AC Power Electronic Systems: Stability and
Power Quality
Jian Sun
Department of Electrical, Computer and Systems Engineering
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180-3590, USA
Abstract This paper presents an overview of ac power
electronic system modeling and analysis methods. Characteristics
of such systems are first discussed, and their applications and
significance in renewable energy and distributed generation (DG),
transportation, and other mobile and autonomous power systems
are highlighted. Typical stability and power quality problems
encountered in these systems are demonstrated by measurements
from several practical systems. Small-signal analysis methods,
such as phasor-based analysis, transformation into dq reference
frame, reduced-order modeling, and harmonic linearization that
are applicable to ac power electronic systems, are then reviewed
and compared in terms of their applicability and limitations.
Small-signal impedance modeling of rectifiers and inverters by
harmonic linearization is reviewed in some detail. Limitation of the
existing impedance-based system criterion when applied to
current-source systems is identified and an extension of the theory
is presented for application to grid-parallel inverters.
I. INTRODUCTION
As power converters (such as power supplies, motor drives and
UPS) that are traditionally built from discrete devices and compo-
nents become commodity products, research in power electronics
is shifting towards miniaturization for low- and medium-power
applications, as well as to integration and control of power
electronic systems encompassing multiple converters. For the
purpose of this work, a power electronic system is defined as a
power system where a significant portion of system power is
processed by power electronic circuits and control such that their
operation has a dominant effect on system performance. The form
of power distribution in such a system can be dc, ac, or a combi-
nation of both, and the system will be referred to as dc, ac, or
hybrid power electronic system, respectively.
Dc power electronic system has been a research subject in power
electronics for almost three decades now, started from satellite and
space station applications [1, 2] in the 1970s and 1980s, and
proliferated in the 1990s driven by telecom and computer applica-
tions where it is commonly referred to as distributed power
systems (DPS) [3, 4]. Electric and hybrid-electric vehicle became
another application of dc power electronic system technology in
more recent years. Many works have been published on the
modeling, analysis, and design of such systems [6-14], and a
standard analysis method based on averaging and linearization has
been developed. Since a switching converter represents a discon-
tinuous system that is difficult to deal with analytically, averaging
is a necessary step to first remove the switching operation such that
an approximate, continuous (averaged) model can be developed.
Various averaging techniques have been discussed in the literature,
ranging from straightforward state-space averaging [6-9] to more
sophisticated reduced-order modeling techniques for resonant and
soft-switching converters [10, 11].
978-1-4244-2551-8/08/$20.00 2008 IEEE
Once an averaged model is established for a converter, it can be
linearized about a steady-state operation point to develop a small-
signal model such that linear system theories can be applied to
study system stability and performance. The most widely used
system analysis method is to partition the system into a source and
a load subsystem, and to determine system stability by applying the
Nyquist stability criterion to the ratio between the source output
impedance to the load input impedance [12]. Dynamic interactions
between a converter and its input filter can be analyzed using the
same method [13]. The impedance-based system stability require-
ments can also be used to define impedance specifications for
individual converters such as system stability can be guaranteed by
design [14]. However, such specifications are almost always too
conservative, resulting in increased size and cost of system design;
design for system stability remains a topic for future research.
Ac power electronic system is a relatively new development.
The electric power grid is by far the largest power system that has
been in existence since George Westinghouse and Nikola Tesla
successfully demonstrated a polyphase electrical supply system at
the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. Despite the
large number of power supplies and other power electronic devices
connected to the grid, however, the utility grid remained, until
recent years, largely an electromechanical system where power is
almost exclusively generated by large synchronous generators and
mostly consumed by linear and passive loads such as incandescent
light bulbs and motors. The percentage of power processed by
power electronic circuits and control has been relatively small and
their effects on overall system operation is negligible for most
practical purposes. This, however, is changing rapidly in recent
years due to the proliferation of renewable energy and distributed
generation technologies on the source side, and energy-efficient
technologies such as solid-state lighting and variable-speed drives
on the load side. Similar changes are taking place in other, mobile
and autonomous power systems such as those found on ground and
air transportation systems. As a result, there is a great demand for
understanding of stability and power quality issues in ac power
electronic systems, as well as for methodologies and tools that can
be applied to analyze and integrate such complex systems.
This paper presents an overview of ac power electronic system
stability and power quality problems as we know today, and review
available system modeling and analysis methods. The next section
presents several practical ac power electronic systems and discuss
their characteristics. Possible system stability and power quality
problems are demonstrated by measurement results in Section III.
Different system analysis methods are reviewed and compared in
Section IV, followed by an overview of the recently developed
harmonic linearization method (Section V) and an extension of the
impedance-based method to current-source systems (Section VI).
Section VII summarizes the paper.
 II. AC POWER ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS Since variable-speed drives require rectification front end,
harmonic distortion becomes a critical problem for MEA power
An ac power electronic system is defined hereby as an ac power system. To ensure system power quality, airborne environmental
system where a significant portion of system power is processed by standards such as DO-160 have been updated recently to include
power electronic circuits and control. Several commonly encoun- harmonic current limits for equipment that interfaces with airborne
tered ac power electronic systems are reviewed below to highlight electrical systems. Complying with these standards requires the use
their practical significance. of multi-pulse rectifiers such as TRU (transformer rectifier unit)
and ATRU (autotransformer rectifier unit), or PWM rectifiers with
A. Renewable Energy and Distributed Generation active power factor correction as the front-end converter [24].
Meantime, single-phase PFC converters are required by single-
The electrical power grid is undergoing some fundamental
phase loads such as avionics, communication, and in-flight enter-
changes. The conventional model of a substation or service trans-
tainment systems [25, 26]. Fig. 1 depicts a conceptual VF power
former supplying power to loads in a radial or network (/ring)
system highlighting the use of various rectification loads on the VF
structure is no longer valid. The sources will become inherently
power bus. It is estimated that more than 50% of MEA system
dispersed due to the use of renewable energy and other distributed
power is processed by power electronic circuits at least once,
generation technologies [15], and in many cases there is no longer
making it a typical ac (or hybrid) power electronic system.
a clear physical line between the source and the load. The level of
penetration by renewable energy and distributed generation is
increasing at an unprecedented speed in many countries and Motor Motor Motor
regions in the world, driven by growing energy demands, rising
energy cost, and concerns over environmental effects of conven- Invert. Invert. Invert.
tional fossil fuels. Many states in the US, for example, have set
ATRU ATRU PWM
goals to reach 10-25% renewable penetration level in their utility Rec
SSPC dc-dc VF AC Bus
grid within a decade. Since most renewable and DG sources use VF
GEN
inverters for interfacing with the grid, the source of future electrical
28 VDC Bus
grid will become increasing power electronic sources [16]. This is TRU 1 PFC
particularly true in some small areas where there is a high concen-
tration of renewable sources, or in micro-grids [17], which rely on dc-dc dc-dc DC Backup In-Flight Entertainment &
power electronics and control for system operation. Power Other Single-Phase Loads
Avionics, Communications,
Similar changes are taking place on the load side. Electronics Flight Control, SSPC: Solid State Power Controller
consume now a significant portion of electricity used in American
households; conventional incandescent light bulbs are being Fig. 1. Illustration of a conceptual MEA power system highlighting the use of var-
ious rectification loads.
replaced by more efficient compact fluorescent lights (CFL) and
solid-state lighting devices; and home appliances such as washing C. Other AC Power Electronic Systems
machines and air conditioners are being equipped with variable-
speed drives to enhance their performance and reduce energy In addition to renewable energy and MEA power systems, ac
consumption. All these new devices require conditioning of the 50/ power electronic systems can be found in several other practical
60 Hz ac input by power electronic circuits and control, typically applications, such as electric ships [27, 28], autonomous and
consisting of an ac-dc rectification front-end followed by a dc-dc mobile power systems used by the military and in isolated areas, as
converter or dc-ac inverter. As the result, the utility grid is trans- well as grid-connected commercial and residential buildings with
forming from the conventional electromechanical and electromag- large amount of locally generated renewable and DG inputs. As an
netic system to a ultra large scale ac power electronic system, example, Fig. 2 illustrates the power system of a computing facility
which has profound impact on grid characteristics and requires a that incorporates backup power (UPS and gad-fired generator), on-
new paradigm in system analysis and control [18-21]. site generation using micro-turbine based DG, and grid connection
through a substation transformer. Similar systems can be found in
B. More-Electric Aircraft Power Systems data centers and office buildings.
Conventional transport aircraft power systems use constant-
frequency (CF) 400 Hz ac power distribution produced by the so-
called integrated drive-generators (IDG) [22]. Such CF system is
now replaced by variable-frequency (VF) ac on new commercial
passenger airplanes in order to eliminate the maintenance-intensive
IDG. Meantime, more-electric aircraft (MEA) technology is also
being adopted in which many functions that are traditionally
operated by hydraulic, pneumatic, or mechanical power are
electrified in order to reduce size and weight, and improve fuel
efficiency [23]. This has resulted in the use of large number of
motor drives for such functions as fuel pumping, cabin pressur-
ization and air conditioning, engine start, and flight control
actuation, making power electronics an indispensable part of MEA
Fig. 2. Power system for a computing facility incorporating uninterruptible power
technologies [23]. supplies, gas-fired backup generator, and micro turbine-based DG.
 III. SYSTEM STABILITY AND POWER QUALITY
This section presents measurements from several practical ac
power electronic systems to highlight the origin and types of
system stability and power quality problems. When discussing
such systems, we assume that individual sources and loads in the
system have been designed such that all sources are stable when
their loads are resistive and within their capacity limits, and that all
loads are stable when they are supplied from ideal sources. This
assumption also reflects a common practice used in most power
system design: The source converters are designed by assuming
resistive loads, and the load converters are designed by assuming
ideal (voltage) source input. When interconnected, the non-ideal
source characteristics and/or dynamic load behavior common in
power electronic circuits can lead to inadvertent system interac-
tions that can lead to system stability and power quality problems.
The origin of such system interactions can be explained by using
the simple RC circuits shown in Fig. 3.
v1 v1
R1 R1
R3 v3
v2 v2
R2 C R2
a)
Fig. 3. Origin of system interactions in an analog circuit. a) Coupling of two sec-
tions of the circuit by impedance; b) Isolation by using an op-amp.
tional amplifiers (op-amps) in analog circuit design. Since an ideal
op-amp has infinite input impedance and zero output impedance, it
can decouple interconnected functional blocks when used properly,
see e.g. Fig. 3b). However, such decoupling is impossible in power
electronic systems, leading to the system stability and power
quality problems that are exemplified below.
A. Voltage Instability Involving a Three-Phase UPS
Fig. 4 shows measurements from a three-phase UPS system
installed in a bank building. It is related to a consulting project the
author was involved in. The three-phase UPS has a capacity of 200
kW and was built using line-commutated thyristor technologies. It
was found that during the charging period of the battery bank
following a power outage in the building, the voltage in the entire
building went unstable, as can be seen from the voltage
measurement shown by the third trace in Fig. 4.
The company sold multiple units of the same UPS products, and
the measurement unit was the only installation where the instability
problem occurred. Hence it was clear that the problem couldnt be
caused by the UPS alone. However, it was found that the UPS had
a very fast current control loop when operating under battery
charging mode, which effectively results in low dynamic input
R3 v3 impedance of the UPS appearing to the utility grid in the charging
mode. Additional measurement of the system indicated that the
+ substation transformer is quite weak and had high reactance. Hence
C it was concluded that the voltage instability was caused by the high
grid impedance seen from the building and the low input
impedance of the UPS in the charging mode. The problem was
solved by lowing the gain of the UPS current loop to effectively
b) increase its input impedance.

The circuit in Fig. 3 consists of a resistive voltage divider and an

RC filter. The voltage transfer ratio of the resistive divider when
the output is an open-circuit is
V 2(s) R2
G 1(s) = -----------
- = -----------------
-, (1)
V 1(s) R1 + R2

while the RC filter transfer function is

Unstable Voltage
V 3(s) 1
G 2(s) = -----------
- = ---------------------- . (2)
V 2(s) 1 + R 3 Cs

The overall transfer function from v1 to v3 can be found to be

V 3(s) R2 Fig. 4. Voltage instability in a bank building due to interactions between a UPS
- = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------- , (3) and the substation transformer.
V 1(s) ( R 1 + R 2 ) + [ R 1 R 2 + R 3 ( R 1 + R 2 ) ]Cs
B. Single-Phase PFC Converter Interaction with the Source
which is different from the product of G 1(s) and G 2(s) . In
particular, the interconnection shifted the pole of the system from The second example relates to a single-phase PFC converter
( R 3 C ) 1 to a lower frequency at powered from a programmable ac source. Feedforward control was
incorporated in the PFC current loop such that high-quality input
R 1 R 2 1 1
R + ----------------- current was expected. To the contrary, the measured input current
- ---- .
3
R +R C waveform, shown in Fig. 5, contained significant harmonics.
1 2
Unlike the low-frequency voltage instability in the previous
Change in system dynamics due to interconnect may lead to example, the problem hear is a power quality problem involving
instability or significant degradation of system performance if not high-frequency harmonic distortion. Detailed analysis of the
accounted for in the design. This problem is solved by using opera- problem and its solutions can be found in [29].

Fig. 5. Harmonic current distortion caused by dynamic interaction between a sin-
gle-phase PFC converter and the source output impedance.
C. Gird-Parallel Fuel Cell Inverter Current Instability
The last example, shown in Fig. 6, involves a single-phase
PWM inverter for interfacing a fuel cell with the grid. The inverter
can operate in both standalone and grid-parallel mode. Fig. 6a)
shows inverter output voltage in standalone operation and with a
resistive load. Both voltage and current are sinusoidal in this case.
However, the inverter output contains significant harmonic
currents in grid-parallel operation, as shown in Fig. 6b).
v load subsystem, as depicted in Fig. 7. Assume that the source
i Zl + Zs
a)
v control loop where the loop gain is Z s Z l . Therefore, intercon-
i and only if the impedance ratio Z s Z l , in other words, the
b)
Fig. 6. A fuel-cell inverter output voltage and current in a) standalone operation
with a resistive load, and b) grid-parallel operation.
The inverter was powered from a programmable dc power
source in the experiment to avoid the need for an actual fuel cell.
The dc supply voltage was found to be stable, indicating that the
harmonics are caused by inverter control and its possible inter-
action with the grid. Section VI presents an analysis of the inverter-
grid system which shows again that the harmonics are due to
dynamic interactions between the inverter and the grid.
The examples presented in this section indicate that system
interactions in ac power electronic systems may lead to both
voltage instability and harmonic distortion. To identify and solve
such system-level stability and power quality problems requires
system-level modeling and analysis methods and tools, which are
reviewed in the next section.
IV. SYSTEM ANALYSIS METHODS
Each switching power converter is a highly nonlinear system
that is difficult to handle by analytical methods. This limits us
to numerical simulation and small-signal analysis when dealing
with large power electronic systems in practice. Numerical
simulation is easy to start, but difficult to do well, and offers
very limited insight. Convergence and simulation time are also
critical for large systems, which often require distributed and
parallel simulation. In this work, we focus on small-signal
analytical methods.
A systematic method based on averaging and linearizations
has been developed for dc power electronic systems. The
existence of dc operation points allows the nonlinear averaged
models to be linearized such that a linear system model can be
developed. The system can then be partitioned into a source and a
output impedance, Zs, and the load input impedance, Zl, have been
determined by small-signal analysis. The voltage applied to the
load subsystem can then be calculated as follows:
Zl 1
V l = V s ---------------- = V s ----------------------- , (4)
1 + Zs Zl
Since the source is assumed to be stable by itself, stability of
the interconnected system requires that
1 -
---------------------- (5)
1 + Zs Zl
is stable. Note that (5) resembles the transfer function of a feedback
necting a non-ideal source with a load effectively creates an
additional feedback loop, and the interconnect system is stable if
additional loop gain, satisfies the Nyquist stability criterion. This
has been the basis for dc power electronic system analysis [12-14].
Zs +
Source Vs + Vl Zl Load
Fig. 7. Impedance representation of an interconnected source-load system.
 The impedance-based method discussed above can be applied to
ac or hybrid ac-dc power electronic systems as well. The difficulty,
however, is in obtaining the source and load impedance models. A
converter operating with ac input or/and output exhibits similar
nonlinear/discontinuous characteristics as in a dc-dc converter.
Although averaging can still be applied to remove model disconti-
nuity, the resulting averaged model is nonlinear, and direct linear-
ization of such a model is impossible due to the fact that the
converter operates along a periodic time-varying trajectory rather
than at a dc point as in dc power electronic systems.
Several methods are available for dealing with the time-varying
trajectories in ac power electronic systems. These include the
phasor-based method widely used in conventional power system
analysis, the transformation into the dq reference frame, and the
reduced-order modeling. These methods will be reviewed in the
following subsections to compare their utility and limitations.
A. Phasor Analysis
Phasor analysis is an effective method for linear ac circuits and
systems where the excitation is a single-frequency sine wave. The
phasor concept was originally developed for sinusoidal steady-state
analysis of linear circuits [30]. Conventional power system
analysis has used it to model transmission lines and loads for
system stability analysis as well [31, 32]. The underlying
assumption for such analysis is that the phasor amplitude and phase
angle can vary over time and, hence, can both be treated as
dynamic variables. The concept of such time-varying phasors was
more formally developed in [33], where they were referred to as
dynamic phasors to distinguish from conventional phasors used in
steady-state analysis.
Phasor-based dynamic models can be directly linearized by
using conventional small-signal analysis methods because both
the amplitude and phase angle of a phasor are constant in
steady-state operation. One limitation of the conventional
dynamic phasor theory is that it only applies to linear circuits
and systems. This is solved by the so-called generalized
averaging theory [34-36], in which each dynamic variable is
represented by a complex Fourier series with time-varying
amplitudes and phase angles. The Fourier series can be
truncated to include only the fundamental or with additional
harmonic terms, and each such term can be considered a
dynamic phasor [35]. A dynamic model can be developed for a
nonlinear circuit based on such Fourier representation by
applying the harmonic balance principle [34]. This method has
been applied to model FACTS and other nonlinear devices for
power flow and dynamic stability study [35, 36].
One limitation of the phasor-based method is that the models are
only valid below the fundamental frequency (or, in the case of
generalized averaging, the frequency of the highest harmonic
included in the model.) Therefore, power quality problems, such as
those discussed in III.B and III.C, cannot be studied using such
models. Another limitation, which is more subtle and has generated
some confusions in the past, is that small-signal impedance of
nonlinear circuit cannot be obtained from linearizations of phasor-
based models. To determine small-signal impedance of a nonlinear
circuit, one first injects a voltage perturbation as defined below:
v(t) = V 1 sin 1 t + V sin ( p t + p ) autonomous power systems reviewed in Section II, where there are
(6)
Perturbation
In general, the response of the current to such perturbation contains
harmonics at different frequencies because of nonlinearity. For the
purpose of small-signal analysis, one can ignore all harmonics and
consider only the response at the perturbation frequency:
i(t) = I 1 sin ( 1 t + 1 ) + I sin ( p t + p + p ) + (7)
The small-signal impedance at the perturbation frequency can be
determined once I and p have been calculated:
V
Z(j p) = ------- p (8)
I
With phasor-based models, however, small-signal perturbation
is introduced to the phasor, that is, to the amplitude (and phase) of
the voltage. As shown below, amplitude modulation is equivalent
to superimposing two harmonic voltages at the same time:
v(t) = [ V 1 + V sin ( p t + p ) ] sin 1 t = V 1 sin 1 t +
V V
------- cos [ ( p 1 )t + p ] ------- cos [ ( p + 1 )t + p ]
2 2
As the result, the amplitude of the current will be modulated by the
same frequency
i(t) = [ I 1 + I sin ( p t + p + p ) ] sin ( 1 t + 1 ) +
and the ratio of the voltage perturbation to the resulting current
perturbation can be obtained and written in the same form as (8).
However, this function is not compatible with the definition of
small-signal impedance discussed before. Therefore, although
phasor-based models can be linearized, the resulting small-signal
voltage-to-current transfer functions cannot be used as impedances
for use with the impedance-based system analysis method outlined
at the beginning of this section. This was discussed in more detail
in [37] by using a single-phase PFC converter as example.
The impedance-based method enables a hierarchical approach to
system analysis by allowing a system to be divided into different
subsystems and the system behavior to be studied at their intercon-
nection points. This is very attractive for large systems, particularly
those with variable configurations and/or parameters, because
changes in one subsystem do not affect the impedance of the rest of
the system, and adding or disconnecting a source or load can be
easily accommodated in the system model by adding or removing
the corresponding impedance element. Input and output impedance
models can also be established from experimental measurements if
analytical models are not available. None of these is possible with
phasor-based models because their incompatibility with small-
signal impedance definition. As the result, the system will have to
be treated as a whole and any change in any part of the system will
require reformulation of the entire system model. This has not been
a problem for traditional power system stability study, which
focuses at the transmission level where things do not change often.
Most renewable energies and other distributed resources, on the
other hand, are integrated into the utility grid at low- to medium-
voltage distribution level where things change frequently, making
the impedance-based approach much more attractive than the
phasor-based approach. The same is true for mobile and other
no transmission lines and there is usually only one voltage which
all sources and loads operate with.
B. Modeling in DQ Reference Frame
Another method to get around the time-varying behavior of
three-phase ac system is by transformation into the dq reference
frame. This method, also referred to as Park transformation, has
been used for decades in electric machine analysis to deal with the
position-dependent (hence time-varying) inductance of salient-
rotor synchronous machines [38]. It is also used in variable-speed
control of induction machines to enable decoupled control of the
magnetizing and torque-producing currents [39]. References [40]
and [41] used it to study small-signal behavior of PWM rectifiers
including interactions with input EMI filters.
The general abc-to-dq0 transformation matrix is defined as
2 2
sin sin ------ sin + ------
3 3
2
T = --- cos cos 2 2
------ cos + ------
3 3 3 PWM rectifiers and inverters used in practice can be simplified to
1-
------ 1-
------ 1-
------
2 2 2 capacitor voltage is assumed constant. For example, the averaged
where
= ( t ) dt .
The zero-axis can be dropped for balanced three-phase systems or
systems without neutral connection (hence no zero-axis current can
flow). An important feature of (9) is that it transforms balanced
three-phase sinusoidal quantities into two constant quantities, one
in the d-axis and one in the q-axis if in (10) is set to the frequency
of the quantities being transformed. Therefore, balanced three-
phase ac variables become dc variables in the transformed dq
reference frame. The existence of a dc operation point in the dq
reference frame permits the application of conventional small-
signal analysis techniques including the impedance-based system
stability analysis techniques.
One difference between such a transformed dq system and a dc
power electronic systems is that variables in the d- and q-axis are
usually mutually coupled. Reference [42] generalized the
impedance stability criterion to such two-dimensional systems
where both the source output and the load input are modeled by a
2-by-2 impedance matrix, and system stability depends on the
product between the source output impedance and the inverse of
the load input impedance. The coupling between the two axes
makes the application of Nyquist stability criterion more compli-
cated in this case [42].
Elimination of time-varying behavior by transformation into the
dq reference frame is possible only for balanced three-phase
sinusoidal ac systems. The zero-axis quantities cannot be ignored
and remain time-varying if the system is unbalanced, and conven-
tional small-signal linearization techniques cannot be applied in
that case. This implies that the method cannot be applied to single-
phase systems or systems with significant single-phase loads or
supplies, which is almost always the case with the ac power
electronic systems discussed in Section II. The dq-transformation
also has the following additional limitations or disadvantages
compared to other methods to be reviewed:
. This is true regardless whether the frequency is constant or variable.
1) The transformed model in the dq reference frame remains
time-varying if any of the three-phase quantities contains
more than one sinusoidal component, such as in the case
when harmonics have to be included.
2) The coupling between the d- and q-axis requires that the two
subsystems be studied together, which is more complicated
than when they are decoupled.
3) In many cases, there is no clear physical interpretation for
the impedances in the d- and q-axis as well as the coupling
between them. Experimental measurement of such imped-
ances is also difficult because of the requirement for special
equipment and instruments.
C. Reduced-Order Modeling
The third method that has been used in the literature to deal with
time-varying behavior of ac power sources and loads, specifically
(9) PWM rectifiers and inverters, is by reduced-order modeling. Most
the basic boost or buck topology, respectively. The averaged model
of either type of converters becomes linear in the duty ratio if the
model of a three-phase boost PWM rectifier can be written as
(10) ia va da
d
----- i b = v b V dc d b (11)
dt
ic vc dc
where (ia, ib, ic) are the phase currents, (va, vb, vc) the source
voltages, and (da, db, dc) the duty ratios of the three phase legs. The
overall converter model remains linear if the current controllers are
also linear. Then the converter input impedances (as viewed from
the three-phase input terminals) can be calculated directly without
requiring any linearization. The same is true when the converter
operates as an inverter.
The constant capacitor voltage assumption invoked in the above
discussion is justifiable at high frequencies where the capacitor can
be viewed as a short circuit for variation in its charging and
discharging current. The resulting models are therefore valid only
at high frequencies, too. Such high-frequency reduced-order
models can be used to design the current control loop, which
usually requires wide control bandwidth, and to study system inter-
actions in the high-frequency region, typically above the funda-
mental frequency of the system. This method has been used to
model high-frequency input impedance of boost single-phase PFC
converters [43], and to study the harmonic interaction problem
discussed in Subsection III.B [29].
A reduced-order model can also be developed for a PWM
rectifier or inverter at low frequencies by assuming a perfect
current control loop such that the actual phase current(s) follow the
reference(s). This techniques has been applied to single-phase
boost rectifiers [37]. The resulting low-frequency model, however,
is nonlinear, which, coupled with the time-varying ac terminal
voltages and currents, prevents direct application of conventional
small-signal analysis techniques. Averaging again over a funda-
mental cycle of the ac line can eliminate the time-varying behavior
[45], but linearization of the resulting time-invariant model is
equivalent to applying amplitude modulation, which is incom-
patible with the definition of impedance, as discussed in [37].
 V. HARMONIC LINEARIZATION
Harmonic linearization is a technique to develop small-signal
linear models along periodic operation trajectories of time-varying
systems. The system operation trajectory may consist of a single or
multiple sinusoidal (harmonic) components. Mathematically, this
involves superimposing harmonic perturbation to the excitation of
the system, determining the resulting responses of other variables
of interests, and extracting the corresponding components at the
perturbation frequency by invoking the harmonic balance principle
[46-48] and small-signal approximation, that is, by assuming that
the harmonic perturbation is sufficiently small. The method has
been applied to model low-frequency input impedance of boost
single-phase PFC converters [37], high-frequency boost single-
phase PFC converters with nonlinear average current control (such
that the reduced-order high-frequency model discussed in the
previous section is still nonlinear) [44], and line-frequency diode
rectifiers [49-52]. The basic principle of the method is reviewed
below using a single-phase and a three-phase rectifier as examples.
Consider first a single-phase diode rectifier [49]. The ac source
voltage, vac(t), is assumed to consist of the fundamental and a
small-signal perturbation, as expressed by (6). The resulting dc
output voltage, vdc(t), in the presence of the perturbation can be
expressed as
v dc(t) = v ac(t) . (12)
To facilitate mathematical calculation, this relationship is written as
v dc ( t ) = sgn [ v ac ( t ) ] v ac ( t ) . (13)
Similarly, the ac input current can be related to the dc output
current, idc, by using the same mapping function as follows:
i ac ( t ) = sgn [ v ac ( t ) ] i dc ( t ) (14)
A key step in the derivation of an input impedance model is to
represent the mapping function sgn[vac(t)] in the frequency domain
by a series of complex Fourier coefficients, S[i], such that the
mapping defined by (13) and (14) can be carried out by frequency-
domain convolution. Once such frequency-domain mapping
function is obtained, the input impedance of the rectifier can be
calculated as follows:
1) Calculate the spectrum of vdc by frequency-domain convo-
lution between the mapping function and vac;
2) Use the spectrum of vdc and the given dc circuit impedance
Zdc to determine the spectrum of the dc current, idc; and
3) Calculate the spectrum of iac by frequency-domain convo-
lution between the mapping function and idc.
The ratio of the perturbation voltage to the resulting component of
iac at the perturbation frequency defines the small-signal input
impedance of the rectifier [49].
A difference between three-phase and single-phase circuits is
that small-signal responses of three-phase rectifiers depend on the
sequence of voltage perturbation. For this reason, a three-phase
rectifier has to be modeled by two input impedances: a positive
sequence input impedance, denoted by Zac-p, and a negative
sequence input impedance, denoted by Zac-n. The input impedance
to a zero-sequence perturbation is infinite since a common voltage
perturbation in all three phases produces no current perturbation.
The three-phase input voltages can be written as
v a(t) = V 1 sin ( 2f 1 t ) + V p sin ( 2f p t + p )
2 2
v b(t) = V 1 sin 2f 1 t ------ + V p sin 2f p t ------ + p
3 3
4 4
v c(t) = V 1 sin 2f 1 t ------ + V p sin 2f p t ------ + p
3 3
when a positive-sequence perturbation is injected, and
v a(t) = V 1 sin ( 2f 1 t ) + V p sin ( 2f p t + p )
2 4
v b(t) = V 1 sin 2f 1 t ------ + V p sin 2f p t ------ + p
3 3
4 2
v c(t) = V 1 sin 2f 1 t ------ + V p sin 2f p t ------ + p
3 3
when a negative-sequence perturbation is injected. Since there are
three phase voltages and currents, three mapping functions are
required to describe the rectifier circuit. These functions are
defined as follows: sx(t) = 1 (x = a, b, or c) if vx(t) is higher than
other two phase voltages; -1 if vx(t) is lower than other two phase
voltages; and 0 otherwise. With these mapping functions, the dc
output voltage, vdc as defined in Fig. 8, can be expressed as a
function of three-phase voltages by
v dc(t) = s a(t) v a(t) + s b(t) v b(t) + s c(t) v c(t) (15)
Similarly, each input phase current can be calculated as follows
once the dc output current, idc, is known:
i a(t) = s a(t) i dc(t) (16)
i b(t) = s b(t) i dc(t) (17)
i c(t) = s c(t) i dc(t) (18)
Note that (15)-(18) are true under all line conditions (including
in the presence of positive- or negative-sequence perturbation) as
long as idc is continuous. They replace (13)-(14) to serve as the
basis for impedance mapping for three-phase rectifiers.
To determine the spectrum of these mapping functions, their
zero-crossing points are first calculated for the interval t [ 0, 1 ] .
The calculation has to be done for each perturbation as defined
above. Fourier analysis is then applied to determine the complex
Fourier coefficients, and small-signal input impedance models can
be developed by following the same procedure as outlined before.
The resulting input impedance models are presented below [50].
idc(t) + L
ia(t)
va(t)
ib(t) Zdc
Load
vb(t) vdc(t) C
ic(t)
vc(t)
_
Fig. 8. Three-phase full-wave diode rectifier for input impedance modeling.
1) Positive-sequence input impedance Zac-p(s):
2
1 1
Z ac-p ( s ) = ----- --------------------------
- --------------------------------- +
9 ( 1 36m ) dc
2 Z ( j12mf 1)
m =
1 1
+ --------------------2- -------------------------------------------------------- (19)
( 1 6 m ) Z dc ( s + j2 ( 6m 1 )f 1 )
2) Negative-sequence input impedance Zac-n(s):
2
1 1
Z ac-n ( s ) = ----- --------------------------
- --------------------------------- +
9 ( 1 36m ) dc
2 Z ( j12mf 1)
m =
1 1
+ -----------------------2- --------------------------------------------------------- (20)
( 1 + 6 m ) Z dc ( s + j2 ( 6m + 1 )f 1 )
Since the magnitude of each term in (19) and (20) decreases
rapidly as m increases, the infinite summation over m in both cases
can be truncated to include only the most significant terms around
m = 0. The following approximate models are obtained by consid-
ering only the terms corresponding to m = 0:
2
1 1
Z ac-p ( s ) ----- ---------------- + ----------------------------------
9 Z dc ( 0 ) Z dc ( s j2f 1 )
2
1 1
Z ac-n ( s ) ----- ---------------- + ----------------------------------
9 Z dc ( 0 ) Z dc ( s + j2f 1 )
This method has also been applied to multi-pulse rectifiers that
use phase-shifting transformers to create additional phases [51, 52].
It is a specific application of the general harmonic linearization
method, taking advantage of the symmetrical relationship between
the voltages and currents on the ac and dc side of the rectifier
bridge. Its application to PWM rectifiers [37, 44] and inverters
require different mathematics, but the basic principle is the same. It
can also be applied to line-frequency, phase-controlled rectifiers
and inverters, providing therefore a general method for modeling
input and output impedance of different rectifiers and inverters,
which are the basic building blocks of ac power electronic systems.
In addition to its applicability to different types of converters, the
harmonic linearization method has several other advantages
compared to other methods reviewed in the previous section:
1) The steady-state operation trajectory can include any
number of harmonics, as demonstrated in [50] for single-
phase diode rectifiers.
2) It can handle both balance and unbalanced systems,
including single-phase systems.
3) The resulting impedance models can be valid both above
and below the ac fundamental frequency, depending on the
characteristics of the converter.
4) The impedances are defined in the phase domain with clear
physical interpretation and can be directly measured.
5) A three-phase system can be decomposed into a positive-
sequence and a negative-sequence subsystem without cross
coupling between them.
A shortcoming of the method is that its application is mathemat-
ically more involved than with other methods. Fortunately, there
are only limited number of converter circuits that need to be
modeled for the study of ac power electronic systems and the
1 impedance models developed in this approach are in analytical
forms such that, once developed, they can be used in different
systems without the need to rederive the mathematics.
VI. VOLTAGE VS. CURRENT SOURCES
The grid-parallel fuel-cell inverter system discussed in
Subsection III.C can be represented by the simplified block
diagram shown in Fig. 9. The local load represents the load that
may be connected to the inverter output directly. It will be ignored
1 first in the following discussion.
Inverter Grid
Zi Zl Zg
Local
Load
Fig. 9. Simplified block diagram representation of the grid-parallel fuel-cell
inverter system discussed in Subsection III.C.
1
(21)
To determine possible interactions between the inverter and the
grid, the inverter output impedance and the grid impedance as seen
from the interconnection point can be determined experimentally
1 by measurement or analytically by mathematical modeling. Denote
(22) these impedance as Zi and Zg, respectively (see Fig. 9). To apply
the impedance-based system stability criterion, however, one
encounters an ambiguity here because either or both the fuel-cell
inverter and the grid can be considered the source. Based on the
existing theory discussed at the beginning of Section IV, the
Nyquist criterion would be applied to Z g Z i if the inverter is
considered the source, but to Z i Z g if the grid is considered the
source; they will obviously lead to totally different conclusions and
requirements for system stability. This represents a general
problem with grid-parallel inverters.
To resolve this ambiguity, we have to make a distinction
between voltage sources and current sources, and reexamine the
conditions for the existing impedance-based analysis method.
Note that it was implicitly assumed in the existing theory that
the source behaves as a voltage source with some internal
impedance, see Fig. 7. However, a grid-parallel inverter is
usually controlled to inject specific amount of current into the
grid, hence shall be modeled as a current source instead of a
voltage source. To develop a system model involving current
sources, consider the simplified system representation depicted
in Fig. 10 where the source is a current source (Is) in parallel
with an impedance (Zs). In this case, the load current is related
to the source current by
Zl Zs 1 1
I l = I s ---------------- ---- = I s ----------------------- . (23)
Zl + Zs Zl 1 + Zl Zs
. As well as a zero-sequence subsystem if unbalance condition exists.

Il
Source Is Zs Zl Load
Fig. 10. Representation of an interconnected load-current source system.
Similar to (4), an impedance ratio appears in the denominator in
(23) to which the Nyquist criterion can be applied to determine the
interconnected system stability. However, the ratio is different
depending on the nature of the source: For voltage sources, it is the
source output impedance divided by the load input impedance,
while for current sources, it is the load input impedance divided by
the source output impedance. Expression (23) represents an
extension to the existing system stability theory and should be
applied for grid-parallel inverters and other systems where the
source is controlled as a current source.
Since the fuel-cell inverter discussed in Subsection III.C is
controlled as a current source in grid-parallel operation mode, its
dynamic interactions with the grid should be studied based on (23);
in other words, based on the ratio of grid impedance to the inverter
output impedance. In fact, the ambiguity mentioned before is
resolved and it does not matter now whether the fuel-cell inverter
or the grid is considered the source, because in both cases the
system stability depends on whether Z g Z i meets the Nyquist
criterion. In either case, the local load can be considered by
including it as part of the load input impedance. Fig. 11 shows the
Nyquist plot for the impedance ratio Z g Z i obtained from experi-
mental measurements of the inverter output impedance and the grid
input impedance. As can be seen, the Nyquist plot encircles the (-1,
0) point one time in the counterclockwise direction, indicating that
the interconnected system is unstable, which provides an expla-
nation for the unstable operation as observed in the current
responses shown in Fig. 6b).
A current source (Is) in parallel with an impedance (Zs) is
electrically equivalent to a voltage source (ZsIs) in series with the
same impedance (Zs). Therefore, one could convert the current
source equivalent circuit in Fig. 10 into the voltage-source equiv-
alent circuit in Fig. 7, with the equivalent voltage source defined by
1.5
1 Successful integration and operation of such power electronic
0.5
0 varying system operation trajectories which prevent direct appli-
- 0.5
-1
problem. Among these, harmonic linearization can be applied
-1.5 -1 - 0.5 0 0.5 1
Fig. 11. Nyquist plot of the impedance ratio Zg/Zi for the grid-parallel fuel cell
inverter discussed in Subsection III.C.
Vs = Zs Is (24)
Since the source output impedance is the same (Zs), one could
argue that system stability should be determined by applying the
Nyquist criterion to Zs/Zl, not Zl/Zs as expressed by (23), creating
again an ambiguity in system analysis.
To resolve this problem, note that a common presumption for
system stability analysis based on the Nyquist criterion discussed
before for either a voltage-source or current-source system is that
the source is stable by itself. For the transformed current-source
system discussed above, this requires that the equivalent voltage
source expressed by (24) is stable when the load impedance is
infinite ( Z l = ). If this could be assumed, however, the intercon-
nected source-load system stability could be concluded directly
based on the original current-source representation. In other words,
a converter controlled as a current source cannot be represented by
an equivalent voltage source for system analysis unless system
stability has already been concluded.
A grid-parallel inverter is usually designed by assuming an
ideal grid, that is, a sinusoidal voltage source without any
impedance. The inverter should meet all design requirements,
including stability, under this condition. In other words, the
equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 10 for such a current-source
system can be assumed stable when the grid impedance is zero
( Z l = ), and the purpose of system analysis is to determine
system stability when the grid impedance is not zero and
increases. This is opposite to the voltage-source system repre-
sentation in Fig. 7, where the source is assumed to be stable
when the load is an open-circuit and the purpose of system
analysis is to determine system stability when the load
impedance decreases.
VII. SUMMARY
Electric power grids are evolving into large ac power electronic
systems as renewable energy and distributed generation continue to
penetrate and efficient energy utilization technologies such as
solid-state lighting and variable-speed drives proliferate. Micro
girds, aircraft and ship power systems, and other autonomous
power systems are additional examples of ac power electronic
systems which are fundamentally different from conventional
power systems dominated by electromechanical and electromag-
netic power conversion devices. The complex dynamics of power
electronic circuits can cause inadvertent system interactions,
leading to instability, power quality, and other system problems.
systems require system-level modeling and analysis.
Compared to dc power electronic systems, a fundamental diffi-
culty with the analysis of ac power electronic systems is the time-
cation of small-signal analysis techniques. Phasor-based analysis,
transformation into the dq reference frame, reduced-order
modeling, and harmonic linearization are possible solutions to this
when other methods fail and results in input and output impedances
that are easy to use. Harmonic linearization, together with reduced-
order modeling method, can be used to develop small-signal input
and output impedance models for both PWM and line-frequency
rectifiers and inverters which are the basic building blocks of ac
power electronic systems.
 The existing impedance-based system stability criterion is
limited to voltage-source systems and cannot be applied when grid-
parallel inverters, which are typically controlled as current sources,
are involved. An extension to the existing theory is presented for
such current-source systems and demonstrated using a grid-parallel
fuel-cell inverter.
REFERENCES
[1] L. D. Massie, Space power systems requirements and issues: the next
decade, IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine, vol. 5, no.
12, pp. 4-9, December 1990.
[2] E. J. Simburger, D. Rumsey, D. Hinkeley, S. Liu, and P. Carian,
Distributed power system for microsatellites, in Records of the 31st
Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, pp. 822-825, January 2005.
[3] S. Luo and I. Batarseh, A review of distributed power systems - part I: dc
distributed power system, IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems, vol.
20, no. 8, pp. 5-15, August 2005.
[4] W. A. Tabisz, M. M. Jovanovic, and F. C. Lee, Present and future of
distributed power systems, in Records of 27th IEEE Power Electronics
Specialists Conference, pp. 1956-1960, June 1996.
[5] F. J. Perez-Pinal and I. Cervantes, Multi-reconfigurable power system for
EV applications, in Proceedings of the 12th International Power
Electronics and Motion Control Conference, pp. 491-495, August 2006.
[6] D. M. Mitchell, DC-DC Switching Regulator Analysis, McGraw-Hill
Company, 1988.
[7] V. Vorperian, Simplified analysis of PWM converters using model of
PWM switch, Part I: Continuous conduction mode, IEEE Trans. on
Aerospace and Electronic Systems, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 490-496, 1990.
[8] V. Vorperian, Simplified analysis of PWM converters using model of
PWM switch, Part II: Discontinuous conduction mode, ibid., pp. 497-
505, 1990.
[9] P. T. Krein, J. Bentsman, R. M. Bass and B. C. Lesieutre, On the use of
averaging for the analysis of power electronic systems, IEEE Trans.
Power Electronics, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 182-190, 1990.
[10] J. Sun and H. Grotstollen, Symbolic analysis methods for averaged
modeling of switching power converters, IEEE Transactions on Power
Electronics, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 537-546, 1997.
[11] J. Sun, Averaged switch models for stability analysis of large distributed
power systems, in Proceedings of 2000 IEEE Applied Power Electronics
Conference, pp. 249-255, 2000.
[12] G. S. Thandi, R. Zhang, K. Xing, F. C. Lee, and D. Boroyevich,
Modeling, control and stability analysis of a PEBB based dc DPS, IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 497-505, April 1999.
[13] R. D. Middlebrook, Input filter considerations in design and application
of switching regulators, in Proceedings of IEEE Industry Applications
Society Annual Meeting, 1976, pp. 366-382.
[14] X. Feng, J. Liu, and F. C. Lee, Impedance specification for stable dc
distributed power systems, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol.
17, no. 2, pp. 157-162, March 2002.
[15] J. Driesen and R. Belmans, Distributed generation: challenges and
possible solutions, in Proceedings of 2006 IEEE Power Engineering
Society General Meeting, June 2006.
[16] J. M. Carrasco et al., Power-electronic systems for the grid integration of
renewable energy sources: a survey, IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Electronics, vol. 53, no. 4, pp. 1002-1016, August 2006.
[17] N. Hatziargyriou, H. Asano, R. Iravani, and C. Marnay, Microgrids,
IEEE Power & Energy Magazine, July/August 2007, pp. 78-94.
[18] M. Reza, P. H. Schavemaker, J. G. Slootweg, W. L. Kling and L. van der
Sluis, Impacts of distributed generation penetration levels on power
systems transient stability, in Proceedings of 2004 IEEE Power
Engineering Society General Meeting, pp. 2150-2155, June 2004.
[19] M. Reza, D. Sudarmadi, F. A. Viawan, W. L. Kling, and L. van der Sluis,
Dynamic stability of power systems with power electronic interfaced
DG, in Proceedings of IEEE 2006 Power Systems Conference and
Exposition (PSCE06), pp. 1423-1428, 2006.
[20] A. M. Azmy and I. Erlich, Impact of distributed generation on the
stability of electrical power system, in Proceedings of 2005 IEEE Power
Engineering Society General Meeting, pp. 1056-1063, June 2005.
[21] I. El-Samahy and E. El-Saadany, The effect of DG on power quality in a
deregulated environment, in Proceedings of IEEE 2005 Power
Engineering Society General Meeting, pp. 2969-2976, 2005.
[22] J. Weimer, Electrical power technology for the more electric aircraft, in
Conference Proceedings of IEEE DASC93, pp. 445-450, 1993.
[23] Kamiar J. Karimi, The role of power electronics in more electric
airplanes (MEA), presentation at 2006 IEEE Control and Modeling for
Power Electronics (COMPEL) Workshop, July 2006.
[24] G. Gong, M. L. Heldwein, U. Drofenik, J. Minibock, K. Mino, and J.
Kolar, Comparative evaluation of three-phase high-power-factor ac-dc
converter concepts for application in future more electric aircraft, IEEE
Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 52, no. 3, pp. 727-737, June
2005.
[25] J. Sun, Analysis and design of single-phase PFC converters for airborne
systems, in Proceedings of 2003 IEEE Industrial Electronics Society
Annual Meeting, pp. 1101-1109, 2003.
[26] J. Sun, Modeling of power electronic circuits and control for airborne
electrical system analysis, in Proceedings of 2004 SAE Power Systems
Conference, paper #2004-01-3191, 2004.
[27] A. Ouroua, L. Domaschk, and J. H. Beno, Electric ship power system
integration analyses through modeling and simulation, in Proceedings of
IEEE 2005 Electric Ship Technologies Symposium, pp. 70-74, 2005.
[28] J. V. Meer, A. Bendre, S. Krstic, and D. Divan, Improved ship power
system - generation, distribution, and fault control for electric porpulsion
and ship service, in Proceedings of 2005 IEEE Electric Ship Technologies
Symposium, pp. 284-291, 2005.
[29] J. Sun, M. Chen, and K. J. Karimi, Analysis and mitigation of system
interactions involving single-phase PFC converters, IEEE Transactions
on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 217-226, January
2008.
[30] J. W. Nilsson and S. A. Riedel, Electric Circuits, Peason Prentice Hall, 7th
Edition, 2005.
[31] P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994.
[32] C. W. Taylor, Power System Voltage Stability, McGraw-Hill, 1994.
[33] M. Ilic and J. Zaborszky, Dynamics and Control of Large Electric Power
Systems, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000.
[34] S. R. Sanders, J. M. Noworolski, X. Z. Liu and G. C. Verghese, Gener-
alized averaging method for power conversion circuits, IEEE Transac-
tions on Power Electronics, vol. 6, pp. 251-259, April 1991.
[35] P. Mattavelli, A. M. Stankovic, and G. C. Verghese, SSR analysis with
dynamic phasor model of thyristor-controlled series capacitor, IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 200-208, Feb. 1999.
[36] C. L. DeMarco, G. C. Verghese, Bringing phasor dynamics into the power
system load flow, Proceedings of 25th North Amerrcan Power
Symposium, Howard Univ., 1993.
[37] M. Chen, and J. Sun, Low-frequency input impedance analysis of single-
phase PFC converters, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 22,
no. 4, pp. 1402-1409, July 2007.
[38] P. C. Krause, O. Wasynczuk, and S. D. Sudhoff, Analysis of Electric
Machinery and Drive Systems, IEEE Press & Wiley Interscience, 2002.
[39] D. W. Novotny and T. A. Lipo, Vector Control and Dynamics of AC
Drives, Oxford University Press, 1996.
[40] S. Hiti and D. Boroyevich, Small-signal modeling of three-phase PWM
modulators, in Records of IEEE 1996 Power Electronics Specialists
Conference (PESC96), pp. 550-555, 1996.
[41] H. Mao, D. Boroyevich, and F. C. Lee, Novel reduced-order small-signal
model of a three-phase PWM rectifier and its application in control design
and system analysis, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 13,
no. 3, pp. 511-521, May 1998.
[42] M. Belkhayat, Stability Criteria for AC Power Systems with Regulated
Loads, PhD Thesis, Purdue University, 1997.
[43] J. Sun, Input impedance analysis of single-phase PFC converters, IEEE
Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 308-314, 2005.
[44] J. Sun and Z. Bing, Input impedance modeling of single-phase PFC bythe
method of harmonic linearization, in Proceedings of 2008 IEEE Applied
Power Electronics Conference, February 2008.
[45] J. Thottuvelil, et al., Hierarchical approaches to modeling high-power-
factor ac-dc converters, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 6,
no. 2, pp. 179-187, 1991.
[46] A. Gelb and W. E. Vander Velde, Multiple-Input Describing Functions and
Nonlinear System Design, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1968.
[47] B. van der Pol, Forced oscillation in a circuit with nonlinear resistance,
Reprinted in Selected Papers on Mathematical Trends in Control Theory,
R. Belman and R. Kalaba, eds., Dover Publications, Inc., 1964.
[48] I. H. Mufti, A note on the application of harmonic linearization, IEEE
Transactions on Automatic Control, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 175- 177, 1963.
[49] J. Sun and K. J. Karimi, Input impedance modeling of line-frequency
rectifiers for aircraft power system stability analysis, IEEE Transactions
on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 217-226, 2008.
[50] Z. Bing, K. Karimi, and J. Sun, Input impedance modeling and analysis
of line-commutated rectifiers, in Records of 2007 IEEE Power
Electronics Specialists Conference (PESC'07).
[51] J. Sun, Z. Bing and K. J. Karimi, Small-signal modeling of multipulse
rectifiers for more-electric aircraft applications, in Records of 2008 IEEE
Power Electronics Specialists Conference.
[52] J. Sun and K. Karimi, Small-signal input impedance modeling of multi-
pulse rectifiers, to be presented at 2008 SAE Power Systems Conference,
November 2008.