pollution, the depletion of
soils and the subsequent climate and habitat changes (Gray, 2009; EC, 2013).
According to the EC (2013), food and drink in the EU are responsible for 17%
of direct greenhouse gas emissions and 28% of the material resource use. The
greenhouse gas emissions associated with all food waste in the UK account for
approximately 20 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent per year, while 4.6
million metric tons of CO2 equivalent greenhouse gas emissions occur as a
result of the avoidable or manageable food waste disposed of via the sewer
(Gray, 2009). These figures include contributions from the production,
manufacture, and distribution of the food and drink, but do not include

emissions related to preparation and consumption of the food. Each year food
waste management incurs a high cost with a significant waste of money
associated with the maintenance of landfills, transport costs to the landfill and
the cost of operations in the treatment plants dealing with waste food (EC,
2013).
2.3. Context and Policy Drivers for Food Waste Management

in the UK
Greater attention is being given to policies that reduce the adverse impact
that waste materials have on the environment. This is actioned by reducing,
reusing or recovering value from waste materials. The prevention of food
waste is a much more desirable option for the environment than any other
treatment, even if they bring some economic benefits. Food waste recycling
through composting and/or anaerobic digestion is more sustainable than
landfill as landfilling generates significant amounts of greenhouse gases.
Considering all the aspects of waste management policy, the UK government
is carried out a review. The Review of Waste Policy in England 2011
identified food waste as a priority for action (DEFRA, 2011c). Dealing with
food waste is closely linked to the protection of the natural environment, and is
addressed in the Natural Environment White Paper (HM Government, 2011).
The European Waste Directive has set up a legislative framework for the
handling of wastes. This defined key concepts such as waste, its recovery and
disposal, and put in place the essential requirements for the management of
waste: the obligation to draw up waste management plans and the requirememt
for registration or permits to carry out waste management operations (EC,
2008).
The Landfill Directive requires member states to progressively reduce the
amount of biodegradable waste which is landfilled (EC, 1999). As per the
Landfill Allowances & Trading Scheme (England) Regulations 2004, the
Landfill Allowance Trading Scheme (LATS) can penalize local authorities
that exceed their given allowances for landfilling Biodegradable Municipal
Waste (BMW) (HM Government, 2004).
The UK governments Climate Change Act 2008 makes carbon
management a serious business and involves various sectors including HEIs
(Wolf and Stanley, 2011). The understanding of the likely effects of climate
change has forced the UK Government to consider the utility of a range of
legal policy tools to address the global issue of the adverse effects of

greenhouse gas emissions (Wolf and Stanley, 2011). The Climate Change Act
2008 demands the reduction of GHGs emission by at least 80% below base
year levels by 2050 (HM Government, 2008). This is a strong driver to recycle
more biodegradable waste, including food waste. A significant reduction of
biodegradable waste sending to landfill can be made possible by recycling
food waste, and will help to meet the terms of the EU Landfill Directive. In
time, the greenhouse gas benefits of food waste recycling can make a
significant contribution to the UKs efforts to tackle climate change (Fisher et
al., 2006). Also, the recycled material can be used to produce good quality
compost to benefit anything from parks and gardens to brownfield sites (Hogg
et al., 2007a).
The Structural Reform Plans 2010 of the UK government set out steps to
promote increased energy from biodegradable waste through anaerobic
digestion (DCLG, 2010). The Department for Environment, Food, and Rural
Affairs (DEFRA) integrated this action into its business plan and published a
framework document in 2010 which aimed to set out the steps necessary to
increase energy from biodegradable waste through anaerobic digestion
(DEFRA, 2010). The Bio-waste Directive (2nd draft) came out in 2001. It
contained elements of source separation, the standard for the process and
outputs, issues of standards of outputs use on land (EC, 2001). Later, the
European Commission adopted a communication on a Thematic Strategy for
Soil Protection which stated that compost and other bio-waste will be
prepared with the aim to control potential contamination and to encourage the
use of certified compost (EC, 2002).
The UK government made a commitment to work towards a zero waste
economy in the Coalition Program for Government of 2010, along with a
commitment to introduce measures to increase the production of energy from
biodegradable organic waste through composting and/or anaerobic digestion
(DEFRA, 2011a). There are several technologies available to recycle food
waste, including anaerobic digestion and composting where waste cannot be
prevented according to the waste hierarchy showed in Figure 1 (DEFRA,
2011c). Each of these recycling techniques may have a role to play depending
on the nature and variety of waste and the local situation, but the challenge is
to find the most appropriate options to deliver an easy to use service which
achieves good environmental outcomes, and that is cost effective as well. For
example, the UK government planned for a proposed increase in recycling and
composting of the total generated municipal solid waste including
biodegradable organic waste of 45% by 2015, rising to 50% by 2020 (DEFRA,
2011c).

Figure 1. Waste management options according to the waste hierarchy that is best for
the environment (Source: DEFRA, 2011c)
2.4. Context and Policy Drivers for Food Waste Management in

Liverpool Hope University
In the UK emissions of the GHGs were estimated to be 590.4 million

metric tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (MtCO2e) in 2010, which was
3.1% higher than the 2009 figure of 572.5 million metric tonnes (DECC,
2012). Therefore, reducing GHGs is a necessity rather than a choice for all the
sectors in the UK. According to Higher Education Funding Council for
England (HEFCE, 2011), universities and colleges have to take steps to
decrease their CO2 emissions and to elevate the sector's reputation. According
to Waste Watch (2005), HEIs produce approximately half a million metric
tonnes of waste per year which is about 3% of all commercial waste generated
in the UK. Therefore, universities have the potential to become an example of
good practice and to inspire sustainable behaviours, not just through their
teaching and research but also through the sustainable management of their
resources.
Liverpool Hope University joined the six-year HECM program, developed
a Carbon Management Plan (CMP) and are committed to reducing its carbon
footprint in line with Government and HEFCE targets which represents a
reduction of 19% (1,013 metric tonnes) from the 2009-2010 baseline (5,367
metric tonnes) by 2014-2015 (LHU, 2010). The prime objective of the Carbon

Management Program is to minimize the risks and maximize the opportunities

arising from carbon emissions and climate change. Carbon emission of
Liverpool Hope University are calculated from both non-residential and
residential buildings and covers utilities consumption (gas, electricity, and
water), fuel used by university owned vehicles, refrigerants used within air
conditioning units, and the tonnage of waste that is sent to landfill (LHU,
2010). By meeting their CMP target it is believed that there will be some
800,000 of savings over the project period, including an enhanced university
reputation (LHU, 2010). The CMP has also identified three major action areas
forth achievement of the carbon reduction target: abatement projects,
awareness raising campaigns, and feasibility studies.
The Liverpool Hope University replaced their 2008 Environmental Policy
with a Sustainability Strategy in 2011 which was associated with the
Corporate Plan. The Sustainability Strategy acts as an overarching instrument
linking to other university policies which relate to sustainability issues (LHU,
2012). The Universitys Sustainability Strategy 2012 commits the University
to improve its environmental sustainability through ten principles, including
recycling and waste management. According to the 2012 Sustainability
Strategy, the amount of waste produced by the university needs to be reduced
and managed according to the waste management hierarchy (LHU, 2012). The
Sustainability Strategy (LHU, 2012) also outlined the following objectives
regarding recycling and waste principles:
To reduce general waste production in absolute metric tonnes by 5%

by 2014-2015 and work towards sending zero waste to landfill,
excluding building waste
Develop and implement waste management practices that actively
manage waste through the waste management hierarchy
Production of publicity material to promote recycling in Halls of
Residence and the wider University campus
To encourage the use of recycled products where appropriate
Review all waste streams and work to minimize waste generation,
maximize recycling and minimize unnecessary consumption
2.5. Food Waste Recycling in the UK
The present management of the UKs food waste is mostly by traditional

disposal methods (Williams et al., 2011). On-site waste recycling, such as

composting of biodegradable waste including food waste, is relatively

infrequent. Recycling in the UKs hospitality sector is widespread, but not
universal. About 76% of businesses claim to recycle at least one material, of
which glass and card are the most commonly recycled materials (Williams et
al., 2011). Though many businesses would like to recycle or recycle more,
their main barriers are a lack of recycling services and space (Williams et al.,
2011). Approximately 70% of the mixed waste produced by the UK hospitality
sector could, in theory, be recycled, of which food waste is more than 50% of
the total amount (Williams et al., 2011). However, the amounts are likely
increase to over 80% once emerging markets in the hospitality sector are
established. Table 1 shows the proportion of food materials from the
hospitality sector in the UK that could be recycled by composting and energy
generation through anaerobic digestion systems.
Table 1. Proportion of food waste from the UK hospitality industry that

could be recycled (%)
Type of waste Hotels Pubs QSRs Restaurants

Food waste 39.1 38.9 51.2 42.9
Dry
32.1 38.1 23.5 31.9
recyclables
Total 71.2 77.0 74.7 74.8
Source: Williams et al. (2011).
2.6. Environmental and Financial Benefits of Food

Waste Recycling
About 31 million metric tons of household waste are produced in the UK

each year, of which 6.7 million metric tons is food waste (WRAP, 2007). The
UKs food supply chain accounts for around a fifth of the UKs greenhouse
gas emissions. Total GHGs emissions relating to consumption in the UK are
around 850 million metric tons per year, of which avoidable food and drink
waste accounts for approximately 2.4% (Quested and Johnson, 2009).
Although the amount represented is a small portion of the total UK GHGs
emissions, these GHGs emissions could be reduced if the amount of food
wastes could be decreased.
Along with the environmental costs, the UK public are paying an
economic cost for the food wastes that are thrown away every day. UK

citizens pay Council Tax to dispose of this food waste. This tax could be
minimized if the amount of food wastes were reduced, and that which did
require disposal was recycled.
2.7. Food Waste Management Options
There are several technologies available for managing or recycling

biodegradable wastes, including food waste, but the most environmentally
preferable treatment options for food waste are usually anaerobic digestion
and/or composting. Waste recycling at source or on-site require policy
implementation and efficient environmental management options. With
increasing concerns about GHGs emissions and a desire for improved resource
efficiency, composting and/or anaerobic digestion are the environmentally
preferable treatment options for dealing with food waste in the UK, as well as
at Liverpool Hope University.
2.7.1. Composting
Composting is a natural process in which microorganisms break down
biodegradable organic matter in the presence of air in to a humus-like product
which is called compost, suitable for use as a soil conditioner (Environment
Agency, 2013). Good quality compost is full of humus and nutrients that can
improve soil quality and crop productivity. According to Haug (1993)
Composting is the biological decomposition and stabilization of organic
substrates, under conditions that allow development of thermophilic
temperatures as a result of biologically produced heat, to produce a final
product that is stable, free of pathogens and plant seeds, and can be
beneficially applied to land.
Composting is an aerobic process which requires oxygen for the use of
microorganisms for the degradation, produces carbon dioxide and a significant
amount of energy in the form of heat which is released during the process.
Recently, composting techniques have been applied extensively to the
recycling of food wastes following the setting of targets to divert
biodegradable waste from landfill (Environment Agency, 2013). Apart from
food waste, manures, garden waste, tree trimming and grass cuttings can be
used as feedstock for composting.
Most EU member states have some experience of composting collected
biodegradable waste, including food waste, and so it is a relatively well-
understood process (Hogg et al., 2007a). Composting can have an odor

management issue, but this is now better managed than in the past through the
development of in-vessel techniques. In-Vessel Composting (IVC) is a
means of composting biodegradable waste that takes place within a closed
vessel that uses the natural composting method of aerobic digestion
(PROjEN, 2005). In-vessel composting systems create an ideal environment
for the breakdown and recycling of biodegradable waste.
According to the Environment Agency (2013), food waste recycling is
subject to the Animal By-Products Regulations 2003 which require that
materials are treated to specific time-temperature profiles in order to achieve
an appropriate level of pathogen kill within the compost (70oC for 1 hour for
6cm particles in vessel and 60oC over 2 days for 40cm pieces). The UK is one
of the member states of EU which do not effectively define compost derived
from waste materials through reference to a statutory standard. In the majority
cases, compost establishments need additional sources of woody or structural
materials for recycling food waste. Due to the lack of structure (high moisture
content) and a low C/N ratio, the composting process can compensate only to a
certain extent, with static processes having more problems than dynamic
processes (Hogg et al., 2007a).
2.7.2. Anaerobic Digestion

Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a natural process in which microorganisms
break down organic matter into biogas (a mixture of carbon dioxide 40% and
methane 60%) in a closed system in the absence of oxygen and digestate
(material remaining after the anaerobic digestion which is a nitrogen-rich
fertilizer) (Khalid et al., 2011). AD plants can be built on many different
scales, including large facilities that are used for treating sewage sludge or
municipal waste, to smaller ones handling materials from a particular farm or a
small community (DEFRA, 2011a). Biogas produced from AD can be used
directly in engines for combined heat and power, burned to generate heat, or
can be cleaned and utilized in the same way as natural gas or as a vehicle fuel
(DEFRA, 2011a). The digestate can be utilized as a fertilizer or soil
conditioner (Lukehurst et al., 2012). Energy produced from AD has some
advantages over other renewable energy technologies, such as the energy is
generated constantly. In the UK, AD processes have been used for over 100
years for sewage sludge treatment, but recently it is being used for the
treatment of food waste and purpose-grown crops (DEFRA, 2011a).
AD can play a major role as a means of dealing with organic waste by an
efficient capture of the GHGs emissions that are associated with its disposal to
landfill. AD offers benefits of recovering energy and producing marketable

bio-fertilizers (Hogg et al., 2007b). The biogas produced from AD can be used
to generate heat and electricity, it can be converted into biofuels or cleaned
and injected into the gas grid (Hogg et al., 2007b). Taking into account local
economic and environmental considerations, AD is considered to be a better
overall environmental outcome for the recycling of food waste compared to
other options (DEFRA, 2011a).
Because of the production of renewable energy and a bio-fertilizer from
same technology AD is preferable to composting, but there are some organic
waste streams for which composting remains the best option, such as co-
collected food and garden waste, or woody garden waste (DEFRA, 2011a).
Food waste needs to be collected separately at the source to be recycled by
wet AD systems, but to be recycled by composting or dry AD systems food
waste can either be separately collected at source or mixed with other green
waste (DEFRA, 2011a).
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1. Waste Survey
A survey was conducted to collect data on food waste. It was conducted

by visiting and gathering information from the food outlets operatives on Hope
Park campus by the Liverpool Hope University Catering Department. The
surveys were limited to the three restaurant and food courts available to
students on the Hope Park campus of Liverpool Hope University, namely Our
Place (Fresh Hope restaurant), The EDEN caf and the Chapters caf.
During the survey the following information was requested:
the size and capacity of each unit, including their operating hours
the approximate average number of customers that visited per day
the approximate average number of meals served/sold per day
the types of food available in each outlet
the volume and mass of food waste disposed of by each unit each day
information on any on-site or off-site waste management systems
the volume and mass of food waste sent for recycling and waste to
landfill each day
any collected data on the volume or composition of waste produced

The data from this part of the study is regarded as indicative as it is based
on estimations provided by the outlet operatives. During this part of the study
it was assumed that the customers ate all the food sold or served to them
within the outlets and that they did not take away food away from the outlet.
Also, food brought in-person from outside of the University was not included
in the study. There are student halls of residence on the Hope Park which can
accommodate 575 students. Although it was understood that these halls of
residence produce significant quantities of wastes, including food items, they
were not included in this research project.
3.2. Waste Audit
An on-site audit of food waste generation and management was conducted

through visual inspection, a collection of food waste samples, off-site sorting
and visual inspection of waste and interviews. The purpose of these were to
study the nature and types of waste produced. Categories of waste production
were developed by analyzing the results of this audit and information from the
results of the survey of food outlets on Hope Park. The food waste audit
consists of:
an semi-structured interview with the Liverpool Hope University

Sustainability Manager about waste production, collection, and
management
a visual inspection of the on-site food waste bins/containers used for
short term storage prior collection and off-site disposal
a collection and assessment of food waste being transferred for off-
site disposal
3.2.1. Interview
All the information about wastes and waste management of the University
are handled by the Liverpool Hope University Estate Office, and so the
Sustainability Manager from Estate Office was the most appropriate staff for
interview for this part of the study. The semi-structured interview sought to
gain an insight in to waste generation, collection, storage, on-site or off-site
recycling and about the waste management policy of the University.
Permission to remove wastes from the bins for off-site analysis gained on to
the food waste itself, information on all other wastes produced inside the
university was also collected.

3.2.2. Visual Inspection

On-site visual inspection of waste collected the following information:
types of waste produced

types of collection bins or containers
volumes of bins or container
estimations of how full (in % of total capacity) the bins or containers
were at the point of collection
the number of days waste was stored in the bins prior to collection
for off-site disposal
whether all, some or none of the waste was collected from the bin or
container
For health and safety reasons, no oils or other hazardous waste materials
were handled during the audit process. The study did not take account of any
seasonal differences in food wastes produced nor disposed of. This may be a
major factor for recycling of food waste through composting and/or anaerobic
digestion.
3.2.3. Off-Site Sorting and Analysis of Waste
Collection of Waste
As far possible, all the food wastes available in the bins and containers
ready for disposal was collected for sorting where bins and containers were
small in size. For large sized bins and containers, where this was not possible,
random samples were taken from the bins with a small waste samples
collecting container. This was done by a thorough mixing of the waste in the
bin before sampling to ensure as representative a sample as possible. The
waste were mixed by hand using hands appropriate personal protective
equipment to ensure compliance with health and safety requirements.
Uncertainty about what proportion of a weeks waste was collected was a
source of error associated with this aspect of the study. The reason is that the
generation of waste varied considerably day by day and, and therefore
collection for disposal varied in frequency and thoroughness. Thus, for this
part of the study it is not possible to determine the best time for the audit
activities to yield the maximum amount of waste. During this survey, analysis
was not done on whether the day of the week on which the waste was

collected affected the results and also was unable to check the sensitivity of
the approach to calculating a weeks worth of waste from the resulting data.
Sorting of Waste
The total mass of the sampled waste was recorded first. Then the wastes
collected for disposal were sorted and analyzed by emptying the waste
sampling container on to a plastic sheet on the floor for hand sorting. Each
waste sample gathered from each bin were processed separately. Once each
sample was sorted into different categories the mass of each waste material
was recorded and it was then disposed of.
3.3. Estimation of the Total Amount of Food Waste Produced
An estimation of the total amount of food waste produced per year at the
Hope Park campus, Liverpool Hope University, was done following the
procedures described by Williams et al. (2011). Information about the total
number of waste containers on the site and their capacity were confirmed
during the waste audit process. Information was collected about the fullness of
the bins and containers containing food wastes and the number of days worth
of waste they contained on the days of the audit. Wastes sampled for off-site
compositional analysis were weighed, and the bulk density was calculated
using the estimated volume of waste and the mass of the waste samples
collected. The calculation of the mass of food waste produced per year is
shown in Table 2.
Sources of error associated with this approach are as follows:
Food samples collected during the study for waste characteristics and
composition analysis are unlikely to have been representative of the
waste produced over the whole course of the year. The data from this
research study may only be considered as approximate and indicative.
The research could not address seasonal, week-on-week nor day-by-
day variations in food waste generation due to time constraints and
huge labor requirement for an individual researcher.
There is an assumption that all types of waste produced over the
course of a year were available on the day of the waste audit, and
wastes generated were not because of any unusual events.

Although the bulk density factor applied during this procedure is

derived from prior research evidence, there is an indication that it can
vary quite significantly between apparently similar samples.
During the visual estimate of the fullness of bins and containers,
sometimes less than 100% are subject to variations in judgment.
The number of days that the university is open, and then the number
that the university is fully operational with students on campus is
based on the university academic calendar. The research has not
accounted for the days the university is not, or not fully, operational,
nor has it accounted for different opening days and hours during any
conferences or events. The study assumes that the food outlets are
open a uniform number of days and hours with and each year.
Table 2. Calculation procedures of mass of food waste produced per year

for a single sample from each location
Symbol
Stage in the calculation Source of information
used
A Container/bin type Site audit (interview)
B Container/bin capacity or volume Site audit (visual inspection)
C Number of containers/bins Site audit (visual inspection)
D Fullness Site audit (visual inspection)
E Total waste on-site on audit day Site audit
F Number of days worth of waste Site audit (interview)
G Volume of waste sampled Recorded during collection of waste
H Mass of sample taken Recorded during collection of waste
I Bulk density (kg per liter) HG
J Mass per day sampled waste HF
K Mass per day un-sampled waste (E G) I F
L Mass per day total waste J+K
M Number of days trading per year From interview
N Total mass of waste per year L M 1000 for metric ton
Source: Adapted from Williams et al. (2011).
3.4. Calculation of Carbon Benefits and the Prevention and

Recycling of Food Waste
For the purpose of this study, carbon means CO2 equivalent emissions
(i.e., CO2e). The assessment of carbon benefits from the prevention, recycling
and recovery of food waste was focused on:

CO2 equivalent emissions (CO2e) linked with the major food waste
streams that are currently going to landfill
possible carbon savings might be made through the prevention,
recovery or recycling of food waste
3.4.1. Carbon Savings from Prevention

On an average 4.2 metric tons of CO2e emissions are produced for each
metric ton of food waste disposal. This estimate is based on best available
evidence suggested by Williams et al. (2011). Emissions from food
production, transport and food waste disposal are included in this estimate.
The estimate was then applied to the total amount of food waste produced at
Hope Park campus to generate an estimate of the carbon savings that could be
achieved if this waste was prevented.
3.4.2. Carbon Savings from Recycling

On average, 0.5 metric tons of CO2e emissions are generated for each
metric tons of food waste sent for disposal (Williams et al., 2011). These
emissions could be saved if the food wastes are diverted into AD and/or
composting from disposal. The total amount of CO2e could be saved if food
waste is diverted to AD or composting, therefore, the total amount of food
waste being disposed of is multiplied by 0.5.
3.5. Calculation of Cost Savings from Prevention and Recycling

of Food Waste
The calculation of cost savings in monetary terms was to quantify the

impact of avoidable or recyclable food waste was done based on the potential
costs provided by Williams et al. (2011). Costs for the Hope Park campus
were calculated based on the best available evidence for the UK.
3.5.1. Potential Cost Savings from Reduced Food Waste Disposal

to Landfill
Considering a variety of transport methods and distances, Williams et al.
(2011) estimated that the typical carrying costs for food waste in mixed waste
are around 15 per metric tons in the UK. Similarly, they calculated that a
typical cost of disposing of food waste to landfill is 78 per metric tons
(including gate fee and landfill tax), and that the cost of diversion of food

waste to composting or AD is 57 per metric tons. This equates to savings of

around 21 per metric tons for food waste recovered through composting or
AD. The difference between the options of landfilling and composting / AD
will widen as time goes on due to the on-going increases in Landfill Tax.
However, if food waste is diverted to composting or AD, there will still be
implementation costs to the businesses, so it is important that only the net
savings be considered.
3.5.2. Potential Cost Savings from Diverting Waste Away from the
Landfill to Composting or AD
Diverting food waste to composting or AD, the savings to be considered
are those from landfill cost alone. Williams et al. (2011) estimated the cost
savings by diverting food waste to composting or AD as follows:
Avoided cost of landfill disposal 21 per metric ton (minus) Carrying
cost 10 per metric ton = (equals) A total cost saving 11 per metric ton.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Estimated Amount of Food Waste Produced
An estimation of the average annual amount of food waste generated from

two sampled places in Hope Park campus of Liverpool Hope University is
presented in Table 3. The estimates reveal that annually there are about 87.51
and 1.54 metric tons of food wastes produced from Our Place' and Derwent
Kitchen respectively. In total, there are about 89.05 metric tons of food
wastes produced annually on Hope Park campus of Liverpool Hope University
from these two places.
Table 3. Estimates of the amount of food waste produced at Hope Park

campus, Liverpool Hope University during 2013
Results
Stage in the calculation
Our Place Derwent Kitchen
Container/bin type and name Eurobins Eurobins
Container/bin capacity or 1100L 100L
volume
Number of containers/bins 6 2
Fullness when waste samples 85% (On an average 85% (On an average 80 to
collected 80 to 90%) 90%)

Results
Stage in the calculation
Our Place Derwent Kitchen
Total waste on-site on audit 85% of 1100L 6 = 85% of 100L 2 = 170L
day 5610L
Number of days worth of 2 3
waste or the bin retained (wastes are collected (wastes are collected two
wastes before collection three times in a week times in a week from these
from these bins) bins)
Volume of waste sampled 100L 100L
Mass of sample taken 12kg 10.5kg
Bulk density (kg per liter) 12kg 100L = 10.5kg 100L = 0.105kg per
0.12kg per liter liter
Mass per day sampled waste 12kg 2 = 6kg 10.5kg 3 = 3.5kg
Mass per day un-sampled {(5610L - 100L) {(170 - 100L) 0.105kg/L}
waste 0.12kg/L} 2 = 3 = 2.45kg
330.6kg
Mass per day total waste 6kg + 330.6kg = 3.5kg + 2.45kg = 5.95kg
336.6kg
Number of days trading per 260 260
year
Total mass of waste per year (336.6kg 260) (5.95kg 260) 1000 =
1000 = 87.51 metric 1.54 metric tons
tons
Total mass of waste produced 87.51 metric tons + 1.54 metric tons = 89.05 metric
at Hope Park of LHU from tons per year (Total)
two kitchens
4.2. The Nature and Type of Food Waste Produced
Nature and types of food waste that are produced annually from two
kitchens on the Hope Park campus of Liverpool Hope University were
estimated during this study and are summarized as Table 4. The compositional
analysis obtained from the sorting of food wastes has been used to provide
estimates of the fractions of various food waste types produced annually. Food
waste types that were categorized in this study are based on the food waste
category used by WRAP (2007) and other literatures of Cordingley et al.
(2011); Williams et al. (2011); Gray (2009); Ventour (2008); and Hogg et al.
(2007a). The methodology for data collection adopted in this study involved
the collection of mixed waste from the waste bin or containers of the selected
study sites, hand-sorting of the mixed waste into described categories and the
weighing of the different components of the mixed waste to obtain their

masses. Food items that were not possible to identify during the sorting
process were categorized in other (unknown) category.
Table 4. Estimated types of food waste produced at Hope Park campus,

Liverpool Hope University during 2013
Our Place Derwent Kitchen Average of % mass

Average Average Average Average from two locations
Food waste type
mass mass mass mass in Hope Park
(kg) (%) (kg) (%) campus, LHU
Bakery 0.9360 7.8 2.9400 28.0 17.9
Meat and fish 0.4080 3.4 0.0840 0.8 2.1
Rice 0.4320 3.6 0.0525 0.5 2.1
Pasta 0.4200 3.5 0.0735 0.7 2.1
Dairy 0.2880 2.4 0.5880 5.6 4.0
Dried foods and 0.4920 4.1 0.8820 8.4 6.3
powders
Fruit 1.8000 15.0 1.2600 12.0 13.5
Vegetables 3.2400 27.0 0.6300 6.0 16.5
Salads 0.2760 2.3 0.1155 1.1 1.7
Confectionary and 0.6240 5.2 2.0265 19.3 12.3
snacks
Condiments, sauces, 0.1440 1.2 0.0315 0.3 0.8
herbs and spices
Desserts 0.1440 1.2 0.3045 2.9 2.1
Mixed Foods 2.2800 19.0 1.2600 12.0 15.5
(sandwich)
Other (Unknown) 0.5160 4.3 0.2520 2.4 3.4
Total 12.0000 100.0 10.5000 100.0 100.0
(sampled (sampled
mass) mass)
Figure 2 illustrates the estimated composition of different types of food

waste produced from Our Place in Hope Park, Liverpool Hope University.
Figure 2 indicates that the highest proportion of food waste produced are
vegetable items (27%) followed by mixed food (sandwiches) (19%); fruits
(15%); bakery (7.8%); confectionery and snacks (5.2%); other (unknown)
(4.3%); dried foods and powders (4.1%); rice (3.6%); pasta (3.5%); meat and
fish (3.4); dairy (2.4%); salads (2.3%); condiments, sauces, herbs and spices
(1.2%); and desserts (1.2%).

Figure 2. Composition of food wastes from Our Place (% mass by kg sorted)
Figure 3. Composition of food wastes from Derwent Kitchen (% mass by kg sorted)
Figure 3 illustrates the estimated composition of different types of food

waste produced from the Derwent Kitchen at Hope Park, Liverpool Hope
University. The greatest proportion of food waste produced were bakery items
at 28% of the total food waste produced. This was followed by confectionery
and snacks (19.3%); fruits (12%); mixed food (sandwich) (12%); dried foods
and powders (8.4%); vegetables item (6%); dairy (5.6%); desserts (2.9%);
other (unknown) (2.4%); salads (1.1%); meat and fish (0.8%); pasta (0.7%);
rice (0.5%);and condiments, sauces, herbs and spices (0.3%).
Figure 4 illustrates the composition of food waste (average of % mass of
food waste types) obtained from Our Place and Derwent Kitchen at Hope Park
campus, Liverpool Hope University. The averages presented in figure 4 are the
representation of mixed waste that was produced from Our Place and Derwent

Kitchen during the period of investigation. The highest proportion of food

waste types found from Our Place and Derwent Kitchen were bakery items
(17.9%) followed by vegetables (16.5%); mixed foods (sandwich) (15.5%);
fruits (13.5%); confectionery and snacks (12.3%); dried foods and powders
(6.3%); dairy (4.0%); other (unknown) (3.4%); meat and fish (2.1%); pasta
(2.1%); rice (2.1%); desserts (2.1%); salads (1.7%) and condiments, sauces,
herbs and spices (0.8%).
Bakery
3.35
Meat and fish
Rice
17.9 Pasta
15.5 2.1
2.05 Dairy
0.75 2.05 Dried foods and powders
2.1 Fruit
4 Vegetables
12.25
Salads
6.25 Confectionery and snacks
Condiments, sauces, herbs, and spices
1.7 16.5 13.5 Desserts
Mixed Foods (sandwich)
Other (Unknown)
Figure 4. Composition of food wastes (average of % mass) from Our Places and
Derwent Kitchen during 2013 in Hope Park campus, LHU
According to Gray (2009), the most frequently wasted food items in the
UK are fruit and vegetables (30%) followed by bread and cakes (20%), raw
meat and fish (16%) and ready meals/convenience foods (16%). On average,
vegetables and fruit are the items found to be most frequently wasted food
items followed by bakery products in this study conducted at Hope Park
campus, Liverpool Hope University. Our study found that condiment, sauces,
herbs and spices were less frequently wasted both from Our Place and
Derwent Kitchen that were surveyed in Hope Park campus of LHU.
In a study conducted by Cordingley et al. (2011) on the types and
quantities of food wastes produced and thrown away by schools in England it
was found that the most frequently wasted items were vegetables (including
peelings) followed by fruit peelings, cores and crusts from pizzas, and
sandwiches respectively. This study also found that over a year food wastes
such as bread, rice, pasta, and bakery were the most frequently wasted types of
food items, more so than meat, fish and dairy items. If food waste consists of
high amounts of meat or meat wastes, fish or fish wastes, dairy products it is

not suitable for composting. This is because they imbalance the nutrient-rich
structure of other food and vegetable waste which break down slowly; they
attract rodents and other scavenging animals; and because they produce bad
odors from the compost (McDowell and McDowell, 2012). Food waste that
consists of proportionately less meat, fish, and dairy product but high amounts
of vegetables, fruit, bread, rice, pasta, bakery, etc. are ideal for recycling
through composting. However, bioconversion technologies such as anaerobic
digestion suitable for dealing with food wastes that are high in amounts of
meat etc. compared to other thermochemical conversion technologies due to a
relatively high moisture content of food waste (Zhang et al., 2007).
4.3. Food Waste Collection and Disposal
Food wastes from the bins of Derwent Kitchen (number of bins were two
and volume 100L each) are collected twice a week. Food wastes from Our
Place (number of bins were six and volume 1100L each) are collected three
times in a week. There are also some bigger bins which are collected three
times a week. Wastes from both places are taken by WSR Recycling Ltd. in
Widnes, Cheshire (http://www.wsrrecycling.co.uk/) before it is bulked
(bulking involves consolidating the wastes of several containers of similar
material into a single container). After bulking, it is taken to the energy from
waste facilities in Kirklees (http://www.sita.co.uk/). There are some portion of
food wastes that may perhaps go to the sewer from the kitchen that happens
mostly in residential halls of the university.
4.4. Opportunities for on-Site Recycling of Food Waste at Hope

Park campus, Liverpool Hope University
Based on the nature and amount of food waste estimated, as a whole,

composting is a more suitable option than anaerobic digestion for on-site food
waste recycling at Hope Park campus, Liverpool Hope University. The costs
of undertaking on-site recycling of food waste must be economically viable as
a waste management option. Recycling of organic waste into a stabilized
product will reduce the amount of waste will recycle nutrients (Karak et al.,
2012).
The windrow composting process is a relatively low-cost option for food
waste recycling, but is not suitable because of the production of bad odors

from it and because of potential vermin problems. However, these can be

avoided or reduced if the food waste is composted in an in-vessel composting
system for at least two weeks before being windrowed (Darrell et al., 1998).
Under experimental conditions, a food waste to bulking agent ratio of 1:2
is determined as best option to prevent bad odors (Darrell et al., 1998).
According to Hogg et al. (2007b), the costs of in-vessel composting in the UK
is relatively higher than the windrow or open composting options, but the costs
of in-vessel composting are negatively affected by the setup costs. The facility
costs of 35-40 per metric tons for recycling 10-20,000 metric tons seems
rational in the UK (Hogg et al., 2007b). In-vessel composting systems require
less space and provide better control over windrows for manipulating gas
emissions and polluting leachates, despite the high initial costs
(Cekmecelioglu et al., 2005). Some in-vessel composting systems have lower
unit costs that are not suitable for accepting feedstocks with very high
proportions of food waste. It is necessary when setting up a composting plant
for food waste recycling to obtain expert advice to ensure that the process is
well managed and that the end products will be desirable to potential users.
Besides food waste, composting is the best option for other organic waste such
as so-called food and garden waste, or woody garden waste.
The nature and types of food waste that were produced as part of this
study support the option of composting over the anaerobic digestion option
because of the high volume of vegetables, fruits, bakery products which are an
ideal waste stream for composting.
The anaerobic digestion process is proposed as a promising method of
treating biodegradable organic wastes, including food waste, from both energy
conservation and environmental points of view. Anaerobic digestion of food
waste is preferable to other options because it produces both renewable energy
and a biofertilizer, which together do more to offset GHGs emissions than
producing compost (Hogg et al., 2007b). The anaerobic digestion process
produces methane that can serve as a source of instant energy for various uses,
whereas, aerobic composting is a small net energy user. Source separated food
wastes are needed for recycling by wet anaerobic digestion systems.
However, to be treated by composting the food wastes should either mixed
with other green wastes or be collected separately at source.
There are many factors that can affect the design and performance of
anaerobic digestion processes such as feedstock characteristics (e.g.,
biodegradability, moisture content, nutrient content, etc.), reactor design and
operation conditions, but the characteristics of organic waste are most

important information for designing and operating anaerobic digesters as the

food waste is a highly desirable feedstock (Zhang et al., 2007).
For recycling of food waste both anaerobic digestion and in-vessel
composting is suitable produce a profitable product. However, anaerobic
digestion is preferable from an environmental perspective, but both the setup
and operation needs expert personnel, and the initial setup cost are relatively
high. Overall, the choice of which user-friendly, sustainable and most cost-
effective recycling technique will depend upon how the collection and
treatment systems are jointly configured (Hogg et al., 2007b).
This study suggests some important considerations which may deserve
further attention for the establishment any proposed on-site recycling plant.
These are as follows:
A careful collection of food waste data throughout the year, with data
collected frequently
A detailed study of the amount, types and both physical and chemical
characteristics of food waste produced
The control of food waste entering into the sewer system, with a
separate collection mechanism for recycling of such waste that does
enter the sewer system
That a feasibility study is completed that considers in-vessel
composting and/or anaerobic digestion systems in the local context for
the establishment of on-site food waste recycling
Careful consideration is given to the end use options for the
biodegradable organic waste produced, with particular consideration
given in this respect to the selection and design of food waste
recycling options
4.5. Opportunities for Saving Carbon
Overall, 374.01 metric tons of carbon emissions per year could be saved at
the Hope Park campus of Liverpool Hope University by preventing food
wastes entering the landfill waste stream if they were put into on-site recycling
scheme. Whereas, 44.525 metric tons per year of carbon emissions could be
reduced at Hope Park by diverting food waste from landfill to recycling
through off-site AD and/or composting (Table 5). Though the amount of
GHGs emissions savings is negligible in term of total emissions, it could

contribute significantly to the carbon emission reduction target of Liverpool

Hope University, as well as making a contribution at a national level.
4.6. Opportunities for Financial Savings
By considering the estimated amount of food waste produced in Hope

Park campus of LHU, this study estimates that 1870.05 per year (Table 6) of
cost savings is possible from reduced food waste disposal. The total potential
cost savings from diverting waste away from landfill to composting or
anaerobic digestion is 997.55 per year (Table 6) from the two food outlets
that werepart of this study. Although the amount of cost savings may be
relatively small in comparison the total annual budget of the university, the
impact of the actions on the protection of the environment is significant at an
institutional level. However, if food waste was diverted to composting or
anaerobic digestion there would be costs to the business in terms of
establishment and operation. However, these costs may be off-set by using
produced energy from anaerobic digestion and the fertilizers from composting.
Table 5. Estimated amount of carbon savings (CO2e emissions) from food

waste prevention and recycling
Total amount of food Carbon savings (CO2e Carbon savings (CO2e

waste produced per emissions) from emissions) from recycling
year at Hope Park prevention of food waste of food waste through off-
campus, LHU site AD or composting
89.05 metric tons per 89.05 metric tons per year 89.05 metric tons per year
year 4.2 = 374.01 metric tons 0.5 = 44.525 metric tons per
per year year
Table 6. Estimated amount of cost savings () from food waste

prevention and recycling
Total amount of food Potential cost savings () Potential total cost savings
waste produced per from reduced food waste () from diverting waste
year at Hope Park disposal to landfill away from landfill to off-
campus, LHU site composting or AD
89.05 metric tons per 89.05 metric tons per year 89.05 metric tons per year
year 21 per metric tons = 11 = 997.55 per year
1870.05 per year

CONCLUSION
This study is relevant for considering the suitability of a small-scale on-
site composting and/or anaerobic digestion plant. It is especially relevant in a
higher education context as it addressed the options for the recycling of food
waste produced to meet the emission reduction target at the Hope Park campus
of Liverpool Hope University, United Kingdom.
Understanding the types and amount of food waste that could produce is
important before selection a recycling option. Either on-site composting or
anaerobic digestion of food wastes are necessary to meet the recycling and
GHGs emissions reduction targets of Liverpool Hope University, UK
universities and UK targets in general.
Both small-scale anaerobic digestion and in-vessel composting are
suitable for recycling of food waste produced at Liverpool Hope University.
From an environmental perspective anaerobic digestion is preferable over
composting, but its setup and operation costs are high, and it requires the
availability of expert personnel for both the establishment and operation. The
choice of an environmentally sustainable and cost-effective on-site food waste
management technique will depend upon the financial capability and
desirability of the implementing party. Local circumstances, balanced against
nationally set targets, will create the context for the best practicable recycling
option.
A lesson learned from this study is that estimating food waste data only
from this type of small scale and time limiting waste survey is not enough to
provide a solid decision-making basis for establishment of an anaerobic
digestion recycling plant with very high costs. More rigorous and
comprehensive data that is collected throughout the year, and preferably over
at least 2 or 3 years, is required. To do this, an institution would be required to
make a significant amount of time and resources available. Meanwhile, the
urgency of addressing food waste issues and the necessity to make and record
progress towards the achievement of national targets remain.
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Shayeb Shahariar
Affiliation: Department of Soil Science, College of Agriculture and

Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan
Education: BSc (Hons.) in Soil, Water and Environment (University of

Dhaka, Bangladesh), MSc in Environmental Science (University of Dhaka,
Bangladesh), MSc in Environmental Management (Liverpool Hope
University, United Kingdom), PhD in Soil Sciences (University of
Saskatchewan, Canada)
Business Address: Room # 5E20, Agriculture Building, 51 Campus

Drive, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon SK S7N 5A8 Canada
Research and Professional Experience:
Research Assistant (Apr. 2016 Present); Department of Soil Science,

College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan,
Saskatoon, SK Canada
Teaching Assistant & Sessional Instructor (Oct. 2013 Present);
Department of Soil Science, College of Agriculture and Bioresources,
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK Canada
Graduate Student Researcher - Research Affiliate Program (Feb. 2014
Mar. 2016); Agroforestry Development Centre, Prairie and Boreal Plain

Ecozone, Science and Technology Branch, Agriculture and Agri-Food

Canada, Indian Head, SK Canada
Research Assistant (Oct. 2013 Jan. 2014); Global Institute for Water
Security, University of Saskatchewan, 11 Innovation Boulevard, Saskatoon,
SK Canada
Scientific Officer (Dec. 2009 Aug. 2012); Soil and Environment
Laboratory, Biological Research Division, Bangladesh Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Research Officer (Apr. 2009 Dec. 2009); Environmental Engineering
Laboratory, Waste Concern, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Program Officer (Apr. 2008 Apr. 2009); Environment and Social
Development Organization (ESDO), Dhaka, Bangladesh
Research Assistant (Nov. 2006 Dec. 2007); Bangladesh Australia Centre
for Environmental Research (BACER-DU), University of Dhaka, Dhaka,
Bangladesh
Professional Appointments:
Articling Agrologist (AAg) from 2014, Saskatchewan Institute of
Agrologist
Honors:
Commonwealth Scholar 2012, Commonwealth Scholarship Commission
in the UK
Provost Honor Award 2006, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh
Publications from the Last 3 Years:

1) Shayeb Shahariar, Raju Soolanayakanahally, William Schroeder, Angela
Bedard-Haughn (2016) Effects of short rotation willow on riparian soil
organic matter qualities. Resilience Emerging from Scarcity and
Abundance, ASA-CSSA-SSSA Annual Meeting, November 6-9, 2016,
Phoenix, Arizona, USA.
2) Shayeb Shahariar, Raju Soolanayakanahally, William Schroeder, Angela
Bedard-Haughn (2016) Short Rotation Willow as Land Management
Practice: Effects on Prairie Wetland Soil Hydrology, Salinity and
Macronutrients. Poplar and Willow Council of Canada Annual Meeting,
July 19-20, 2016, Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada.
3) Shayeb Shahariar, Bilkis Rukhsana, Md Didar Ul Alam (2013)
Physiochemical Properties of Soil under Two Different Land use

Management in Tropical Moist Deciduous Sal (Shorea robusta) Forests in

Bangladesh, European Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 10(1): 77-89.
4) Shayeb Shahariar, Mohammad Moniruzzaman, Badhan Saha, Ganga
Chakraborty, Mousona Islam and Shahrima Tahsin (2013) Effects of
Fresh and Digested Cowdung and Poultry Litter on the Growth and Yield
of Cabbage (Brassica oleracea), Bangladesh J. Sci. Ind. Res. 48(1): 1-6.
5) Shayeb Shahariar and S. M. Imamul Huq (2012) Experiments on
Alleviating Arsenic Accumulation in Rice Through Irrigation
Management, In: Irrigation Systems and Practices in Challenging
Environments, Dr. Teang Shui Lee (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-0420-9,
InTech, Rijeka, Croatia.
6) Shayeb Shahariar (2012) Alleviation of Arsenic Toxicity in Rice through
Water Management, ISBN: 978-3-659-18334-8, LAP LAMBERT
Academic Publishing, GmbH & Co. KG, Heinrich-Bocking-Str. 6-8,
66121 Saarbrucken, Germany.
7) Shayeb Shahariar, Shahrima Tahsin, Md. Nasimul Gani and S M Imamul
Huq (2012) Effects of Different Sources of Organic Waste Application on
the Growth and Biomass Production of Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.),
Pak. j. sci. ind. res. Ser. B: biol. sci. 55(2): 82-92.

Chapter 2
ZERO-EMISSION MANAGEMENT OF
ORGANIC FISHERIES WASTE AND ITS
FAVORABLE IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT
Joong Kyun Kim*, Hyun Yi Jung and Ja Young Cho

Department of Biotechnology and Bioengineering,
Pukyong National University, Busan, Korea
ABSTRACT
This chapter provides a brief review of the zero-emission
management of fisheries waste and its favorable impacts on the
environment. First, the current situation and problems facing fisheries
waste, and plans to overcome these issues, are discussed. Finally,
microbes for efficient treatment, eco-friendly processes, uses, and the
related regulations of fisheries waste are addressed to alleviate the
environmental impacts.
The annual amount of fisheries waste has increased steadily due to
increases in the consumption of marine products and their inefficient
treatment. This situation has prompted the urgent review of waste policies
with improved regulations, encouraging efficient recycling of fish-
processing waste. Eco-friendly zero-emission management in which
fisheries waste is turned into valuable resources is discussed, and a zero-
emission fisheries waste management model is proposed. No additional
production of waste and/or wastewater is generated during the entire
* Corresponding Author: junekim@pknu.ac.kr.

40 Joong Kyun Kim, Hyun Yi Jung and Ja Young Cho
treatment process through biodegradation using a microbial consortium.

Eventually, this management of fisheries waste will result in more
favorable impacts on the environment, and the use of fisheries waste as a
valuable resource will expand.
Keywords: zero-emission, eco-friendly management, fisheries waste,

treatment microbes, environmental impact
1. FISHERIES WASTE
1.1. Current State and Problems
The total global fisheries production has increased gradually, and in 2014
it reached 167.2 million tons (excluding aquatic plants), combining 93.4
million tons by capture and 73.8 million tons by aquaculture (FAO, 2016). The
amount of human consumption was 146.3 million tons with 20.1 kg of per
capita food fish supply, while the non-food use was 20.9 million tons.
Therefore, for the first time in history, global fish consumption was more
dependent on aquaculture than capture. When including aquatic plants, global
aquaculture production reached 101.1 million tons in 2014, representing 52%
of total fisheries production (FAO, 2016). This increase in the total global
fisheries production was caused by increased catch (more than 100 kilotons
compared with 2013) by major fishing countries, such as China, Indonesia,
Myanmar, Norway, Chile, and Peru (FAO, 2016). Furthermore, the annual
global catch in inland waters has also continued to increase (37% increase over
the past decade), and reached 11.9 million tons in 2014 (FAO, 2016).
However, some of the major fishing countries (Tanzania, Egypt, Congo,
Russia, and Brazil) have reported reduced catches due to environmental
degradation and overfishing.
In recent years, awareness of the value of fisheries products as foods that
promote well-being has increased. Because of the gradual increase in fish
consumption, a large quantity of fish waste is also generated. Traditional
methods for the disposal of fish waste have included landfill, incineration, or
deep-sea dumping, while the wastewater generated during the treatment
processes has been treated with raw sewage or discharged into a receiving
water body. As one of the disposal means, all types of waste, including
contaminated dredged material, industrial waste, and sewage sludge, were
dumped before the London Convention (1972) and the London Protocol

Zero-Emission Management of Organic Fisheries Waste 41
(1996) on deep-sea dumping were established (Tornero and Hanke, 2016). Up

to a decade ago, 1830 million tons of fisheries waste were dumped globally
every year, although they were recognized as harmful pollutants because of
their high concentration of chemical oxygen demand (COD), fatoilgrease,
and total suspended solids, including pathogens (Sapkota et al., 2008). Today,
the deliberate dumping of these harmful materials into the ocean is essentially
regulated by the London Protocol. Under this regulation, a much-reduced
amount of dumped fisheries waste has been estimated, although data
collection systems for ocean dumping in several countries are unreliable or
non-existent. For the safe conservation of marine resources in an agreeable
marine environment, more efforts are required to adhere to the regulations.
1.2. Overcoming Schemes
To date, fisheries waste has been treated for disposal, but not for reuse.
Solid fish waste is mostly recycled to produce fishmeal or treated together
with municipal waste, while liquid fish waste is disposed of via the municipal
sewage system or directly into a waterbody. In the case of disposal using a
waterbody, the receiving waterbody has to be able to degrade the components
present in the fisheries waste to ensure no detrimental impact on the aquatic
fauna and flora (FAO, 2005). To design appropriate criteria for the efficient
disposal of liquid fish waste, important physicochemical and biological
parameters must be evaluated, including solid content, pH, temperature, odor,
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), COD, oil and grease content, and N and
P content (FAO, 2005).
1.2.1. Established Methods
1.2.1.1. Treatments of Solid Fisheries Waste

Although fisheries waste has not been reused efficiently so far, it contains
valuable resources, such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and minerals
(Arvanitoyannis and Kassaveti, 2008). In addition, the concentrations of toxic
substances, including heavy metals, are relatively low in fisheries waste. The
most common destination for solid fish waste has been fishmeal production as
animal feed. This partial recycling of fish waste results in the reduction in both
animal production cost and environmental problems caused by waste
pollution. For fishmeal production, fish waste is first ripened and pressed.
Then, the liquid part is used to produce oil, while the solid part (fish cake) is

used to produce fishmeal. Therefore, fish oil production is another benefit of

this treatment process. The fish cake is subsequently heated to reduce the
moisture content and to ensure the microbiological quality (Arvanitoyannis
and Kassaveti, 2008). To produce fishmeal as commercial product, paying for
adequate heating is required. As an eco-friendly means to recover other useful
products from fisheries waste, solid state fermentation is used, because it is
more stable, requires less energy input, and produces greater enzyme yields
than submerged fermentation (Archana and Satyanarayana, 1997; Solis-Pereira
et al., 1993). In solid state fermentation, the microorganisms use diverse solid
materials as a source of nutrition, and secrete the necessary enzymes for the
degradation of the available substrates under sufficient moisture (Tunga et al.,
1999). This fermentation often results in improved product recovery with little
wastewater generation (Uyar and Baysal, 2004).
Seaweed waste has usually been treated as chemical solid waste after the
extraction of alginate, iodine, and mannitol. Although seaweed waste has high
potential for use in diverse applications, it has not been efficiently reused
because of the small range of applications and high reuse cost (Zhang et al.,
2012). This results from the complex molecular structure of seaweed, and thus
specific microorganisms must be developed to enable effective biodegradation
for extensive reuse (Tang et al., 2009). As global shellfish aquaculture has
grown steadily, shellfish processing activities generate large quantities of
endoskeleton shell parts from the crustacean peeling process. Crustacean waste
has generally been used to produce chitin and chitosan. Without any
pretreatment, it is dried, broken into pieces, and extracted by acid and alkaline
treatment for chitin production (Rattanakit et al., 2002). Chitinase has been
used for the hydrolysis of chitin (Rattanakit et al., 2003). Oysters, which are
mainly cultured in Korea and Japan, are another shellfish that have created a
serious waste problem. Approximately 5070% of the oyster shell waste is
dumped into public waters and reclaimed lands, and thus the recycling of
waste shells has aroused much interest in the mariculture industry (Jung et al.,
2012). Recently, oyster shell waste has been used as deodorant and a calcium
additive to basic fertilizer. A large amount of the tunics of sea squirts are
generated as waste after their muscles are consumed as a favorite seafood,
mainly in Korea and Japan. To date, the carotenoids contained in the tunic
have been extracted and used as natural marine pigments. In recent years,
some biofunctional compounds, including taurine, glycosaminoglycan,
chondroitin sulfate, and dietary fiber, have been extracted from the tunic, and
commercialized for medicine and food (Jung et al., 2003).

1.2.1.2. Treatment of Fisheries Wastewater

Pretreatment prior to biological treatment is an efficient way of treating
fisheries wastewater. In the case of seafood-processing wastewater, screens,
grit chambers, oil and grease removers, and flotation units and equalization
tanks are commonly used in the treatment process. A screen reduces the
amount of solids present in the wastewater, and a grit chamber slows down the
flow and allows any grit to fall out from the effluent wastewater (Visvanathan
et al., 2012). To enhance the biological processes and oxygen diffusion, oil
and grease is removed, and an equalization tank is used to equalize the flow
and concentration of fisheries wastewater. Next, a sedimentation process
removes additional solids, such as scales, muscle, and offal (Visvanathan et
al., 2012), and is subsequently followed by coagulationflocculation and
clarification processes (FAO, 2005). After suitable pretreatment, various
biological treatments are then applied to degrade the organic matter present in
the wastewater (Chowdhury et al., 2010).
1.2.1.2.1. Aerobic Processes

Aerobic processes are useful to treat fish-processing wastewater. When
oxygen is sufficiently available, aerobic decomposition of the organics present
in the wastewater results in harmless, stable products, such as carbon dioxide,
sulfate, orthophosphate, and nitrate.
(i) Activated Sludge Process

The activated sludge process is a suspended growth treatment that is
preferred to attached growth treatment in the practical treatment of fish-
processing wastewater (Battistoni and Fava, 1995). For system stabilization, a
higher amount of oxygen is needed in fish-processing wastewater compared
with other food-processing wastewater (Carawan et al., 1979). Therefore, a
long aeration time with low organic loading is recommended. The two
important parameters in this process, ratio of food to microorganisms and
retention time of solids, are 0.10.3 and 1820 days, respectively. The
performance efficiency of this system is significantly dependent on
temperature (Carawan et al., 1979).
(ii) Aerated Lagoon

Another suspended growth treatment for fish-processing wastewater is
aerated lagoons, in particular, when it is not economically viable to use an
activated sludge system. Either a completely mixed or facultative lagoon is

commonly used for the treatment. The general characteristics of ponds are
2.44.6 m depth and 210 days hydraulic retention time (HRT), which
conditions can result in approximately 9095% BOD removal efficiency
(Carawan et al., 1979).
(iii) Rotating Biological Contactor

A rotating biological contactor (RBC) is an attached growth process, and a
multi-stage RBC is used in fish-processing wastewater treatment (Tay et al.,
2004). The aerobic RBC has several advantages: short hydraulic retention
time; high specific surface area; high biomass concentration; insensitivity to
toxic substrates; less accumulation of sloughed-off biofilms; low energy
consumption; and operational simplicity (Reynolds and Richards, 1996). The
treatment efficiency is mainly dependent on disc rotational speed, hydraulic
retention time, loading rate, level of disk submergence, and temperature.
Compared with the activated sludge process, the RBC provides more stability
and requires less energy with no sludge recycling (Najafpour et al., 2006).
(iv) Trickling Filter

Another attached growth process used in fish-processing wastewater
treatment is a trickling filter (Gonzalez, 1996). Stone and synthetic media are
commonly used for biofilm formation, and the penetration of substrate into
biofilm is primarily dependent on wastewater strength, flow rate, substrate use
rate by the biofilm, and diffusivity of substrate in the biofilm (Benefield and
Randall, 1980). A high liquid recirculation rate and forced air circulation are
used to achieve better performance in the removal of organics (Carawan et al.,
1979). As shown in all biological processes, low temperatures reduce the
treatment capacity of a trickling filter.
(v) Effect of Salinity on Process Performance

High salinity of wastewater can affect the performance of aerobic
processes due to its inhibition of microbes. Some negative effects on aerobic
treatment occur at chloride concentrations above 5 g/L. However, this issue
can be overcome in the activated sludge process (Doudoroff, 1940; Pillai and
Rajagopalan, 1948). Considerable reduction in BOD has also been reported,
despite the combined effect of high salinity and high organic loading
(Stewart et al., 1962).

1.2.1.2.2. Anaerobic Processes

Anaerobic processes are suitable to treat fish-processing wastewater
because of the high removal of BOD at a significantly lower cost and lower
sludge production than comparable aerobic processes (Johns, 1995).
Furthermore, the methane-rich biogas end product can be used as a fuel.
(i) Anaerobic Biofilm Reactor

Anaerobic biofilm reactors have shown good performance in the treatment
of fish cannery wastewater at low operating costs (Balslev-Olesen et al.,
1990). The main reaction parameters are organic loading rate (OLR) and a,
which have a great influence on the biodegradation of organics present in the
wastewater. These are reflected in the profiles of volatile fatty acids and
biogas production.
(ii) Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor

Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors are applied to various
types of industrial wastewater, even those containing toxic/inhibitory
compounds (Weiland and Rozzi, 1991). The application of an UASB reactor
system is therefore a promising treatment option for fish-processing
wastewater (Palenzuela-Rollon et al., 2002). Good performance in COD
removal has been shown in the UASB reactor system using a mixed type of
tuna, sardine, and mussel-processing wastewater (Punal and Lema, 1999). For
wastewater containing high lipid content, a two-step UASB reactor system has
been recommended.
(iii) Effect of pH and Ammonia Content on Process Performance

The fish condensate produced during the fishmeal manufacturing process
has high ammonia content (approximately 2000 mg N/L) and pH 910
(Sandberg and Ahring, 1992). This high pH can therefore have an influence on
the anaerobic degradation occurring in a UASB reactor, because the optimal
pH for a mesophilic biogas reactor is 6.77.4 (Clark and Speece, 1971). Fish
condensate was efficiently treated in a UASB reactor at pH 7.38.2, and COD
removal reduced as the pH increased (Sandberg and Ahring, 1992). The
methanogenic activity was reduced by high concentrations of ammonia
resulting from protein degradation during the anaerobic treatment.

(iv) Effect of Salinity on Process Performance

The wastewater generated during fish processing contains rich protein-
based nitrogen, organic matter, and salts. The high salt concentrations
resulting from the use of a large amount of salt for fish conservation can
inhibit methanogenesis during anaerobic treatment of the wastewater
(Lefebvre and Moletta, 2006). However, the treatment of fish-processing
wastewater was performed in an upflow anaerobic filter, suggesting that
methanogenic bacteria can be adapted to the salinity level of the wastewater
(Omil et al., 1995). Furthermore, successful anaerobic digestion using marine
methanogens to eliminate proteins and grease has been reported in the
treatment of fish wastewater that was mainly generated at the time of fish
unloading (Aspe et al., 1997).
1.2.2. Zero-Emission Management

Green growth is a term that implies renewable energy production by
moving away from fossil fuels as energy sources. To promote green
investment, related policies have been designed and proposed to address
global climate change (Danish Council of Environmental Economics, 2013;
World Economic Forum, 2013). To achieve green growth by promoting
resource recycling for waste, waste policies must include reuse of resources
for security of raw materials, energy recovery by biomass, and advanced
treatment for prevention of pollution. During resource recycling, natural
resources must be efficiently handled in production, circulation, and
consumption to reduce the amount of waste. The final product of the advanced
treatment must be in a form that can be returned to nature without further
environmental impacts.
Today, fish waste occurs in large quantities in the environment, and is
considered a potential resource for value-added products. However, the waste
is not yet efficiently reused, and additional waste and/or wastewater is
produced during treatment. Leading nations have now realized the importance
of waste management, and have encouraged ecologically acceptable means of
waste treatment (Jung and Kim, 2016). This has resulted in changes to waste
policies that emphasize resource recycling and zero-emission processes
(Mathews, 2012). In past waste treatments, the environment and economy
have mainly been addressed by separate strategies from that of producing
energy from waste. Today, energy is integrated with the environment and
economy by obtaining novel materials from waste with potential energy
development. The aim is therefore to achieve highly-efficient social-based

resource recycling, moving toward zero-emission management. This idea is

summarized in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Recent changes in the paradigms for waste policies.
Zero-emission management for the efficient treatment of fish waste is

proposed in Figure 2. The biodegradation of fish waste or fish wastewater is
carried out in a bioreactor to reuse the whole bulk (liquid and solids). During
the biodegradation using mixed microbes, peptides and amino acids, fatty
acids, and oligosaccharides are produced from proteins, lipids, and
carbohydrates, respectively, which are the main polymers present in fish waste
or fish wastewater. After biodegradation, solids, including mixed microbes,
are separated from the culture broth by ultrafiltration. Several biofunctional
materials can then be obtained by extraction from the culture broth. Finally,
biofertilizer is manufactured by mixing together the solids remaining after the
ultrafiltration and the culture broth remaining following the production of
biofunctional materials (Jung and Kim, 2016). As a result, there is no
additional generation of waste or wastewater during the process, with
complete reuse of the fish waste or fish wastewater. An additional merit of this
process is the recovery of value-added resources from the fish waste.

Figure 2. Schematic proposal for zero-emission management of fish waste or fish

wastewater.
2. FISHERIES WASTE MANAGEMENT

2.1. Fisheries Waste and Microbes for Treatment
As the quantity of fisheries waste has gradually increased, its disposal has
become a matter of concern. The process of reusing fisheries waste that
results in a reduction in quantity includes identifying the diverse components
of the waste and then developing useful microbes for biodegradation.
2.1.1. Diversity of Fisheries Waste
2.1.1.1. Fish Waste

During fish processing, approximately 30% of solid fish waste, including
head, tails, skin, gut, fins, and frames, is generated, and the extent of waste
generation is dependent on the level of processing and type of fish (AMEC,
2003). However, fish waste can be a great source of value-added products,
such as proteins and amino acids, collagen and gelatin, and oil and enzymes
(Disney et al., 1977; Esteban et al., 2007). The waste contains proteins (58%),
fat (19%), and minerals (especially iron, zinc, and calcium). Furthermore,
monosaturated acids, palmitic acid, and oleic acid are also relatively abundant
in the fish waste.

2.1.1.2. Seaweed Waste

Seaweeds are classified into three groups; brown (Phaeophyta), red
(Rhodophyta), and green (Chlorophyta), according to their pigmentation (Wei
et al., 2013). They contain carbohydrates (up to 60%), proteins (10%47%),
and lipids (1%3%) with mineral ash (7%38%). The differences in the
content of each type is also the result of diverse species and seasonal influence
(Pereira, 2011; Vassilev et al., 2010). Each seaweed not only has different
carbohydrate content, but also different types of carbohydrate. The main
carbohydrates contained in brown seaweed are alginate, laminaran, fucoidan,
cellulose, and mannitol. In red seaweed, they are agar, carrageenan, cellulose,
mannan, and xylan; in green seaweed, they are cellulose, mannose, xylan, and
starch (Barbot et al., 2016). During seaweed processing, the average waste
production is approximately 10% (Basic survey of actual biomass use in
Korea, 2010). Seaweed waste contains approximately 20% crude protein, 50%
crude fiber, and 3% ash content (Gan et al., 1999), as well as iodine, vitamins,
minerals, dietary fiber, and active ingredients (Zhang et al., 2012).
2.1.1.3. Others
Shrimp processing results in 45% waste, consisting mainly of exoskeleton
and cephalothorax. This waste contains valuable components, such as chitin,
protein, and pigments, and the content is mainly dependent on the processing
conditions, the species, and seasonal variation (AL Sagheer et al., 2009; De
Holanda and Netto, 2006; Palpandi et al., 2009; Rodde et al., 2008; Wang et
al., 2011; Xu et al., 2008). In the case of Styela clava, approximately 40% of
the body is composed of tunic, and thus large amounts of tunic waste are
generated during processing (Lee et al., 2015). The tunic is composed of
water, proteins, mucopoly-saccharides, and carbohydrates in diverse
proportions (Welsch, 1984). Shellfish waste, including from oyster and
bivalves, contains mainly CaCO3 (>90%), calcium phosphate (12%), and a
trace amount of MgCO3.
2.1.2. Microbes for Treatment
2.1.2.1. For Fish Waste Treatment

Fish waste has been treated by fermentation using mixed cultures of
Saccharomyces sp. and Lactobacillus plantarum to convert it into a stable feed
ingredient (Faid et al., 1997). In addition, to remove fish odor, a mixture of
yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida sp.) and lactic acid bacteria (L.
plantarum and Pediococcus acidilactici) have been studied in alcohol-lactic

acid fermentation (Faid et al., 1994). In the fermentation of fish offal waste
using L. acidophilus, the addition of whey has enhanced the removal of
harmful microbes, such as Staphylococcus, Clostridium, and coliform bacteria
(Samaddar and Kaviraj, 2014). Thermophilic microbes (Bacillus subtilis,
Bacillus licheniformis, Brevibacillus agri, Bacillus coagulans, Bacillus
circulans, Bacillus anthracis, and Bacillus fusiformis) have been proposed to
degrade organics present in fishmeal wastewater and to produce liquid
fertilizer (Kim et al., 2007). Useful microbes have also been isolated from
earthworm viscera for the reuse of fish waste. They have been identified as
Brevibacillus agri, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus licheniformis, and Brevibacillus
parabrevis (Kim et al., 2010).
2.1.2.2. For Seaweed Waste Treatment

Seaweeds are diverse in both their content and type of carbohydrate. In the
composting process for the disposal of Wakame (Undaria pinnatifida) waste,
Bacillus sp. HR6 (Tang et al., 2007), Gracilibacillus sp. A7 (Tang et al., 2009),
and Halomonas sp. AW4 (Tang et al., 2011) have been applied to produce
fertilizer (Tang et al., 2009). To make use of Laminaria japonica waste,
simultaneous saccharification and fermentation with mixed microorganisms
(Enterobacter sp., Pantoea agglomerans, Erwinia tasmaniensis, Candida
lusitaniae) and Nuruk (Lee and Lee, 2011) have been proposed. Microbulbifer
sp. has been suggested for the degradation of Wakame thalli to single cell
detritus particles (Wakabayshi et al., 2011). Furthermore, Microbacterium
oxydans has been shown to be a good microorganism for the degradation of
alginate and laminaran in brown seaweed waste (Kim et al., 2013). A Bacillus
sp. SYR4 has also been isolated from a sandbar, and possesses high agarase
and carrageenase activity to degrade red seaweed waste (Kang and Kim,
2015). Recently, a halophilic Bacillus licheniformis TK3-Y has been isolated
and showed good performance in the degradation of green seaweed waste with
high salinity (Kang and Kim, 2015).
2.1.2.3. For Other Waste Treatment

To efficiently treat crustacean waste, lactic acid fermentation has mainly
been applied. For this bioprocess, several potential strains, such as
Lactobacillus plantarum, L. pentosus, L. salivarius, L. paracasei, L. casei, L.
rhamnosus, Enterococcus faecium, Pediococcus acidilactici, and Lactococcus
lactis, are used as single microbe treatments (Gortari and Hours, 2013). In
some cases, mixed microbes (L. plantarum and Aspergillus niger; L. paracasei
and Serratia marcescens; Lactobacillus acidophilus and B. licheniformis; L.

lactis and Teredinibacter turnerae) are applied to shrimp and crab waste for
chitin and/or chitosan production via demineralization and deproteinization
(Gortari and Hours, 2013). For the biodegradation of shrimp shell waste,
Aeromonas hydrophila SBK1 strain has been proposed (Halder et al., 2013),
and the fungus Mucorrouxii has also been applied for chitosan production
(Vzquez et al., 2013). To degrade squid pen waste, Acinetobacter
calcoaceticus TKU024 has been used as a chitosanase-producing strain
(Wang et al., 2011). Hyaluronic acid has been produced from the fermentation
of mussel-processing wastewater with Streptococcus species (Vzquez et al.,
2010).
2.2. Processes for Fisheries Waste Treatment
To date, fishmeal production has been widely used as a means for the
partial treatment of fisheries waste. The remaining waste is disposed of by
incineration, landfill, or deep-sea dumping. However, current management
practices of fisheries waste are more positive, with efforts to recover materials
and energy from the waste.
2.2.1. Eco-Friendly Processes

In the production process, unnecessary materials are often generated as
byproducts or waste, whereas energy and resources are becoming more
precious because of their limited supply. Therefore, green processes that
minimize the environmental impact of manufacturing should be pursued as
much as possible. These processes can develop clean products that are safer,
more environmentally friendly, and of higher quality, which are advantages
over the existing chemical processes. Avoiding the generation of waste or
pollutants can often be more cost-effective than their control or disposal. As a
result, eco-friendly processes involve minimizing waste, pollution, and natural
resource depletion, which incorporates the concepts of pollution prevention
and sustainability. The eco-friendly process is more than a method for
addressing environmental problems, and can offer a framework for achieving
innovation with environmental and economic returns. Fermentation is a
biological method to recover useful materials from fish offal waste and to
recycle the waste as feed in an eco-friendly way (Mondal et al., 2007; Mondal
et al., 2008). It has the benefit of protecting the environment from the disposal
risk of polluting waste. In addition, fermentation maintains the cost of
aquaculture feed production at an acceptable level (Samaddar and Kaviraj,

2014). Furthermore, enzymatic hydrolysis is often applied as an eco-friendly

method to reuse the frame part of the fish waste, because the fish frame parts
contain large amounts of muscle proteins that are highly nutritious and easily
digestible (Venugopal et al., 1996).
2.2.2. Production and Extraction of Bioactive Compounds
2.2.2.1. Peptides
Proteins are extracted from fish muscle. Several peptides are also included
in the extract, which have diverse bioactivities, such as antihypertensive,
antithrombotic, immune modulatory, and antioxidative properties (Kim et al.,
2000). Moreover, some peptides show anticoagulant and antiplatelet properties
(Je et al., 2004). Biologically active peptides can also be obtained by the
enzymatic hydrolysis of fish muscle (Benkajul and Morrissey, 1997).
2.2.2.2. Oligosaccharides
As a useful resource, seaweed hydrolysates are often applied as fertilizer,
fungicides, herbicides, and phycocolloids. Different types of oligosaccharides
can be produced from various seaweeds. To obtain the oligosaccharides,
different methods of pretreatment prior to fermentation have been performed
using enzymes (Choi et al, 2010), alkali (Harun et al., 2011), or acid at high
temperatures because of the complex structure of the polymers contained in
seaweed (Harun and Danquah, 2011). The direct application of a
microorganism itself has been recently proposed, which results in a
considerable reduction in the product cost incurred for enzymatic or chemical
saccharification of the polysaccharides (Rabelo et al., 2009). To turn fisheries
waste into valuable resources with low energy consumption, microbes must be
developed for the biodegradation. The oligosaccharides produced through
biodegradation are also a good resource for the production of ethanol as an
alternative fuel, and related studies are currently in progress.
2.2.2.3. Oils
After pressing, fish oil is extracted from the liquid parts of fish waste by
chemical or enzymatic methods. Chemical extraction can be carried out using
the hexane or petroleum method, the chloroform/methanol method, or the acid
digestion method, whereas alcalase, neutrase, lecitase ultra, protex, and
protamex are used for enzymatic extraction (Christie, 1993). In the presence of
highly hydrophilic functional groups, fish tissues are initially extracted with
chloroform/methanol in the presence of calcium chloride, and then with 1 M

HCl for better recovery of oil (Christie, 1993). To extract fish oil from a
sample rich in omega-3 (such as salmon oil) or certain impurities (such as
some species of arsenic), supercritical fluid extraction with carbon dioxide as
an extractive solvent in moderate conditions (25 MPa and 313 K) is useful for
reducing fish oil oxidation, compared with conventional extraction processes
such as cold extraction, wet reduction, or enzymatic extraction (Rubio-
Rodrguez et al., 2012). Furthermore, extraction coupled with the fractionation
process has been proposed to remove free fatty acids and to improve fish oil
quality, as an alternative to physical and chemical refining procedures.
2.2.2.4. Chitin
Crustacean shell waste is rich in chitin. For its commercial preparation,
the shell waste has traditionally been processed first by mechanical grinding,
then demineralized with strong acids, and finally deproteinized with alkali at
90100C (Khor, 2011; Naznin, 2005; Palpandi et al., 2009; Percot et al.,
2003; Thirunavukkarasu and Shanmugen, 2009; Thirunavukkarasu et al.,
2011). There are also chemical and enzymatic processes for chitin production.
By acid treatment with HCl, raw material is obtained from crustacean shell
waste, which is then hydrolyzed by commercial proteases at the optimal pH
and temperature. After the hydrolysis, the solid and liquid fractions are
separated. Pigment is extracted from the liquid fraction, followed by
lyophilization to obtain the decolorized protein hydrolysate. Crude chitin is
obtained from solids following washing and drying processes. However, the
same result can be attained when crustacean shell waste is fermented with
lactic acid and proteolytic bacteria. After fermentation, crude chitin is obtained
from the solids, while pigment and protein hydrolysate are obtained from the
liquid fraction. Finally, chitin is produced when the crude chitin is bleached
with H2O2 and then dried. Chitosan is produced from crude chitin after
deacetylation using fungal chitin deacetylases (Wang et al., 2011).
2.3. Use of Fisheries Waste
Based on various efforts to recover materials and energy from fisheries

waste, the use of fisheries waste after suitable treatment has been expanding.
This positive management of fisheries waste can considerably reduce the
environmental impacts produced from the waste itself.

2.3.1. Medicine
Fish bones are a good source of hydroxyapatite, which is mechanically
stable and compatible (Larsen et al., 2000). It is also thermodynamically stable
at physiological pH, and thus plays an active role in bone binding. It is widely
applied in the medical and dental fields. Amino acids extracted from fish
waste have extensive nutritional value, taste, and medicinal and chemical
properties. Some amino acids are used in protein pharmaceuticals as excipients
for drug development: arginine in a human tissue plasminogen activator;
glycine in a recombinant antihemophilic factor and human monoclonal
antibody; glutamate in varicella virus live vaccine; and histidine in coagulation
factor IX (Larsen et al., 2000). Furthermore, hyaluronic acid extracted from
the humor of the eyeball of fish (tuna, shark, and swordfish) has diverse
physicochemical and biological properties and functions, such as lubricity,
viscoelasticity, biocompatibility, angiogenicity, and immunostimulatory
properties (Vzquez et al., 2013). It is also known to play important roles in
embryogenesis, signal transduction and cell motility, and to be associated with
cancer invasiveness and metastasis (Kogan et al., 2007). Chondroitin sulfate
produced from marine waste plays a key role in several biological processes,
such as the function and elasticity of the articular cartilage, hemostasis and
inflammation, regulation of cell development, cell adhesion, proliferation and
differentiation (Vzquez et al., 2013). Gelatin from shark cartilage has been
used as a carrier of bioactive components, including antioxidants and
antimicrobial substances (Gmez-Guilln et al., 2011). In addition, chitin,
chitosan, and their derivatives obtained from crustacean shell waste are used in
the pharmaceutical and medical sectors because of their antimicrobial and
antitumor activities (Zhang et al., 2010). These compounds are also applied in
biomedical fields, because they are used in tissue engineering, wound healing,
drug delivery, and cancer diagnosis (Jayakumar et al., 2010). Astaxanthin,
which is extracted from shrimp or crawfish waste, can inhibit prostate cancer
by modulating the immune responses against tumor cells (Guerin et al., 2003)
and bladder carcinogenesis (Tanaka et al., 1994).
2.3.2. Agriculture
Fish contains well-balanced amino acid compositions, including eight
essential and eight nonessential amino acids, and therefore biodegraded fish
waste is suitable for use as fertilizer (Hamid et al., 2002). Shell waste is
typically heated, crushed, and ground into a powder, and the final processed
form is then used as a fertilizer (Gortari and Hours, 2013). In particular, chitin,
chitosan, and their derivatives obtained from crustacean shell waste are widely

applied in agriculture because of their biocompatibility and non-toxicity

(Zhang et al., 2010). Drift-seaweed has been collected and used for centuries
as a natural fertilizer in many coastal regions throughout the world (Mchugh,
2003). Seaweed can provide trace elements and growth activators that improve
soil structure (Guiry and Blunden, 1991; Lpez-Mosquera and Pazos, 1997;
Verkleij, 1992). Shellfish waste, including from oysters and bivalves, is also
used as a calcium additive to basic fertilizer.
2.3.3. Other Uses
2.3.3.1. Animal Feed

Fish silage from fish waste is an excellent protein source, which has
excellent biological properties for animal feed (Ghaly et al., 2013). The
fishmeal manufactured from wild-collected whole fish and shellfish currently
provides the main aquatic protein source for animal feed. Fishmeal production
using fisheries byproducts has increased significantly (FAO, 2012). Most of
the body oils of fish, excluding salmon, are also used in aquaculture feeds
(Arvanitoyannis and Kassayeti, 2008). Moreover, astaxanthin extracted from
shrimp or crawfish waste is used in functional feed for crustaceans and salmon
(De Holanda and Netto, 2006).
2.3.3.2. Enzymes
The enzymes in fish viscera, including pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin, and
collagenase, show high catalytic activity at relatively low concentrations.
These enzymes have been extracted on a large scale for commercial use (Byun
et al., 2005; Kim and Mendis, 2005; Zhou, 2011). In addition, they have
additional characteristics: good efficiency at lower temperatures, lower
sensitivity to substrate concentrations, and greater stability over a wide range
of pH. Proteases are industrially important enzymes that are used globally
(Garcia-Carreo et al., 1994). Shrimp proteases partially purified from
Pandalus borealis can be used at industrial scale in the food industry because
of their effectiveness for beef meat tenderization (Aoki et al., 2004). They are
active at low temperatures and inactive after mild heat-treatment. Therefore,
this results in energy savings through operation at room temperature (Aoki et
al., 2004). As an inexpensive alternative to rennet substitutes, milk-clotting
enzymes have been also extracted from fish stomach mucosa for cheese
manufacturing, which shows some potential (Arvanitoyannis and Kassayeti,
2008).

2.3.3.3. Oils
After pressing ripened fish waste, the liquid parts contain fish oil. Fish oil
is a good material for the production of margarine, omega-3 fatty acids, and
biodiesel (Ghaly et al., 2013). Biodiesel consists of the monoalkyl esters of
vegetable oils, animal fats, or fish oils, and can therefore be synthesized from
waste oils (Ghaly et al., 2013). The oil obtained from filtration after primary
and secondary treatment of fish waste is known to have suitable properties for
use in diesel engines (Arvanitoyannis and Kassayeti, 2008). This oil had better
properties than methyl-esterified vegetable oil waste, with a higher heating
value and density, lower flash and pour points, no sulfur oxide production,
lower or no soot, and lower polyaromatic and carbon dioxide emissions.
2.3.3.4. Food and Additives

Fish protein hydrolysates are obtained from the fish protein extracted from
fish waste by chemical or enzymatic methods. The hydrolysates are
industrially used as milk replacers, protein supplements, stabilizers in
beverages, and flavor enhancers (Ghaly et al., 2013). As a milk replacer, fish
protein hydrolysate has a high protein efficiency ratio that is more cost
effective than dried skimmed milk (Kristinsson and Rasco, 2000). Amino
acids obtained from the biodegradation of fish waste are widely used in the
food flavoring industry, including monosodium glutamate, alanine, aspartate,
and arginine (Ghaly et al., 2013). The fish bones obtained from fish-processing
waste can be used to provide soluble calcium as a mineral source
(Ghaly et al., 2013).
2.4. Environmental Impacts and Related Regulations
The environmental impacts of fisheries waste have gradually increased.

This is because the reuse of fisheries waste has, to date, been inefficient,
although the amount of waste has increased annually. Therefore, governmental
regulations have been issued to address such environmental impacts.
2.4.1. Awareness of Environmental Impacts

If fisheries waste is not treated appropriately, it can create aesthetic
problems and strong odors because of bacterial putrefaction. For example,
Styela clava waste often collects on the shore producing a foul smell (Lee et
al., 2015). Oyster shell waste is often dumped into public waters because large
amounts of oyster shell waste are no longer accepted at landfill sites.

Therefore, such waste often piles up in coastal areas and causes many
environmental problems (Jung et al., 2012). Furthermore, the organic waste
has a high oxygen demand when treated, which poses environmental and
health problems if not managed properly. For this reason, the deep-sea
dumping of diverse fisheries waste has caused some environmental concerns,
such as reduced oxygen levels in bottom waters of ocean basins; burial or
smothering of living organisms; and introduction of disease or non-native and
invasive species to the sea floor ecosystem (EPA, 2012).
With the onset of global environmental problems and the depletion of
natural resources, the focus of waste management policies has changed during
the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Paradigms have changed to pursue the
concept of sustainability through reduce, reuse, and recycle policies, whereas
previous policies focused on environmentally sound waste treatment to avoid
local environmental pollution (Sakai et al., 2011). The integrated options for
waste management mainly include reduction, reuse/recycle, and disposal
(Archer, 2008). In general, source reduction is given the highest priority,
followed by recovery for recycling and recovery for composting with or
without energy capture. Finally, disposal of discards includes landfills,
combustion with energy recovery, and incineration without energy recovery.
Nevertheless, the environmental impacts of untreated and inefficiently treated
waste have gradually increased, leading to a governmental movement to
establish new preventative regulations.
2.4.2. Related Regulations

In connection with the marine environment, the London Convention 1972
was established, followed by the 1996 Protocol, to clarify the prohibition of
dumping of fish waste or other matter specified therein (NOAA, 2012).
According to this Convention, fish means both fish and shellfish, and the
prohibited waste includes fish waste or waste generated during processing of
wild and aquaculture resources, such as body, bone, viscera, skin, and viscous
liquid; however, waste discharge during fishing is not included (MOF, 2008).
Therefore, global efforts have gradually focused on the awareness of the
environmental impact of ocean dumping. In Korea, the government has raised
treatment cost burdens for landfill and incineration, encouraging recycling of
fish-processing waste materials. The related industries have endeavored to
follow government policy, and thus a large fraction of fish waste is now used
for animal feed and fertilizer (MOF, 2008). However, several civil petitions
have been raised during the process of reuse because of the emission of odors.
Fish-processing byproducts are treated based on the law of waste

management and the law of saving resources and promoting recycling.

According to the law of eco-friendly agriculture-fisheries rearing and support
for organic foods management, established in 2012, the government has made
efforts toward the exploitation of resources with optimum treatment plans (Lee
et al., 2013). Since then, the law of promoting a resource-recycling society
and the law of promotion of fish-processing byproduct recycling have
followed to prescribe the reuse of the fish-processing byproducts.
During the mid to late 1970s, related laws were established for the reuse
of fish-processing byproducts in the USA and Japan, which have been used to
recover and manage fish resources (Lee et al., 2013). In the USA, the disposal
method and system for fish waste is different in each state, and ocean dumping
is partially allowed with permission in state law. According to the Marine
Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act, referred to as the Ocean Dumping
Act, a permit is required for the ocean disposal of fish waste if the disposal
occurs in harbors, protected waters, enclosed coastal waters, or any location
where such disposal can potentially endanger health, the environment, or
ecological systems (EPA, 2012). Considering oyster shell waste, its landfill
treatment has been prohibited in North Carolina since 2007, because oyster
shell was recognized as a useful resource for, for example, construction and
the beauty industry (Lee et al., 2013). Maryland adopted this regulation in
2013, and other states are planning to establish it. In Japan, fish waste is, by
law, mostly disposed of through incineration, and not through ocean dumping.
Certain parts, including viscera, are reused as pet feed and oil after processing.
Fish oils extracted from sardine, in particular, are used to produce margarine,
soap, and alcohol, and eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids, which
have medicinal uses (MOF, 2008). Other valuable products from fish waste
include taurine (from crab, squid, and octopus) and chitosan (from crab and
crawfish shells). To promote these activities, the law of promotion of
renewable resources use was changed to the law of promotion of the
effective use of resources in 2000 (Lee et al., 2013). The law regarding the
reuse of recycled food resources was also revised in 2007. The treatment of
fish-processing byproducts has followed this law. The related laws promote
recycling of fish-processing byproducts, such as fishmeal and fish soy sauce.
Each country has gradually adopted national legislation to improve
environmental regulations. Further effort is required to preserve both the
marine environment and marine resources.

CONCLUSION
As the quantity of fisheries waste increases annually, more efficient
treatment is urgently required. Eco-friendly zero-emission management of
fisheries waste is a more positive way to turn fish waste into valuable
resources with considerable reduction in the amount of waste, which greatly
extends product use. To secure safe and stable marine products, marine
resources have to be preserved by maintaining a clean marine environment.
More efforts are required under strict policies and regulations for organic
waste treatment.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by a grant (Receipt number: 20100576) from
the Korea Institute of Planning and Evaluation for Technology of Food,
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.
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Editor: Mark Collins
c 2017 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 3
T HE U SE OF CFD IN D ESIGN AND

O PTIMIZATION OF WASTEWATER
T REATMENT U NITS : A R EVIEW
Leonardo Machado da Rosa1,, Daniela Maria Koerich2
and Saulo Varela Della Giustina3
1
Chemical Engineering Department,
University of Blumenau (FURB), Blumenau, Brazil
2
Chemical Engineering Department,
Federal University of Sao Carlos (UFSCar),
Sao Carlos, Brazil
3
Water Quality, Catalan Institute of Water Research (ICRA),
Girona, Spain
Abstract
Human progress has promoted major technological challenges. The
increasing generation of effluents, for example, requires efficient solu-
tions in order to establish sustainable development. However, the design
of wastewater treatment units is traditionally based on empirical calcu-
lations, thus there is still room to increase their efficiency, since more
precise methods can be used to obtain more reliable predictions of the
behavior of these units. Therefore, it is possible to develop innovative
projects, as well as the optimization of units in operation, reducing costs

E-mail address: leorosa@gmail.com.

72 L. Machado da Rosa, D. Maria Koerich and S. Varela Della Giustina
associated to wastewater treatment. Various processes can be adopted for

the treatment of organic effluents, including the Conventional Activated
Sludge Systems (CAS) and its variants, UASB reactors, Membrane Bi-
ological Reactors (MBRs) and Sequencing Batch Reactors (SBRs). The
applications cover today a wide range of wastes, with physicochemical
and rheological characteristics completely different. There is a need for
significant contributions to the development of these bioprocesses, chal-
lenges for which the Computational Fluid Dynamics is suitable. The aim
of this review is to present the progress achieved with the use of this tech-
nique in wastewater treatment processes with biological reactors. Several
factors that affects the fluid dynamic characteristics, and thus the effi-
ciency of the treatment process, are addressed. Then, the contributions
present in the literature are reviewed. Finally, strategies for obtaining
valid predictions in numerical simulations are also discussed, and per-
spectives for the increasing use of computational fluid dynamics in design
and scale-up of bioprocesses are presented.
Keywords: wastewater treatment, biological processes, mathematical models,

computational fluid dynamics, simulation
1. Introduction
The rapid economic development, as well as the population and life standard in-
crease, has imposed great challenges to humanity. Among them is the increased
demand for natural resources and environmental degradation. However, the in-
tensification of industrial processes entails an increase in the amount of waste
generated. Moreover, stricter legislation require greater control of the emitted
waste. More than ever, the wastes treatment has vital importance for sustain-
able development, as higher and higher amounts of organic wastewater must
have their polluting potential mitigated. Organic wastewater has also a great
potential as a source of renewable and sustainable energy, in addition to the en-
vironmental benefits from their treatment. One method used to generate energy
from wastes is capturing methane produced by anaerobic digestion. Anaerobic
digesters can be used to control odor, capture the methane, and generate soil
conditioners as a by-product which can be used on-site or sold commercially
[139].
Various processes that can be adopted for the treatment of organic wastew-
ater. Of these, biological processes are attractive due to the low energy re-
quirement. Several different designs have been developed, including covered

The Use of CFD in Design and Optimization of Wastewater ... 73
lagoon, plug flow, upflow sludge blanket reactor, and biodigesters with agita-
tion promoted by mechanical stirring, gas recirculation, and slurry recirculation
[53]. Existing technologies for wastewater treatment can be classified into con-
tinuous processes and batch processes. Among the batch processes, there are
the sequencing bioreactors, while the continuous processes involves a range
of types, from simpler ones such as ponds to the more complex ones such as
biodigesters and fluidized beds. However, the increase in the number of applied
and/or potentially applicable technologies and processes for the treatment of or-
ganic wastes was also accompanied by an increase in costs and operational com-
plexity of such systems. The applications cover today a wide range of wastes,
with physicochemical and rheological characteristics completely different. As
the ability of biological systems to be operated at a desired efficiency for a long
time depends on the flow pattern obtained, knowledge about the wastewater rhe-
ology is needed. With proper tools, the fluid dynamics can then be established,
predicting all the common reasons of inefficiency in treatment units, such as im-
proper mixing, non-uniform distribution of substrate and microorganisms cul-
ture, settling of heavy particles, and flotation of biomass. Therefore, the overall
performance can be enhanced through the understanding and quantification of
its flow pattern and mixing. There is a need for significant contributions to the
development of bioprocesses, both in terms of optimization and in better under-
standing of the processes and steps involved, challenges for which numerical
simulations are suitable.
Mathematical models are valuable in helping to gain a better understand-
ing of the dynamics of bioreactors. Simulation models can both provide a
solid formation for the design and optimization of the operation of biological
wastewater treatment processes as well as assist in scale-up studies without the
elevated costs associated to the application of experimental techniques. The
semi-empirical approach have been traditionally used to this aim. However, it
does not produce entirely satisfactory results. Thus, a mathematical model suit-
able to predict the performance of a bioreactor is likely to find wide practical
application [145]. One particular technique, the Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD), is regarded as useful to predict the behavior of bioreactors, providing re-
sults with better experimental agreement than empirical correlations. With the
CFD technique, it is possible to identify quantitatively the relationship between
physical and biological characteristics, thus determining a favorable process en-
vironment [153]. Through results predicted in numerical simulations, it is pos-
sible to study in detail the bioreactor behavior, which is necessary for the eval-

uation of new projects. This technique may be also used for processes scale-up
[118]: since bioprocesses developed in laboratory scale need to be demonstrated
in practical applications [95], understanding the hydrodynamic phenomena in-
volved becomes a necessary precursor for the application of bioprocesses in
industrial scale projects.
In recent years, as a result of increased availability and accessibility of com-
mercial and open toolboxes, the use of Computational Fluid Dynamics evolved
into a robust and precise technique for design, optimization and control of bi-
ological systems [60]. This trend can be noticed, e.g. in the amount of studies
published in the literature over the last 50 years, which uses CFD as a technique
to assess different processes used in wastewater treatment (Figure 1). Regard-
less of the process, there is a clear indication that, while numerical techniques
were employed since half a century ago, the CFD technique have become more
applied along the recent years to the study of wastewater treatment processes. 1
Figure 1. Evolution of published studies of biological processes, and only those

containing simulations or referring to the CFD technique.
1
To obtain this chart, several searches were made using different combinations of the follow-
ing keywords: SBR, ASBR, aerated lagoon, stabilization pond, biodigester, FBR, AFBR, EGSB,
UASB, simulation and CFD.

This trend motivated the writing of the current review, which presents the
progress achieved with the use of Computational Fluid Dynamics to study the
organic wastewater treatment processes with biological reactors. First, a brief
description of the modeling approaches used to simulate the fluid dynamic char-
acteristics that affect the efficiency of the treatment processes are addressed.
Studies using CFD indicate, for example, that stirring in reactors must be in-
tense to promote uniformity of temperature, pH and nutrient concentrations in
the reactor as well as to ensure an efficient contact between biomass and sub-
strate in order to promote the conversion of organic matter. Several factors that
must be taken into account in phenomenological approaches are discussed, such
as rheology, number of phases and biochemical kinetics. Then, a review of the
studies found in literature, that make use of numerical techniques to predict
the fluid dynamic behavior of treatment units is presented. Finally, strategies
for obtaining valid predictions in numerical simulations are discussed, and per-
spectives are presented for the increasing use of computational fluid dynamics
for the design and scale-up of bioprocesses.
2. Computational Fluid Dynamics

The Computational Fluid Dynamics technique was developed in the 1980s, and
it can be defined as the use of numerical methods for solving problems involv-
ing fluid dynamics. Such techniques, capable of performing three-dimensional
calculations, offer more detail when compared to simpler approaches, such as
tanks in series and compartmental [66], and even on the one-dimensional dy-
namic models, which are still used in current engineering practice to predict
important operating parameters of wastewater treatment units [69]. Among the
methods used, there are the Finite Difference Method (FDM), the Finite Vol-
ume Method (FVM) and the Finite Element Method (FEM). Each method has
its own advantages and disadvantages: the FDM is easier to implement, but it
does not guarantee the conservation of properties. This achieved by the FVM,
which considers the properties balances in its formulation [103], and is widely
used for the solution of engineering problems nowadays. The FEM stands out
for its suitability to the solution of problems with complex geometries and un-
structured meshes, which is useful in the simulation of irregular geometries like
ponds [107, 92]. Currently, there are also spectral methods, such as the Lattice-
Boltzmann Method (LBM) for the solution of fluid dynamic problems, although
its application to the simulation of treatment processes is yet to come.

The simulation of different processes involves the modeling of different phe-

nomena. Flows through porous media such as fixed beds, membranes, or even
plants, can be modeled delimiting a region, in which the resistance imposed by
the fixed material on the fluid movement is calculated [114]. The resulting re-
sistive force considers the viscous and inertial contributions, usually according
to the Darcy or Darcy-Forchheimer laws [129]. Commonly, the application of
two-phase or three-phase approaches is required for the simulation of systems
involving liquid (wastewater), gas (air, biogas), and/or solid (flocs, particles,
bioparticles). At low concentrations, several authors disregard the calculation
of particles movement, reducing the number of phases and thus simplifying the
problem to be solved. The hypothesis that suspended solids have the same fluid
dynamics behavior of the wastewater justifies the consideration of liquid and
solids as a single phase. However, the rheology of this mixture phase must
be carefully corrected: the concentration of solids can attribute non-Newtonian
characteristics to this phase [154, 150, 152, 79, 126]. In the case of liquid efflu-
ents, rheology is a factor that must always be taken into account: industrial and
domestic waste present different rheological behaviors [38], and satisfactory
predictions of fluid dynamics are only possible through the correct modeling of
this property.
Multiphase problems can be solved by applying the volume of fluid (VOF)
approach, in which the phases are separated by a well-defined interface, and
only one flow field is resolved [115, 25, 113]. In the Eulerian approach, one
flow field is calculated for each phase, and there are transfer terms to exchange
properties between the phases [58]. This approach may be necessary in cases
in which the movement of one phase differs from the other [144, 49, 121, 86].
The choice between each approach should take into account the flow regime of
the system to be simulated, for which a specific approach may provide more
accurate results [75]. Multiphase systems can also be modeled using the La-
grangian approach [55, 57, 28], in which the forces balance is made following
each particle or fluid parcel.
Discrete phases can be modeled considering that particles have uniform size.
In cases involving non-uniform distribution of diameters, population balance
models must be applied [117, 13]. These models can determine the variable
size distribution, which can be affected by break and coalescence processes. It
may be necessary to predict accurately bubble flows in heterogeneous regime,
which seems to be more difficult to predict than the homogeneous regime [131].
Conversely, to model the interactions among solid particles, there is the kinetic

theory of granular flow (KTGF), which was developed as an analogy to the ki-
netic theory of gases [48]. It can be used to calculate properties such as granular
temperature, solids pressure and solids viscosity [102, 160]. With this model,
the movement of particles is estimated more accurately when collisions between
them are relevant.
When more than one phase is present, the interactions among them must
be modeled. The movement of each phase can be predicted with greater ac-
curacy with the use of suitable models for the interfacial forces present in the
system. The drag force, being the dominant force, is sometimes the only inter-
facial force considered in the simulation of biological processes fluid dynamics
[137, 74, 101]. However, other forces, such as lift and virtual mass, can signifi-
cantly affect flow patterns [32, 90]. The choice of models to be calculated must
therefore be made carefully [80, 123].
Another important aspect to be considered is the turbulence modeling. Tur-
bulence is listed among the major unsolved problems in physics, and the mod-
eling of this phenomenon dates back to the beginning of the 20th century, with
the development of algebraic models. Its importance comes from the fact that,
although biological processes operate at reduced superficial velocities, wastew-
ater treatment processes can also operate in turbulent regimes, e.g. in large units,
and in processes that account for mechanical agitation. Among the existing ap-
proaches for the estimation of turbulent properties, there is the RANS approach,
in which all the turbulence scales are modeled [148]. There are several models
developed considering this approach, being the k-epsilon model one of the most
used today for the prediction of hydrodynamics in bioreactors [2, 84, 126]
it has known difficulties to reproduce complex flows, but it is also one of the
fastest models available. There is also the LES approach, in which the smaller
turbulence scales (within the Kolmogorov scale) are modeled, and the larger
scales are solved [133]. The smaller scales have universal characteristics that
are easier to model, thus turbulent flows are predicted more accurately using
the LES approach [161, 112]. Finally, there is the DNS approach, in which all
the scales are solved. Although this is the most accurate technique available to
determine the properties of turbulent flows even providing data for model val-
idation , DNS is a costly and impractical approach to application in industrial
processes. The correct prediction of the turbulence is crucial, which justifies the
existence of studies dedicated to this theme [152, 26]. The importance of ac-
curate prediction of turbulence in biological processes is justified because they
operate with a delicate balance: greater turbulence enhances the contact be-

tween the phases present, but also promotes more shear stresses, which must be
maintained within a tolerable limit [21, 97, 61].
No matter how reliable is a set of mathematical models, numerical predic-
tions need to be compared to experimental data, in order to validate the models
used. Thus it is also useful to know how experimental data are acquired. Among
the experimental methods available today, there are the Hot Film Anemome-
try (HFA), Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) and Particle Image Velocimetry
(PIV) [136]. All of them are able to measure the local velocity vector and ve-
locity fluctuations, and thus estimate useful flow properties such as turbulence,
shear rate, shear stress and turbulent shear stress. HFA uses a sensor in direct
contact with the fluids, which may affect the flow. Sensors are also very frag-
ile and can be damaged in contact with high total solids. However, they are
also very sensitive, and is able to measure the flow with high frequency. LDV
makes use of the Doppler effect caused by tracer particles on laser beams. It
exhibits very high spatial and time resolution and is non-intrusive, but requires
transparency, in comparison with HFA (which can be used in opaque systems).
PIV estimates the flow characteristics from a sequence of images, which en-
ables the determination of a whole field at once (HFA and LDV can measure
only one position at a time). Similarly to the LDV technique, PIV also requires
transparency, which can be a limiting factor when dealing with wastewater.
3. Batch Processes
Batch processes are widely used for the biological wastewater treatment. They
are characterized as a sequential fill-and-draw sludge system. Figure 2 illus-
trates a typical sequencing batch reactor operation. Wastewater and microor-
ganisms are first fed into the bioreactor (Figure 2a), and kept under agitation
during the reaction step (Figure 2b). The phases are kept at rest in the next
step to allow the sedimentation of the biomass (Figure 2c). Then, the treated
effluent is discharged (Figure 2d), and the excess of biomass can be removed
(Figure 2e).
In this type of process, wastewater and biomass are retained in the biore-
actor during sufficient time for the microbiological reactions to occur. The re-
action time, in which biochemical reactions mitigate the polluting potential of
the organic wastewater, can be adjusted to ensure process efficiency. Sequenc-
ing batch reactors can be operated under aerobic (SBR) or anaerobic (ASBR)
conditions. One of the main advantages of batch processes is to allow greater

Figure 2. Sequencing batch reactor steps: (a) filling, (b) reaction, (c) settling,
(d) treated wastewater discharge, and (e) removal of biomass in excess.
control of the operation, when compared to continuous processes. However,

agitation in batch reactors must be intense, especially during the reaction step,
in order to promote homogeneity of temperature, pH and substrate concentra-
tion in the reactor, as well as to ensure an efficient contact between biomass
and substrate to promote the conversion of organic matter. Mechanical agitation
and recirculation of the gas generated in the process can promote the mixture
between the substrate and the biomass, while the liquid recirculation increases
the liquid-liquid contact [109].
The batch bioreactor modeling can be done, preliminarily, using analytical
models, which are obtained by applying simplifications during the deduction of
the equations. They are useful in predicting the overall behavior of the system,
neglecting any local variations. In the study made by Fuentes et al. [45], a global
model was implemented to investigate and optimize operational strategies. A
good agreement was obtained between experimental and predicted values of
solids concentrations in the simulation of an ASBR, thus the model was used to
optimize the process steps. The optimization results, based on the minimization
of the reaction time over the total cycle time, resulted in a 22% decrease in the
total cycle time, which corresponded to a possible increase in the organic load-
ing, without changes in the quality of the effluent. A set of analytical equations,
representing the effect of operational parameters on the performance of a SBR,
can be used to predict the biomass concentration in real cases, calculating the

variation of organic substrate, ammonia, biomass, oxygen and soluble microbial

products over time for a single cycle of SBR operation [73]. Nevertheless, the
results obtained with these models do not provide details on the fluid dynamics
inside the bioreactor, in contrast to the details that can be obtained using CFD
techniques.
As already mentioned, phases may be kept under stirring during the reaction
step to increase the contact between the biomass and the effluent to be treated, as
well as to homogenize temperature and concentrations. In general, the phases
can be stirred through three ways: mechanical, hydraulic and pneumatic. In
batch reactors, it is usual to use mechanical agitation, in which rotating im-
pellers move the phases inside the bioreactor, and hydraulic agitation, with the
recirculation of the wastewater being treated.
Pneumatic agitation is commonly used in aerobic processes, whose micro-
biological reactions are promoted by the presence of oxygen. It also avoids
problems caused by granules washout, and/or the need to use pumps specially
designed to minimize damage to biomass. This type of agitation was applied in
the bioreactor evaluated by Zima-Kulisiewicz et al. [166]. They analyzed flow
patterns in a three-phase mixture, composed of water, air and flocs in a SBR.
For the modeling of the three-phase system, the Eulerian-Eulerian approach was
adopted. Experimental data were obtained using the particle image velocime-
try (PIV) technique. The results were evaluated in three zones showing that
the behavior of the bioreactor differs in the lower, middle and upper regions.
Strain rates up to 15/s, besides the biochemical activity, influenced the forma-
tion, shape and size of flocs in SBR operating under aerobic conditions. In
contrast to the analytical modeling, the use of CFD demonstrated that the effect
of geometry on global shear stress was significant. The gas bubbles movement
and collision were found to be the main source for the shear stress at the granule
surface [119].
In SBR operating under anaerobic conditions, it is common to use hydraulic
agitation. The modeling of the present phenomena requires attention, so that the
results from simulations represent with fidelity the real operation. For example,
interfacial forces such as drag, lift, virtual mass and buoyant forces perform an
important role in the movement of bubbles [100]. It is known that drag is the
dominant force [64]. In this sense, Rosa et al. [123] evaluated the consideration
of different interfacial forces in the flow of a pilot scale ASBR. Under the op-
erating conditions evaluated, the lift force was only influential in the lower part
of the bioreactor, due to the strong velocity gradients present in the region near

the recirculation duct.

When using hydraulic agitation in batch reactors, the recirculation velocity
should be low, because high velocities can cause excessive shear stresses [83], as
well as the solids washout [61]. Thus, since reduced recirculation rates are used,
regions may be less turbulent, or even being in the transition regime. However,
results predicted with the use of different transition and turbulence models, un-
der the operating conditions of a pilot scale ASBR, which correspond to a low
Reynolds number (1700), indicated that there is no need to consider a model
for the transition regime, and that the RSM turbulence model is suitable for
conducting the simulations [62].
Maurina et al. [84] evaluated differences in the turbulence predicted consid-
ering different recirculation directions in a pilot scale ASBR, using the k-epsilon
turbulence model implemented in a two-phase code in OpenFOAM. It was ob-
served that the inlet at the reactor base, with upward movement inside the reac-
tor, provides greater turbulence and mixing when compared to the experimental
operation of the studied bioreactor, which originally applied a downward flow in
the bioreactor. In their following study [83], the effect of different recirculation
flows in an upward direction was evaluated. Higher flow rates provide greater
turbulence in the bioreactor as well as greater contact between the phases. How-
ever, it also causes high shear stresses due to the presence of higher velocities in
the recirculation ducts. A proposed solution to minimize these effects was the
use of larger ducts, capable of maintaining the same flow rate with lower veloc-
ity. The observations made by the authors may provide an explanation for the
results observed in experimental studies found in literature [109], in which the
increase in the recirculation flow rate causes first a greater consumption of sub-
strate, and then a decrease in the reaction rates. At the same recirculation flow,
different inlet configurations were also evaluated [85], and results indicated that
a distributed inlet for the wastewater recirculation offers advantages when com-
pared to the inlet configuration commonly found, with a conical format. Better
distribution of the flow can also be achieved by including internal structures in
the reactor, such as baffles that redirect the flow inside the bioreactor and re-
duce the presence of dead zones [122]. In this study, conducted considering
two similar bioreactors with different capacities (1000 L and 125 L), it was ob-
served that the inclusion of only one baffle is enough to better redistribute the
turbulence inside both bioreactors, with little change in the pressure drop.
Thus, for similar reactors, CFD can be used to predict process-favorable
conditions. Koerich and Rosa [61] evaluated numerically the effect of differ-

ent flow rates on the two-phase flow of an anaerobic sequencing batch reactor
(ASBR), in which the phases movement was promoted by the recirculation of
the wastewater being treated. It was observed that, although higher recircula-
tion flow rates promoted greater contact between the phases, this also resulted
in high shear rates, and damages to the granules. Thus, an optimal condition can
be established numerically for the recirculation flow rate, so that the bioreactor
operation is efficient.
If solids are present, there are new phenomena which are disregarded (or that
are difficult to model) in simpler simulations with a reduced number of phases.
The different dynamics of the solids during the sedimentation stage of batch
bioreactors, for example, is evidenced in a SBR with pneumatic agitation [167].
In this situation, a flow field must be solved for the solids. The movement of the
phases in a sequencing batch reactor with granules, with the injection of air by a
sparger located at the base of the reactor, is another example [33]. In this study,
the experimental data was acquired using the PIV technique, and an Eulerian-
Eulerian approach was used to conduct the CFD simulations, composed of a
continuous phase and two dispersed phases (bubbles and granules). Numerical
techniques such as CFD are able to predict complete fields of concentration and
velocity at the cost of the computational time required for calculations. Given
the complexity of conducting three-phase simulations, a hybrid model between
CFD and artificial neural networks (ANN) was proposed to accelerate the pro-
duction of results [33]. Neural network techniques, once trained with experi-
mental data (or even simulations), can give results much faster than CFD. The
time required for training depends on the number of parameters assessed. In the
work cited, a network was trained with 5 input parameters, capable of predicting
the effect of different conditions on 10 characteristic parameters. Good agree-
ment was observed between CFD and ANN, with maximum errors between
estimates varying between 3.2% and 12.4%.
The use of CFD techniques only for the simulation of fluid dynamics in
bioreactors requires an amount of computational resources that are orders of
magnitude larger than the application of analytical or empirical models. How-
ever, with the computational capacity currently available, it is possible not only
to predict the dynamics of multiphase systems, but also to consider increasingly
detailed microbiological kinetics. Ashwin et al. [10] developed the COD re-
moval model in the SBR wastewater treatment process. Numerical simulations
were carried out, using analytical expressions for the different stages of the pro-
cess, allowing to validate the model with experimental data. Simulations were

then used to optimize the time of each step of the process. Liew et al. [70]
expanded a kinetic modeling concept that considers non-mixing idealities, in-
corporating mixing and stirring effects in microbiological kinetics. This model
was implemented using CFD for the simulation of a batch bioreactor. Turbu-
lence was modeled using the k-epsilon model. Since this approach yielded re-
sults close to the experimental ones, it was concluded that this model could be
used in studies of the influence of agitation on the growth rate, substrate con-
sumption and products generation.
There are several mathematical models available for microbiological kinet-
ics [142]. Models such as ASM have proved useful for the study of biological
processes. Zhou et al. [165] used this kinetic model as the basis for the simu-
lation of a batch bioreactor. A modification was proposed in the ASM3 model
(which has the limitation that all biodegradable substrate is absorbed and stored
in the cell) to describe aerobic biological reactions in a sequencing batch re-
actor. Parameters of this new model were calibrated, and used in numerical
simulations. The comparison between the results indicates that the proposed
modifications cause the model to better describe the granule-based aerobic SBR
kinetics. The ASM3 model was also used in another study [18], in which the
aeration time in an SBR under partial nitrification conditions was optimized.
4. Lagoons and Wetlands

Lagoons are commonly used for wastewater treatment. They are defined as a
large tank commonly reaching thousands of cubic meters , with microorgan-
isms that degrade complex organic pollutants during the usually long residence
time. In an aerated lagoon, which promotes the aerobic digestion of organic
content in wastewater, oxygen is artificially supplied in order to enhance the bi-
ological reactions. Variations of this process are illustrated in Figure 3. Wastew-
ater is fed into the lagoon, where microorganisms degrade its organic contents
(Figure 3a). The process may have aerators, to promote oxygen transfer to the
liquid, enabling aerobic digestion (Figure 3b). It is also common the use of
plants, in wetlands (Figure 3c).
4.1. Lagoons
The lagoon design involves physical, geometric and hydrological variables to
predict characteristics such as efficiency and substrate consumption rates. In

Figure 3. Wastewater treatment in (a) a lagoon, (b) with aeration, and (c) in a
wetland.
this sense, simplifications such as the consideration of a perfect mixture model

can be considered, e.g. to model the nitrification process in an aerated lagoon
[54]. Among the advantages indicated by the mathematical modeling of the
system are the aid (i) in the identification of the most important parameters that
govern the nitrification period, (ii) in the analysis of dissolved oxygen (DO) sen-
sitivity and bioaugmentation, (iii) in the evaluation of the interaction of several
biokinetic processes, and (iv) in the consideration of dynamic effects. Accord-
ing to the literature [54], the greatest impact of bioaugmentation from increased
nitrification is in spring and summer, while the prolongation of the nitrification
period in autumn and winter is more difficult.
However, studies which traditionally adopt simplified models for the sim-
ulation of stabilization ponds face difficulties to reach accurate predictions of
pond performance, since these models do not take into account characteristics
such as inlet and geometric effects, or hydrodynamics. Conversely, computa-
tional fluid dynamics consider these details in simulations, being useful for the
understanding of processes and interactions in wastewater stabilization ponds.
The use of this technique prior to the design of wastewater treatment can con-
tribute to the prevention of undesirable flow patterns such as short circuits and
dead zones [14].
The first works that used computational fluid dynamics for pond simula-
tion considered two-dimensional meshes, disregarding any kinetic effects. This
was justified due to the computational capacity available decades ago, and also
due to the purpose given to the technique: to preliminarily understand the hy-
drodynamics of the process. Wood et al. [149] used this approach to simulate
the residence time distribution (RTD) in ponds, comparing results from two-
dimensional simulations with literature data. Of the three cases evaluated, only
one adequately represented the experimental data, and discrepancies in the other

cases were credited to the simplification of calculating three-dimensional phe-

nomena with a two-dimensional approach.
The two-dimensional approach was still used by Abbas et al. [1] to simulate
hydrodynamics and effluent quality in different pond configurations. The trans-
port of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and DO concentrations were also
incorporated into the mass and momentum transport equations. A first-order ki-
netics, not specified in the article, was also considered to simulate the variation
of these concentrations. Among the evaluated configurations, results indicate
that a rectangular lagoon, containing a certain combination of baffles, promotes
greater efficiency in the improvement of water quality.
Numerical simulations can be time-consuming, especially when calculating
detailed meshes, or in the case of large domains such as ponds. Alvarado et al.
[8] compared different numerical techniques in order to evaluate the quality of
the results and the time required to obtain them which are important data in
the definition of the cost/benefit of using each strategy. The studied case was
a wastewater stabilization lagoon in real scale (45 ha). Experimental data for
residence time distribution (RTD) were compared with values obtained through
the use of (i) a compartment model, (ii) tanks in series calculation, and (iii) two-
dimensional simulation using the CFD technique. Rhodamine dye was used as a
tracer in order to determine the residence time distribution. Differences between
predictions and experiments were credited to the simplifications adopted in the
modeling, such as the disregarding of meteorological conditions. The ADM1
model was also incorporated into the simulations with compartments and with
tanks in series to evaluate the behavior of species present in the wastewater.
Simulations were conducted to predict 14 days of operation. It was concluded
that the compartment model represents with more accuracy the behavior of the
lagoon. However, two-dimensional simulations, a priori, do not provide an
accurate description of three-dimensional hydrodynamic patterns in wastewater
stabilization ponds [149], which may interfere both in the prediction of RTD
and also in the evolution of biochemical kinetics.
Three-dimensional simulations are really needed to capture the pond flow in
details. In addition to the effect of inlets and outlets, there is also the actual relief
of the site, which can be affected by the production of biomass. Cases evaluated
with this consideration showed that the sludge can induce the flow to behave as
if it were in the presence of baffles, bringing to this flow characteristics plug-
flow, thus increasing the efficiency of the treatment process [99].
Three-dimensional simulations were conducted by Peterson et al. [107],

who modeled processes in a lagoon with aerators, adopting in their study a dy-
namic approach implemented in an in-house CFD code, with the aim of avoiding
mineral soil scouring. Using a turbulent and single-phase modeling, the authors
suggest that most of the aerator thrust effect is spent where it reaches the bottom
of the pond, thus the use of diffusers is indicated. This exemplifies the greater
detailing sought with numerical simulations, which allows inferring in pro-
cess improvements. A similar technique was adopted to predict the separation
of bubbles in a pond [30], in which an Eulerian-Lagrangian formulation was
solved through the Finite Element Method. Morchain et al. [92] presented a nu-
merical, three-dimensional study on the aeration process in ponds. Although the
main parameter to assess the suitability of the aerator takes into account the air
transfer coefficient, it was observed that the amount of oxygen transferred also
depends strongly on the amount of fresh water that crosses the region below
the aerator. A three-dimensional approach may be also needed to determine the
optimal configuration of aerators in wastewater stabilization ponds [9], which is
difficult to evaluate with the compartments technique indicated previously [8].
The aerator modeling was implemented through the use of momentum sources,
which resulted in good agreement with experimental velocity measurements.
The comparison between single-phase and two-phase simulations indicated dif-
ferences in the fields predicted. However, due to the time required, most of
the study was conducted with a single-phase approach. Results indicated that
the aeration promoted by 4 aerators was comparable to the mixing conditions
obtained with 10 aerators.
Three-dimensional simulations may require great computing power due to
the large number of control volumes. In the case of aerated lagoons with large
dimensions, in order to accelerate the results, the wastewater movement caused
by impellers may be calculated separately, so that the predicted velocity fields
can be used as boundary conditions for the calculation of the phases movement.
This method was used to simulate a small pond (50 meters in diameter and
4 meters of depth) and another one in real scale (almost square shaped, with
315.6 meters by 315 meters) [111]. Good agreement was observed between
the predicted residence time and the values evaluated experimentally with dye,
demonstrating that this technique is effective to improve performance and de-
sign of industrial lagoons.
In order to improve the performance and design of ponds, standard opti-
mization methods can be used [98] in this case, both the SIMPLEX as Genetic
Algorithms. Simulations with CFD were coupled to these optimization meth-

ods to define the best configuration of a wastewater stabilization pond when

considering its costs and treatment efficiency. Among the adjusted parameters
considered were the quantity, position and size of baffles. The effluent reduction
was achieved by tolerating an amount of wastewater mixture in the pond.
Sah et al. [125] used a three-dimensional model for the CFD simulation of
a secondary facultative lagoon under different atmospheric conditions, incorpo-
rating the ADM1 model to describe the chemical oxygen demand (COD) and
nutrient removal as a function of bacterial growth. Contrasting differences were
observed in the results for bacterial growth and COD, in the simulations con-
sidering intermittent and continuous wind. This indicated that the first order
kinetics adopted in this study may not be appropriate to describe all the interac-
tions between the biochemical processes in a pond. In fact, often the calibration
of kinetic models occurs on laboratory scale, under almost ideal conditions, dif-
ferent from the actual application. The monthly production of methane in the
same anaerobic lagoon may vary significantly throughout the year: CFD simu-
lations with coupled microbiological kinetics showed that the time required to
achieve a 99% BOD reduction in January (winter) is much longer than that in
July (summer) [155].
4.2. Oxidation Ditch

Oxidation ditches are one of the most widely used processes for the wastewater
treatment. An important feature of these systems is the availability of oxygen
to the environment, delivered by aerators. These equipment must be installed
and operated efficiently, otherwise the costs associated with aerators may make
the process unfeasible. Yang et al. [158] studied numerically two conditions
for the aeration of a full-scale oxidation ditch. A moving wall model and a fan
model were adopted to simulate surface and submerged aerators, respectively,
both relying on mass sources to simulate air injection. The values predicted
for the flow were within 1.984.28% of difference when compared to the ex-
perimental data, while for DO the values were within 4.714.15%. Under the
improved operating conditions, the oxygen concentration was more favorable to
the simultaneous occurrence of nitrification and denitrification.
Xie et al. [156] proposed a two-phase (multi-fluid mixture) model for the
simulation of an oxidation ditch. Values for the settling velocity were incor-
porated into the simulations to predict the solids sedimentation effect. Errors
between experimental data and numerical predictions were reduced to 5%, in

contrast to the single-phase approach, which presented errors of 8%. By nu-

merically evaluating different operating conditions, a more uniform distribution
of sludge was achieved, and the concentration of suspended solids was lower
on the inner walls. The use of CFD could then be used to better understand
the distribution of solids, and assist in the design and optimization of oxidation
ditches.
Fan et al. [41] also used numerical and experimental techniques, but using a
two-fluids model [58] to evaluate a laboratory scale oxidation ditch. For the nu-
merical simulations, a three-dimensional mesh with 1.6 million control volumes
was used, which leads to an even larger number of calculations. Comparing the
phases dynamics, it was observed that liquid and solid have similar velocities,
although the vertical velocity of the solid phase is slightly lower than the liquid
phase vertical velocity. It was also noted that the solid particles are dispersed
more uniformly, when subjected to a more intense aeration. The authors ob-
served that the system has three-dimensional features, with regions favoring
sedimentation of the particles a characteristic that could be predicted with the
two-phase model used. An Eulerian-Lagrangian approach can also be adopted
to describe the movement of the liquid and solid phases, respectively, for the
prediction of the movement of individual flocs subjected to the turbulent flow
effects on bench scale [21]. This approach was considered useful to assess the
performance of installations in other situations.
4.3. Activated Sludge

The activated sludge process is used for sewage and industrial wastewaters treat-
ment, using air and a biological sludge. To model this process, a simplified
approach was adopted by Sanchez et al. [127], in which the distribution of res-
idence times in an industrial activated sludge reactor, divided into 4 zones, was
evaluated and compared with experimental data and estimates from different
analytical models. Although the calculations consider the non-ideality due to
the radial dispersion and the presence of dead zones, the estimation of param-
eters such as the coefficient of dispersion and volume of dead zones (i) is arbi-
trary, which can lead to significant differences between measured and predicted
values, or (ii) requires calibration, which defeat the purpose of using models.
However, this exemplifies the current state of biological process modeling, in
which simplified models are still adopted.
Aerators are necessary both to maintain oxygen concentration at adequate

levels for wastewater stabilization, but also to promote agitation, avoiding ex-
cessive sedimentation of the sludge. Thus, the sedimentation process need to be
considered. This treatment process was evaluated through experimental mea-
surements and numerical simulations by Hribersek et al. [55]. The CFD model
was based on an Eulerian-Lagrangian approach to describe the laminar move-
ment of the phases, considering a 2-way coupling (in which the liquid phase
affects the movement of solids, and vice versa). The drag of the flocs was mod-
eled by Brinkman model, and the comparison of results indicated good agree-
ment between experiments and simulations performed with this approach.
Incorporating the ASM1 model for microbiological kinetics, Le Moullec
et al. [67] compared the concentration profiles obtained experimentally with
those predicted numerically using three different approaches: systemic, CFD
and compartmental. Numerical results were consistent, showing good agree-
ment with experimental observations. Furthermore, their analysis indicated that
the kinetic model has a fundamental role in predicting the performance of reac-
tors with activated sludge. However, the authors reported difficulties in anoxic
simulations with CFD (where the sludge is kept in suspension by a Rushton
turbine). Due to this, and the required time, experiments with biological re-
actions were not simulated using CFD. Also, in the compartmental technique,
there were observed errors due to the low concentration of O2 in stagnant zones
which were smaller than the errors due to the estimate of the nitrifying mass,
for which the model ASM1 is very sensitive.
The hydrodynamics in wastewater treatment unit can be also solved con-
sidering the smooth particle hydrodynamics (SPH), which is a particle based
discretization method that approximates a continuous fluid through a set of dis-
crete particles (analogous to the Lagrangian approach), and thus can be applied
to CFD problems. A code using this method, and considering the influence of
biochemical kinetics (using the ASM1 model), was verified by the compari-
son of its results with those predicted by ASIM 5 software [87]. The proposed
approach was then applied to the simulation of a full scale plant. With the
coupling between hydrodynamics and biokinetics, it was possible to solve the
concentrations in the treatment plant with high resolution, providing details of
the process.

4.4. Sedimentation Tanks

Secondary sedimentation is the final stage of wastewater treatment processes
based on activated sludge. To simulate this process, there are techniques ranging
from one-dimensional approaches, in which non-idealities are incorporated in
the calibrated values, to models of lumped parameters, and computational fluid
dynamics, being this technique the most accurate [81]. Ekama and Marais [37]
observed by comparing one-dimensional simulations with two-dimensional pre-
dictions that hydraulic non-idealities are intrinsic parts of the model, and that ap-
propriate flow rates are automatically reproduced by the two-dimensional model
giving evidence that one-dimensional models can not be used in the design of
full-scale secondary sedimentation tank (SST) without any corrections. CFD
can, however, serve as a calibration standard for meta-models, which could then
be applied in the prediction of tank behavior [110, 50]. Computational fluid
dynamics techniques are able to predict the mass transport processes in a con-
ventional SST, and the interactions between SST and bioreactor in dynamic,
non-stationary conditions. This technique was used in the evaluation of sus-
pended solids mass balance in activated sludge systems [105]. Two-dimensional
modeling was used, in contrast to most of the works published until then, which
considered models with concentrated parameters as well as one-dimensional
models. With this approach, it was possible to identify that the original config-
uration promoted waves (instabilities) when operating at higher flow rates, re-
sulting in large flow structures capable of transporting solids to the tank outlet.
Thus, numerical improvements provided by small changes in the inlet geometry
of the tank were investigated. In a later study [104], the inlet configuration of
the sedimentation tank was further enhanced, using the same two-dimensional
approach. Under peak flow conditions the improvement made to the inlet de-
sign was more relevant, leading to the suppression of the density current and the
large scale circulation.
Flamant et al. [44] evaluated experimentally and numerically the settling
process, common to treatment processes. Their simulations used a single-phase
approach, in which the fluid was considered Newtonian and the solids concen-
tration was calculated with a transport equation. The turbulence was modeled
using the k-epsilon model. The numerically predicted sedimentation curve pre-
sented, in general, good agreement with experimental data, although there were
differences between the values at the start-up. A secondary sedimentation tank
was also evaluated numerically, applying a three-dimensional mesh in cylindri-

cal coordinates [39]. The comparison of the original case with new configura-
tions, in which baffles of different sizes and positions were installed, showed
that baffles have great influence in the fluid dynamics and, consequently, in the
distribution of suspended solids, being beneficial to sedimentation of solids.
Qualitative comparisons, in which the mathematical model used considered
the Eulerian-Lagrangian approach, with k-epsilon model for turbulence, also
demonstrate the ability of CFD to provide reliable predictions of the fluid dy-
namics characteristics of the settling process [36].
4.5. Aeration Tanks

Aeration is a key process in the wastewater treatment. Its main purpose is to
provide the oxygen necessary to all aerobic processes. Given its importance,
computational fluid dynamics is increasingly used for the study and optimiza-
tion of aeration systems. However, numerical studies face a lack of accurate
bubble size measurements in full-scale tanks, which is the dominant parameter
for the phenomenon of oxygen transfer, thus the use of arbitrary diameters is a
reality. The size of bubbles has a strong impact on the oxygen transfer coeffi-
cient, through the modification of:
the gas-liquid interface, which is inversely proportional to the diameter of

the bubbles;
the oxygen transfer coefficient of the liquid phase, which depends on the
thickness of the boundary layer around the bubble, which in turn also
depends on the diameter of the bubble.
Fayolle et al. [42] evaluated the process of oxygen transfer in an aeration

tank, simulating four tanks of different sizes. Although the predicted transfer
coefficients were within a confidence interval of 5%, it was concluded that the
simulations depend on knowing the size of the bubbles to give correct predic-
tions. Therefore, experimental data are needed for more accurate simulations
of oxygen transfer using CFD techniques. In this sense, a series of local val-
ues for velocity, bubble size and oxygen transfer rate were measured and made
available in order to better understand hydrodynamics in aeration tanks [43].
According to Le Moullec et al. [65], the use of the RSM model for turbulence,
coupled with second-order interpolation schemes, is able to successfully predict
the dispersion coefficient of a wastewater treatment tank. To this end, care was

taken to evaluate in advance the independence of the results in relation to the

mesh used. Gresch et al. [49] applied CFD techniques coupled with biochemi-
cal kinetics (according to the Monod model) for the simulation of nitrification
in a full-scale aeration tank. Meshes with different levels of refinement were
tested: the oscillatory behavior captured in more refined meshes was not pre-
dicted with the coarsest mesh. Still, the comparison between SST k-omega and
k-epsilon turbulence models revealed that the latter heavily damp the results, as
observed in other studies in the literature [26, 151]. The technique was then
applied for the evaluation of different diffusers in the tank. It was also em-
phasized that in complex flow situations, experimental validation is needed and
strongly suggested. Al-Sammarraee et al. [6] applied the LES approach to cal-
culate the turbulent flow in a sedimentation tank, motivated by the inaccuracy
of the k-epsilon model in regions with high shear, which are important in the
sedimentation process. Particles were simulated with a Lagrangian framework.
There was good agreement with experimental data, and in the continuation of
the study [5], the effects of the inclusion of baffles on the process were evalu-
ated.
4.6. Wetlands
In addition to sludge, plants are also commonly found in ponds. Such systems
are known as wetlands. In this process, the plant-containing region is usually
modeled by defining a porous medium, in which the effect of the plants occurs
in the form of a resistance to free flow of the wastewater. This procedure is
valid to evaluate systems at low Reynolds numbers, in which wetlands actually
behave as porous media, modeled on Darcys law. For moderately larger flow
rates, the drag effect on small scales can be captured with the inclusion of a
quadratic term, according to the Darcy-Forchheimer correlation [82]. For larger
Reynolds numbers, complete Navier-Stokes models must be adopted. Chen
et al. [25] focused on wave modeling in aquatic environments containing plants,
using both the VOF and the k-epsilon model for turbulence. This study indicated
that vegetation can reduce the length of plate-type breakwater, as well as reduce
the cost of engineering applications.
Similar to lagoon modeling, many of the pioneering wetland simulation
studies have adopted simplified models. To investigate the horizontal COD
concentration profile along wetlands with and without plants, Von Sperling and
de Paoli [140] applied three different models: plug flow, dispersed flow and

complete-mix tanks in series. The last two provided the best results. For these
models, the adjusted value for the first order kinetic constant was the same, in-
dicating that the approaches are equivalent, and more adequate to predict actual
values. However, as pointed out at the beginning of this section, such simpli-
fied approaches may fail to reproduce the actual behavior, which is also affected
by the geometry of the system. A more sophisticated model, considering the
two-dimensional approach to evaluate the performance of 13 simple configura-
tions of wetlands, applied hydrodynamic and advection-dispersion calculations
in two-dimensional meshes [106]. Configurations with larger length-to-width
ratios have made the flow more similar to the plug-flow condition, which is ad-
vantageous due to the increased rate of biomass removal with increasing load.
Moreover, numerical results obtained with a curved configuration, or with the
presence of islands within the pond, have shown that these configurations do not
interfere with the hydraulic performance of the wetland. The two-dimensional
approach was also used to simulate the subsurface flow in wetlands, in an at-
tempt to find the best operating conditions, as well as to define an appropriate
resistance for the porous medium [40].
The residence time distribution (RTD) of wetlands can be obtained using
CFD techniques, in order to investigate its hydraulic performance. This proce-
dure was used to assess a modified wetland, composed of an evapotranspiration
and treatment chamber, and a horizontal subsurface drainage wetland [120].
The inclusion of baffles with different sizes was evaluated. For the conduction
of the simulations, a stationary three-dimensional approach was adopted, with
the incorporation of a porous medium to model the presence of plants. It was
observed that, for the evapotranspiration chamber, the most important factor on
the pollutant fraction was the flow rate. For the wetland, the greatest influence
on hydraulic efficiency was the length.
The modeling of the nitrification process in wetlands was carried out by
Murphy et al. [93], who evaluated this phenomenon under normal conditions
(with abundance of oxygen) and in the situation of aerator failure. In this case,
it was observed that the decrease in dissolved oxygen concentration is faster
than the nitrification drop. After two weeks of oxygen scarcity, nitrification was
recovered in about 2 days in contrast, nitrification in a new system required
from 20 to 45 days to be established.
In addition to fluid dynamics, Rajabzadeh et al. [116] also modeled the
biofilm growth and wastewater treatment in a vertical portion of wetland (meso-
cosm), which is representative for the phenomena involved. Experimental data

were used to calibrate the models applied. With the development of the biofilm
during the first weeks, there was an increase in the organic material removal
efficiency. The adopted technique also allowed to observe the presence of dead
zones at the base of the system. Good agreement was observed between the
mean porosity of the whole system and experimental data. The coupling of
several models for the various existing phenomena required high computational
power, which in turn provided realistic predictions for bio-clogging processes.
5. Biodigesters
A biodigester is a reactor in which organic material is decomposed by microor-
ganisms to produce renewable energy (in the form of biogas and/or biohydro-
gen) and other materials that are mainly used as fertilizers. These bioreactors are
used for industrial or domestic purposes to manage waste or to produce fuels. It
is particularly suited (and is commonly used) for the treatment of industrial ef-
fluent, wastewater and sewage sludge. It is also a simple process that can greatly
reduce the amount of organic matter.
The mixing in this treatment process can be promoted by pneumatic, hy-
draulic or mechanical agitation. Figure 4 illustrates the different types of agi-
tation possible. Regardless of the agitation type employed, care must be taken
that this is not too intense: although greater agitation causes greater contact be-
tween the phases, this also results in the development of high shear stresses.
This is undesirable, as stresses sufficiently high can cause rupture of microbial
cells, leading to microorganisms death and process inefficiency. However, the
mixing effects are important in anaerobic digestion processes, as it maintains
suspended solids, and promotes contact between microorganisms and substrate
[72]. There are several techniques currently available to evaluate the mixture
in a system, such as the use of tracer and laboratory analysis. However, there
is no consensus on the ideal format for promoting mixture. Therefore, further
tests are required, for which computational fluid dynamics can provide valuable
insights. The limitations of the CFD technique in agitated tanks are mainly due
to the computational cost of simulations, which is directly related to the resolu-
tion of the computational mesh which in turn is considerably increased in the
presence of impellers. However, there is a large number of studies in the liter-
ature in which experimental observations were successfully compared to CFD
results, thus validating the technique. For the numerical prediction of the fluid
dynamics of digesters, different approaches are adopted, from the consideration

of Newtonian or non-Newtonian rheology, calculation of only one, two or more

phases, and the consideration of particle size distribution.
Figure 4. Types of agitation in biodigesters: (a) hydraulic recirculation, pneu-

matic in (b) bubble column and (c) gas lift configurations, and (d) mechanical
stirring.
Intense agitation also results in the maintenance of turbulent regime in the

reactor. Thus, turbulence must be modeled properly. Wu [151] evaluated 12
different turbulence models to predict the fluid dynamics in a biodigester. The
non-Newtonian character of the fluid phase, due to the presence of different con-
centrations of suspended solids, was also considered in the two-phase simula-
tions. The authors considered that, among the evaluated models, only variations
of k-epsilon to Reynolds low could be applied for the lowest concentrations of
solids (2.5% and 5.4%). However, if the purpose was to evaluate the flow far
from walls, the SST k-omega model is a cheap alternative. These observations
are interesting, since both models are simple, disregarding any anisotropies. A
possible justification to the suitability of the SST k-omega model could be sim-
ply that the evaluated flow does not require more complex modeling. However,
sometimes bioprocesses operate with a wide range of Reynolds numbers, re-
quiring more sophisticated models. Thus, the analysis of turbulence modeling
must be done on a case-by-case basis. Finally, by evaluating different methods
of agitation, higher mixing efficiency between gas and liquid were observed for

mechanical and hydraulic agitation [151].
5.1. Hydraulic Agitation

Biodigesters may have mixture promoted by their own wastewater circulation
in this situation, there is hydraulic agitation. It may provide greater or lesser
mixture intensity, depending on the ratio between flow rate and volume (which
corresponds to the residence time of the biodigester). Important aspects in the
design of anaerobic digesters are related to the fluid dynamics of these units.
However, despite its important role in the process performance, the fluid dynam-
ics in digesters is hardly quantified, or even adequately characterized. Three-
dimensional simulations can be performed for an anaerobic biodigester, in or-
der to visualize its flow patterns [88]. This can be considered as a first step
in order to obtain a better understanding of the process dynamics. Mendoza
et al. [88] analyzed different inlet angles of nozzle flow drivers, establishing
an optimal direction when considering the mixture at different heights of the
digester. Thus, with a particular geometry of nozzles, there is an increase in
overall unit performance. A method was also proposed to quantify the pres-
ence of dead zones in biodigesters. This study was then continued, using a
three-dimensional, single-phase approach to investigate the fluid dynamics in
an anaerobic digester applied for wastewater treatment [79]. The intention to
further analyze the flow field in the digester was due to the fact that it signifi-
cantly affects the performance of the process. This allowed the identification of
dead zones and possible preferential paths in the digester, as well as the propo-
sition of small changes in the feed to reduce the volume of dead zones. It was
also observed that results considering Newtonian and non-Newtonian rheology
were in the same order of magnitude for the conditions evaluated.
Wu and Chen [154] studied the hydrodynamics of a digester, adopting a
transient and single-phase approach. Since there were suspended solids in the
wastewater, it was necessary to consider the non-Newtonian character of this
mixture phase, whose rheology depends on the concentration of the particles
present. Comparing the results predicted considering the fluid as Newtonian
and as non-Newtonian, large differences in the predicted flows were observed,
in contrast to the observations made by Lopez-Jimenez et al. [79]. The non-
Newtonian rheology, in spite of being a simplification to the real (two-phase)
phenomenon, in this case provided results that agreed well with data measured
experimentally, indicating the feasibility of this procedure. Sajjadi et al. [126]

also considered a non-Newtonian rheology in the evaluation of the fluid dynam-

ics in an anaerobic digester. According to the authors, experimental analyzes,
digital monitoring and tracer techniques usually do not provide details on key
process parameters, and therefore multiphase simulations were conducted. Ef-
fects of viscosity (and input power) on the flow regime and dead zone formation
were evaluated. In general, good agreement with experimental data was ob-
tained, except in regions where the regime was transitioned. It should be noted
that, in order to conduct their study, the authors used the k-epsilon model to
evaluate the turbulent properties of the fluid.
A biodigester with unconventional configuration, which can be considered
as a combination between CSTR and PFR, was numerically evaluated by Qi
et al. [115]. The two-phase dynamics was simulated adopting the volume of
fluid (VOF) approach, which is applicable when there is a well-defined interface
separating the phases. Results obtained indicate that, in the proposed configu-
ration, the dynamics of the bioreactor can be dramatically altered by changing
one device of their biodigester: as the greater the length of a short-cut duct, the
higher the maximum turbulence intensity (which was the criterion used to quan-
tify the systems self-stirring), and a little lower is its mean intensity. Thus, the
application of numerical techniques allowed to study in detail the operation of a
unit, defining an ideal operational condition before evaluating it experimentally.
CFD techniques were also used to evaluate several circulation conditions
in a biodigester agitated only by the wastewater feed, in the study by Wang
et al. [143], who numerically evaluated proposed changes for a biodigester with
internal circulation [164]. Two-dimensional meshes were used to evaluate the
fluid dynamics of the biodigester. Due to the difficulty in characterizing the
interactions between gas and solids, calculations were made considering only
the liquid and solid phases, disregarding the low concentration of gas bubbles.
Experimental observations validated the scientific aspect of the use of CFD for
the numerical analysis of the behavior of biodigesters. Numerical results indi-
cate that modifications proposed in this reactor reduce start-up time and energy
consumption when compared with results from previous studies.
Another application of CFD techniques is the analysis of processes, even be-
fore the construction of real units, in which optimal dimensions and conditions
can be established prior to physical experiments. An example is the modeling
of the anaerobic digestion process for process control purposes, keeping it in
optimum condition for the degradation of volatile fatty acids [128]. The pro-
posed methodology was tested, comparing the results obtained with numerical

simulations of a representative case. Even when physical units are available, the
acquisition of experimental data may be very difficult, if not impossible. For
example, with the PIV technique, it is possible to accurately measure the move-
ment of the phases in a plane within an equipment, in a non-intrusive manner.
However, this technique is limited by the conditions of the fluid, which must be
translucent. In biological systems, this is often not possible, as most wastewa-
ters presents high turbidity. Under these conditions, numerical simulations can
be used to predict the flow, since experimental visualization techniques are in-
adequate due to the opacity of the medium [23]. Three-dimensional simulations
of biodigesters with hydraulic agitation, coupling a kinetics for methanogene-
sis to the fluid dynamics, provide valuable information about its performance.
Even if a bioreactor is evaluated only numerically, CFD results serves also as
support for the construction of an experimental unit [68].
5.2. Pneumatic Agitation

The three-dimensional flow in a biodigester with mixing promoted by the pres-
ence of a sparger was evaluated by Vesvikar and Al-Dahhan [139] using CFD
techniques. Qualitative agreement with experimental results was observed, with
the proviso that different fluids were used: the experiments were conducted with
real wastewater containing about 5% suspended solids while the simulations
considered water. This motivated the application of the numerical technique for
the evaluation of different conditions: varied air flows, diameters of the draft
tube, its distance from the base, as well as the shape of the bottom of the biodi-
gester. Comparing the results of the fluid dynamics, it was observed that a
biodigester with a conical bottom, a large draft tube, and a lower superficial gas
velocity result in a smaller volume of undesired dead zones.
Coughtrie et al. [26] also evaluated the effects of turbulence modeling on a
pilot-scale biodigester agitated by the air feed, considering the SST k-omega,
transition SST k-omega, RNG k-epsilon and RSM turbulence models. The re-
quirements for these turbulence models included the prediction of stream lines
with large curvatures, separation of the boundary layer, and change between
turbulent and transition regimes. According to these criteria, it was observed
that the RSM and transition-SST turbulence models predict experimental val-
ues with greater accuracy. The authors also evaluated the efficacy of using a
single-phase and a two-phase (Eulerian-Lagrangian) models for the representa-
tion of the system, comparing its results with those predicted using the multi-

phase model. It was noticed that, for the evaluated conditions (with few bubbles
present), the results are comparable, there being a greater difference between
the values near the base of the digester, where more bubbles are present.
An Eulerian-Lagrangian approach was also applied for the calculation of the
fluid dynamics in an unconfined biodigester [28], and the predicted results were
compared with experimental data obtained using the PIV technique. Meshes
with different refinements were evaluated using the GCI method, which indi-
cated that coarser meshes can be used in numerical evaluations under the con-
ditions studied. Perhaps due to the choice of the mesh itself, agreement with
experimental results was seriously compromised, which suggests that, despite
the tests performed with different refinements, greater care with the mesh is
necessary. According to the authors, the central region (near the bubble plume)
requires more study to obtain agreement between the experimental and numeri-
cal data.
Bubble Columns
The application of pneumatic agitation in biodigesters has several advantages
for biological processes, such as the promotion of contact in the presence of
slow gas-liquid reactions, both in the wastewater treatment and in fermenters.
The quantification of the forces present, however, is difficult. Daz et al. [32]
evaluated the influence of the lift force on numerical simulations of a bubble col-
umn with rectangular section, using as validation parameters the global gas vol-
ume fraction (the gas holdup) and the plume oscillation period. Three different
superficial gas velocities were applied, and they were simulated with different
values for the coefficient of the lift force. Negative as well as positive values of
this coefficient did not improve the results, which led the authors conclude that,
for the evaluated conditions, the inclusion of the lift force for the simulation of
bubble plume is not recommended.
A review of the influence of interfacial forces on flow patterns in a bubble
column was made by Pourtousi et al. [112], who also evaluated the effects of
turbulence modeling. Among the available approaches for turbulence model-
ing, the LES approach and the RSM model were recommended by the authors
(in contrast to the conclusions of Wu [151]), due to the higher accuracy in the
gas hold-up prediction. In order to improve the prediction accuracy of bub-
bling flow with bubbles of large and small diameters, the Schiller-Naumann
and Zhang-Vanderheyden drag models were recommended. Finally, a turbu-

lent dispersion coefficient of 0.2 is recommended for simulating homogeneous

and heterogeneous regimes. The formation of methane bubbles in a bubble col-
umn was also evaluated numerically [113], this time using a VOF approach and
comparing the results obtained with experiments on the dynamics of air bubbles.
The best interfacial area between liquid and air was observed when holes in the
distributor were at some specific distance. This can be due to the phenomena
involved: when holes are very separated, little interfacial area was generated in
the feeding. In contrast, when the holes are much closer, the largest surface area
generated was decreased due to the bubbles coalescence.
In addition to the iterations in the process fluid dynamics, multiphase sys-
tems (specially those with biochemical reactions) may have mass transfer be-
tween phases. In biodigesters with air injection, oxygen is transferred from the
bubbles to the wastewater, allowing the aerobic treatment. Numerical evalua-
tions of this transfer in columns of bubbles, operating under industrial velocities
regime, indicated that predicted results have up to 20% difference when com-
pared with experimental data [86], when using a transient, Eulerian-Eulerian
model, with mass transfer between gas and liquid phases. Given the complexity
of the modeling used, it was considered that the applied methodology is ade-
quate for similar systems, such as those found in other wastewater treatment
processes.
Pareek et al. [102] applied CFD for the simulation of a pilot scale photo-
bioreactor (with a capacity of 18 L), with stirring promoted by the bubble in-
jection. They used a transient, three-phase approach, incorporating the KTGF
and k-epsilon models. The modeling used was one of the most complete consid-
ered until then, in which also were considered models for the light transmission,
which in turn interfered in the kinetics of biological reactions. The qualitative
adequacy of the model was quantified calculating the correlation coefficient ob-
tained between experimental and numerical values, which was equal to 0.974.
Gas-Lift
The injection of bubbles into the biodigester causes an increase in the agitation
of the system. In several configurations, the flow is separated in an ascend-
ing region, whose movement is favored by bubbles moving upwards, and a de-
scending region, in which the wastewateris recirculated inside the biodigester.
In these cases, there is an air-lift (or gas-lift) type system. van Baten et al. [137]
made several comparisons between experimental data and values predicted with

CFD for air-lift type reactors, considering the drag force as the only interfacial
force between the Eulerian phases, and modeling the turbulence in the liquid
phase according to the k-epsilon model. Good agreement was observed in gas
holdup and liquid velocity, in both the riser and downcomer regions. It was
pointed out, therefore, that the CFD model has potential to be applied as a tool
for scale-up purposes. A more careful evaluation of the models for simulation
of these systems, however, is needed when evaluating numerically the hydrody-
namics of a bioreactor in the air-lift configuration, as pointed by Luo and Al-
Dahhan [80]. Numerical results should be verified and validated against experi-
mental data. They evaluated two-dimensional and three-dimensional meshes, as
well as different turbulence and drag models, and the importance of considering
other interfacial forces (such as the turbulent dispersion and lift). For the evalu-
ated system, it was defined that a steady state, three-dimensional approach, with
the turbulence modeled using the standard k-epsilon, drag modeled according
to the Ishii-Zuber correlation, disregarding the lift force, and using the Lopez
de Bertodano model for the turbulent dispersion force, properly captures the
average flow field but considerably underestimates the turbulent kinetic energy.
However, the authors point out that this set of models, when evaluated under
different gas superficial velocities, showed much worse convergence for high
velocities (5 m/s) than for lower velocities.
An unconventional bioreactor configuration, which has many applications in
biological treatment of effluents, was studied using an Eulerian-Eulerian model-
ing to simulate the flow [121]. The turbulence was estimated using the k-epsilon
model, and the calculation of the flow was performed in hybrid meshes (hexa-
hedral and tetrahedral). The analysis of the residence time of tracers showed
good agreement with experimental data, indicating the adequacy of the method
in the prediction of the existing phenomena. The mixing time was also evalu-
ated: it decreased with the increase in the superficial velocity of the gas, pro-
moting greater mass transfer. This was also observed by Moraveji et al. [91],
who evaluated the effect of turbulence on the fluid dynamics of the bubbling
flow in a cylindrical air-lift type reactor with numerical simulations, in which
two-dimensional meshes were used, as well as the k-epsilon model for turbu-
lence. The enhancement of this study [90] considered a three-dimensional ap-
proach for the two-phase simulation of an air-lift type reactor with different
sizes and duct diameters to investigate their effect on gas hold-up and velocity.
In addition to the drag force, the lift and virtual mass forces were also con-
sidered, maintaining the k-epsilon model for turbulence. More precise results

were obtained in the three-dimensional approach, when compared to those ob-

tained with two-dimensional simulations. In this sense, the use of structured
meshes with refining in the riser region are also recommended. However, atten-
tion is drawn to the significant increase in computational time required to con-
duct three-dimensional simulations, which have a significantly greater amount
of control volumes.
Wadaugsorn et al. [141] evaluated numerically the hydrodynamics and mix-
ing in an internal air-lift loop, using a virtual tracer to visualize the results.
Among the observations found, it is mentioned that the dispersion number in-
creases with the gas superficial velocity, causing greater mixing. The increase
in the downcomer area decreases the dispersion number in the riser and thus
leads to a plug-flow behavior to the flow. On the other hand, the reactor scale-
up, maintaining geometric similarity, provided greater dispersion number, and
greater mixture, due to the reduction of wall effects. Results obtained from
simulations using the CFD technique can provide support for innovative de-
signs. Zhang et al. [163] proposed the use of an internal cone, intended to direct
the fluid flow in an air-lift. Thus, an increase in hold-up gas around 15% was
achieved, as well as a turbulent kinetic energy reduction around 7.8%, which
makes the project promising for stress-sensitive biological applications.
5.3. Mechanical Agitation

Mechanical agitation is the most efficient mixing method in terms of mixing in-
tensity per consumed unit power [151]. It is widely used in wastewater treatment
plants because it promotes the necessary contact between the organic material
and the microorganisms present. Several rules of thumb are commonly em-
ployed in agitated biodigesters design [89], with the following values suggested
in the literature [138]:
Digester volume turnover time = tank volume/pump capacity (0.5-1 h);
Hydraulic retention time = tank volume/sludge volume input rate (15-

30 d);
RSM velocity gradient = pump power/tank volume/sludge viscosity (50-

85 s1 );
Unit power = pump horsepower/tank volume/1000 (0.2-0.3 Hp/1000 ft3 );

Although useful, these rules provide only an estimate of the overall behavior
of the biodigester, without any details such as the location of high shear regions
or dead zones. For this purpose, CFD is a valuable technique. The modeling
of mechanical agitation in biodigesters usually involves dividing the biodigester
into two regions: a moving region around the shaft and impeller, in which mod-
ifications are applied in the model to consider the rotation of these parts, and a
static region, governed by the classical transport equations. Many of the stud-
ies present in literature consider single-phase flow. In this case, the choice of
first studying a simplified case (considering only one phase) is due to the at-
tempt to isolate the several existing phenomena before trying to validate more
complex situations. Until one can accurately predict single-phase flow, it will
be difficult to simulate more complex flows, such as gas-liquid, solid-liquid,
and gas-liquid-solid. Moreover, the turbulence models themselves, in the vast
majority of studies, are calibrated only for single-phase uses.
The influence of modeling on the predicted flow was studied by Aubin et al.
[12], who conducted single-phase simulations of a tank stirred with a 6-blade
turbine inclined at 45 , corresponding to a Reynolds number of 45,000. Differ-
ent turbulence models, the QUICK and higher upwind schemes were evaluated,
comparing the results obtained with the experimental values obtained using the
LDV technique. The choice of conducting simulations in a stationary or tran-
sient manner had little influence on the results, whereas the interpolation scheme
used is very important: first order schemes underestimated the experimental val-
ues, while the best agreement was obtained using the QUICK scheme. Kumare-
san et al. [63] presented numerical and experimental results for several types
of impellers, comparing the values measured with the LDA technique with the
predictions obtained with CFD. To conduct the numerical simulations, the k-
epsilon turbulence model was used, and the sliding mesh technique was used
to consider the impeller movement. The good agreement between experiments
and simulations, for the large number of cases evaluated, confirms the validity
of the CFD technique for the simulation of these cases.
Terashima et al. [135] adopted a three-dimensional, laminar and single-
phase model to quantify the mixture in an industrial scale anaerobic biodigester.
In its modeling, a non-Newtonian fluid was considered, with the pseudo-plastic
behavior determined by the amount of sludge present. Mixture in the biodi-
gester was promoted by a impeller installed inside a draft tube in the center of
the equipment. With the definition of a uniformity index, it was observed that
there was good agreement between this index and the sludge concentration in

the biodigester, indicating the validity of the use of this parameter. It should be
noted that the use of such index may obscure greater details of the flow, serving
only as a criterion of comparison for the overall behavior of the unit.
Meroney and Colorado [89] simulated numerically the mixing characteris-
tics of biodigesters with different diameters (13.7, 21.3, 30.5, and 33.5 meters),
stirred with one or more impellers. The presence of partial mixing, dead vol-
umes and plug-flow were investigated. Simulation results successfully predicted
the performance of circular tanks in both model and full scales. It was noticed
that the mixture in biodigesters can deviate from the ideal behavior (that pre-
dicted with the use of rules of thumb only) for several reasons, associated with
the positioning of the inlets, outlets, stratification, and tank geometry. Thus, in
order to capture these effects properly, the three-dimensional geometry of the
unit to be studied must be adopted.
Considering a multiphase modeling, Panneerselvam et al. [101] studied the
suspension of solids in a stirred tank containing three phases. The effects of the
impeller design, particle size and gas flow rate on the critical impeller veloc-
ity, in which the solids are only suspended, were evaluated. Simulations were
conducted using the k-epsilon model for turbulence, and the multiple reference
frames (MRF) technique to consider the impeller movement. The drag between
liquid and solids was modeled considering the Kolmogorov length scale. Two
types of impellers were simulated: radial (Rushton) and axial (pitched blade tur-
bine with downward pumping PBTD). The comparison of the results obtained
with literature data showed that, in some cases, there was agreement, while
others presented clearly different behavior. This demonstrates the difficulty to
predict cases of this nature, where even the constitution of models to quantify
the interactions between phases is a subject of intense research. Wang et al.
[146] used CFD for scale-up studies of a bioreactor, used in the production of
biohydrogen. In this study, the agitation was promoted by a impeller. Although
the two-phase model was not validated by the authors, it was observed that sev-
eral parameters need to be optimized in the reactor on an industrial scale, such
as velocity distribution and stagnation zones. Ding et al. [34] evaluated the
role of hydrodynamics in the production of biohydrogen in a stirred laboratory
scale fermenter with the objective of optimizing reactor design and impeller
configuration. Impellers of different types and velocities produce different flow
patterns, which interfere with the production of biohydrogen. The application
of the numerical technique allowed to estimate better operating conditions of
the fermenter, which should have more efficient production with an optimized

impeller design, operating between 50 and 70 RPM.

Zadghaffari et al. [161] used the LES approach to simulate the turbulent
flow in a tank stirred by a Rushton turbine. The mesh used had 971 thousand
elements, which allowed to solve scales between 0.3 and 4.2 mm, in the order
of magnitude of the Taylor scale for the equipment (which is 6 mm), but larger
than the Kolmogorov scale (50 m). Comparing literature data with both the
predicted flow field and parameters such as average components of velocity,
mixing time, turbulent kinetic energy, it was established that LES is a reliable
approach to investigate the dynamic behavior of agitated tanks, provided that
the computational capacity to solve the necessary scales is available. It should
be noted that the study considered a laboratory scale (the tank had both height
and diameter equal to 30 cm), and the simulation of industrial scale problems,
with a mesh suitable for LES, may become impracticable.
Wu [150] simulated the mixture in oval-shaped biodigesters, in which stir-
ring was promoted by a propellant inside a draft tube. Taking an approach that is
present in other works of the literature, the liquid phase was assumed to be both
a Newtonian (composed of water) and non-Newtonian fluid, with the viscosity
depending on the total amount of solids present in the wastewater. The quantita-
tive analysis of different mixing methods and different geometries of digesters
indicated that the use of a draft tube is more efficient than external pumping, and
that the oval shape promotes greater mixing when compared to the cylindrical
shape. Still, in general, the flow patterns of water and wastewater containing
solids were similar. The turbulence modeling was further evaluated for the sim-
ulation of wastewater agitation with non-Newtonian rheology in anaerobic di-
gesters, considering two types of axial impellers [152]. A single-phase approach
was adopted, in which gas production was neglected, and a pseudo-plastic rhe-
ology for the wastewater viscosity when the solids concentration is above 2.5%.
Among the six models evaluated, the realizable k-epsilon and standard k-omega
models were more adequate, and RSM was recommended for strong swirl flows.
Further simulations, considering the k-omega model, defined the optimal posi-
tioning of impellers in the tank in order to increase agitation. The design of a
modular pumping system, however, was evaluated through numerical simula-
tions considering the SST k-omega model for turbulence [130]. With this ap-
proach, it was possible to quantify the hydraulic efficiency of the system, before
it was even built.
Yu et al. [159] developed a mathematical model to study the flow field in
an anaerobic digester with the use of different impellers for high solids loading

(with 10% total solids). Good agreement between the numerical and experimen-
tal results was obtained, and the results indicate that the helical ribbon turbine
configuration is promising, as it proved to be suitable for the promotion of ag-
itation in biodigesters with high solids loading. In addition, it was noticed the
low shear caused by the turbine, which (it is hoped) should not compromise the
growth of biological cultures.
Nurtono et al. [97] evaluated the factors affecting biohydrogen production
in a stirred tank (with a capacity of 5 L) with a pitch blade turbine (PBT) im-
peller that had 6 blades inclined at 45 . Two-phase simulations (containing gas
and liquid) were conducted using the Eulerian and laminar approaches, with the
MRF model to consider the turbine rotation. It was observed that with faster tur-
bine rotation, there were higher maximum shear stresses and higher stresses at
the liquid surface, which could damage the microbial cells. On the other hand,
the greater rotation of the impeller promotes the transportation of the biogas
generated to the top of the fermenter, facilitating their separation and, thus, in-
creasing the biogas flow rate this was also observed experimentally. Thus, the
optimum operating condition was maintained at an intermediate rotation, equal
to 81 RPM for the conditions studied. However, other studies indicated that im-
peller rotation did not significantly affect the treatment process when evaluating
biogas production under certain conditions. Bridgeman [20] evaluated a labora-
tory scale biodigester with mechanical agitation, comparing the results obtained
from simulations with experimental data. For the conduction of the simulations,
five turbulence models were considered, and three approaches were used to sim-
ulate the impeller rotation. The non-Newtonian character of the wastewater was
also considered. Craig et al. [27] simulated an anaerobic digester for domes-
tic effluent treatment, using the Hershel Bulkleys law to model the wastewater
rheology. In the proposed configuration, an impeller located in the center of a
suction duct was considered. Corroborating the literature, it was found that the
rheology has great influence on the mixing patterns in the digester. Also, for the
wastewater type evaluated, the age of the sludge must also influence the torque
required to rotate the impeller.
Devi and Kumar [31] evaluated the effect of the gas superficial velocity on
the dynamics of a stirred bioreactor considering two types of impellers (Rushton
and CD-6). The two-phase approach and the k-epsilon turbulent model used to
predict the fields indicated that the magnitude of the velocity is greater with
the increase of the superficial velocity of liquid, being the optimum velocity
in the range of 0.0075 and 0.075 m/s. On the other hand, the efficiency of

the reactor, evaluated through the energy required to promote agitation, was
between 25% and 50% higher for the CD-6 turbine, in relation to the Rushton
turbine. Another turbine model, the self-induced turbine, which combines
both the mixing and diffusion of gas at the same time, was evaluated [2]. The
inner cavity of this turbine allows the gas to be introduced into the flow field
under the effect of depression caused by the rear of the turbine blades. For
the numerical evaluation, the VOF approach was used, and the turbulence was
modeled using the k-epsilon model. For this turbine model, it was observed
that as the blade inclination angle increases, the mass transfer coefficient (kLa )
decreases, and as the submersion increases, the kLa value decreases.
Nino-Navarro et al. [96] evaluated the influence of different impeller mod-
els on flow rates and on the production of biohydrogen in a pilot scale stirred
tank, through CFD simulations and experimental tests. For this operation, the
best configuration for biohydrogen production was obtained with the use of ax-
ial impellers (PB4), in contrast to the low productivity observed in the appli-
cation of radial impellers (Rushton). In this sense, to include microbiological
kinetics, Azargoshasb et al. [13] considered a three-phase system to conduct
simulations of an isothermal CSTR, stirred with a Rushton turbine at 100 RPM.
The model used incorporates effects of turbulence (according to the RNG k-
epsilon model), in a three-dimensional domain, containing 3 reactions coupled
to the fluid dynamics. The analysis of fatty acid concentration profiles indicated
a good agreement between numerical and experimental values. Results also
indicate an efficient degradation of fatty acids for the conditions evaluated.
Considering the intense stirring which may be present in biodigesters with
mechanical agitation, bubbles may be at least deformed, but also broken near
the impeller, and coalesced elsewhere. Thus, when evaluating flow properties
which depends on a precise estimation of the bubbles diameter, a population
balance model must be used. To this aim, there is a number of models based
on the quadrature of moments e.g. the conditional quadrature of moments
(CQMOM) [108]. Comparison with literature data shows that this model is
valid, both to capture the main characteristics of the system (distribution of
the mean Sauter diameter inside the tank) and to provide good agreement of
the oxygen concentration evolution over time, for different impeller rotations.
A population balance model was also considered in the studies by Bao et al.
[15, 16], which evaluated the behavior of a tank of 0.134 m3 stirred with 3
turbines. The modeling used also considered the k-epsilon model for turbulence
and MRF model for rotor movement. Multiphase (gas-liquid) simulations were

solved in a mesh containing 1.6 million control volumes, using a CFD code.
Experimental and numerical results indicated that, for lower liquid velocities,
the size of the impeller has no effect on the bubble distribution. For higher
velocities, however, the smallest impeller evaluated (D/T=0.30) resulted in a
higher amount of bubbles than the other sizes. In all cases, the Sauter diameter
remained unchanged. It was also observed that the energy consumption and
the gas holdup numerically predicted were in agreement with the experimental
values.
There are also studies of stirred biodigesters using CFD for the purpose of
energy optimization of the wastewater treatment process. In one of them, an
Eulerian-Lagrangian approach was considered to predict the movement of par-
ticles, adopting the k-epsilon model to consider the effects of turbulence [57].
The model was calculated in a transient way, in order to allow the analysis
of the evolution of the flow during the stop and restart of the system. Thus,
an intermittent operation regime was established with intercalated periods of
2 hours with pumps working, and 2 hours with pumps at rest, in which energy
was saved, maintaining the agitation in the system. A true optimization study
for this type of biodigester, however, applied the response surface methodology
(RSM), coupled with CFD techniques for the simulation of a stirred bioreactor
used in enzymatic production of hydrogen peroxide [3]. The evaluation of the
residence time distribution (RTD) showed a good agreement with experimental
data, which allowed to establish the optimum parameters of flow rate, concen-
tration and agitation for the operation of the bioreactor.
6. Fixed and Moving Bed Bioreactors

Reactors with moving beds include all systems with continuously moving me-
dia, whether by pneumatic, hydraulic or mechanical agitation. Moving beds
offer several advantages, such as the best control of the biofilm thickness, better
mass transfer, absence of clogging, and high surface areas. Among the configu-
rations of moving bed bioreactors, the upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB),
expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB) and fluidized bed reactors (FBR) are the
most used in the treatment of municipal and industrial effluents [24]. These
configurations are shown in Figure 5. In UASB reactors, bioparticles grow as
granules containing the microbial community, which are commonly associated
with methanogenic systems. However, most other moving bed bioreactors rely
on biofilms grown on the surface of carrier particles (bioparticles) which are

held suspended in the fluid in other words, fluidized. The fluidization regime
is maintained by the drag force associated with the upward movement of the
effluent. The maintenance of fluidized beds requires a control of the superficial
velocity of the effluent, which depends on the characteristics of the bioparti-
cle which, in turn, are altered as the microbial community evolves. Thus,
in addition to the difficulties related to the maintenance of healthy cultures, as
in other processes, there are also difficulties in maintaining the fluidized bed,
which makes this one of the most complex processes available for wastewa-
ter treatment. In these situations, numerical techniques have the advantage of
establishing precise values for the process parameters.
Figure 5. Different configurations of bed reactors: (a) UASB, (b) EGSB, (c)
FBR, and (d) fixed bed.
6.1. Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket

Developed in the 1980s, the upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor
has been the most widely used high-rate anaerobic bioreactor in the world for the
wastewater treatment. Its capacity depends on the amount of biomass retained,

as well as the contact between effluent and biomass. The performance of UASB
type reactors in terms of chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal and energy
efficiency is usually governed by two factors: microbiological processes and
hydrodynamics. Thus, the investigation of the fluid dynamics in these reactors
is very relevant. However, most studies focus on single and two-phase flows,
and information on the modeling of three-phase flows in UASB reactors is still
very limited.
UASB reactors can be simulated as a series of equal size CSTRs (ESC),
in which the number of CSTRs varies according to the distribution of the resi-
dence time along the UASB reactor. This approach assumes that the dispersion
coefficient does not vary along the different zones and heights of the reactor,
which does not happen in reality, as evidenced by experiments [132, 162]. Ren
et al. [119] successfully employed an increasing-sized CSTR (ISC) model to de-
scribe the hydrodynamics of a UASB reactor. In this type of model, the UASB
reactor is simulated as a series of CSTR reactors with gradually larger sizes, im-
plying that the dispersion coefficient gradually decreases along the axis of the
reactor and that its hydrodynamic behavior is basically governed by dispersion.
Results obtained with this approach were compared with simulations using a
CFD model, which was used to obtain the volume fractions of the phases and
flow patterns in the reactor. CFD simulations considered an Eulerian-Eulerian
approach, three-dimensional computational domain, three-phase transient flow.
The geometry and mesh of the reactor did not included the three-phase separa-
tor. The wastewater was assumed as a continuous phase, and the two dispersed
phases were the bubbles, related to gas production, and the sludge granules.
Due to the low gas holdup, bubbles were considered spherical, thus the Schiller-
Naumann model was used to estimate their drag. The Wen-Yu correlation was
used to model the drag between the solid and liquid phases, which was also
considered as spherical particles. The k-epsilon model was used to predict the
turbulent characteristics of the flow. It was observed that the volume fraction of
the sludge decreases along the height of the reactor, the mixture in the bioreac-
tor is discontinuous, and the stagnant/dead zones (regions with liquid superficial
velocity less than 5% of the mean velocity) occupied 10% of the total volume of
the reactor. The predicted results also suggest that the forces balance should be
related to the abrupt gas release mechanisms that occasionally occur. When the
forces between gas and sludge is unbalanced, gas is released from the sludge
bed. The comparison between results predicted using the CFD simulations and
those from the ISC model were similar, when evaluating dead zone fractions

and flow patterns. Lima et al. [71] adopted a similar model to evaluate a pilot
scale UASB reactor used for wastewater treatment. The simulations considered
a simplified geometry (disregarding the conic region of the reactor, inlet and
outlet ducts, and sample collector), with both a two dimensional calculation do-
main and half the reactor geometry (with symmetries). A three-phase system,
consisting of a continuous phase (wastewater) and two dispersed phases (bio-
gas and sludge), was modeled using the Eulerian framework using a stationary
approach. The k-epsilon model was used to account for the turbulence. The
Ishii-Zuber and Schiller-Naumann correlations were used to model the drag co-
efficient between gas and liquid phases, and the drag between solid and liquid
phases, respectively. The obtained results indicated that there was an increase in
the velocity of all phases in the region of the gas deflector, and showed the pres-
ence of internal recirculation. According to the analysis of the solids volume
fraction, particles were located deposited in the deflector.
Optimization of the design and steady-state operation of a real scale UASB
reactor was performed by Haugen et al. [53], for a unit to be built for dairy
cattle waste treatment. The processes optimization employed dynamic models
for the anaerobic processes, combined with the reactor temperature modeling
by thermal exchanges based on energy balances. The biological parameters
were obtained from experimental data from a pilot scale reactor operating with
the same residues to be used in the real scale reactor. The optimization was
obtained from the straight-forward brute force method.
6.2. Expanded Granular Sludge Bed

Although EGSB-type bioreactors have been used for many years in environmen-
tal technology applications, little research has been published on the modeling
of this type of bioreactor [145]. Among the few studies published, Wang et al.
[144] simulated an EGSB reactor, which was used for the production of bio-
hydrogen from wastewater. Their study considered a three-phase (gas-liquid-
solid) system according to the Eulerian-Eulerian approach, where each phase
was a different continuum, incompressible. In addition to the continuity and
motion equations, Schiller-Naumann and Wen-Yu correlations were used to ob-
tain the drag coefficients between the gas and liquid phases, and between the
solid and liquid phases, respectively. The lift force was also considered, and
the turbulence was modeled using the k-epsilon model. The simulations were
conducted in steady state, calculated on a two-dimensional mesh of the reaction

zone. The sludge was composed of spherical particles, and the inlet velocity was
defined to simulate different hydraulic retention time (HRT) conditions. The
results demonstrated that the heterogeneous characteristic of the three-phase
EGSB varies significantly in the simulations when different HRT is applied. At
lower speeds, the authors observed the formation of the core-annulus structure.
Furthermore, it was stated that integrating experimental hydrogen production
data with simulation results provides a qualitative relationship between hydro-
dynamic conditions and biohydrogen production, as the HRT is crucial for the
optimization of biohydrogen production. The completion of this study improved
the geometry used, considering the complete unit with its details at the base and
top [145]. However, they still used a two-dimensional mesh, and only half of
the reactor was simulated, due to the assumption of a symmetric flow. The
initial and boundary conditions were maintained, except for the solids volume
fraction, which was increased from 0.55 to 0.50. Both studies maintained the
normalized residuals of less than 103 as a convergence criterion. The main
differences between these studies were the inclusion of biological reactions, to
predict the conversion of glucose and biohydrogen production, and the conduc-
tion of transient simulations. Results show that the highest concentration of the
produced gas is located in the central region of the bioreactor, and therefore the
three-phase separator must be installed in this region to guarantee the process
efficiency (gas and effluent separation). It was also observed that part of the
produced biogas escapes near the wall of the bioreactor, which may be due to
the inclination angle of the three-phase separator. Bed expansion was not ana-
lyzed. Finally, the authors state that there is a qualitative relationship between
biohydrogen-production and hydrodynamics thus, controlling hydraulic reten-
tion time (HRT) is a key factor in biohydrogen-production.
6.3. Fluidized Bed Reactors

Fluidized bed reactors can be used to carry out a variety of processes. In this
type of treatment bioreactor, wastewater is passed through solid particles at high
enough velocities to suspend them. Hamidipour et al. [51] considered a three-
phase model to describe a fluidized bed reactor, incorporating the KTGF model,
and evaluating three different variations of the k-epsilon model. Since the focus
of the study was the turbulence modeling, it was found that better flow predic-
tions were obtained when discarding these turbulence models and adopting a
laminar formulation, which should take into account the viscosity of the solid

phase, as well as the molecular viscosities of the liquid and gas phases. How-
ever, it must be noted that there are better turbulence models than those evalu-
ated in this study [112]. As already observed by Wu [151], the k-epsilon model
and its variants were not adequate to simulate the turbulent flow of a biodigester,
when operating with certain conditions.
Yu et al. [160] simulated a biodigestor, predicting the particles suspension
and settling processes. CFD simulations considered a turbulent three-phase
flow (containing wastewater, biomass and biogas). The microbiological kinet-
ics were incorporated into the fluid dynamics, using the ADM1 model. The
KTGF model was applied to estimate the collisions among particles. The mod-
eling was validated with literature data for the residence time distribution, as
good agreement was observed between the experimental and numerical distribu-
tions predicted for the dispersed phases. Comparisons between results obtained
in three-dimensional and two-dimensional axisymmetric mesh indicate similar
flow patterns.
In their study, Ghatage et al. [47] applied computational fluid dynamics to
evaluate the transition of the solid-liquid flow from the homogeneous regime
(in which there is a uniform distribution of phases) to the heterogeneous regime
(with segregation, and presence of bubbles in the continuous phase), using a
two-phase modeling, testing the Eulerian and Lagrangian (DEM) approaches to
describe the motion of the particles. By comparison with experimental measure-
ments, it was observed that both approaches can be used to predict the transi-
tion from the homogeneous regime to the heterogeneous regime in solid-liquid
fluidized beds. The model can be extended to consider a third, gas phase. How-
ever, further comparisons are still needed to achieve a better understanding of
the mechanisms responsible for regime transition. Han et al. [52] also adopted
the discrete element method (DEM) to calculate the motion of particles in a
liquid-solid circulating fluidized bed. In DEM, as in the Lagrangian approach,
the balance of forces is performed from the perspective of each particle par-
cel, to determine its position in the next instant. However, instead of consider-
ing point particles, in the DEM approach the particles have shape and volume,
which makes the predictions more precise, at the cost of requiring more calcu-
lations. The comparison of experimental values of the onset velocity with those
obtained from transient simulations, considering the presence of up to 10,000
particles, showed deviations between 0.6 and 2.1%.

6.4. Fixed Bed Reactors

In contrast to mobile bed processes, fixed-bed bioreactors utilize a bed with im-
mobile particles, through which liquid and gas feeds can flow. The modeling of
this kind of process is intrinsically multiphasic, and its simulation is challeng-
ing. Lopes and Quinta-Ferreira [74] adopted an Eulerian-Eulerian approach to
describe the phases movement in a bioreactor used to reduce phenolic acids,
from sources such as food and agro industries, as well as chemical companies.
Considering the flow with velocities of up to 0.5 cm/s and 0.005 cm/s for the
gas and liquid phases, respectively, and dominance of wall effects, the k-epsilon
model was used to model the turbulence. The comparison with experimental
data of pressure drop and liquid holdup indicated the validity of the proposed
modeling, which was also used for the evaluation of different operating con-
ditions. The axial and radial profiles were later evaluated in another packing
configuration [75], which was compared with experimental data from a pilot
scale unit. Analysis of different operating conditions indicated that the models
used were able to capture the backmixing phenomenon. When evaluating dif-
ferent temperatures, the Eulerian model was able to predict more accurately the
total organic carbon (TOC) removal efficiency at higher temperatures.
Two strategies for the calculation of the multiphase movement of the same
reactor were also compared [76]: the Eulerian-Eulerian approach, and the VOF
approach. A previous justification against the use of the VOF approach for
this system was the high cost required by the models needed to calculate the
interface between the phases. Although no comparison was made regarding
the time required to conduct the simulations considering each approach, bet-
ter agreement between experimental and simulated values were obtained with
the Eulerian approach, whose formulation considers terms of transfer between
phases. In spite of this, Lopes et al. [78] extended the VOF approach, used in
their previous study. The evaluation of the mesh refinement indicated that this
approach requires the use of at least 2.2 million volumes to capture accurately
the phenomena present in the evaluated operational conditions. A good quali-
tative agreement was found when comparing total organic carbon conversion at
different temperatures. The VOF approach was still used to study the reduction
of phenols in wastewaters treated using trickle bed reactors [77]. Parameters
such as liquid velocity, surface tension and wetting phenomenon affected the
overall performance of the reactor. Authors also emphasized the importance of
the application of relaxation factors, mesh density, and time step size, which

have a great role to obtain predictions comparable to the experimental values.
6.5. Biological Filters

Biological filters, which also have a fixed bed composed of sand particles, are a
simple system used for the wastewater treatment involving a number of physical,
chemical and biological processes. Their modeling can be done using different
numerical techniques. Qi et al. [114] conducted simulations with the tanks in
series, longitudinal dispersion, compartmental, and CFD approaches, for which
a porous media region was defined to model the flow through the bed of fixed
particles. Experiments characterized the behavior of the process through resi-
dence time distribution (RTD), which together with the results predicted in sim-
ulations, showed that the free surface and the bearing layer have the functions
of collecting and distributing water, respectively. The free surface showed little
influence on the flow pattern. Furthermore, the variation in the packing particles
diameter also showed no influence on the flow pattern.
Alnnasouri et al. [7] also used computational fluid dynamics to evaluate the
performance of a biological filter, considering the effect of different reliefs for
the discs on which the biofilm should develop. Different rotations were also
simulated, considering laminar flow at the lowest rotations, and modeling the
turbulence according to the k-omega model in higher rotations. It was experi-
mentally observed that the biofilm remained adhered to the grooves. The results
predicted in simulations showed that the stresses on the walls were smaller than
on the surface of the discs thus, the walls may have an important role in seed-
ing and regrowth of biofilm layers.
7. Membrane Bioreactors
The application of membranes of the most diverse types to assist the separation
of phases in bioreactors defines the membrane bioreactors (MBRs). They can
be described as a combination of aerobic and anaerobic processes of suspended
growth with membrane separation technologies. The superiority in terms of fi-
nal effluent quality associated with its robustness and small footprint when com-
pared to other existing technologies are recognized advantages of this treatment
technology [56, 59].
In addition to solving problems of solid-liquid separation, MBRs today play
an important role in the recycling and reuse of wastewater due to the high quality

of the effluent produced [11]. The optimization of MBRs requires knowledge

of the membrane fouling, mixing and biokinetics. MBRs are designed mainly
based on the biokinetic and membrane fouling considerations, even though the
hydrodynamics within an MBR system is of critical importance to the perfor-
mance of the system.
CFD techniques can assist in predicting how the dimensions, shape and ves-
sel features interfere with the hydrodynamics of the bioreactor, and thus in its
efficiency. CFD is an established and applicable technique for the deeper analy-
sis of the relationship between fouling and fluid dynamics [17]. The complexity
of the interacting phenomena makes the commercial CFD programs based on
the Finite Volume Method, like FLUENT or CFX, the most used tools for the
evaluation of turbulence effects, fouling and multiphase flow on process per-
formance [17]. Other software options include OpenFOAM, Star-CCM+ and
Comsol.
Most of the energy consumption in MBR comes from scouring aeration for
membrane fouling prevention and amelioration. Thus, a large part of the mod-
eling and simulation efforts focused on the optimization of this process. The
efficiency of bubble scouring depends largely on the geometry of the membrane
tank, as it directly affects the hydrodynamics of the tank [17, 46]. Brannock
et al. [19] developed a CFD model which focused on the aeration and different
configurations of the membrane module (internal and external). It was observed
that aeration was the main mixing mechanism, as expected. The position of
reactor elements, such as the inlet, can assist in obtaining a hydraulic regime
closer to the complete mixing, as well as avoiding the formation of hydraulic
short circuiting and reduce the presence of dead zones.
Studies related to CFD and fouling in MBR can be grouped into two classes
which differ in topics, numerical models used and observed space and time
scales [17]: (i) investigations of local flow phenomena in the proximity of the
membrane were often performed with the volume of fluid (VOF) method to
capture the multiphase flow. In this case, single bubbles were resolved directly
as well as the membrane surface in order to determine, for example, the effect of
geometrical and/or operational parameters on the shear stress on the membrane,
which was identified as the most important parameter for fouling mitigation; (ii)
investigations where the overall flow throughout the MBR is of interest. Due to
the large geometrical scales, the multiphase flow is typically simulated using the
Eulerian-Eulerian model. Especially in cases of three-dimensional simulations
the membrane modules are often modeled as a porous region and not resolved

directly. The focus of these investigations is typically the impact of geometrical

variations or operational parameters on the distribution of the gas phase and the
crossflow velocity inside the membrane module. Therefore, the orientation and
the position of the membranes, the location of the aerators and the dimensions
of the reactors can be explored.
Buetehorn et al. [22] simulated the application of submerged hollow fiber
membrane filtration units in MBRs. The authors focused on the optimization
of the aeration process of the modules. For submerged flat-sheet configura-
tions, Ndinisa et al. [94] investigated the impact of baffles mounted between the
membrane sheets on the distribution of air and wall shear stress in the system.
The use of baffles results in a higher degree of confinement of the flow chan-
nel, which promotes slug flow conditions. Moreover, an increase in the aeration
rate, bubble size or number of baffles led to an increase in average shear stress.
Dasilva et al. [29] investigated the impact of fiber arrangement on the overall
flow pattern for both square and triangular fiber arrays. It was found that the
friction factor decreases significantly as the flow boundary layer separates form
the fiber surface.
Taha and Cui [134] modeled the movement of bubbles through a tubular
membrane in ultrafiltration processes, injecting gas to create a gas-liquid two-
phase crossflow slug flow using the volume of fluid (VOF) method for the nu-
merical study. The results showed a significant increase in the permeate flux
and an improvement the membrane rejection characteristics. It has been shown
that controlled pulse injection to generate slug flow is more advantageous than
uncontrolled gas sparging, especially when the gas flow rate is low.
Wei et al. [147] used the VOF method with a three-dimensional approach
to simulate the intermittent slug bubbling through the periodic introduction of
large bubbles in an industrial flat sheet MBR membrane, which is an effective
strategy to control fouling in MBRs. Yan et al. [157] simulated a bench-scale
MBR by computational fluid dynamics in two different configurations of the
membrane tank (baffled and unbaffled), showing that the shear stress on the
membrane surface could be elevated by 74% if the membrane was sandwiched
between two baffles (baffled MBR), compared with that without baffles (unbaf-
fled MBR).
Saalbach and Hunze [124] used CFD and velocity measurements to study
the MBR filtration stage. Drews et al. [35] simulated different configurations
for air scouring experimentally and numerically. Ahmed et al. [4] used the com-
mercial code Fluent, associated with experimental work, to investigate a tubular

membrane channel containing a set of baffles. The observed flux enhancement

by the authors could be attributed to the intense fluctuations of wall velocity and
shear stress due to the presence of baffle, which can disrupt the growth of the
boundary layer on the membrane surface.
Bohm et al. [17] cite as essential limitations in flow modeling in MBRs the
following:
The properties of the real liquid are not completely mapped. Usually
only the rheological behavior of the non-Newtonian liquid is specified.
Interactions with and between particles, filaments or flocculation are not
considered;
For VOF simulations of directly resolved bubbles there is currently no

model available to describe the coalescence or break up in a realistic man-
ner;
In the case of Eulerian-Eulerian simulations, a constant and uniform bub-

ble diameter is commonly used. This is caused by the huge numerical ef-
fort for simulations with multiple bubble diameters and the lack of models
that accurately describe coalescence and break up;
Membranes were regarded as having a fixed geometry. Swaying of mem-

brane fibers or oscillation of membrane panels is typically neglected;
The interaction between flow and biology (e.g. shear stress and EPS re-
lease) is not taken into account.
Buetehorn et al. [22] also comment as limitations: (i) the occurrence of

highly transient multiphase flows, (ii) the complex module configurations with
interacting with the flow, and (iii) the opacity of the biological suspension. Also,
it is shown that the CFD model overestimates the experimental results of shear
stress measurements for high gas flow rates, which was attributed to an insuffi-
cient turbulence modeling [94].
Despite the increase in the use of CFD for hydrodynamic simulations of
MBRs and the difficulties cited, the low interaction between fluid mechanics
and the microbiological and physico-chemical reactions occurring within a re-
actor requires special attention. Such interaction is essential for the real under-
standing of the phenomena that occur during the treatment, as the process is

essentially biological, and then, it presents a dynamic and sensitive character to

factors internal and external to the reactor.
Due to the complexity of the modeling and simulations performed, the ma-
jority of works involving CFD and MBRs consider a generic mixed liquor, com-
posed mostly by aerobic activated sludge with characteristics similar to those
observed in trawling systems, not specifying the wastewater being treated or
avoiding characterization. The physical properties of the wastewater being con-
sidered should be explored, in order to enable better predictions in future re-
search.
Conclusion
As shown in the Introduction, and reinforced throughout the review presented
here, computational fluid dynamics techniques have been applied to the study
of the most diverse processes for wastewater treatment. One justification for its
use is the fact that this technique is able to provide more accurate and complete
results when compared to the use of empirical methods that are still currently
used. However, CFD simulations requires more time compared to traditional
methods, since empirical and semi-empirical models provide predictions much
more quickly, in the order of seconds.
CFD calculations require extra time from the beginning, when preparing the
simulations, which requires knowledge about both the physics of the problem,
the applied models, as well as the numerical methods. Time is also needed for
the meshes generation and analysis, definition of the modeling to be used, as
well as to conduct the calculations themselves, which can take from hours to
months depending on the size and complexity of the problem, and the compu-
tational capacity available. The high computational requirement may limit the
choice of models, which need to be simplified in order to solve the problem.
This was visible throughout the review, in which it was observed that:
Not all papers published in the literature present an estimate of the error
associated with the meshes used. In fact, not all the published studies
even mention whether some mesh independence evaluation was carried
out, thus there is no guarantee that all the results presented are really
accurate;
Geometry simplifications are used. A large number of studies employs
two-dimensional meshes, disregarding any three-dimensional effect that

may affect the fluid dynamics. The use of symmetry planes, which are a
milder simplification, can be a reasonable intermediate step in the direc-
tion of using a complete three-dimensional geometry;
Most of the simulations consider the simpler models, such as k-epsilon,

to model turbulence, rarely justifying its use. On the other hand, studies
dedicated to the evaluation of turbulence modeling in treatment processes
sometimes indicate that other models, such as SST k-omega and Reynolds
Stress Model, produce better results;
Despite the multiphase character of biological processes, occasionally

simplifications are made in order to suppress the calculation of trans-
port equations for all phases, especially in solid dilute systems, thus sav-
ing computational resources. Such simplification is justified since, under
these conditions, the dispersed phase behaves analogous to that of the
mixing phase, provided that such phase has its rheology corrected due
to the incorporation of solids. However, some configurations of bioreac-
tors, such as UASB, are designed to operate with three phases. In spite of
the reactor configuration, all phases need to be modeled if reactions are
considered;
Recent studies begin to incorporate biological kinetics to the process fluid

dynamics, but there are still studies that disregards the presence of kinet-
ics. Such studies are relevant because they indicate flow structures as
preferential paths and presence of dead zones, but such results must be
considered as preliminary, since important phenomena, capable of also
changing the fluid dynamics being analyzed, were discarded of the prob-
lem.
It can be seen that there is still possible to improve the methods used. The
choice of models must be done on a case-by-case basis and, as a rule, numerical
predictions must be accompanied by validation, comparing them with exper-
imental data, as different phenomena require different models. For example,
agitated biodigesters present turbulent scales significantly distinct from those
present in ponds, thus their modeling may also be more accurate with different
models. Moreover, to evaluate the validity of the models used, studies using
CFD should provide details on the procedures necessary to reproduce the cases
presented.

Thus, it can be ensured that numerical techniques such as CFD actually ful-
fill the expectation of providing reliable results to be used to address the major
problems encountered in the effluent treatment industry, such as (i) obtaining
greater knowledge about the processes under study, which includes not only
the definition of flow patterns, but also to determine both adequate mathemat-
ical models and parameters of difficult experimental measurement; (ii) estab-
lishment of optimal operating conditions, for example to maximize efficiency
and/or minimize energy and input consumption; (iii) scale-up studies, for which
rules of similarity may not be sufficient; and (iv) projects of new units, either
through the numerical evaluation of some project before its implementation, or
even with the proposal of innovative ways to treat effluents. In fact, papers cov-
ering all these applications have already been included in this review, and an
increasing amount should be published every year. Currently, CFD has proven
to be a powerful technique for predicting hydrodynamics and flow patterns in
bioreactors.
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Chapter 4
INDUSTRIAL SYMBIOSIS:
A SUSTAINABLE APPROACH FOR
TERRITORIAL DEVELOPMENT THROUGH
THE REUSE OF BIOMASS
G. Vinci*, M. Musarra, A. Esposito and F. DAscenzo

Sapienza University of Rome, Department of Management, Rome, Italy
ABSTRACT
The worldwide demand of raw materials is facing an exponential
increase since the economic boom registered in the second post-war
scenario. The energy and the manufacturing industries are strictly
dependent on the employment of non-renewable resources in the
transformation and production processes, by contributing to the
improvement of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere and to the
loss of natural capital. With the aim of increasing the environmental
preservation in terms of biodiversity and raw materials access, this study
contributes to examine the benefits of the circular economy approach for
the promotion of industrial symbiosis practices, based on the horizontal
collaboration and cooperation. According to this approach, the waste of
one company can become secondary raw materials for other companies
operating in the same or even in different sectors, by implementing
territorial integration and networks in the industrial system.
*
Corresponding author: giuliana.vinci@uniroma1.it.

142 G. Vinci, M. Musarra, A. Esposito et al.
1. INTRODUCTION
From the beginning of the 70s, the relationship and the interconnection
between economy, environment and wellbeing has become more
preponderant, especially for human activities and their effects on natural
environment. The economic worldwide organization and productive system
are based on the neoclassical linear approach, in which the intrinsic value of
productive capital is dependent only on manufactured capital and does not
account the environment safety, enhancing the weak sustainability vision
(Pelenc and Ballet, 2015). According to this vision, the production cycle forces
the economic chain in the same stages: mining, production, consumption and
disposal.
Differently the circular economy approach, proposed as a sustainable
alternative to our current linear economic system (Singh and Ordoez, 2016),
is a model in which the production activities are connected and organised to
optimise the resources employed in the processes. The added value in this
approach is related to the waste: the waste of some economic actors become
resources for other stakeholders. This system is more virtuous compared to the
linear economy approach, because it is based on the preferable usage of
renewable resources and on the importance of sharing information among the
different economic agents. Innovation and ecological design of final products
are the other two variables that contribute to the enforcement of this system.
The circular economy concept is strictly linked to the industrial symbiosis
model: symbiosis is a biological term referring to a close, sustained
coexistence of two species or kinds of organisms (Encyclopedia Britannica,
1992), and in the 20th century, the symbiosis in natural systems was adopted as
an analogy for understanding how industries interact (Lowe and Evans, 1995;
Harper and Graedel, 2004; Korhonen, 2004). This model used for the first time
by Valdemar Christensen in 1989 to describe the Kalundborg eco-industrial
park (Zhaohua W. et al., 2010), is based on the collaboration between firms in
different sectors with the aim of sharing economic and social capital in order
to optimize resources and costs. The benefit of this model is the integration of
the three dimensions of sustainable development (environmental, economic
and social) for the strategic management of the companies factors of
production.
Through the establishment of national policies, which support the
exchange of raw materials, energy, know-how, infrastructures and services,
the creation of added value in terms of production efficiency and

Industrial Symbiosis 143
environmental performances enhancement are achieved, as shown in Figure

1.1.
The direct effects of the industrial symbiosis model are the combined
profit maximization by internalizing the respective externalities for the
considered companies, and the sustainable use of resources for the entire
society through the reintegration of the biomass in the production system.
The aim of this study is to analyze the benefits derived from the functional
interdependence of companies that operate in the Italian manufacturing
industry, where the secondary raw materials and waste become new resources
in the collaborative system.
The methodology we use is based on the quantitative analysis of two
different scenarios (both before and after the companies cooperation), which
take into consideration five variables: the spatial geography, for better
understanding the territorial industrial development in Italy; the economic
benefits derived from the implementation of this industrial symbiosis model;
the environmental impact strictly related to the reuse of waste materials; the
role of social networking as exchange of information for facilitating the
promotion of the industrial symbiosis model; the legislation aspect as an
instrument for incentivizing the collaboration between public and private
sector.
(Source: Ren et al., 2016)
Figure 1.1. Comparison between a linear system and a circular system.

The expected results deal with the evaluation of the benefits derived from
the implementation of the reuse of biomass according to an integrated
collaborative model, for the promotion of a combined system that support the
sustainable development at local and regional level, with specific attention for
the preservation of natural capital.
2. BIOMASS
Accordingly, the European Commission and the Directive 2009/28/EC,
amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC
regarding the promotion of renewable sources, the Article. 2, letter e), define
the biomass as "the biodegradable fraction of products, waste and residues
from biological origin from agriculture (including vegetal and animal
substances), forestry and related industries including fisheries and
aquaculture, the cutting and pruning from the public and private green, as
well as the biodegradable fraction of industrial and municipal waste".
More generally, a biomass is considered as any organic and decomposable
material from vegetable or animal composition following a biological life
cycle. The biomass can be used as energetic commodity, by converting the
chemical energy present in the substances in heat, electricity or biofuels.
Depending on the processing technology and the energy produced, it is
possible to distinguish different types of biomass: solid (firewood, pellets,
chips, agro-industrial residues and organic fraction of municipal solid waste
wood and agricultural crops and residues, animal dung, herbaceous and woody
energy crops, municipal organic wastes as well as manure.); liquid (biodiesel
produced from oilseeds and exhausted vegetable oils); gaseous (biogas
produced from livestock waste, agro-industrial residues and organic fraction of
municipal solid waste) (Gracceva e Contaldi, 2004).
The biomass can also be differentiated accordingly to its derivation:
the biomass categorised as primary production is related to the

cultivation of specific crops (oleaginous, starchy, and short rotation
woody crops) (McKendry, 2002) used for the production of liquid or
gas biofuels and/or for the production of electricity and heat.
the biomass categorised as waste derives from different production
activities (agriculture, forestry, agro-food industry) self-produced in
companies or any commercial activity, used as a new commodity in a

new productive cycle. The biomass from residues own an added

value, becoming a new resource.
Another important differentiation could be related to the conversion

processes needed for the transformation of the biomass in energy resources:
Thermochemical processes, based on the use of heat that triggers the

reactions necessary to convert the chemical energy into thermal
energy, used for heating purposes or to generate electricity. The most
used biomass for these conversions is cellulosic and wood waste,
more precisely wood and derivatives (i.e., sawdust, shavings); lingo-
cellulosic crops (i.e., cereal straw, pruning residues of vines and fruit);
certain processing waste (i.e., chaff, husks, kernels). This biomass
must have the percentage of humidity equal or lower than 30%, and
the carbon-nitrogen ratio (C/N) higher than 30 (Table 1). The
thermochemical processes can also be divided into direct combustion,
carbonization, gasification, and pyrolysis.
Biochemical processes, based on the chemical reaction action of
enzymes, fungi or micro-organisms developed in the biomass under
defined conditions, for the generation of electricity or for heating
purposes. The most used biomass for these conversions are some
cultivation by-products (i.e., leaves and stems beet, vegetables,
potatoes); livestock waste; some processing waste (i.e., stillage,
vegetation water); the heterogeneous biomass stored in controlled
dumps; aqua cultures. This biomass must contain a percentage of
humidity at the harvest phase higher than 30% and the carbon-
nitrogen ratio (C/N) lower than 30 (Table 1). The biochemical
processes can be divided into anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion,
alcoholic fermentation, oils esterification.
Table 1. Biomass composition
General characteristics Process

U < 50%; C/N > 30 Thermochemical
U > 50%; C/N < 30 Biochemical
Recent studies (Price, 1998; Bandaru et al., 2017; Hu et al., 2017)

demonstrate that the use of waste biomass for energy purposes does not
contribute to the dangerous phenomenon of the greenhouse gas effect (GHGs);

mainly because the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) released during the
decomposition and the conversion process is equivalent to the amount
absorbed during the growth process. Furthermore, the output derived from the
biomass conversion process is rather different from the fossil fuels
transformation for the energy purposes, especially because in the biomass the
CO2 absorbed during the life cycle and emitted during the transformation
process is equivalent, while in the combustion of fossil fuels, the carbon
emissions in the atmosphere include the amount deposited in the deep terrain
(Wang, 2002).
Another important characteristic of the biomass is the energy storage.
These resources can be stored easily and used when needed by power grid
operators or by the plant owner, increasing the energy grid management and
regulating both the biomass quantity and the energy production needed for the
supply. The necessity of balancing production and use of energy is relevant on
wide temporal variation and scale requirements. Bioenergy can be used as a
climate friendly option to store energy and to make grid operation steadier on
system level.
2.1. Biomass and Environment: World Situation
The biomass contributes to supply the 10% (50 exajoule) of the total
energy demand worldwide, and in 2015, 482 terawatt hours of electricity was
produced globally from biomass. The employment and the consumption varies
geographically according to the type of process used for the energy
production.
In the American continent, USA and Brazil are the leaders in the
production of biofuels from corn ethanol and sugarcane ethanol respectively,
with a total production in 2012 equal to 79 billion litres (WBA (2014) Global
Bioenergy Statistics).
In Europe (EU) the biomass is employed mainly for energy production,
both heat and electricity predominantly produced from forestry products and
residues in cogeneration plants (80%).
Differently in Asia and Africa fuel, wood and charcoal are the most used
resources, by considering that a significant part of the population do not have
access to the electricity grid, but biogas and decentralised bioenergy systems
are increasing.
Biomass is often defined as low-fuel carbon content or carbon neutral,
indicating that burning biomass does not contribute to climate change. In fact,

plants burning biomass emit 150% more CO2 from fossil fuels and 300-400%
more than natural gas per unit of energy produced. Currently, the plants that
burn biomass produce more greenhouse gas emissions than the plants that use
fossil fuels: 65% more CO2 per Megawatt hours and 285% more CO2 plants
that use natural gas.
Burning wood biomass produces more quantities of air pollution than
burning traditional fossil fuels (particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, carbon
monoxide, sulphur dioxide, lead, mercury, and other hazardous air pollutants)
which can have dangerous effects on human health (International Energy
Agency, 2016).
Biomass fuel derived from waste materials is expected to decay
eventually, emitting carbon dioxide in the process: it is argued that burning
them to generate energy will emit the same amount of carbon as if they were
left to decompose. This claim only works if the time element is ignored, and if
there is actually enough waste to power the proposed facilities. This process
takes years and even decades for tree-tops and branches to decompose on the
forest floor, and during that process, a portion of that decomposing carbon is
incorporated into new soil carbon. In contrast, burning the biomass, the carbon
stored in this wood is released into the atmosphere instantaneously. There is a
difference of many years, and even decades, between the immediate emissions
from burning residues, and the slow evolution of carbon from natural
decomposition (Ren et al. 2011). So the question is, how can a form of energy
that dramatically accelerates the release of CO2 into the atmosphere be
considered carbon neutral? The answer is that it cannot be, unless critical
factors like time are ignored. In order to find a solution for the pollution
released in the atmosphere by transforming the biomass into energy, the
international community is trying to adopt stringent actions to reduce the
global environmental impact through agreements that since 1989, with the first
United Nations General Assembly and the adoption of the first resolution
(number 44/228), defined the beginning of the sustainable development path.
In the Conferences that followed, the international community focused the
attention on rigorous measures needed to prevent natural capital degradation
and natural resources and biodiversity loss, enhancing the cooperation between
countries in order to actuate actions for climate change adaptation and
mitigation plans (Fischer, 2008).
The most recent agreement that defines tangible actions for keeping the
global temperature at 1.5C above the pre-industrial level is the Paris
Agreement. Signed by 192 countries, the document establishes some
principles for leading a global transformation regarding the global economic

vision, such as a more cooperative vision in the definition of world energy

policies, financial mechanisms for promoting research and development and
the promotion of cooperative actions in manufacturing regions in order to
reduce the wastes derived from production and reuse the raw materials at local
level. The reutilisation of the residues derived from the industrial production
will promote the decarbonisation of the economic activities, in particular, the
biomass from waste is considered as a secondary raw material that can be
reapplied in different sectors (Gerber Van Doren et al., 2017). The promotion
of sharing activities will allow some specific companies operating in same or
different sectors to achieve some important results in terms of costs and
materials reduction and emissions released in the environment.
2.2. Environment and Circular Economy: European Policy
Since 1970 an acceleration in the consumption of materials derived from

natural resources has been registered worldwide. The extraction per capita
increased from 7 to 10 tonnes in the last 40 years (IEA, 2016). This rate
indicates an increasing demand of materials, as shown in Figure 2.1, but also
underlines the necessity to adopt specific measures to support the reuse of
materials, obey to environmental and safety standards and improve quality and
lifespan of the final products.
In this framework, raw materials assume a pivotal role in the EU industry
mainly for the effort to preserve natural capital reserves and define structured
policies for an aware resource management approach, especially because the
EU companies are highly dependent on the import of raw materials (De Haan,
J. et al. 2013).
This raising demand, represented in Figure 2.2, is urging the availability
of commodities and the security of the supplies for the economies dependent
on the import (such as EU), and the volatility related to the request of raw
materials also connected to two different elements:
the inelasticity of supply, being these materials limited;

the gap between investment decisions and up-to-speed production of
raw materials.

(source: IEA)
Figure 2.1. Electricity generation from biomass.
The EU economy is dependent on the import for certain metals, minerals

and natural rubber, and the export restriction policies, as well as geographical
concentration of commodities, lead the economy to unexpected price hikes
(Esarey, J. and Sumner, J. L. 2015). The solution to this uncertainty is the
recycling process of materials.
(Source: European Commission)
Figure 2.2. Domestic material consumption per region (1950-2010).

For instance, EU and Asia-Pacific region need to approve recycling

initiatives because in those territories there is a lack of materials that provokes
a gap between demand and supply, obliging the regions to rely the internal
production on large imports. In the EU, the European Commission (EC)
promotes the implementation of policies to reduce the use of non-renewable
natural resources and the management of materials, in order to support long-
term action plans for the horizontalisation of the economic sectors. (P.
Menanteau, et al. 2003).
The long recession started in 2008 and the scarce growth of the EU gross
domestic product (GDP) in 2015 (World Economic Situation and Prospects,
2015) underlined the importance of fostering growth and competitiveness to
sustain and strengthen recovery of materials and to achieve the economic
expected expansion growth rate. In particular, an active role is played by the
manufacturing industry that accounts for over 80% of the export and 80% of
private sector innovation. The main challenge for the EU market is the
creation of added value for enterprises and production, to revitalise the internal
economy through the reduction of input costs, the efficiency in business
processes and the promotion of a more sustainable growth approach. The
regulatory framework should ensure the integration of the economic sectors to
redefine the value chains, enhance the resource efficiency and the resource
management, and reshape the division of labour in accordance with the vision
of a new life cycle of products.
To contribute to this plan, the EC promotes two different programmes,
COSME and Horizon 2020, to lead the financing capacity of public sector
funds with equity investments for companies and, at the same time, to improve
the efficiency in the different production phases, from the transformation of
raw materials to the final disposal of products. Following this approach, the
programmes try to define a EU-wide secondary raw materials inventory
methodology that helps to estimate the stock and flows of raw materials in the
economy, the recycling advantages of waste electronic products, and the
recycling of building materials by promoting policies related to a more
sustainable economic growth. Industrial competitiveness and energy efficiency
remain also the main objective of EU strategy to achieve the climate and
energy targets set for the 2020 Strategy (A.C. Marques & J.A. Fuinhas, 2012).
In order to be more competitive the EU should deal with a number of
challenges along the entire raw materials value chain, from sustainable
exploration, extraction, processing, recycling and after mining activities, to
secure a sustainable access to non-energy, non-agricultural raw materials used
for industrial purposes.

The mechanism proposes to reduce the market barriers in specific areas to

speed the recycling process and integrate the phases in the life cycle of a
product, from production and consumption to waste management and the
development of a specific market for secondary raw materials such as plastic,
food waste, critical raw materials, construction and demolition, biomass and
bio-based products. According to the EC, waste prevention, eco-design, re-use
and similar measures could bring net savings of 600 billion for business in
the European countries (European Commission, 2016), and in the meantime
these measures could contribute to reduce the GHGs by 2-4%. Furthermore,
this approach to a new economic vision can create competitive advantages for
the European Member States (EMS), by providing protection for humans and
environment, increasing monetary savings and quality of life (C. Fischer and
R.G. Newell, 2008).
3. CASE STUDY: INDUSTRIAL SYMBIOSIS AS PATH FOR

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The productivity in Italy achieved important results during the second
post-war period, going beyond the OECD average, and then turning into
stagnant and deteriorating rapidly since the mid-1990s. The main reason why
the country faces this instability is related to the factor productivity
(measurement of the efficiency with which inputs are used in the economy),
and the quality of capital and labour inputs, as shown in Figure 3.1.
These variables contribute to increase the gap between the different
sectors in the Italian economy, contributing to an inconsistent productivity
rate, especially registered in the manufacturing sector. The decline of the
productivity growth rate has been defined by the EC as the main factor
responsible of the delay of aggregate productivity over the last two decades,
while a positive signal in this direction has given by the reallocation of
resources between sectors (Daveri, Antonecchia, 2015).
The economic environment in Italy is represented by medium and small
companies operating mainly in the manufacturing sector. One aspect that
precludes the economic growth in the country is the bad allocation of
resources and the miscollaboration between companies operating in the same
territory: the Total-Factor Productivity growth depends on the efficient share
of production factors (input) and on the reallocation of resources (output). If
input and output resulted from the most efficient process of production it

would be achieved the perfect allocation of factor productivity in revenue

terms across firms in the same territory. Figure 3.2 represents the trend from
1995 to 2013 related to the inefficient allocation of resources in the
manufacturing sectors of the firms and it is possible to observe its rapid
increase before the economic crisis (2008). The effect is a direct connection
between misallocation of resources and productivity: by augmenting the
perfect allocation of primary and secondary natural resources, the total factor
productivity increases, otherwise it decreases. Moreover, the allocation of
resources and materials is steadly connected to geospatial geography,
especially for companies size, class and integration of industrial sector in the
territory. The industrial cooperation (symbiosis) accordingly to the EC
research unit (European Commission, 2016) facilitates the allocation of
resources and materials in the industrial district, having positive impacts on the
total factor productivity rate: while average revenue of the total factor
productivity has been constantly lower in the southern regions, resource
misallocation tended to increase more in the other regions, and particularly in
the industrialised northwest and centre.
(Source: European Commission, 2016)
Figure 3.1. Breakdown of GDP growth.

(Source: LSE enterprise, 2015)
Figure 3.2. Misallocation in the manufacturing sector from 1993 2013.
Furthermore, the dependence of Italy from the import of natural raw

resources and materials is fundamental in order to underline the importance of
reuse of resources at local level in the Italian territory. In fact, the sustainable
development approach in the country should be applied in relation with the
agglomeration of companies in the geospatial conformation, in order to
identify an approach based on resources management and collaborative
cooperation which can have effects on production methods efficiency, energy
consumption, and emissions reduction. In terms of emissions reduction, the
EU targets three objectives in the Strategy 2020, concerning climate change
and energetic sustainability production that each country should achieve
according to its natural resources basket. The EU targets refer to:
20% reduction of GHG emissions on the base on 1990;

20% of energy efficiency;
20% of energy from renewable resources.

(Source: eurostat, 2016)
Figure 3.3. Share of renewable energy in gross energy consumption.
(Source: European Environment Agency (EEA), 2015).
Figure 3.4. European CO2 producers.
Specifically, Italy has already reached the 2020 target for renewable
energy and energy efficiency, and the overall investment costs in renewable
resources for energy production in 2014 was equal to 13.4 billion: in Italy the
share of renewable energy was approximately 17.1% in 2013 (Eurostat, 2016),

already above the 2020 target of 17% as represented in Figure 3.3. The
country is also on track to achieve the 2020 target for GHGs emissions
according to the European Environment Agency (EEA): in 1994, 519 million
tonnes of CO2 have been emitted on the Italian territory; in the 15 years that
followed, the annual emissions increased by 11%, achieving 574 million tons
in 2009, to diminish again to 489 million tons in 2015 during the years of
economic crisis (-15% compared to 2009). The level of annual emissions in
2015, therefore, is less than about 6% compared to 1994. During the same
period, France has reduced emissions by 13%, and Germany by 27%, as
shown in Figure 3.4.
4. FINAL REMARKS
The challenge of our century is to define and apply a new scenario where
the production is re-thought and re-launched for the improvement of
environmental and human safety. The territory is the pivotal element that can
lead the redefinition of the economic boundaries, by achieving a more efficient
process of production based on the revalorisation of waste. The new vision
starts from different innovative sectors, from waste to sustainable management
and recovery, from agriculture to mobility, to biochemistry, to push the supply
of commodities under an innovative low carbon perspective. The process of
transition must be taken together with the industrial innovation policy,
territorial and environmental, to respond to the dangerous situation of
pollution and to create the conditions for new investments in the renewable
energy sources, as well as in the optimisation of resources allocation.
Incentives to promote the circular economy approach should be based on two
variables, savings on production costs and the acquisition of competitive
advantages (a consumer prefers to buy a product from circular rather than
linear production process). Prolonging the productive use of materials, the
reuse and increasing the efficiency, the competitiveness will be strengthened,
the environmental impact and the GHGs emissions will be reduced. The
sustainable collaboration will enhance the sharing initiatives between different
companies operating in different sectors, with the aim to share initiatives based
on common interests, in terms of economic, environmental and social value
(Perz et al., 2010). Collaborative agreements between companies and
industries will optimize the environmental preservation, amplifying the final
benefits (Albino et al., 2012). Subsequently, collaboration for certain firms has
deepened between firms exploiting new opportunities for initiating

collaborative practices. Furthermore, the use of biomass in the production

process is cost-competitive today, and incentives will lead the generation and
the usage of this commodity. Environmental preservation, energy security and
socio-economic advantages are associated with sustainable bioenergy, and
transitional measure will reduce the cost of the competitiveness in the middle
term. Policy frameworks at national and local level should provide the support
for the implementation of production waste reuse, by achieving also other
important objectives, such as greenhouse-gas reduction, energy security,
biodiversity preservation, and socio-economic development.
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Chapter 5
BIOGAS PRODUCTION FROM ORGANIC

WASTE: FOCUS ON MICROBIAL
METHANOGENESIS
Habiba M. Raji, PhD and Bishir Musa

Department of Microbiology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
The accumulation of solid organic waste is thought to be reaching
critical levels in almost all regions of the world. These organic wastes
need to be managed in a sustainable way to avoid depletion of natural
resources, minimize risk to human health, reduce environmental burdens
and maintain an overall balance in the ecosystem. A number of different
methods are currently applied in the treatment and management of
different solid organic wastes most commonly through anaerobic
microbial metabolism. As with all biological processes, optimum
environmental conditions are essential for successful operation of
anaerobic digestion. The archaeal metabolic processes of organic
compounds depend on several parameters which must therefore be
considered and carefully controlled in practice. Interestingly, the
environmental requirements of acidogenic bacteria differ from the
requirements of methanogenic archaea. Provided that all steps of the
degradation process have to take place in one single reactor (one-stage
process), the requirements of the methanogenic archaea must be
Corresponding Author Email: habibasalam19@yahoo.com.

162 Habiba M. Raji and Bishir Musa
considered with priority. These requirements include; longer regeneration

time, much slower growth, and being more sensitive to environmental
conditions than other bacteria present in the mixed culture. This chapter
focuses on the role of different organic wastes as well as the metabolic
process of anaerobic digestion of wastes by archaea in biogas production
in biogas production which is considered to be one of the most viable
options for recycling the organic fraction of solid wastes. This manuscript
provides a broad overview of the digestibility and energy production
(biogas) yield of a range of substrates. The involvement of a diverse array
of microorganisms and role played by methanogens as well as the effects
of co-substrates and environmental factors on the efficiency of the
process has been comprehensively addressed. The recent literature
indicates that anaerobic digestion could be an appealing option for
converting raw solid organic wastes into useful products such as biogas
and other energy-rich compounds, which may play a critical role in
meeting the worlds ever-increasing energy requirements in the future.
Keywords: organic waste, archaea, methanogens, biogas, environment
1. INTRODUCTION
The organic wastes discussed in this chapter are of natural origin thus,
they possess some biochemical characteristics that ensure rapid microbial
degradation at relatively normal operating conditions. When considering the
organic waste treatment, such basic processes as organic mineralization,
biological stabilization and detoxification of pollutants are of utmost
importance. Most organic wastes commonly used contain compounds that are
easily biodegradable. These organic wastes can be readily mineralized either
through biological treatment (aerobic or anaerobic), or thermochemical
treatment such as pyrolysis, incineration, and gasification. Mostly, the organic
wastes produced today originate from industrial, agricultural and municipal
settings.
Industrial wastes are present in many different forms and are the most
resistant to biological treatment, depending on their origin. For instance, many
industries use chemicals in their production in order to achieve product quality
and some of these chemicals are present in the waste stream, which is
consequently difficult to treat.
Agricultural waste is commonly associated with livestock and food
production. They can be utilized for biogas production and therefore
contribute to more sustainable practice in agriculture.

Biogas Production from Organic Waste 163
Municipal waste (as well as municipal wastewater sludge) is generated as

a result of human biological and social activities and contains a large portion
of organic wastes that are readily available for treatment.
Recently, organic waste treatment has had a lot of attention, due to
possibilities of energy recovery from these wastes as well as preventing their
adverse environmental effects. Energy recovery is possible through controlled
release of chemically bound energy of organic compounds in waste and can
then be retrieved through chemical and biochemical processes. Most of the
organic wastes appear in solid form. However, they usually contain up to 90%
moisture; thus, thermo-chemical treatment such as incineration cannot be
applied. To address sustainability in the treatment of organic wastes, several
different aspects (environmental, energy and economic) of the treatment
process needs to be considered.
Biodegradable organic wastes can be treated with or without access to air.
Aerobic process which proceeds in the presence of air is known as composting
while anaerobic process is termed digestion. Composting is a simple, fast,
robust and relatively cheap process producing compost and CO2. Digestion is a
more complicated, slow and relatively sensitive process, applicable for
selected input materials. Recently, anaerobic digestion has become the
preferred and prevailing choice applied in sustainable organic waste treatment
worldwide. Anaerobic digestion is very suitable for various biodegradable
organic wastes of high water content, the result of which is methane-rich
biogas a renewable and sustainable energy source. It is already a common
alternative method for sewage and manure treatments. Since food waste has
the advantage of high organic content compared to sewage or manure,
anaerobic digestion is now increasingly considered as a viable alternative for
recovering energy from the organic fraction of municipal solid waste, which
usually has food waste as a main component. Anaerobic digestion is a
biological process performed by many classes of bacteria and generally
consists of four steps: hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and
methanogenesis. The main product of this process is methane and can be used
as a vehicle fuel for co-generation of electricity and heat, and thus, can lead to
reductions in greenhouse gas emissions.
Frequent inflation in the price of petroleum and advanced techniques of
refining conventional fuels from crude oils usually pose a serious threat to
human health as well as the environment. This therefore calls for a search to
find some cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternative sources of
fuels which may as well improve the efficiencies of engines in fuel
combustion.

Although, government agencies are making considerable efforts in finding

solutions to waste related problems, there are still major gaps to be filled
especially in the solid waste management. Anaerobic digestion is one of the
promising technologies for obtaining energy from municipal solid wastes.
Additionally, the transportation sector, as one of the major contributors
towards energy deficiencies and greenhouse gas emissions, is identified as an
area that requires urgent intervention. More efforts are required to address the
envisaged fuel shortage and mitigate the environmental challenges. This can
be achieved through research and systematic programs aimed at greening the
economy through a low carbon and resource-productive economy. The
transportation sector is particularly of great interest due to the high social cost
of transportation in Nigeria.
As a renewable and sustainable source of energy, several countries have
used biogas as a preferred option. However, the process of converting bio-
waste to renewable fuel in the form of compressed biogas (CBG) is a new
technology in this country. In addition, there is no much information
concerning how the efficiency of the energy recovery from the solid waste can
be improved.
2. THE ROLE OF METHANOGENIC ARCHAEA

IN BIOMETHANATION
2.1. Archaea: Classification and General Characteristics
Archaea are prokaryotic organisms which used to be classified under

bacteria but have been assigned a unique domain due to the difference in their
signature sequences (Woese et al., 1990). They are found in waterlogged
environments and gut of animals, and also feature prominently in extreme
environments such as hot springs and geysers, volcanic vents, marine
sediments, highly saline environments, and acidic environments. Their
metabolic and structural features are able to survive such environments
because of their adaptive mechanisms especially in their DNA, cell wall and
membranes. Their characteristics are as follows:
The absence of a cell nucleus or membrane-bound organelles

No peptidoglycan in their cell wall

Cytoplasmic membrane composed of hydrocarbons linked to glycerol

by ether linkage
Possesses 70S ribosomal subunit
They are primitive and are well adapted to life in extreme
environments such as those having extremely high temperatures, high
salinity and acidic conditions
Motility is achieved either by cilia or flagella
Flagella composed of several flagellins, which are very often
glycosylated
Most species do not grow on laboratory media as such, studies on
archaea often focuses on their nucleic acids extracted from the
environment
The domain, archaea, has at least four recognised phyla however, the
two most studied are the Crenarchaeota and the Euryarchaeota
They exist in various shapes, but cocci and rods are very common
among the methanogens
Even though most of the cultivated archaea belong to the phyla,

Crenarchaeota and Euryarchaeota, a few cultured species have been classified
in the recently defined phylum, Thaumarchaeota (Offre et al., 2013). Other
additional phyla have been proposed based on data from DNA samples from
the environment, they are: Aigarchaeota, Geoarchaeota and Korarchaeota
(Offre et al., 2013).
2.2. Classification of Archaea
Archaea can be classified into three broad groups based on their

physiological characteristics: methanogens, extreme halophiles and extreme
thermophiles.
Halophiles: The halophiles are obligate aerobes and dwell in environments
with high salinity. For example, the Dead Sea, the great salt lake in Utah (US).
Some species have been known to degrade hydrocarbons; these strains belong
to the following genera, Halobacterium, Haloferax and Halococcus.
Extreme thermophiles: These are also known as sulphur-dependent
archaea because of their metabolic preference for sulphur compounds. For
instance, the hyperthermophilic specie, Archaglobus fulgidus, uses sulphate as
an electron acceptor and has also been shown to degrade several aromatic
compounds in the environment. They are also called thermoacidophiles as a

result of the high acidity associated with some of these extremely hot
environments. They could be obligate aerobes, facultative anaerobes or
obligate anaerobes depending on the nature of the habitat. Their typical
temperature for optimum survival is at least 80C, examples of where they are
found include, submarine hydrothermal vents, volcanoes, marine sediments,
hot springs and geysers. They are able to adapt to these high temperature due
to the following mechanisms:
Possession of heat stable enzymes (extremozymes) with high number

of bonds keeping the protein intact and more resistant to denaturation
Reverse DNA gyrase enzyme which catalyzes the positive
supercoiling of DNA, this form of coiling makes the DNA molecule
more resistant to high temperature
Synthesis of proteins called, chaperonins, which bind heat-denatured
proteins and restores them to their active form. For instance Pyrolobus
fumarii uses a chaperonin called thermosome to survive temperatures
of up to 113C in submarine hydrothermal vents
Possession of DNA binding protein which also serve to maintain the
stability of the DNA molecule in high temperatures
Methanogens: These are anaerobic archaea that are able to produce

methane from the breakdown of organic compounds. They are found in
marshes, rice paddies, and aquatic sediments, gut of ruminants, humans and
insects. They are responsible for a high percentage of methane produced in the
ecosystem (Offre et al., 2013). Biomass generated from industrial, agricultural
or municipal wastes can be broken down and detoxified by these
methanogenic microorganisms to produce methane. Methanogens are diverse
and can be found in different ecosystems. Even though most of them are
thermophilic, as methanogenesis occurs at temperatures close to 100C, there
have been reports of the process occurring at temperatures as low as 15C. The
ideal pH for biomethanation is close to neutral however, some species have
been shown to produce methane at alkaline pH (Methanohalophilus zhilinae)
and acidic pH (Methanobacterium). The most common shapes of cells of
methanogens are rods and cocci nonetheless, species belonging to genera such
as Methanoplanus and Methanospirillum are plate-shaped and spiral-shaped,
respectively. Methane, as a greenhouse gas is harmful to the environmental
thus, channelling its production to useful purposes such as renewable source of
energy is of utmost importance.

2.3. Methanogenesis by Archaea
Methanogenesis is the production of methane (natural gas, biogas) by

anaerobic microrganisms by the degradation of organic compounds. The
process is also known as biomethanation. It can occur naturally or by man-
made activities, with the latter occurring more frequently than the former
(Asian Biomass Handbook, Borges de Oliveira et al., 2011). The major
anthropogenic activities contributing to methane production include processes
associated with fossil fuel production (such as petroleum) and landfills.
However, the natural sources of methane include the intestinal tract of
ruminants and insects, as well as swamps. Methanogenic archaea belong to the
phylum, Euryarchaeota; and although studies based on biomethanation
doesnt necessitate their cultivation, a study by Musa and Raji (2016) on the
use of various animal wastes for biogas production resulted in the isolation of
methanogenic archaea.
Biomethanation is of utmost importance in the global Carbon cycling
process. The production of methane involves three procedures: hydrolysis,
acetogenesis and methanogenesis (Khalid et al., 2011).
Hydrolysis is basically the breakdown of complex organic compounds
into simpler monomers; it occurs in the presence of oxygen. The products of
hydrolysis are then converted to organic acids through acetogenesis or acid-
forming stage. In the third stage, acetate formed during acetogenesis is
converted to methane; also the hydrogen produced during the second stage is
reduced to methane. However, biomethanation occurs more frequently through
the conversion of acetate as opposed to the reduction of hydrogen. Table 1
below depicts the details of these processes.
Biomethanation or methanogenesis by archaea occurs by two major
pathways: acetoclastic and carbon dioxide reduction. However, a high
percentage of the methane produced by methanogens is through the
acetoclastic pathway. The acetoclastic pathway occurs more frequently in
nature than the CO2 reduction pathway (Ferry, 2011; Offre et al., 2013). Both
pathways require anoxic conditions, a source of hydrogen (electron donor) and
a source of CO2 (electron acceptor) (Offre et al., 2013) concentrations. Low
concentration of H2 is a rate-limiting step during acetogenesis (Arsova, 2010).
Acetoclastic pathway of biomethanation by archaea involves the splitting of
acetate resulting in the carbonyl group oxidized to carbon dioxide (CO2), while
the methyl group is reduced to methane (CH4). The carbon dioxide reduction
pathway proceeds by the oxidation of hydrogen or formate, and the reduction
of CO2 to CH4 (Ferry, 2011). The reactions below illustrate biomethanation

process via acetoclastic (1) and carbon dioxide reduction (2) pathways
respectively.
CH3COOH CH4 + CO2 (1)
CO2 + 4H2 CH4 + 2H2O (2)
Syntrophic relationships between the microorganisms involved in the

biomethanation process are crucial to the overall yield of methane. And they
involve the transfer of electrons from fermentative bacteria to a methanogen
through either hydrogen or acetate, in order to enable growth during
thermodynamically unfavourable reactions. Without these syntrophic
partnerships between the microorganisms involved in biomethanation, the
process will not be feasible.
Table 1. Progression of Methanogenesis
Organic substrate End product Process (enzymes Microorganism*

involved)
Polysaccharide monosugars Hydrolysis Ruminococcus albus,
(cellulose, lignin, (amylases, Bacterioides succinogenes,
hemicelluloses, endoglucanases, Clostridium lochhadii,
starch) exoglucanases, Bacterioides rumenicola
glucosidases)
Protein Amino acids Hydrolysis Proteolytic Clostridia
(proteolytic (C. perfringes,
enzymes) C. histolyticum),
Bacterioides,
Campylobacter,
Streptococcus
Lipids Fatty acids and hydrolysis Anaerovibrio lypotyca,
glycerol Clostridium spp.
Sugars, amino Acetate, hydrogen acetogenesis Acetogenic bacteria
acids, fatty acids, and carbon (Obligatory hydrogen-
glycerol dioxide, (organic producing acetogens -
acids, alcohols)# OHPAs)
Acetate, hydrogen Methane and methanogenesis Methanogens
and carbon dioxide carbon dioxide (Methanosarcina,
Methanothermobacter,
Methanobacteria)
Source: Arsova, 2010; Asian Biomass Handbook.
*
Not exhaustive; # formed when there is electron accumulation.

3. BIOGAS PRODUCTION FROM VARIOUS WASTES

3.1. The Biomass
In principle, many different types of biomass can be used for biogas

production. In most biogas generation plants, the input material or substrate
used includes:
Fresh or ensiled plant material (e.g., maize, grass, cereal, beet or

clover)
Animal excrements (e.g., slurry or manure)
Residues from agricultural or food production (e.g., feed remains,
chaff, whey, glycerine, straw-straw has high potential biogas yields
but is rarely used as biogas substrate as it requires suitable pre-
treatment/disintegration for efficient fermentation)
Waste materials (e.g., organic household waste).
In general, the technological and microbiological capacities of the plant,

the availability of substrate, legal conditions, and the operators strategy
influence the choice of substrate.
Anaerobic co-digestion of different organic wastes together can improve
nutrient balance, dilute potentially toxic compounds such as sulphur-
containing substances, and subsequently increase the processing capacity and
biogas yield. Bio-energy production in biogas plants could be enhanced to
about 40-80% by using organic wastes and by-products as co-substrates.
3.2. Basics of Anaerobic Digestion
This section deals with anaerobic waste treatment methods which are
considered to be the most advanced and sustainable organic waste treatment
method. Anaerobic digestion is also defined as a process of controlled
decomposition of biodegradable materials under managed conditions where
free oxygen is absent, at temperatures suitable for naturally occurring
mesophilic or thermophilic anaerobic and facultative bacteria and archaea
species, that convert the inputs to biogas and whole digestate. It is widely
used to treat separately collected biodegradable organic wastes and wastewater
sludge; this is because it reduces volume and mass of the input material with

biogas (mostly a mixture of methane and CO2 with trace amount of gases such
as H2S, NH3 and H2) as by-products.
Thus, anaerobic digestion is a renewable energy source in an integrated
waste management system. Also, the nutrient-rich solids left after digestion
can be used as a bio-fertilizer.
3.3. The Biogas
Biogas is a combustible mixture of gases produced by the natural

fermentation of moist biomass under a complete atmosphere of anaerobiosis
(anaerobic digestion/fermentation). The major combustible component of
biogas known to be methane makes up about 50 to 75 percent by volume of
the gas. Other molecules present in biogas as a mixture include carbon
dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, oxygen and water vapor. Biogas formation occurs
naturally in wetlands when organic matter is decomposed by anaerobic
microbes to so-called swamp gas.
3.4. Biochemical Mechanisms of Anaerobic Digestion of Wastes

to Biogas
For biogas to be formed, different microbes with differing environmental

requirements are actively needed in four key biological and chemical stages of
anaerobic digestion namely; hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis and
methanogenesis.
3.4.1. Hydrolysis
In most cases, the biomass is made up of large and complex organic
compounds. In order for the microorganisms in anaerobic digesters to access
the chemical energy bounded in the organic material, the macromolecular
chains in the organic matter must first be broken down into their smaller
constituent units. Microorganisms do secrete enzymes to break down organic
matter such as carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids into their smaller units
such as glucose, glycerol, purines and pyrimidines. These constituent parts or
monomers such as sugars are readily available to microorganisms for further
processing. The process of breaking these chains and dissolving the smaller
molecules into solution is called hydrolysis. Therefore hydrolysis of high
molecular weight molecules is the necessary first step in anaerobic digestion.

It may be enhanced by mechanical, thermal or chemical pretreatment of the

waste. Hydrolytic stage can be merely biological (using hydrolytic
microorganisms) or combined: bio-chemical (using extracellular enzymes),
chemical (using catalytic reactions) as well as physical (using thermal energy
and pressure) in nature. Acetates and hydrogen produced in the first stage can
be used directly by methanogens to generate methane.
Other molecules such as volatile fatty acids (VFAs) with a chain length
that is greater than acetate must first be broken down into compounds that can
be used directly by methanogens.
3.4.2. Acidogenesis
The biological process of acidogenesis where there is further breakdown
of the remaining components by acidogenic (fermentative) bacteria. Here, the
VFAs are produced along with ammonia, carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulphide as well as other by-products. Fermentative bacteria convert products
of hydrolysis into acetate, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and volatile fatty acids.
The pH of the slurry usually becomes low during the process of acidogenesis;
this may be connected with the increased accumulation of organic acids in the
digester. This therefore knocks out most of the non-aciduric and non-
acidophilic microbial entities and ultimately reduces the level of competition.
However, depending on the nature of the organic waste used, the intolerable
acidity may be neutralized by the ammonia gas produced especially from
protein-rich organic wastes.
3.4.3. Acetogenesis
The third stage of anaerobic digestion is termed, acetogenesis. During this
stage, simple molecules such as organic acids like lactic acid, propionic,
butyric and pyruvic acid generated through acidogenesis are further digested
by acetogens to produce largely acetic acid (or its salts) as well as carbon
dioxide and hydrogen. Volatile fatty acids and alcohols are oxidized into
acetate, hydrogen and carbon dioxide before conversion into methane. This
process is closely interlinked with methanogenesis.
3.4.4. Methanogenesis
This stage is sometimes called the bottle neck of methanogenesis. In this
stage, specialized single-celled microorganisms (archaea) known as
methanogens, produce methane from acetate, hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
This is the slowest step in the process and is thus severely influenced by
operation conditions like feedstock, feeding rate, temperature, and pH. This

final stage of anaerobic digestion called the biological process of

methanogenesis, is a process in which methanogenic archaea utilize the
intermediate products of the preceding stages and convert them into methane,
carbon dioxide and water. It is these components that make up the majority of
the biogas released from the system. Methanogenesis is beside other factors,
sensitive to both high and low pH values and performs well between pH 6.5
and pH 8.
The remaining non-digestible organic and mineral material, which the
microbes cannot feed upon, along with any dead bacterial residues, constitutes
the solid digestate also known as sludge or biorest.
3.5. Factors Affecting Anaerobic Digestion of Wastes
As with all biological processes, the optimum environmental conditions

are essential for successful operation of anaerobic digestion. The microbial
metabolism processes depend on many parameters; therefore these parameters
must be considered and carefully controlled in practice. Furthermore, the
environmental requirements of acidogenic bacteria differ from requirements of
methanogenic bacteria. Provided that all steps of the degradation process have
to take place in one single reactor (one-stage process), usually the
requirements of methanogenic archaea must be considered with priority.
Namely, these organisms have much longer regeneration time, much slower
growth and are more sensitive to environmental conditions than other bacteria
present in the mixed culture. However, there are some special cases such that:
With cellulose-containing substrates (which are slowly degradable),

the hydrolysis stage is the limiting one and needs prior attention.
With protein-rich substrates, the pH optimum is equal in all anaerobic
process stages and therefore a single digester is sufficient for good
performance.
With fat-rich substrates, the hydrolysis rate is increasing with better
emulsification, so that acetogenesis is limiting. Therefore a
thermophilic condition is desirable.
Below are some of the factors that influence anaerobic digestion of

wastes;

3.5.1. Temperature
Anaerobic digestion can operate at different temperatures ranging between
5C to 65C. Generally, based on the cardinality of temperature, there are
three widely known and established temperature ranges of operation:
psychrophilic (15-20C), mesophilic (30-40C) and thermophilic (50-60C).
The reaction rate of anaerobic digestion strongly increases with increasing
temperature. For instance, with ideal substrate, thermophilic digestion can be
approximately four times faster than the digestion under mesophilic condition.
However, there are some inhibitory factors may influence the digestion
process and make thermophilic digestion only approximately twice faster than
mesophilic. The most important thing is, when selecting the temperature
range, it should be kept constant as much as possible. In thermophilic range
(50-60C), fluctuations as low as 2C can result in 30% decrease in biogas
production. Therefore it is advisable that temperature fluctuations in
thermophilic range should not be more than 1C. In mesophilic range, the
microorganisms are less sensitive; therefore fluctuations of 3C can be
tolerated.
For each range of digestion temperature, there are certain groups of
microorganisms present that can flourish in these temperature ranges. In the
temperature ranges between the three established temperature ranges, the
conditions for each of the microbial group are less favorable. In these ranges,
anaerobic digestion can operate, however much less efficient. For example,
mesophilic microorganisms can operate up to 47C, thermophilic
microorganisms can already operate as low as 45C. However, the rate of the
reaction is low and it may happen that the two groups of microorganisms may
exclude each other and compete in the overlapping range. This results in poor
efficiency of the process, therefore these temperatures are rarely applied.
3.5.2. Redox Potential

In the anaerobic digester, low redox potential is necessary. Methanogenic
archaea need redox potential between -300 and -330 mV for optimum
performance. Redox potential can increase up to 0 mV in the digester;
however it should be kept in the optimum range. In order to achieve this, no
oxidizing agents should be added to the digester, such as oxygen, nitrate,
nitrite or sulphate.
3.5.3. C: N Ratio and Ammonium Inhibition

In every biomass needed for the anaerobic digestion to biogas, the mass
ratio of C: N: P: S is approximately 100:10:1:1. The C: N ratio of an ideal

substrate is around 20-30:1 while, the C: P ratio should be 150-200:1 ideally.

A Carbon to Nitrogen ratio higher than 30 causes slower microbial
multiplication due to low protein formation and thus low energy and structural
material metabolism of microorganisms. Consequently, lower substrate
degradation efficiency is observed. On the other hand, the C: N ratio as low as
3:1 can result in successful digestion. However, when such low C: N ratios
and nitrogen rich substrates are applied (that is often the case using animal
farm waste), a possible ammonium inhibition must be considered. Although
ammonium represents an ideal form of nitrogen for microbial growth, it is
however toxic to mesophilic methanogenic microorganisms at concentrations
over 3000 mg/L and pH over 7.4. With increasing pH, the toxicity of
ammonium increases.
Thermophilic methanogenic microorganisms are generally more sensitive
to ammonium concentration. Inhibition can occur even at 2200 mg/L of
ammonium nitrogen. However, the ammonium inhibition can very much
depend on the substrate type. A study of ammonium inhibition in thermophilic
digestion shows an inhibiting concentration to be over 4900 mg/L when using
non-fat waste milk as substrate.
Ammonium inhibition can likely occur when digester leachate (or water
from dewatering the digested substrate) is re-circulated to dilute the solid
substrate for anaerobic digestion. Such re-circulation must be handled with
care and examined for potential traps such as ammonium or other inhibitory
ions build up. To resolve ammonia inhibition when using farm waste in
anaerobic digestion several methods can be used:
o The first possibility is that carefully combining different substrates to

create a mixture with lower nitrogen content. Usually some plant
biomass (such as silage) is added to liquid farm waste in such case.
o Second possibility is diluting the substrate to such extent, that
concentration in the anaerobic digester does not exceed the toxicity
concentration. This method must be handled with care. Only in some
cases dilution may be a solution. If the substrate requires too much
dilution, a washout of microorganisms may occur, which results in
process failure. Usually there is only a narrow margin of operation,
original substrate causes ammonium inhibition, when diluted to the
extent necessary to stop ammonia inhibition, and already a washout
due to dilution occurs.
o It is also possible to remove ammonium from the digester liquid. This
method is usually most cost effective but rarely used. One of such

processes is stripping ammonia from the liquid. It is also

commercially available.
3.5.4. pH
In anaerobic digestion the pH is most affecting the methanogenic stage of
the process. The optimum pH for methanogenic microorganisms is between
6.5 and 7.5. If the pH decreases below 6.5, more acids are produced and that
leads to impending process failure. In real digester systems with suspended
biomass and substrate containing suspended solids, the normal pH of operation
is between 7.3 and 7.5. When pH decreases to 6.9, serious actions to stop
process failure must be taken. When using UASB flow through systems (or
other systems with granule-like microorganisms) which utilize liquid
substrates with low suspended solids concentration, the normal pH of
operation is 6.9 to 7.1. In such cases, the pH limit of successful operation is
6.7.
In normally operated digesters there are two buffering systems which
ensure that pH persists in the desirable range:
o Carbon dioxide - hydrogen carbonate - carbonate buffering system:

During digestion, CO2 is continuously produced and released into
gaseous phase. When pH value decreases, CO2 is dissolved in the
reactor solution as uncharged molecules. With increasing pH value,
dissolved CO2 form carbonic acid ionizes and releases hydrogen ions.
At pH 4, all CO2 is in form of molecules, at pH13, all CO2 is
dissolved as carbonate. The center point around which pH value
swings with this system is at pH 6.5. With concentrations between
2500 and 5000 mgL-1 hydrogen carbonate gives strong buffering.
o Ammonia - ammonium buffering system: With decreasing pH value,
ammonium ions are formed with release of hydroxyl ions. With
increasing pH value more free ammonia molecules are formed. The
central point around which pH value swings with this system is at pH
10.
Both buffering systems can be overloaded by the feed of rapidly

acidifying (quickly degradable) organic matter, by toxic substances, by
decrease of temperature or by a too-high loading rate to the reactor. In such
cases, a pH decrease is observable, combined with CO2 increase in the biogas.

Measures to correct the excessive acidification and prevent the process

failure are following:
o Stop the reactor substrate supply to allow sufficient time for the
methanogenic archaea to process the acids. When the pH decreases to
the limit of successful operation no substrate supply should be added
until pH is in the normal range of operation or preferably in the upper
portion of normal range of operation. In suspended biomass reactors
this pH value is 7.4 in granule microorganisms systems this pH value
is 7.0.
o If the procedure from the point above has to be repeated many times,
the system is obviously overloaded and the substrate supply has to be
diminished by increasing the residence time of the substrate.
o Increase the buffering potential of the substrate. Addition of certain
substrates which some contain alkaline substances to the substrate the
buffering capacity of the system can be increased.
o Addition of some neutralizing substances: Typically, slaked lime (Ca
(OH)2), sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) or sodium hydrogen carbonate
(NaHCO3), and in some cases sodium hydroxide (NaOH) are usually
added. However, while using sodium compounds, precautionary
measures must be practiced, because sodium inhibition can occur with
excessive use.
3.5.5. Inhibitory Substances

In anaerobic digestion systems, a characteristic phenomenon can be
observed. Some substances which are necessary for microbial growth in small
concentrations inhibit the digestion at higher concentrations. Similar effect can
have high concentration of total volatile fatty acids (tVFAs). Although, they
represent the same substrate that methanogenic archaea feed upon,
concentrations over 10,000 mg/L may have an inhibitory effect on digestion.
Inorganic salts can significantly affect anaerobic digestion. In real
operating systems it is unlikely that inhibitory concentrations of inorganic salts
metals would occur, mostly because in such high concentrations insoluble salts
would precipitate in alkaline conditions, especially if H2S is present. The most
real threat in this case is sodium inhibition of anaerobic digestion. This can
occur in cases where substrates are wastes with extremely high salt contents
(some food wastes, tannery wastes) or when excessive use of sodium
substances were used in neutralization of the substrate or the digester liquid.
Measures to correct the sodium inhibition are simple. The high salt substrates

must be pre-treated to remove the salts (mostly washing). The use of sodium
substances as neutralizing agents can be substituted with other alkaline
substances (such as lime).
Heavy metals also do have stimulating effects on anaerobic digestion in
low concentrations, however higher concentrations can be toxic. In particular,
lead, cadmium, copper, zinc, nickel and chromium can cause disturbances in
anaerobic digestion process. In farm wastes, e.g., in pig slurry, especially zinc
is present, originating from pig fodder which contains zinc additive as an
antibiotic.
Other organic substances, such as disinfectants, herbicides, pesticides,
surfactants, and antibiotics can often flow with the substrate and also cause
nonspecific inhibition. All of these substances have a specific chemical
formula and it is hard to determine what the behavior of inhibition will be.
Therefore, when such substances do occur in the treated substrate, specific
research is strongly advised to determine the concentration of inhibition and
possible ways of microbial adaptation.
3.5.6. Advantages of Using Biogas

Due to the increasing global population, access to affordable energy
services is becoming a prerequisite. There is a strong correlation among
energy availability and education, health, urban migration, empowerment,
local employment and income generation, and an overall improvement in the
quality of life. Understanding and taking into account the current status of
developing nations, biogas technology has implicit potential in improving
waste management, producing clean energy, and creating employment.
A considerable amount of renewable feed stocks in the form of animal
manure, crop residues, food and food processing wastes available in
developing countries can be utilized economically for biogas production and at
the same time reducing landfilling. In addition, resources currently being used
in the management of such wastes can be diverted for establishing biogas
plants and harness clean energy in the form of biogas. The effect of anaerobic
digestion on methane yield as well as reduction of industrial and municipal
wastes through anaerobic digestion followed by an aerobic treatment such as
composting could be considered environmentally friendly. Although some
wastes are poorly biodegradable due to their low solubility or suboptimal C/N
ratio, sufficient degradation of these substrates largely depends on certain
optimum combinations. Hence, a proper mixture of waste for co-digestion can
enhance sludge solubilization, digestion, and bio-methane production by
ameliorating the antagonistic and synergistic effects of different sludges. This

approach provides some practical solutions to threats from diverse industrial

sludges in economic and environmental perspectives. Additionally, anaerobic
digestion of animal manure and other biogenic wastes offers several
environmental, agricultural and socio-economic benefits through the fertilizer
value of the digestate, considerable reduction in odor and in activation of
pathogens, and ultimately biogas as a clean renewable fuel for multiple end
applications. It further offers many possible ecological, technological and
economic benefits. Bioenergy production in biogas plants could be enhanced
by 40-80% using organic wastes and by-products as co-substrates. In addition
to being a viable alternative source of fuel, it has the potential to reduce the
greenhouse gases thereby creating new possibilities of carbon trading in the
global market.
Other advantages of anaerobic digestion include: dilution of the toxic
substances coming from any of the substrates involved, an improved nutrient
balance, synergistic effects on microorganisms, a high digestion rate, and
possible detoxification based on the co-metabolism process. Moreover, the
addition of suitable organic waste favors a more efficient stabilization,
enhancing the biogas production. The dilution of toxic substance can reduce
GHG emission thus improving air quality. Additionally, it can be produced
locally, saving hard currency that is normally used on imported natural gas and
fuel.
3.6. Management Strategies for Anaerobic Digestion

of Organic Wastes
A Quality Management System (QMS) specific to a defined digestion

process and its resulting whole digestate or any separated liquor and separated
fiber, should be established and maintained. Anaerobically digested slurry or
sludge contains 2-12% of solids; wet waste from solid state digestion contains
20-25% solids. The digestate contains not degraded organic waste,
microorganism cells and structures formed during digestion, as well as some
inorganic matter. This is potentially an alternative source of humic material,
nutrients and minerals to the agricultural soil. It may be used directly or
separated into liquid and solid part. The liquid digestate is often recycled to the
digestion process; some pretreatment may be required to reduce nitrogen or
salt content. Freshly digested organic waste is not stable under environmental
conditions: it has an unpleasant odor, contains various noxious or corrosive
gases such as NH3 and H2S, and still retains some biodegradability. In certain

periods of a year it may be used in agriculture directly, in most cases however

it must be stabilized before being applied to the fields. Aerobic treatment
(composting) is an obvious and straightforward solution to this problem.
The composting procedure has several positive effects: stabilization of
organic matter, elimination of unpleasant odors and reduction of pathogenic
microorganisms to an acceptable level. Composting, applied prior to land
application of the digested waste, contributes also to a beneficial effect of
compost nitrogen availability in soil. The simplest way is composting of the
dehydrated fresh digestate in a static or temporarily turned-over pile. A
structural material is necessary to provide sufficient porosity and adequate air
permeability of the material in the pile. Various wood or plant processing
residues may be used as a structural material like woodchips, sawdust, tree
bark, straw and corn stalks provided that the sludge : bulk agent volume ratio
is between 1:1 and 1:4. The majority of organic material is contributed by the
bulking agent, but significant biodegradation of the digestate organic material
also occurs, by means of natural aerobic microorganisms. The final compost
quality depends on the content of pollutants such as heavy metals, pathogenic
bacteria, nutrients, inert matter, stability, etc. in the mature compost. The
properties of the compost standard leachate may also be considered. Heavy
metals and persistent organic pollutants accumulate in the compost and may
cause problems during utilization. Compost quality depends on quality of the
input material, which should be carefully controlled by input analysis.
Pathogenic bacteria may originate from the mesophilic digestates or from
infected co-composting materials, if applied (e.g., food waste). If thermophilic
phase period of the composting process has lasted at least few days, the
compost produced may be considered sanitized and free of pathogens such as
Salmonella, Streptococci and coliforms.
The third important factor is presence of nitrogen. Several authors have
reported that the optimal C/N ratio is between 25/1 and 30/1 although
operation at low C/N ratios of 10/1 are also possible. With such low C/N ratios
the undesirable emission of ammonia can be significant. Characteristic values
of organic matter content and total nitrogen in the digested sludge are 50-70%
and 1.5-2.5%, respectively. In the first week of the digested sludge composting
the total carbon is reduced by between 11% and 27% and total nitrogen is
reduced by between 13% and 23%.
Highest degradation rates in the compost pile are achieved with air oxygen
concentration above 15% which also prevents formation of anaerobic zones.
The quality of aeration depends primarily on structure and degree of
granulation of the composting material; finer materials generally provide

better aeration of the compost pile. In the first stages of degradation, acids are
generated, and these tend to decrease the pH in the compost pile. The optimum
pH range for microorganisms to function is between 5.5 and 8.5. Elevated
temperature in the compost material during operation is a consequence of
exothermic organic matter degradation process. The optimum temperature for
composting operation, in which pathogenic microorganisms are sanitized, is
55-70C. In the initial phases of composting the prevailing microorganisms are
fungi and mesophilic bacteria, which contribute to the temperature increase
and are mostly sanitised in the relevant thermophilic range. When temperature
falls many of the initial mesophilic microorganisms reappear, but the
predominant population are more highly evolved organisms such as protozoa
and arthropods. For optimum composting operation the correct conditions
must be established and are determined by particle size distribution and
compost pile aeration have shown that the air gaps in the compost pile can be
reduced from an initial 76.3% to a final 40.0%. The optimum moisture content
in the compost material is in the range of 50-70%.
In the recent years the composting practice for anaerobic digestate has
been thoroughly studied for many different types of substrates, for co-
composting and with many different bulk agents. From various reasons the
composting of the digestate residue is sometimes not possible (lack of space,
problems with compost disposal, etc.). Alternatively the digestate may be
treated by thermal methods, which require higher solid content. Mechanical
dehydration by means of continuous centrifuges provides solid content about
30% with positive calorific value. Incineration may be carried out in a special
kiln (most often of fluidized bed type) or together with municipal waste in a
grit furnace. Co-incineration in industrial kilns usually requires drying of
sludge to 90% dryness, which gives calorific value of about 10 MJ/kg.
Thermal methods are more expensive than composting due to high energy
demand for dehydration and drying, sophisticated processes involved and strict
monitoring requirements.
3.7. Challenges That Hinder Production of Biogas

and Utilization
Besides the fact that theres limited knowledge on the technology, the
initial cost of installation may be high. Funding for research is also often
limited and investors might not be keen as the biogas technology is very new.
Hence the level of the technology is not advanced to convince funders.

Furthermore, the production of biogas involves multiple steps which require

multi-disciplinary inputs. For instance, the physical components of the system
requires proper designing and efficient ways of evaluating the quality and
quantity of the product. The process of anaerobic digestion is mainly
performed by diverse microorganisms. Hence, understanding the
microbiological part of the system is critical for the success of the project.
Unfortunately, this is a rare case in most research groups where teams are set
based on common background rather than interest.
In addition, the manner in which the gas is stored can raise a concern of
fire risks. Again health concerns like allergy and sinuses may arise but unlike
firewood, crop residues and dried cattle dung, biogas provides a clean, smoke-
free environment. Furthermore, there can be some perception on the
environmental pollution. During the production of the gas, Carbon dioxide is
emitted to the atmosphere. However, the same carbon dioxide released to the
atmosphere is the same released by humans, in that case there are no threat
posed to the environment. This is also supported by the theory that the
technology utilizes the carbon which is already in the ecosystem, and not
through the generation of new carbon.
4. FUTURE PERSPECTIVES OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

With the introduction of biogas as an alternative energy source in Nigeria,
Nigeria would have taken a step to develop and implement an integrated
energy strategy. This will be a noticeable and different development path that
ensures energy for all in an equitable and environmentally friendly manner. In
decades to come, Nigeria will be powered by a low carbon economy with a
significant share of green jobs, where citizens have accessible, affordable,
safe, efficient energy services and the transport system that does not affect the
health of people.
The use of biogas will also make Nigeria to focus on clean energy
technology that will promote a visible shift towards low polluting transport
sectors, fuels and vehicles.
Similarly, all disadvantaged communities will also be provided with
effective energy services depending on their needs. A noticeable reduction of
fuel poverty, respiratory illnesses and safety threats will be observed through
the use of cleaner and safer household fuels.

CONCLUSION
The chapter entitled Biogas Production from Organic Wastes: Focus On
Microbial Methanogenesis presents principles and techniques for treatment of
wet biodegradable organic waste, which can be applied in order to achieve
environmental as well as economic sustainability of their utilization. The
chapter mostly focuses on organic wastes generated in the municipal sector;
however it may well apply to similar wastes from agriculture and industry.
The main focus is aimed at determining the role of organic wastes in the
generation of biogas, a valuable renewable energy resource. The chapter also
focuses on the microbial processes particularly archeal metabolisms through
which organic wastes are managed, with biogas being generated as the
valuable end product. The basic factors affecting anaerobic digestion of
organic wastes to biogas such as pH and temperature, as well as some
inhibitors that can arise during such processes (heavy metals, ammonia, salts,
phenolic compounds from lignocellulosic degradation, organic overload, etc.)
have been well addressed in this chapter.
Conversion of waste into energy is a technology that has the potential in
producing cleaner energy and greener alternative fuel. Anaerobic digestion
technology is considered to be a practical method to reduce waste. It is not
feasible and economic to treat these industrial wastes in separate digesters at
each plant rather to install a centralized treatment facility for all combined
waste together. Studies determining the limitations of co-digestion, parameters
influencing the anaerobic process and reactions involved to attain methane
production, optimum conditions to enhance satisfactory methane yields and
treatment of residues have not been reported in literature. It is therefore,
recommended that optimum conditions for anaerobic co-digestion must be
investigated as well as treatment of sludge to manage the landfill crisis.
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2267.

Chapter 6
THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

OF BIOSOLIDS LAND APPLICATION
Silvana Irene Torri1,* and Marisol Natalia Cabrera2

1
Facultad de Agronoma, Universidad de Buenos Aires,
Ciudad Autnoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
2
Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires,
Ciudad Autnoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
ABSTRACT
Increasing urbanization and industrialization have resulted in a
dramatic increase in the volume of wastes generated worldwide. The
treatment of wastewater results in large amounts of municipal treated
sewage sludge, or biosolids. Sludge has traditionally been disposed
through ocean-dumping, landfilling, or incineration. But due to
increasingly stringent environmental regulations, these disposal methods
are being phased out. With increasing populations worldwide, biosolids
production is likely to continue to increase in a near future. The safe
disposal of biosolids is a major environmental challenge. Land
application of biosolids is largely considered the best option of disposal
because it offers the possibility of recycling plant nutrients, provides
organic material, improves soils chemical and physical properties and
enhances crop yields. The use of biosolids is increasingly being
considered as a feasible and technical solution to reverse degraded and
* torri@agro.uba.ar.

186 Silvana Irene Torri and Marisol Natalia Cabrera
less productive lands, and to promote the reestablishment of a vegetative

cover. However, benefits have to be carefully weighed against potential
deleterious effects related to non-point source pollution. Environmental
risks include increased potentially trace elements (PTE) input, leaching of
nitrogen (N) in subsurface drainage and groundwater, contamination of
surface water with soluble and particulate phosphorus (P), vector
attraction, and reduced air quality by emission of volatile organic
compounds, among others. Most countries regulate concentrations of
PTE and pathogens in biosolids and mandate maximum permissible
loading rates into soil to manage contaminants. Nevertheless, concerns
associated with adverse environmental effects due to land application of
biosolids continue. This chapter investigates the environmental impact of
biosolids land application related to soil properties.
INTRODUCTION
Increasing urbanization and industrialization have resulted in a dramatic
increase in the volume of wastes generated worldwide. Sewage sludge results
from the accumulation of solids from chemical coagulation, flocculation and
sedimentation during wastewater treatment. The term sludge is nowadays used
to refer to untreated primary and secondary organic solids. In the last decades,
the production of sewage sludge has worldwide increased. Past disposal
practices commonly included land filling or ocean dumping, but due to
increasingly stringent environmental regulations, these disposal methods are
being phased out. On the other hand, people are concerned about
environmental protection more than ever and relative legislation and
regulation are becoming more critical. Incineration is a feasible means of
reducing sewage sludges volume and converting this waste in a practically
inert, odorless and sterile ash. Technologies have been developed to make use
of the resulting ash, by replacing part of the raw material in brick
manufacturing (Hara, Mino 2008; Liew et al., 2004), cement production
(Tomita et al., 2006) and glazed tiles (Lin et al., 2005), among others.
However, sludge contains organic carbon together with macro and
micronutrients, and the use of sludge in the manufacture of construction
materials limits the potential recycling of these elements.
The term biosolids was officially recognized in 1991 by the Water
Environment Federation (WEF), and refers to the organic solids that have
received a biological stabilization treatment at a municipal wastewater
treatment plant, to make a distinction from other types of sludges. To be

The Environmental Impact of Biosolids Land Application 187
considered biosolids, sewage sludge has to be treated and stabilized to reduce

odor, pathogen content and vector attraction. Biosolids treatment may include
one or a combination of i) biological processes (anaerobic/aerobic digestion,
composting), ii) chemical processes (lime treatment), and/or iii) physical
processes (pasteurization, thermal hydrolysis, thermal drying, air/solar drying).
Depending on the extent of pathogen removal achieved, biosolids are usually
classified as biosolids Class A or biosolids Class B.
In the last years, attention has shifted to the beneficial use of biosolids.
Land application of biosolids is an economically attractive management
strategy, for it contains a high concentration of organic matter, which can
ameliorate soil quality. This option also ensures that major biosolids-borne
plant nutrients (i.e., nitrogen. phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, copper, zinc)
are recycled (EC, 2008). Benefits also extend to reduction in soil erosion, land
restoration and enrichment of forestry land. However, a variety of undesired
compounds may also be found in biosolids, which could have adverse effects
on the environment such as potentially toxic trace elements (PTE)
accumulation, transfer of these contaminants through the food chain or
potential for surface water/groundwater contamination, among others (Sidhu,
Toze 2009; Stietiya, Wang 2011). Therefore, the benefits from biosolids land
application have to be carefully weighed against its potential deleterious
effects. The purpose of this chapter is to review the available information of
biosolids land application on soil fertility and its possible effects on the
environment.
EFFECTS OF BIOSOLIDS APPLICATION ON

SOIL PROPERTIES
Organic Matter
Soil organic matter (SOM) is generally considered the single most

important property affecting soil quality and functioning (Gregorich et al.,
1994). Numerous studies have indicated that the use of biosolids as a source of
organic matter to agricultural or degraded lands improves the chemical and
physical properties of soils, decreasing bulk density, increasing pore size, soil
aeration and root penetrability, water holding capacity and biological
properties, resulting in an increase in crop yields (Tejada, Gonzalez 2007;
Antonious et al., 2010; Gilbert et al., 2011).

Biosolids is typically made up of 40 - 70% organic matter. This organic

fraction has been identified as a mixture of fatty acids, steroids, proteins,
carbohydrates, lignin, amino acids, sugars, celluloses and humic material
(Torri, Alberti 2009). Organic carbon added through biosolids consists of two
fractions of different degree of biodegradability: a labile fraction (53-71%)
that mineralizes quickly and a resistant fraction (28.5-45.4%), apparently not
available to soil microorganisms, that remains in the soil after biosolids
application (Torri et al., 2003; Antoniadis et al., 2008). Although carbon
mineralization from organic amendments has been shown to be more rapid in
soils with low compared with high clay content (Merckx et al., 1985), results
suggest that recently introduced biosolids-borne organic carbon (OC) may be
located in large pores and less entangled in aggregates than native soil organic
matter (Torri et al., 2003). On the other hand, Thomsen et al. (1999) reported
that the turnover of organic matter in differently textured soils was better
explained by soil moisture parameters than by soil texture.
When biosolids are land applied repeatedly and/or at high rates, a
substantial increase in soil organic matter content is observed (Moffet et al.,
2005; Sloan et al., 2016). This effect is particularly pronounced on degraded
soils (Garcia-Orenes et al., 2005). Long and short term observations have
demonstrated that biosolids amended soils accumulate a significantly higher
amount of OC compared to mineral fertilized soils (Tian et al., 2009).
Repeated land application of biosolids provide long-term benefits by
increasing soil organic matter which, in turn, improves soil chemical and
biological fertility, accomplished by the production of more biomass (Cogger
et al., 2013; Wiseman et al., 2012). In this way, there is a net transfer of
atmospheric dioxide (CO2) into the soil carbon pool through the humification
of crop residues, resulting in net soil carbon sequestration (Torri, Lavado
2011; Torri et al., 2014), reducing greenhouse gases emission (Haynes et al.,
2009).
Significant concern over the occurrence of trace organic contaminants in
biosolids has risen in recent years (Citulski, Farahbakhsh 2010; Clarke, Smith
2011; Mohapatra et al., 2016). The range of persistent organic pollutants
(POPs) reported to be present in biosolids is extensive and diverse, and may
include pharmaceutical, personal care products, endocrine-disrupting
compounds, pesticides, industrial chemicals, hormones, and other organic
pollutants that are ubiquitous in sewage and other environmental samples
(Sabourin et al., 2012; Luo et al., 2014). Contrary to most organic compounds
present in other organic amendments, POPs exhibit a high environmental
persistence, mainly due to their chemical stability, relatively low volatility and

high dielectric constant. When POPs enter the soil environment, there is an
initial fast adsorption onto the hydrophobic SOM surfaces probably by
covalent linkages (Harrison et al., 2006). As the time of contact with soil
increases, there is a decrease in chemical and biological availability of
contaminants, a process known as ageing (Hatzinger, Alexander 1995). It is
believed that during aging, sorbed organic molecules slowly move into sites
within the soil matrix (mineral or organic matter fractions) and become
entrapped within nano- and micropores that are not accessible by even the
smallest microorganisms (Semple et al., 2003). Many laboratory studies
confirm the lesser availability of POPs to soil microorganisms of aged than
unaged conditions in highly dissimilar soils (Alexander 2000).
The fate of POPs in the environment and their effects on biotic matrices
has been object of intensive research in the last years, and there is still an open
debate on the impact of the presence of these compounds in soils and water.
Nonetheless, most studies reveal that the risk of adverse effects of biosolids-
borne organic contaminants in the different trophic levels or in human health is
low or very low, due to their small concentration (enhanced by dilution
effects) and its low-toxic profile (Hernando et al., 2006; Dubroca et al., 2009;
Clarke, Cummins 2015).
Macronutrient Content and Release
The addition of biosolids to agricultural land was reported to increase the

growth and production of crop plants and pastures, usually exceeding that of
well-managed fertilized controls (Torri, Lavado 2009 a; Athamenh et al.,
2015; Pawlett et al., 2015; Corra, da Silva 2016). This rise in productivity is
attributed to the increase in water holding capacity and nutrient availability to
plants. Biosolids are a source of plant nutrients, including nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), sulphur (S), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca) and
micronutrients such as copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) and boron (B). Nutrient content
in biosolids depends on the untreated water source, chemicals used in the
wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) in pre- or post-treatment, or types of
unit operations used, and was reported to be in the range of 1-210 g N kg1, 1-
150 g P kg1, 1-65 g K kg1, 5-170 g Ca kg1, 2-94.5 g Mg kg1 (Solis-Mejia et
al., 2012).

Nitrogen
For regulatory and practical reasons, biosolids loading rates have been
typically determined by estimating the amount of plant available N released by
biosolids. Low levels of biosolids-borne N may lead to economic loss through
yield reduction, whereas a high N level may increases the risk of nitrate
leaching into groundwater.
Nitrogen supplied by biosolids is mainly present as organic forms, often
quoted between 50 - 80% (Sommers, 1977). However, these organic forms are
not immediately available to plants. The conversion of organic nitrogen into
plant available forms (ammonium NH4+ or nitrate ions NO3) is mediated by
heterotrophic soil microorganisms (Pierzynski et al., 2005). Nitrogen
mineralization is the process by which organic N is first released as NH4+ ions,
which may be directly absorbed by plant roots or oxidised by aerobic,
nitrifying bacteria to nitrite ions (NO2). Nitrite ultimately oxidises to nitrate
ions (NO3), which are easily absorbed by plant roots (Pierzynski et al., 2005).
The proportion of organic N in biosolids that becomes plant available is
referred to as the mineralizable fraction. For agronomic and environmental
purposes, it is often assumed that, after a single application, 20% of biosolids
organic-N is mineralized in the first year, 10% in the second, and 5% in the
third year (USEPA, 1995). However, the available fraction of organic N in
biosolids may be influenced by soil properties, and environmental conditions.
On the other hand, many authors reported that total N content and the release
of mineralized N in biosolids amended soil may be significantly influenced by
the type of sewage sludge treatment process, dewatering and/or storage (Hseu,
Huang 2005; Rouch et al., 2011; Al-Dhumri et al., 2013; Rigby et al., 2016).
Nitrogen may be lost from biosolids-amended soil by leaching, runoff or
gaseous emissions. Leaching of N mainly occurs as NO3, because most soils
have a low capacity to retain anions. On the contrary, NH4+ is less mobile
because it is adsorbed onto negatively charged soil components. Leaching of
NO3 to groundwater is a major cause of groundwater contamination
(Addiscott, 2005). This process is a function of the combination of many soil
and environmental factors, including N application rates and timing, soil
properties and mineralogy, rainfall, irrigation, depth of the aquifer and plants.
In general, coarse-textured soils have lower water holding capacities than fine-
textured soils, so the vertical movement of nitrates is more likely in sandy soils
(Corra et al., 2006). The presence of plants with a deep root system reduces N
leaching due to N uptake and evapotranspiration (Rigby et al., 2016). On the
other hand, soluble and particulate forms of N may be lost by wind or water
erosion or run-off. These looses may occur when the rate of precipitation

exceeds soil infiltration capacity (Pierzynski et al., 2005). This is also

dependent upon factors such as topography, soil physical and chemical
properties and crop cover (Ojeda et al., 2006). Hence, local investigation of N
dynamics in biosolids-amended soils is a key factor to determine appropriate
application rates and best management practices for each region.
Phosphorus
Biosolids-borne P may be found in both soluble and insoluble organic and
inorganic P compounds (Tian et al., 2012). Inorganic P is the predominant
form of P in biosolids, representing 70 to 90% of total P (O'Connor et al.,
2004; He et al., 2010). As said above, in most legislation, annual application
rates of biosolids are determined by crop N requirements in order to prevent N
leaching to groundwater (Al-Dhumri et al., 2013; Corra et al., 2012).
However, the relatively low N/P ratio of biosolids has led to a significant over-
application of P at the N-based rate. As the amounts of P applied often exceed
crop removal, more than 95% of biosolids-borne P remains in soils (Corra,
2004).
Phosphorus availability in biosolids is strongly influenced by the
wastewater treatment process used (White et al., 2010; Torri et al., 2016).
Biosolids treatment with high Al and/or Fe doses results in biosolids having
low available P concentrations, with Fe and Al phosphates as dominant P
forms (Shober, Sims 2007). Taking into account that the solubility kinetics of
these phosphate minerals is extremely slow, it is unlikely that, once formed,
these minerals would readily release P into the soil solution (Strawn et al.,
2015). In fact, P in biosolids treated with Al and Fe was found to be less
soluble than P in untreated biosolids or commercial fertilizers (Kyle,
McClintock 1995). Addition of lime was reported to increase biosolids pH and
decrease the solubility of P by the formation of recalcitrant Ca-phosphate
minerals (Islas-Espinoza et al., 2014). Heat-dried biosolids were reported to
have the lowest P availability of all WWT processes, whereas biosolids
obtained by biological P removal exhibit both elevated total P and water-
extractable P (Penn, Sims, 2002; Brandt et al., 2004).
The avalability of biosolids-borne P exerts a major influence on the
potential for off-site P migration at land application sites. Past research has
shown that soils that are more saturated with P have less capacity to retain
added P and may thus increase the more labile forms of soil P, with the risk of
P loss in runoff or by leaching (Hooda et al., 2000; Pautler, Sims 2000). The
problem arises when runoff waters or subsurface flows contain
environmentally unacceptable contents of dissolved P forms, or when highly

P-enriched soil particles are eroded into water bodies (Chowdhury et al.,
2017). Diffuse P pollution is directly associated with the development of water
body eutrophication in agricultural ecosystems (Withers, Jarvie 2008; Quinton
et al., 2010). Soluble P as low as 0.02 mg L-1 is sufficient to induce water body
eutrophication (Sharpley, Rekolainen 1997). In sensitive scenarios, Fe or Al-
treated biosolids reduce the risk of P transport. On the other hand, if runoff P
is not a major concern and biosolids are primarily applied to provide available
P to crops, the standard biological P removal process or a process that involves
the addition of lime instead of Fe and Al oxides may be adequate. The fate of
biosolids borne P in biosolids amended soils was reviewed by Torri et al.
(2016).
Potentially Toxic Elements

The presence of biosolids-borne potentially toxic elements (PTE) such as
arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), mercury
(Hg), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn) is the most critical long-term hazard when
biosolids is land applied. Some of these elements have been reported to be
essential to all plant species (micronutrients), and some others are known to
have stimulating effects on plant growth, although their functions have not
been recognized yet (Asher 1991; Barker, Pilbeam 2007; Torri et al., 2011).
Elevated levels of PTEs in agricultural soils may adversely affect soils
quality, depress plant yields or degrade the quality of food or other goods
produced. They may also represent an ecological and human health risk if they
enter the food chain or leach into ground waters (Alloway 1995).
Biosolids contain varying concentrations of PTE as a result of drainage
waters, business effluents (such as car washes, dental uses, among others),
atmospheric deposition, traffic related emissions (asphalt wear, brake linings,
vehicle exhausts, tires, petrol/oil leakage) and household effluents (Torri,
Lavado 2008 a, b). These elements may be transported into the sewage system
to end in the wastewater treatment plant and into biosolids (Bergback et al.,
2001). Taking into account the great variability in PTE inputs, range and
media concentrations of PTE encountered in biosolids samples are shown in
Table 1.
Unlike the majority of organic compounds, PTE do not undergo microbial
or chemical degradation (Adriano 2003). These elements persist in the
environment for a long time after their introduction and accumulate in soils,
which are usually their final sink (Raymond, Okieimen 2011). When PTEs are
introduced into the soil, they may be subjected to a series of chemical and
biochemical processes, such as adsorption/desorption, precipitation/

dissolution, complexation/dissociation, and oxidation/reduction (Violante et

al., 2010). Not all the processes are equally important for each element. Soil
physical-chemical properties such as pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC),
organic matter content, mineralogy and the nature and amount of the trace
element are also likely to assume great importance in determining PTE
behavior in biosolids amended soils, especially at low biosolids application
rates (Shaheen et al., 2014; Urasa, Mwebi 2011). It has been postulated that, at
very high application rates, biosolids properties dominate PTE chemistry and
bioavailability in the short to medium term (Zufiaurre et al., 1998). With time,
it is thought that biosolids properties will have progressively less influence
over PTE behavior and that soil characteristics will ultimately control
speciation (Parkpain et al., 1998; Smith, 1996).
Table 1. Element content in dry biosolids (mg kg-1)
Element Range in dry biosolids (mg kg-1) Media (mg kg-1)

arsenic 1.1 23 10
cadmium 1 3410 10
chromium 1 - 99000 500
cobalt 11.3 - 2490 30
copper 84 - 17000 800
iron 1000 - 154000 17000
lead 13 - 26000 500
manganese 32 - 9870 260
mercury 0.6 - 56 6
molybdenum 0.1 2.14 4
nickel 2 - 5300 80
selenium 1.7 17.25 5
tin 2.6 - 329 14
zinc 101 - 49000 1700
Biosolids guidelines and regulations have been developed to regulate total

doses for land applications. These are generally based on the maximum
allowable PTE concentration limits (mg kg-1 dry weight) and cumulative
loading rates (MAFF, 1993; NSW EPA, 1997; USEPA, 1997, Epstein 2003
and EU, 2000). But total concentrations of PTE in soils are not necessarily a
good indicator of potential PTE toxicity. Recently, some countries have begun
to introduce the concept of bioavailability in their regulations regarding
environmental protection. Quite a lot of work has been done to find a method
that can reliably estimate PTEs chemical forms in soils, bioavailability,
biological uptake, and eco-toxicological effects on the soil biota in biosolids

amended soils. The most important methods include: single batch extraction of
soil samples with salt solutions (Adriano, Weber 2001); sequential extraction
with increasingly strong extractants designed to dissolve metals bound to
different solid phases (Pierzynski 1998, McGrath, Cegarra 1992); and column
leaching experiments (Paramasivam et al., 2006).
Sequential extraction methods have been widely used in an attempt to
quantitatively estimate PTEs chemical forms in soils. In this technique, the
soil is subjected to a series of chemical reagents or extractants of increasing
reactivity, with phytoavailability and mobility of PTE decreasing in the order
of the sequential extraction step. The amount of PTE extracted from the more
bioavailable fractions gives an idea of the size of the pool that might be
depleted by a plant during the growing period. In most protocols, PTE are
divided into the following physicochemical forms: (1) simple or complexed
ions in solution and exchangeable ions; (2) bound to organic matter; (3) bound
to carbonates; (4) bound to iron and manganese oxides and hydroxides; and (5)
in the mineral lattice of silicates or residual fraction (McLaren, Crawford
1973; Tessier et al., 1979; Emmerich et al., 1982; Sims, Kline 1991; Morabito
1995). The terms of the fractions are more likely to be operationally, rather
than chemically defined. A wide range of reagents have been proposed to
establish empirical relations between plant uptake and PTE concentration in
soils (McLaughlin et al., 2000b).
At present, there is no analytical method that can universally and
quantitatively assess plant PTE uptake. The reasons for this includes the
presence of different components in each particular soil, diverse chemical
forms comprising the available pool of PTE, intrinsic limitations of the
extracting reagent, differences between plant species, variations in the ability
of the plant to absorb PTEs at different growth stages, the ability of plants to
transfer PTEs from roots to different aereal tissues as well as the synergism or
antagonism between some PTE (McLaughlin et al., 2000).
At very high rates of biosolids application, phytotoxicity due to biosolids-
borne PTE are likely to occur (Juste, Mench 1992; Berti, Jacobs 1996). On the
contrary, at agronomically biosolids application rates (between 28 Mg ha-1),
PTE do not normally represent a limitation to plant growth. There are a
number of reasons for this, including PTE sorption on soil oxides and organic
matter (from soil or biosolids), the formation of insoluble inorganic salts, and
antagonistic effects of between biosolids-borne PTE (Torri, Lavado 2009 b).
For instance, P tends to increase Cd concentration and Cd:Zn ratio and
decrease Zn concentration in plant tissue and seed; and Zn is competitive with
Ca, Cu and Ni (Chaney et al., 2000; Grant et al., 2010). Many studies reported

that biosolids-derived PTE are generally less available for plant uptake than
the more mobile PTE salt impurities found in commercial fertilisers (Kidd et
al., 2007).
Single or repeated applications of biosolids may lead to an increase in
PTE concentration in different soil fractions over time due to the
decomposition of less soluble forms of PTE initially present in biosolids.
Some authors reported that the increase in PTE availability did not lead to
metal accumulation in plants (Gaskin et al., 2003). Other authors reported that
the amount of PTE taken up by plants was related to the type of crop and the
chemistry of each metal. For example, an elevated concentration of Zn but not
of Cu was reported in the leaves of plants grown on biosolid amended soils
(Granato et al., 2004; Codling 2014). Nonetheless, although plant PTE
concentrations generally increase with increasing biosolids rates,
concentrations in plant tissues often exhibit a plateau response at high
loadings. These results were reported for wheat, maize, and other plant species
(Barbarick et al., 1995; Logan et al., 1997, Sukkariyah et al., 2005). On the
other hand, the low phytotoxic effect of biosolids borne PTE has been
explained by the soilplant barrier concept (Basta et al., 2005). This concept
assumes that the mobility of PTE is influenced by soil or plant barriers that
may limit transmission of these elements through the food chain either due to
soil chemical processes that limit solubility (soil barrier) or by plant
senescence due to phytotoxicity (plant barrier).
Potentially trace elements were always considered relatively immobile in
soils. In fact, most soil profile studies from short- and long-term sludge
applications concluded that biosolids-borne PTEs were largely retained in the
topsoil or the zone of biosolids incorporation (Sukkariyah et al., 2005). These
results were consistent with later research, which did not show significant
increases in total PTEs concentrations below 30-cm depth in soil profiles
despite the differences in biosolids application methods or soil properties (Su
et al., 2008; Ukwatta, Mohajerani 2016). Other authors reported a virtual
immobilization of PTE by the soil matrix through ltration, complexation, and
chemisorption processes (Haering et al., 2000; Brown et al., 2002; Basta et al.,
2005). However, in recent years, there has been concern that biosolids borne
PTEs might be more mobile in soil than previously thought. McBride et al.
(1997) and Richards et al. (1998) indicated that downward mobility might
occur in the field without a substantial increase in PTEs concentrations in the
subsoil. Later, other authors suggested that high levels of PTE might be
reaching groundwaters (Ashworth, Alloway 2004; Saiers, Ryan 2006; Miller,
Karathanasis 2014). In leaching tests, Margu et al. (2016) reported that the

percentage of released PTEs in comparison with soil total content was quite
low, (<10%). This vertical movement was explained by complexation
reactions of PTEs with mobile biosolid colloid particles that migrate through
soil macropores transporting PTEs to greater soil depths (Karathanasis et al.,
2007, Miller et al., 2011). The formation of soluble organic matterPTE
complexes of high stability in soil solution has been found to reduce PTE
adsorption to solid soil phases (Wong et al., 2007). The downward movement
of PTE in biosolids amended soils was reviewed by Torri and Corra (2012).
CONCLUSION
Land application of biosolids is a beneficial way to recycle organic matter,
improving the chemical, physical and biological properties of soils, resulting
in an increase in crop yields. Biosolids loading rates have been typically
determined by estimating the amount of plant available N released by
biosolids. Although the relatively low N/P ratio of biosolids has led to a
significant over-application of P at the N-based rate, P solubility and mobility
is governed by the wastewater treatment plants processes, and may not be of
major environmental concern. The presence of biosolids-borne potentially
toxic elements is the most critical long-term hazard when biosolids are land
applied. Although the availability of PTEs has been reported to decrease over
time, many studies indicate that a small portion of PTEs is dissolved in the soil
solution and may move to subsoil horizons. However, research suggests that
environmental risks are minimal under current biosolids regulations.
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USEPA, 1997. Tesy methods for evaluating solid waste, physical/chemical
methods. OSWER, SW-847.
Violante, A, Cozzolino, V, Perelomov, L, Caporale, A.G, and Pigna, M. 2010.
Mobility and bioavailability of heavy metals and metalloids in soil
environments. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 10(3), 268-
292.
White J W, Coale F J, Sims J T, Shober A L. 2010. Phosphorus runoff from
waste water treatment biosolids and poultry litter applied to agricultural
soils. J Environ Qual. 39: 314-323.
Wiseman, P.E., Day, S.D., Harris, J.R. 2012 Organic amendment effects on
soil carbon and microbial biomass in the root zone of three landscape tree
species Arboriculture and Urban Forestry 38 [6], pp. 262-276.
Wong, J. W. C., Li, K. L., and Selvam, A. 2007. The sorption of Cd and Zn by
different soils in the presence of dissolved organic matter from sludge.
Geoderma 137, 310317.
Zufiaurre et al., 1998. R. Zufiaurre, A. Olivar, P. Chamorro, C. Nern and A.
Callizo. 1998. Speciation of metals in sewage sludge for agricultural uses.
Analyst 123: 255259.
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Silvana Irene Torri
Affiliation: Department of Natural Resources and Environment, School of

Agriculture, University of Buenos Aires.
Education: Graduate in Chemistry (FCEyN, University of Buenos Aires),

holding MSci degree in the field of Soil Science. Actually finishing a PhD.
E-mail address: torri@agro.uba.ar.
Research and Professional Experience: Her research program mainly

focuses on dynamics of potentially toxic elements in the soil-plant system,

land application of organic residues and bioremediation of contaminated soils.

She is also involved in the supervision of pre and post graduate students
research. She acts as the Lead Editor in two scientific Journals, and she acts as
a reviewer in 18 academic Journals.
Book Chapters:
Torri S, Cabrera M, Torres- Duggan. 2013. Plants response to high
soil Zn availability. Feasibility of biotechnological improvement. En:
Biotechnologica lTechniques of Stress in Plants, Editor: M. Miransari,
Stadium Press LLC USA, ISBN: 1-62699-031-X, 101-118.
Torri S. 2014. Sustainable agriculture in the Pampas region,
Argentina. En: Sustainability behind Sustainability, editor: A Zorpas.
Nova Science Publishers, Inc., Hauppauge, NY 11788, ISBN 978-1-
63321-595-5 (ebook) 297-318. 408 p.
Torri S, Urricariet A.S, Lavado R. 2015. Micronutrientes. En:
Fertilidad de suelos y fertilizacin de cultivos. Garca F y Echeverra
H. Ediciones INTA, Balcarce, ISBN 978-987-521-565-8, 357-377.
908.
Peer reviewed Journals

Torri S.I., Corra R.S., Renella G. 2014. Soil carbon sequestration
resulting from biosolids application, Applied and Environmental Soil
Science (ISSN: 1687-7667), Volume 2014 (2014), Article ID 821768,
9 pages. doi:10.1155/2014/821768.
Torri S.I., Corra R.S. Renella G., Vadecantos A., Perelomov L. 2014.
Biosolids Soil Application: Agronomic and Environmental
Implications 2013, Applied and Environmental Soil Science, Article
ID 314730, 3 pages. doi:10.1155/2014/314730. ISSN: 1687-7667.
Torri S.I., Corra R.S. Renella G., Vadecantos A., Perelomov L. 2015.
Biosolids Soil Application: Agronomic and Environmental
Implications 2014, Applied and Environmental Soil Science, Vo.
2015, Article ID 627819, 2 pages. ISSN: 1687-7667.

Torri S.I., Corra R.S., Renella G. 2016. Biosolids application to

agricultural land: a contribution to global phosphorus recycle,
Pedosphere, accepted.
Torri S.I., Cabrera M.N., Alberti, C. 2016. Actividad microbiana
durante la bioestimulacin de un suelo contaminado con
hidrocarburos aromticos policclicos. Revista Internacional de
Contaminacin Ambiental, accepted.

INDEX
biodegradation, ix, 40, 42, 45, 47, 48, 51,

A 52, 56, 62, 63, 68, 179
biofertilizer, 28, 47, 183
acetogenesis, 163, 167, 168, 170, 171, 172
biofilm, 44, 45, 93, 94, 108, 115, 122, 132,
acidogenesis, 123, 163, 170, 171
135
activated sludge process, 43, 44, 88
biogas, v, x, 5, 15, 16, 35, 45, 76, 94, 106,
aerated lagoon, 43, 74, 83, 84, 86, 134
112, 113, 144, 146, 161, 162, 163, 164,
aeration, 43, 66, 83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 91, 92,
167, 169, 170, 172, 173, 175, 177, 178,
116, 117, 121, 123, 126, 127, 179, 187
180, 181, 182, 183, 184
aerobic processes, 43, 44, 45, 80, 91
biological processes, x, 43, 44, 54, 72, 74,
agitation, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 89, 94,
77, 99, 115, 120, 161, 172, 187
95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 105,
biological processes fluid dynamics, 77
106, 107, 108, 135, 139
biomass, v, 38, 44, 46, 49, 60, 62, 67, 73,
agriculture, 1, 8, 36, 37, 54, 55, 58, 59, 67,
75, 78, 79, 80, 85, 93, 109, 110, 113,
127, 139, 144, 155, 162, 179, 182, 196,
130, 132, 141, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147,
197, 203, 206, 207
148, 149, 151, 156, 157, 159, 166, 167,
anaerobic biofilm reactor, 45
168, 169, 170, 173, 174, 175, 176, 183,
anaerobic digestion, vii, x, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9,
188, 199, 201, 203, 206
10, 13, 14, 15, 18, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32,
bioparticles, 76, 108
33, 34, 36, 46, 60, 72, 94, 97, 124, 129,
145, 161, 163, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173,
174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 181, 182, 183 C
anaerobic processes, 45, 111, 115
animal feed, 41, 55, 57 carbon benefits, 20
archaea, x, 161, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167, chemical oxygen demand (COD), 41, 45,
169, 171, 172, 173, 176, 184 82, 87, 92, 110, 137
artificial neural networks (ANN), 82 chitin, 42, 49, 51, 53, 54, 59, 62, 63, 64, 65,
66, 67, 68
circular economy, x, 141, 142, 155, 157
B compartmental, 75, 89, 115, 129
composting, vii, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 13, 14,
baffles, 81, 85, 87, 91, 92, 93, 117, 118, 122
15, 16, 18, 21, 22, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32,
bioactive compounds, 52

210 Index
33, 35, 50, 57, 66, 67, 163, 177, 179, fisheries waste, viii, 39, 40, 41, 43, 48, 51,
180, 182, 183, 184, 187 52, 53, 56, 59
crustacean waste, 42, 50, 62 fisheries wastewater, 43
fishmeal, 41, 45, 50, 51, 55, 58
fluid dynamics, ix, 72, 73, 75, 76, 80, 82,
D 84, 91, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100,
101, 107, 110, 113, 115, 116, 117, 119,
dead zones, 81, 84, 88, 96, 98, 103, 110,
120, 123, 124, 127, 128, 129, 131, 133,
116, 120
138, 139
dispersion coefficient, 91, 100, 110
food and additives, 56
diversity of fisheries waste, 48
food waste management, v, viii, 1, 2, 9, 11,
drag, 77, 80, 89, 92, 99, 101, 104, 109, 110,
14, 31
111, 131
fouling, 116, 117, 123, 132
E G
eco-friendly management, 40
green growth, 46, 64, 68
energy, ix, x, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16,
27, 28, 30, 32, 33, 35, 42, 44, 46, 51, 52,
53, 55, 57, 62, 72, 94, 97, 101, 102, 105, H
107, 108, 110, 111, 116, 121, 129, 132,
136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 144, hydrolysis, 42, 52, 53, 61, 163, 167, 168,
145, 146, 147, 148, 150, 153, 154, 155, 170, 171, 172, 187
156, 157, 162, 163, 164, 166, 169, 170,
174, 177, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184
energy recovery, 5, 46, 57, 156, 163, 164 I
environmental impact, vii, viii, xi, 5, 8, 39,
industrial symbiosis, x, 141, 142, 143, 157
40, 46, 51, 53, 56, 57, 60, 143, 147, 155,
186
environmental impacts of food waste, 8 K
enzymes, 42, 48, 52, 55, 61, 63, 68, 145,
166, 168, 170 kinetic theory of granular flow (KTGF), 77,
experimental methods, 78 100, 112, 113
F L
fermentation, 42, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 64, 66, LES approach, 77, 92, 99, 105
137, 145, 169, 170 lift, 77, 80, 95, 99, 100, 101, 102, 111, 124,
finite difference method (FDM), 75 125, 137
finite element method (FEM), 75, 86
finite volume method (FVM), 75, 116
fish oil, 42, 52, 56, 58, 66 M
fish waste, 26, 40, 41, 46, 47, 48, 50, 52, 54,
55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61, 63 managing or recycling biodegradable
wastes, 14

Index 211
mass transfer coefficient, 107 short circuiting, 116

mathematical model(s), 72, 73, 78, 83, 84, solid state fermentation, 42, 59, 66, 67
91, 105, 135 sustainable development, ix, 71, 142, 144,
medicine, 42, 54 147, 153, 157
methanogenesis, v, 46, 123, 161, 163, 166,
167, 168, 170, 171, 182
methanogens, x, 46, 162, 165, 166, 167, T
168, 171
tanks in series, 75, 85, 93
microbiological kinetics, 82, 83, 87, 89
the waste hierarchy, 10
three phase, 104, 120
O treatment microbes, 40
trickling filter, 44
oils, 18, 52, 55, 56, 58, 61, 144, 145, 163 tunic, 42, 49, 63, 64
oligosaccharides, 47, 52 turbulence, 77, 78, 81, 90, 91, 92, 95, 97,
opportunities for saving carbon, 29 98, 99, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107,
other uses, 55 108, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 118,
oyster shell waste, 42, 56, 58 120, 124, 127, 132, 134, 136, 137, 138,
139
two-phase, 183
P
peptides, 47, 52, 63 U

population balance model, 107
porous media, 76, 92, 115, 136, 200 upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor, 45,
137
use of fisheries waste, ix, 40, 53
R
recirculation flow rate, 81, 82 V

regulations, vii, viii, ix, xi, 9, 15, 34, 39, 41,
56, 57, 58, 59, 185, 186, 193, 196 value-added resources, 47
residence time distribution (RTD), 84, 85, virtual mass, 77, 80, 101
93, 108, 113, 115, 127, 129 volume of fluid (VOF), 76, 92, 97, 100,
resource recycling, 46 107, 114, 116, 117, 118
rheology, 75, 76, 95, 96, 97, 105, 106, 120,
124
rotating biological contactor, 44 W
waste, v, vii, viii, x, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,

S 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21,
22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32,
scale-up, ix 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 46,
seaweed waste, 42, 49, 50, 63, 66, 69 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58,
settling, 73, 79, 87, 90, 91, 113, 122, 125, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 72,
126, 129, 133, 134, 139, 140 76, 94, 111, 121, 122, 133, 138, 141,
shear stresses, 78, 81, 94, 106, 135 142, 143, 144, 145, 147, 148, 150, 151,

212 Index
155, 157, 159, 161, 162, 163, 164, 169,

170, 171, 174, 177, 178, 179, 180, 182,
Z
183, 184, 186, 198, 199, 200, 205, 206
zero-emission, viii, ix, 39, 40, 46, 47, 48, 59
waste policies, viii, 39, 46, 47

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The accumulation of solid organic waste is thought to be reaching critical

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friendly approach to the challenge of food waste management. The objective

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improved regulations, encouraging efficient recycling of fish-processing

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benefits of the circular economy approach for the promotion of industrial

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biosolids. Sludge has traditionally been disposed through ocean-dumping,

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FOOD WASTE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS:

Shayeb Shahariar1,* and Paul Rooney2

* Correspondence Author Email: shayeb.shahariar@usask.ca.

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Keywords: food waste, biodegradable organic waste, composting, anaerobic

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concerning sustainable recycling and management options (Opatokun et al.,

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landfilled to the quantity produced in 1995. By 2016 the Directive requires

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the production of the greenhouse gas methane from landfill. Although

2. AN OVERVIEW OF FOOD WASTE IN THE UK

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2.1. Food Waste: Generation and Characteristics

In the UK households generate 6.7 million metric tons of food waste

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thrown away uneaten in the greatest proportion is salad; in the UK 45% by

2.2. Environmental Impacts of Food Waste

Food waste is important concern because of the adverse environmental

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2.3. Context and Policy Drivers for Food Waste Management

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2.4. Context and Policy Drivers for Food Waste Management in

In the UK emissions of the GHGs were estimated to be 590.4 million

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Management Program is to minimize the risks and maximize the opportunities

To reduce general waste production in absolute metric tonnes by 5%

2.5. Food Waste Recycling in the UK

The present management of the UKs food waste is mostly by traditional

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composting of biodegradable waste including food waste, is relatively

Table 1. Proportion of food waste from the UK hospitality industry that

Type of waste Hotels Pubs QSRs Restaurants

2.6. Environmental and Financial Benefits of Food

About 31 million metric tons of household waste are produced in the UK

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2.7. Food Waste Management Options

There are several technologies available for managing or recycling

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