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Abstract
Buildings are large consumers of energy in all countries. In regions with harsh climatic conditions, a substantial share of energy
goes to heat and cool buildings. This heating and air-conditioning load can be reduced through many means; notable among them is
the proper design and selection of building envelope and its components.
The proper use of thermal insulation in buildings does not only contribute in reducing the required air-conditioning system size
but also in reducing the annual energy cost. Additionally, it helps in extending the periods of thermal comfort without reliance on
mechanical air-conditioning especially during inter-seasons periods. The magnitude of energy savings as a result of using thermal
insulation vary according to the building type, the climatic conditions at which the building is located as well as the type of the
insulating material used. The question now in the minds of many building owners is no longer should insulation be used but rather
which type, how, and how much.
The objective of this paper is to present an overview of the basic principles of thermal insulation and to survey the most commonly
used building insulation materials, their performance characteristics and proper applications.
r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Buildings; Thermal insulation; Reective insulation; Thermal mass; Vapor retarder; Moisture control
0360-1323/$ - see front matter r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2004.05.013
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354 M.S. Al-Homoud / Building and Environment 40 (2005) 353366
component including insulation. The placement of condensation can occur within the insulation material.
insulation material within the building component can Studies on the impact of moisture content on insulation
affect its performance under transient heat ow. The thermal performance concluded that the effectiveness of
best performance can be achieved by placing the insulating materials at higher moisture content is
insulating material close to the point of entry of heat reduced in proportion to the moisture content level.
ow. This means placement of insulation to the inside Higher thermal conductivity is obtained due to in-
for climatic regions where winter heating is dominant creased energy transfer by conduction and, under
and to the outside where summer cooling is dominant. certain conditions, by the evaporationcondensation
However, for practicality it is common to use insulation process, in which moisture moves from warm to cold
to the inside or between wall cavities. regions [5].
Massing of the enclosing envelope is a parameter that Insulating the building very well is not enough if it is
is mostly related to the thickness and type of the not airtight. Inltration can have signicant contribu-
construction material used and its ability to delay heat tion to energy waste especially in residences with loose
transfer through the building structure over a period of construction. Insulation applied on cracks and small
time. It is another important parameter in determining openings can hide them without preventing air inltra-
thermal performance of the building and hence the tion. Inltration is dependent on the tightness of the
energy required to provide thermal comfort in the building construction, exterior shielding, temperature
occupied space. differences, wind velocity, and building height. There-
Insulation materials can be made in different forms fore, it is important to seal and caulk all cracks and
including loose-ll form, blanket batt or roll form, rigid penetrations, such as electrical outlets and light switches
form, foamed in place, or reective form. The choice of that could be a source of uncontrolled air leakage into
the proper insulation materials type and form depends or out of the conditioned space. A tight, well-sealed
on the type of application as well as the desired residence is more energy efcient and requires less
materials physical, thermal and other properties. insulation to achieve thermal comfort.
Because most thermal insulation materials exhibit heat Air retarders can also be used to minimize air
ows by a combination of modes (i.e., conduction, inltration by preventing heated or air-conditioned
radiation, and convection) resulting in property variation indoor air from escaping the building through its shell.
with material thickness, or surface emittance, the premise The air retarder should block air only, not moisture and,
of a pure conduction mode is not valid, therefore, the therefore, should have high perm rating (5.0 or higher)
term apparent is implicit in the term thermal conductivity to allow the escape of moisture that might have
of insulating materials [24]. Published thermal conduc- migrated into the building component [6].
tivity values and those reported by manufacturers are To avoid problems associated with well insulated tight
normally evaluated at laboratory standard conditions of buildings such as poor indoor air quality and moisture
temperature and humidity to allow comparative evalua- accumulation, it is important to provide adequate
tion of thermal performance. ventilation. Ventilation air helps avoid the build up of
Thermal insulation materials like other natural or stale air and air pollutants in the conditioned space and
man-made materials exhibit temperature dependent prevents elevated moisture levels which can cause
properties that vary with the nature of the material moisture condensation on window surfaces as well as
and the inuencing temperature range. The impact of concealed condensation within walls and roofs during
operating temperature on the thermal performance of heating season.
insulation materials has been the subject of many
studies. Results indicate that insulation materials subject
to high temperature have higher thermal conductivity 2. Thermal insulation
and therefore higher envelope cooling load with varying
degrees depending on the type of insulation material [5]. 2.1. What is thermal insulation?
In addition to the operating temperature, the material
moisture content is another major factor affecting the Thermal insulation is a material or combination of
thermal conductivity of insulation materials. The higher materials, that, when properly applied, retard the rate of
the material moisture content, the higher the thermal heat ow by conduction, convection, and radiation. It
conductivity. In buildings, insulation materials used in retards heat ow into or out of a building due to its high
walls and roofs normally exhibit higher moisture thermal resistance [3].
content when compared to test conditions. The ambient
air humidity and indoor conditions, as well as the 2.2. What is thermal conductivity?
envelope system moisture characteristics, play an
important role in determining the moisture status of Thermal conductivity is the time rate of steady state
the insulation material. When conditions are favorable, heat ow (W) through a unit area of 1 m thick
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M.S. Al-Homoud / Building and Environment 40 (2005) 353366 355
homogeneous material in a direction perpendicular to the long-wave infrared radiation is absorbed and/or
isothermal planes, induced by a unit (1 K) temperature scattered by the insulation material (low-e materials can
difference across the sample [2]. Thermal conductivity, also be used to minimize radiation effects). However,
k-value, is expressed in W/m-K (Btu/h-ft-F or Btu-in/hr- conduction usually increases as the cell size decreases
ft2-F). It is a function of material mean temperature and (the density increases).
moisture content. Thermal conductivity is a measure of Typically, air-based insulation materials cannot ex-
the effectiveness of a material in conducting heat. ceed the R-value of still air. However, plastic foam
Hence, knowledge of the thermal conductivity values insulations (e.g., polystyrene and polyurethane) use
allows quantitative comparison to be made between the uorocarbon gas (heavier than air) instead of air within
effectiveness of different thermal insulation materials. the insulation cells, which gives higher R-value.
Therefore, the interaction of the three modes of heat
2.3. What is thermal resistance? transfer of convection, radiation, and conduction
determines the overall effectiveness of insulation and is
Thermal resistance is a measure of the resistance represented by what is called the apparent thermal
(opposition) of heat ow as a result of suppressing conductivity which indicates the lack of pure conduction
conduction, convection and radiation. It is a function of especially at high temperatures.
material thermal conductivity, thickness and density. Both vapor passage and moisture absorption are
Thermal resistance, R-value, is expressed in m2-K/W more critical in open cell structure insulation as
(h-ft2-F/Btu). compared to closed cell structure. Vapor retarders are
commonly used to prevent moisture penetration into
2.4. What is thermal conductance? low-temperature insulation. Vapor retarders are used to
the inside of insulation in cold climates and to the
Thermal conductance is the rate of heat ow (W) outside of insulation in hot and humid climates
through a unit surface area of a component with unit (allowing moisture escape from the other side). Vapor
(1 K) temperature difference between the surfaces of the retarders placement, however, is a challenge in mixed
two sides of the component. It is the reciprocal of the climates.
sum of the resistances of all layers composing that
component without the inside and outside air lms 2.7. What are the benefits of using thermal insulation?
resistances. It is similar to thermal conductivity except it
refers to a particular thickness of material. Thermal There are many benets for using thermal insulation
conductance, C-value, is expressed in W/m2-K in buildings, which can be summarized as follows:
(Btu/h-ft2-F).
1. A matter of principle: Using thermal insulation in
2.5. What is thermal transmittance? buildings helps in reducing the reliance on mechan-
ical/electrical systems to operate buildings comforta-
Thermal transmittance is the rate of heat ow through bly and, therefore, conserves energy and the
a unit surface area of a component with unit (1 K) associated natural resources. This matter of conser-
temperature difference between the surfaces of the two ving natural resources is a common principle in all
sides of the component. It is the reciprocal of the sum of religions and human values.
the resistances of all layers composing that component 2. Economic benefits: An energy cost is an operating
plus the inside and outside air lms resistances. It is cost, and great energy savings can be achieved by
often called the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U- using thermal insulation with little capital expendi-
value, and is expressed in W/m2-K (Btu/h-ft2-F). ture (only about 5% of the building construction
cost). This does not only reduce operating cost, but
2.6. How does thermal insulation work? also reduces HVAC equipment initial cost due to
reduced equipment size required.
Thermal insulating materials resist heat ow as a 3. Environmental benefits: The use of thermal insulation
result of the countless microscopic dead air-cells, which not only saves energy operating cost, but also results
suppress (by preventing air from moving) convective in environmental benets as reliance upon mechan-
heat transfer. It is the air entrapped within the ical means with the associated emitted pollutants are
insulation, which provides the thermal resistance, not reduced.
the insulation material. 4. Customer satisfaction and national good: Increased use
Creating small cells (closed cell structure) within of thermal insulation in buildings will result in energy
thermal insulation across which the temperature differ- savings which will lead to:
ence is not large also reduces radiation effects. It causes Making energy available to others.
radiation paths to be broken into small distances where Decreased customer costs.
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356 M.S. Al-Homoud / Building and Environment 40 (2005) 353366
Fewer interruptions of energy services (better Metallic or metallized reflective membranes. These
service). must face an air-lled, gas-lled, or evacuated space to
Reduction in the cost of installing new power be effective.
generating plants required in meeting increased
Accordingly, insulating materials are produced in
demands of electricity.
different forms as follows:
An extension of the life of nite energy resources.
Conservation of resources for future generations. Mineral ber blankets: batts and rolls (berglass and
5. Thermally comfortable buildings: The use of thermal rock wool).
insulation in buildings does not only reduce the Loose ll that can be blown-in (berglass, rock wool),
reliance upon mechanical air-conditioning systems, poured-in, or mixed with concrete (cellulose, perlite,
but also extends the periods of indoor thermal vermiculite).
comfort especially in between seasons. Rigid boards (polystyrene, polyurethane, polyisocya-
6. Reduced noise levels: The use of thermal insulation nurate, and berglass).
can reduce disturbing noise from neighboring spaces Foamed or sprayed in-place (polyurethane and
or from outside. This will enhance the acoustical polyisocyanurate).
comfort of insulated buildings. Boards or blocks (perlite and vermiculite).
7. Building structural integrity: High temperature Insulated concrete blocks.
changes may cause undesirable thermal move- Insulated concrete form.
ments, which could damage building structure and Reective materials (aluminum foil, ceramic coatings).
contents. Keeping buildings with minimum tempera-
ture uctuations helps in preserving the integrity of Fig. 1 shows a graphical comparison of the thermal
building structures and contents. This can be resistances of 5 cm thickness for common building
achieved through the use of proper thermal insula- insulation materials. Concrete block is not considered
tion, which also helps in increasing the lifetime of as an insulating material. However, it was included in
building structures. the gure as a reference (no insulation case) for
8. Vapor condensation prevention: Proper design and comparison purposes only.
installation of thermal insulation helps in preventing
vapor condensation on building surfaces. However,
care must be given to avoid adverse effects of 3. Reective insulation
damaging building structure, which can result from
improper insulation material installation and/or 3.1. What is reflective insulation?
poor design. Vapor barriers are usually used to
prevent moisture penetration into low-temperature Most insulating materials work by creating miniature
insulation. air spaces. Reective insulation, on the other hand,
9. Fire protection: If the suitable insulation material is uses larger air spaces faced with foil on one or both
selected and properly installed, it can help in sides. If one single reective surface is used facing an
retarding heat and preventing ame immigration into open space, it is called radiant barrier. The performance
building in case of re. of reective insulation depends on a number of factors
[3,6]:
2.8. What are the available types of thermal insulation? The radiation angle of incidence on the reective
surface. The best performance of reective insulation
Many types of building thermal insulation are is achieved when radiation falls at a right angle of
available which fall under the following basic materials incidence on the reective surface (perpendicular to
and composites [3]: the surface).
The temperature difference between the spaces on
Inorganic Materials both sides of the reective material. The greater the
Fibrous materials such as glass, rock, and slag wool. temperature difference, the greater the benets of the
Cellular materials such as calcium silicate, bonded reective insulation.
perlite, vermiculite, and ceramic products. The emissivity of the material. The lower the
Organic Materials emissivity (the higher the reectance) the better.
Fibrous materials such as cellulose, cotton, wood, The thickness of the air space facing the reective
pulp, cane, or synthetic bers. material. Air space must exist on at least one side of
Cellular materials such as cork, foamed rubber, the reective insulation.
polystyrene, polyethylene, polyurethane, polyiso- The orientation of the air space.
cyanurate and other polymers. The direction of heat ow.
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M.S. Al-Homoud / Building and Environment 40 (2005) 353366 357
am
Fo
t e-
ra
nu ar
d
ya
c Bo
iso gi
d
ly i
Material Po -R
ne/ ss ed
ha la nd
et r G
x pa
ur be -E
ly Fi ne et
Po re nk
ts y la
ly - B
Po ss
la t
rG ke
b e an
Fi - Bl
e
en ite
yl ul
e th ic
ly m
er
Po V k
oc
e Bl 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4
t
re
onc 2
R-Value (m .K/W)
C
Fig. 1. Thermal resistance (per 5 cm thickness) of common building insulation materials (Concrete block is added in the gure as a reference for
comparison purposes).
3.2. How does reflective insulation work? Additional layers of reective insulation create addi-
tional air spaces that reduce convection heat ow.
Reective insulation reduces heat transfer by radia- Although radiation is independent of orientation, con-
tion. Materials react to radiant energy falling on them vective heat ow depends greatly on both the orientation
through the following [3]: of the air space and the direction of heat ow.
The resistance of air spaces and reective insulation
Absorptance a: fraction of incident radiation varies with their location in the structure and the time
absorbed through the material. of the year (direction of heat ow).
Transmittance t: fraction of incident radiation
White color is also effective in minimizing heat transfer
transmitted through the material.
into buildings in hot climates because it is not only a
Reectance r: fraction of incident radiation reected
poor absorber of energy but also a good emitter.
by the material.
Therefore, 3.3. When and where to use reflective insulation?
atr1
Reective insulation comes as rolled foil (usually
For opaque surfaces, t 0 and a r 1: For a black aluminum), reective paint, reective metal shingles, or
surface t 0; r 0 and a 1: Reective (polished) foil-faced plywood sheathing. It is most effective in hot
surfaces are characterized by high reectance and, climates with predominant cooling requirements.
therefore, low emittance ; materials ability to diffuse
radiant energy a; for gray surfaces), which makes The best application of a radiation barrier is in hot
them effective in reducing radiant heat transfer in climates just under the roof to reduce radiant heat
buildings especially in hot climates. The emittance is a gain from the sun. It is also benecial in walls
function of the material, and the condition and receiving direct sun radiation such as west walls.
temperature of its surface. The reective insulation Reective insulation is of minimum benets in
works as follows [1,7,8]: surfaces that are heavily shaded and/or well insulated.
Reective insulation is not economic in cold climates
Heat from hot surfaces radiates in a straight line to with predominate heating requirements. It further
other cooler surfaces surrounding them. The reective might have adverse effects where the roof (attic) is
insulation (radiant barrier) reduces radiant heat kept cooler when the winter heat gain from the sun is
transfer from such hot surfaces (e.g., roof or wall) reduced due to the use of reective insulation allowing
to cooler spaces (e.g., attic or living space). more heat loss from the heated space below it.
The reective insulation must be both a poor emitter Therefore, it is more cost effective to use more
(p0:1 emittance) and a poor absorber (good reector, thermal insulation rather than using reective insula-
X0:9 reectance) of thermal radiation. tion in such climates [6].
The rst layer of reective insulation is the most The reective foil can be installed to create two air
effective (stops about 95% of radiant heat ow). spaces each facing a reective insulator.
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358 M.S. Al-Homoud / Building and Environment 40 (2005) 353366
The reective insulation should be placed to avoid North has little need for time lag (small heat gain).
dust accumulation (e.g., foil face down in the roof). East morning load should not be delayed to the
It is not recommended to install reective insulation afternoon. Use either:
on the top of roof (attic oor) insulation where it Very long time lag 14 h: However, mass with
might act as a vapor barrier and trap moisture in the long time lag is expensive and not recommended on
insulation during cold weather. the east; or
The reective foil conducts electricity; therefore, it Very short time lag. No mass at all on the east or at
should not be installed in contact with bare electrical least no mass on the outside of the east insulation.
wiring. South mid-day heat can be delayed until sunset by
In addition to the reective performance character- using mass with medium time lag ( 8 h).
istics of reective materials, other characteristics such West orientation can also sufce with 8 h time lag as
as strength, ammability, availability, and cost should the number of hours between peak west sun and
be considered. Reective foils come with different sunset is very short.
treatments against tearing such as laminated woven The roof requires a very long time lag as it receives
mesh or bubble-pack between two foil sheets. sunlight most of the day. However, since it is both
expensive and not practical to place heavy mass on the
3.4. How thick should the air space be? roof, additional insulation rather than mass is usually
recommended for roofs.
The resistance of air space is a function of its Mass time lag largely postpones heat gain. Colors, on
thickness. Thinner air spaces have less resistance due the other hand, signicantly reduce heat gain.
to greater conduction. Thicker air spaces, on the other Building thermal mass plays a more signicant role in
hand, have less resistance due to heat transfer from dry climates with:
convection currents. Therefore, the optimum air space High daily summer temperatures.
thickness should be used 20 mm [7]. Large diurnal (daily) ranges.
Insulation is more critical than thermal mass in humid
climates with:
4. Thermal mass High summer temperatures and humidity.
Small daily variations.
4.1. What is the insulating effect from thermal mass?
There are different sources and transport mechanisms building is designed, its thermal systems, and consider
of moisture into building assemblies including [1,9]: the following:
Liquid water ow from rain and plumbing leaks. Rain Select proper building materials and construction
can penetrate through leaks around doors, windows methods.
and other cracks in the building envelope. Prevent rain water penetration into the building
Water vapor convection from air inltration through envelope by proper roong and caulking around all
openings and cracks in the building envelope. This is penetrations and cracks.
a major cause of interstitial condensation in the Control inltration by sealing all air leakage path-
building envelope. ways around the building envelope.
Water vapor from internal sources such as people, Use proper ventilation and dehumidication. How-
cooking, shower, laundry, and indoor plants. ever, in humid climates make sure that the incoming
Water vapor diffusion from parts with higher ventilation air is not a moisture source where it might
moisture levels (higher vapor pressure) to other parts be more humid than the inside air.
with lower moisture levels. From warm places (warm Use and properly locate vapor retarder in the building
inside air in cold winter or hot humid outside air in envelope when applicable.
summer) to cold places as warm air usually contains
more moisture than cold air.
Liquid water movement due to capillarity from the 6. Vapor retarders
ground through porous materials in the basement,
foundation, ground oor slab and walls. 6.1. What is a vapor retarder?
Released moisture which was previously stored in the
building structure during slow air drying construction A vapor retarder is a special material (treated papers,
process. This normally plays a role only in the rst paints, plastic sheets, and metallic foils) that reduces the
few years after building construction. passage of water vapor. A material permeability (or
perm) determines the extent to which water vapor can
In reality, multiple moisture sources and transport pass through it. The lower the permeability, the better
mechanisms normally act together at one time. Every the material is as vapor retarder. Materials can be
moisture transport mechanism can cause moisture classied based on their permeability as follows [10]:
problems and can help dry building materials and
alleviate such problems as well. Therefore, it is not
Vapor barriers which are very impermeable to water
vapor (p1 perm). These include polyethylene lms,
always the best approach to prevent moisture transport
aluminum foils, oil-based paints, vinyl wall coverings,
mechanisms but rather to control moisture sources,
sheet metal, foil-faced insulation, glass, rubber
control moisture transport and accumulation mechan-
membranes.
isms, and encourage moisture removal (drying) in a
building assembly [9].
Vapor retarders which are semi-vapor permeable to
water vapor (1o10 perms) and include plywood, un-
faced expanded polystyrene, paper and bitumen
5.2. What are the factors that impact moisture problems?
facing on berglass insulation, most latex-based
paints.
Many factors impact the seriousness of moisture
problems in buildings. These include:
Breathable materials which are permeable to water
vapor (X10 perms) such as unpainted gypsum board,
Local climate at the building site. un-faced berglass insulation, cellulose insulation,
The difference between the indoor and outdoor climate. cement, and other similar building materials.
The type and quality of construction. Different
materials will hold and transport moisture differently.
For example, concrete will allow more moisture to 6.2. Why use a vapor retarder?
pass and be stored more than wood or aluminum.
The amount of moisture generated indoors. When there is high level of moisture in the air of a
The ventilation process. living space it can cause a lot of problems. When such
The type and position of the insulation used. moist air touches a cold surface with a temperature that
The use and location of vapor retarder. is below or equal to the dew point of that air,
condensation will start to occur on that surface which
5.3. How to control moisture problems in buildings? could accumulate and create problems. If this moisture
penetrates to the wall or the ceiling it could create an
In order to control moisture in buildings, it is environment for mold and mildew growth resulting in
important to understand the climate at which the health problems and damaging building materials. If it
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360 M.S. Al-Homoud / Building and Environment 40 (2005) 353366
gets into the insulation material, it will adversely impact the choice of insulating materials can be summarized as
its performance. follows:
Thermal insulation can help cure or complicate
moisture problems. The temperature inside an insula- 1. Thermal performance
ted component is changed and the new temperature Thermal resistance
prole can either prevent condensation or make a High R-value insulation material (e.g., berglass,
surface inside that component colder during winter than rock wool, polystyrene, polyethylene, polyur-
it would be if un-insulated. Therefore, water vapor ethane, ...).
traveling through that component can condense and Material thickness vs. thermal resistance.
cause problems. Material density vs. thermal resistance.
Operating temperature range vs. thermal resistance.
6.3. Where to use a vapor retarder?
Thermal bridging
The type and location of the vapor retarder to be used Continuity of thermal insulation around walls/
in a building depends greatly on the prevailing climatic roof.
conditions and whether moisture is expected to move No/minimum framing.
more into or out of the building. For example:
Thermal storage
In regions with prevailing cold climate, moisture tends Thermal storage benets from massive walls
to diffuse through building envelope from warmer (e.g., concrete, adobe).
and more humid inside air to colder and drier outside Time lag capabilities.
air. Therefore, vapor retarder should be placed 2. Cost
towards the inside warm surface of insulation. The Extra cost of insulation (cost per R-value).
exterior surfaces should be permeable to allow drying Extra cost of quality materials and workmanship.
towards the outdoors. Impact on labor cost.
In regions with prevailing hot and humid conditions, Impact on air-conditioning equipment size and
on the other hand, moisture is expected to diffuse initial cost.
through the building envelope from outside warmer Impact on energy/operating cost.
and humid air to the colder and drier inside 3. Ease of construction
conditioned air. Therefore, vapor retarder should Impact on workmanship requirements.
generally be placed towards the outside surface of Impact on ease/speed of construction.
insulation. Impact on ease of operation, maintenance and
In mixed climates, where moisture is expected to move replacement.
both into and out of the space without predominance 4. Building codes requirements (safety and health issues)
of either, it is better not to use vapor retarder at all Fire resistance capabilities.
and allow water vapor by diffusion to ow through Health hazards (toxic or irritating fumes).
the building envelope into and out of the space Structural stability (load bearing vs. non load
without accumulation. bearing, compressive strength).
Rigid foam insulation boards do not require added Odor and skin/eye irritation.
vapor retarder treatment when placed to the interior 5. Durability
of masonry walls. R-value change over time (e.g., foams lled with
gases heavier than air, that diffuse over time).
Water and moisture effects (absorption and
7. Thermal insulation selection permeability).
Dimensional stability (thermal expansion and
7.1. What are the selection criteria for building thermal contraction).
insulation? Settling over time.
Strength (compressive, exural, and tensile).
Many parameters should be considered when select- Chemicals and other corroding agents.
ing thermal insulation, including durability, cost, Biological agents (dry rot and fungal growths).
compressive strength, water vapor absorption and 6. Acoustical performance
transmission, re resistance, ease of application, and Sound absorption.
thermal conductivity. However, the thermal resistance Sound insulation.
of insulation materials is the most important property 7. Air tightness
that is of interest when considering thermal performance Vapor/inltration barrier.
and energy conservation issues. The factors that impact Wall/roof construction quality.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
M.S. Al-Homoud / Building and Environment 40 (2005) 353366 361
Form Material Densitya Thermal Fire resistance Effect as vapor Effect as Resistance to Maximum Durability Sound Cost per R- Potential health risks Typical applications
(Kg/m3) conductivity barrier (% water inltration direct sunlight service absorption (%) value
(W/m-K) absorption) barrier temperature
C
Blankets: Batts Fiberglass (sand 1256 0.040.033 Good Poor fair (with Poor fair (with Excellent 42601 Compression High Low Inorganic (organic Frame wall or ceiling,
or Rolls & recycled facing) facing) reduces R-value binders), Irritating dust partitions, prefabricated
glass) during installation houses, irregularly
shaped surfaces, ducts,
and pipes. Settling is
expected.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
underlay, expansion
joints.
Loose-ll Fiberglass 1048 0.0380.030 V. good Poor (1% of weight) Poor Excellent 42601 Comp.& moisture High Low Inorganic (organic Cavities and around
blown-in or (open cell degrade R-value binders). Irritating dust obstructions. Added
poured-in structure) during installation adhesive provides more
resistance to air
inltration.
Rockwool 0.040 Excellent Poor (1% of weight) Poor Excellent 2408001 Comp.& moisture V. high Low Inorganic (organic Cavities.
(open cell degrade R-value bonds). Irritating dust
structure) during installation
Cellulose 2436 0.0540.046 V. good (added Poor (5% to 20% of Poor Good 801 Comp.& moisture Low Low Organic. Irritating dust Blown into small
(ground-up re resisting weight) degrade R-value during installation cavities.
waste paper) chemicals)
Perlite (natural 32176 0.060.04 Excellent Fair Good Good 7601 Good Low High Inorganic Fill or mixed
glassy volcanic withPortland cement for
rock) walls, roofs, and oors,
plastering.
Vermiculite 64130 0.0680.063 Excellent Poor (dries slowly) Good Good 13151 Good Low High Inorganic Poured into ceilings,
cavity walls, and cores
of hollow core blocks.
Rigid Board Fiberglass 24112 0.0350.032 Good Good 0.2% Good Excellent 43501 More rigid than Medium Medium Inorganic (organic Cavity walls, roofs, and
(open cell batts bonds) prefabricated structures.
structure)
Expanded 1635 0.0380.037 Poor Good (1.02.5%) Good Poor 1001 R-value decreases Low Lowest of Organic (uses pentane Walls, roofs, and oors.
Polystyrene w/time rigid board gas as the expanding Must be covered inside
(closed cell types agent, toxic) for re and against
foam) outside weather.
Extruded 2645 0.0320.030 Poor Excellent V. good Poor 1001 R-value decreases Low High Organic (uses HCFC or Walls, roofs, oors,
Polystyrene (0.21.0%) w/time CFC gases as the perimeter, basements,
(closed cell expanding agent, toxic and foundations. Must
foam) fumes) be covered inside for re
and against outside
weather.
Polyurethane & Polyisocyanurate 4055 0.023 Poor Good (0.51.5%) Excellent Poor 951 R-value decreases
(closed cell foam) w/time
Low High Organic Walls and roofs.
(uses CFC Must be
or CO2 covered inside
gases as the for re and
expanding against outside
agent, toxic weather.
fumes)
Perlite (natural 32176 0.060.04 Excellent Fair Excellent Good 7601 High Low High Inorganic Blocks (industrial /
glassy volcanic commercial insulation),
rock) light weight insulating
concrete.
Vermiculite 64130 0.0680.063 Excellent Good Excellent Good 13151 V. high Low High Inorganic Not in houses (heavy
(natural weight).
mineral)
Sprayed-in- Cellulose (waste 2436 0.0540.046 V. good Poor V. good (added Good 801 re retardant Low High Organic. Requires Attics retrotting, wood
Place paper) adhesives) chemical may protection against frame sidewalls
corrode metals inhaling ne particles (experienced help
needed). Needs time to
dry before enclosing to
avoid moisture
problems.
Foamed-in- Polyurethane & Polyisocyanurate 4055 0.023 Poor Good Excellent Poor 951
Place (closed cell foam)
Low High Organic Roofs, cavities,
(toxic irregular and
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enclosing to
avoid moisture
problems.
d
Reective Aluminized thin Reduces only Good Excellent Excellent Excellent High Ceilings, walls, and
Systems sheets radiant heat oors. Most effective in
(Reective foil, transferc reducing downward
separated by heat ow (i.e., summer
airspaces)b heat gain in cooling
dominated climates,
usually installed directly
under the roof).
Fabricated in a variety
of packings include
kraft paper, plastic lm,
cardboard, or
polyethylene bubbles.
Ceramic 1.25 Radiation V. good Excellent (seamless Excellent Excellent High High (Rust Requires protective Metal roofs, built-up
Coatings control water proong) proong) clothing and eye roong, walls, storage
(acrylic paint protection when applied systems. Ducts and
lled with pipes.
ceramic micro
spheres - brush,
roller or spray)
Note :
a
Thermal conductivity varies with material density and thickness as well as temperature and moisture content.
b
If one single reflective surface is used facing an open space, it is called Radiant Barrier.
c
The effectiveness of resistance to heat flow depends on spacing, airspace orientation and heat flow direction. Must have low emittance p0:1 and high reflectance X0:9:
d
Foil must face air space with face down to prevent dust accumulation.
363
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364 M.S. Al-Homoud / Building and Environment 40 (2005) 353366
Outside plaster
Exterior layer
(a) Water proofing
Concrete slab
Air space
Inside plaster Thermal insulation
Concrete block
Suspended ceiling
Hangers
Thermal insulation
Outside plaster
Exterior layer
(b) Water proofing
Concrete slab Reflective insulation
(aluminum foil)
Metal lath
Suspended ceiling
Slab-on-grade
Acknowledgements