Well Logging

Markus Bernhart
Baccalaurea Thesis
Well Logging
Supervised by: Prof. Dr. Franz Kessler

Approval date: 24th January 2006
Date: 27/05/2014
Table of Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 4
1.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 History of logging ...................................................................................................................................... 7
2. Basics ............................................................................................................................................. 9
2.1 Basic Log Types ....................................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.1 Logging While Drilling (LWD) ............................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.2 Wireline Openhole Logging ................................................................................................................................ 10
2.1.3 Wireline Cased Hole Logging ............................................................................................................................. 11
2.1.4 Pipe Conveyed Logging ..................................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Logging Contracts .................................................................................................................................. 11
2.3 Preparing a Logging Program................................................................................................................ 13
2.4 Operational Decisions ............................................................................................................................ 13
2.4.1 Tool failures......................................................................................................................................................... 14
2.4.2 Stuck tools........................................................................................................................................................... 14
2.5 Coring ...................................................................................................................................................... 15
2.5.1 Core Acquisition .................................................................................................................................................. 15
2.5.2 Conventional Core Analysis ............................................................................................................................... 15
2.5.3 Special Core Analysis ......................................................................................................................................... 16
2.5.4 Limitations of core measurements ..................................................................................................................... 17
2.6 Wellsite mud logging .............................................................................................................................. 17
3. Quicklook log interpretation ..................................................................................................... 19
3.1 Basic quality control ................................................................................................................................ 19
3.2 Identifying the reservoir .......................................................................................................................... 20
3.3 Identifying the fluid type and contacts.................................................................................................... 21
3.4 Calculating the porosity .......................................................................................................................... 23
3.5 Calculating hydrocarbon saturation ....................................................................................................... 24
3.6 Presenting the results ............................................................................................................................. 25
3.7 Pressure/sampling .................................................................................................................................. 26
3.8 Permeability determination..................................................................................................................... 28
4. Full interpretation ....................................................................................................................... 30
4.1 Net sand definition .................................................................................................................................. 30
4.2 Porosity calculation ................................................................................................................................. 31
4.3 Archie saturation ..................................................................................................................................... 32
4.4 Permeability ............................................................................................................................................ 32
5. Value of information ................................................................................................................... 35
References ....................................................................................................................................... 38
List of Figures
1 Schematic sketch of a wireline logging operation (left) and logging while drilling......................... 4
2 From measurement to production. The fields of geophysics, geology and petrophysicist may
overlap a bit. ................................................................................................................................. 5
3 Sketch of an optimally drained complex off shore lithology, achieved by drilling vertical, deviated and
horizontal wells ............................................................................................................................. 6
4 First continuous well log (Pechelbronn, September 5, 1927), with a depth interval from about 170 to
270meters. ................................................................................................................................... 7
5 The first logging operation in an oil well (left), Henry Doll who calibrates a teleclinometer to measure
the azimuth and angle of the borehole drift (middle) and a logging unit, recording two curves
somewhere I California, in 1932.................................................................................................. 7
6 Modern logging unit, doing measurements in Tyler, Texas in 1997. A fully computerized truck for
logging, including a satellite dish for data transmission. ............................................................ 8
7 Identifying net reservoir.................................................................................................................. 20
8 Identifying net pay .......................................................................................................................... 21
9 Identifying gas sands from Vp/Vs versus Vp plot ........................................................................... 22
10 Selection of the fluid density for porosity calculation, using a density tool ................................ 22
11 Pickett Plot ................................................................................................................................... 24
12 A report of the evaluated results ................................................................................................. 26
13 Formation pressure plot .............................................................................................................. 27
14 Typical viscosities of borehole fluids ........................................................................................... 28
15 Typical behaviour of the pressure during a pretest .................................................................... 29
16 Determination of reservoir cut-offs by using a GR-density cross plot ....................................... 30
17 Porosity calibrated by a core ....................................................................................................... 31
18 Effect of kv / kh < 1 in horizontal wells on the permeability ......................................................... 33
19 The costs for information ............................................................................................................. 35
20 Decision tree ................................................................................................................................ 36
21 EMV versus R ........................................................................................................................... 37

Well Logging
1. Introduction
1.1 Overview
In the oil industry the method of wireline logging was developed to be able to measure the properties of
the rocks surrounding the borehole, especially to identify and evaluate hydrocarbon-bearing strata.
Therefore a sonde containing one or more sensors, which is pulled uphole on a cable with a winch is
lowered into the borehole. Classically, three types of measurements are distinguished: Electrical,
acoustic and nuclear. A significant number of textbooks have been written on the subject in the 1980s.
Additionally, the oil service companies (e.g. Schlumberger) have published documents on log
interpretation principles and logging chart books. Some of these books are used by graduate students
and professionals, while others are compendium like references.
1 Schematic sketch of a wireline logging operation (left) and logging while drilling
Author: Markus Bernhart Page: 4

Well Logging
These publications occurred because there was a need from the geological community, but also as a
result of new technological advances that brought more useful measurements to the earth scientists.
The oil crisis of the 1980s led to a noticeable acceleration in logging developments in the last twenty
years. That was driven by several external factors:
Drilling Technology. The logging industry was challenged in many ways by directional and
particularly horizontal wells. The most significant development is a full line of Logging-While-Drilling
(LWD) tools, which are deployed in the bottom-hole assembly and which acquire and transmit data
in real time, even while the well is being drilled (Figure 1.1). The data is recorded at an early stage
when the borehole is very little influenced by fluid invasion and borehole damage effects, what
simplifies the identification and evaluation of hydrocarbon-bearing regions. LWD is also used for
geosteering where well drilling is monitored and adjusted, usually by comparing the downhole data
with computed data of a geological model. Additionally LWD is used to decide on coring and casing
points. Therefore a sensor is positioned directly after drill bit.
Electronics and Computing. Only the electronic revolution made the development of the modern
high-data-rate tools (imaging tools, array sensor tools, etc.) possible. The bottom-hole assembly is
equipped with several downhole sensors and downhole microprocessors, which control the
acquisition and store the data in memories, also placed downhole. Surface computers receive data
from downhole and display it on monitors. Data transmission via satellite brings the data to the
users office practically in real time, to make him able to evaluate them and make rapid decisions.
New Targets. In the last fifteen to twenty five years, the most significant move is towards deeper
water targets, a development linked to new drilling technologies, but also to new geological insights.
Discoveries in deep water offshore have been of impressive sizes initiated a race to deeper water
plays. These reservoirs are often geologically young, poorly consolidated, highly porous and thinly
bedded. Therefore robust sensors of sufficiently high vertical resolution that work even in poor
borehole conditions which are often given in these environments had to be developed. Modern
logging tools often make a measurement every 1.2 inches, rather than the conventional 6 inches.
Highest vertical resolutions are achieved by an electrical imaging measurement and are about 0.4
inches. Other challenging targets content fractured basement rocks (for geothermal energy, but also
for oil), coal beds (for methane), environmental logging (to detect pollutants), ultra deep research
wells and mineral mining wells. Often techniques from the oil companies can be used, but in some
instances entirely new techniques have to be developed.
2 From measurement to production. The fields of geophysics, geology and petrophysicist may overlap a bit.

Well Logging
Methods of logging have broadened their scope significantly and today address a much wider range of
users with more adequate tools. Currently used techniques in surface geophysics, logging, sampling and
flow measurements are listed in the first column of Figure 1.1.2, while the second one shows a simplified
and schematic way of the reservoir properties. The third column contains the elements of reservoir
characterization, or those overall aspects of s reservoir that allow us to understand its composition and
behaviour: the architecture and internal layering, the reserves and flow units. Finally in the last column
there is the only tangible of ultimate relevance in the oil industry: production or return on investment.
Many of the measurements in the figure above have been improved in the last few years or are
completely new. They make it possible for the geoscientists and engineers to improve their work,
resulting in a better, more complete assessment of reservoir. Especially tools for geological
measurements have been developed significantly, what means that they are rarely standardized on a
logging program and have only been built in very small numbers. By this reason they are known as
specialty tools or niche tools.
3 Sketch of an optimally drained complex off shore lithology, achieved by drilling vertical, deviated and horizontal wells
Petroleum professionals are allowed to do field development with almost surgical precision because of
new drilling technology, new logging and 3-D seismic surveys. The petroleum engineer is able to target
oil in bypassed zones, drain narrow fluvial point bars along the optimum direction, or intersect fractures at
the best angle to optimize production. For this process, real-time measurements during drilling, fast data
processing and the possibility to make on site decisions are important elements. Drilling and evaluating
wells in a geologically real way represents a major advance in reservoir development. In Figure 1.3 a
field with several deviated and horizontal wells is shown. This field had to be carefully designed and
drilled, so that the various compartments could be reached for optimized reservoir drainage without the
wells coming to close to each other.

Well Logging
1.2 History of logging

The first person who did some logs was perhaps Professor Forbes from the Edinburgh Observatory. In
the time from 1837 to 1842 ho lowered some temperature sensors up to 24 feet deep into the ground, to
record temperature variation with depth and time. These data were then analysed by the physicist Lord
Kelvin (Thompson, 1861), who needed them to calculate the age of the earth. Temperature
measurements are still done, but only for being a use in calibrating other tools.
Well logging started to become commercial with the two French brothers, Conrad Schlumberger (1878
1936), who graduated from the Ecole Polytechnique France as a physicist, and Marcel Schlumberger
(1884 1953), an engineer from the Ecole Centrale de Paris. Their father Paul, a business man,
supported their ideas. It was them, who tried the first electrical measurements (at the surface), in
particular for locating iron and copper deposits. After having some success in several countries, they
created the Socit de Prospection Electrique (SPE). Marcel tried the first resistivity tool in a borehole in
1921. The result of this measurement convinced them to pursue this further. In 1927, Conrad outlined
the principle of electrical coring. They hired Henry Doll to develop the equipment and conduct the first
oil well operation (5th September, 1927), which took place in Pechelbronn in Alsace, where the oil
industry just started to grow.
4 First continuous well log (Pechelbronn, September 5, 1927), with a depth interval from about 170 to 270meters.
The hand drawn resulting log represents a turning point in oil exploration. Then they knew that major
subsurface geological formations could easily be identified. It was clear that using measured data from
nearby wells and doing some correlations would give more accurate results than drilling cuttings, and
more cost effective than core drilling. Furthermore, the technique had potential for detecting hydrocarbon
bearing layers, but this could not be demonstrated in Pechelbronn, because the pay zones were too thin.
After convincing the Royal Dutch Shell that the technique was reliable, they got a logging contract for
Venezuela. The company expanded to India and Russia and, by the help of discovering the
spontaneous potential (SP), the United States, where there were some initial problems.
5 The first logging operation in an oil well (left), Henry Doll who calibrates a teleclinometer to measure the azimuth and angle of the
borehole drift (middle) and a logging unit, recording two curves somewhere I California, in 1932.

Well Logging
6 Modern logging unit, doing measurements in Tyler, Texas in 1997. A fully computerized truck for logging, including a satellite dish
for data transmission.
By combining the two measurements, hydrocarbon bearing strata could be located. Now the way was
opened for well logging to become an own industry. In 1934 the Schlumberger Well Services Company
was found in Houston, Texas, expanded rapidly and the number of crews got higher and higher (1 crew
in 1928 about 1100 crews in 2000). Improvements and new developments followed the present
situation, where various techniques are used to measure various values and well logging is more
accurate than in the old days. Some important techniques and basics are explained in the following
chapters.

Well Logging
2. Basics
2.1 Basic Log Types

A list of the log types that may be run and why they are run is given below.
2.1.1 Logging While Drilling (LWD)

Petrophysicists were used only to wireline logging, what means the data acquired by running tools on a
cable after the hole had been drilled. But nowadays advances in drilling and logging technologies allow
the acquisition of log data via tools which are placed in the actual drilling assembly. These tools may
transmit data to the surface in real-time basis or store the data in a downhole memory from which it may
be downloaded when the assembly is brought back to the surface. LWD tools lead to a complication
during the drilling process, as well as they mean additional costs. However, their use may be justified
when:
Real-time information is needed for operational reasons, such as steering a well in a particular
formation, picking up formation tops, coring points and casing setting depths
Saving information if there is a risk of losing the hole
Acquisition of data while drilling horizontally, where wireline logging leads to problems
The LWD data may be received either by transmission via mud pulses in real time while drilling or by
storing the data downhole in the tools memory and retrieving it when the tool is brought to the surface.
Typically both modes will be used, with the memory data superseding the pulsed data once the tool is
retrieved. Some factors may limit the ability to use both sets of data, which are:
Drilling mode: Mud pulses can only be sent when there is mud pumped through the drillstring
Battery life: The tools in the string can save memory only for 40 - 90 hours, depending on the
tools which are in use
Memory size: Most LWD tools have a memory capacity of a few megabytes. As soon as the
memory is full, the data is started to be overwritten. Dependent on the log parameters the
memory will be full after 20 120 hours
Tool failure: It is common in using LWD tools that either the transmission or record ability can be
disturbed
Some of the recorded data may be useable only if the toolstring is rotating while drilling, which may not
always be the case if a steerable mud motor is being used. Then the petrophysicist may need to request
drilling to reacquire data over particular intervals while in reaming/rotating mode. This may also be
needed if the rate of penetration (ROP) is so high that it affects the accuracy of statistically based tools
(e.g. density, neutron) or the sampling interval for tools working on a fixed sampling increment.
Another important consideration is how close the LWD tools can be positioned to the bit in the drill string.
The petrophysicist would want them as close to the bit as possible, but there are some limitation
because of the drilling operation, like the ability of steering the well and achieve a high rate of
penetration, which is influenced by the LWD toolstring. Typically required LWD data includes the
following:
GR: Natural gamma ray emission from the formation
Density: formation density as measured by gamma ray Compton scattering via a radioactive
source and gamma ray detectors. This may also include a photoelectric effect (Pe)
measurement.

Well Logging
Neutron porosity: Formation density derived from the hydrogen index (HI) as measured by the
gamma rays emitted when injected thermal or epithermal neutrons from a source in the string
are captured in the formation
Sonic: The transit time of sound waves in the formation
Resistivity: The formation resistivity for multiple depth of investigation as measured by an
induction-type wave resistivity tool
LWD-GR, -density, -neutron as separate up/down or left/right curves, separating the contributions from
different quadrants in the borehole is offered by some contractors. This may be extremely useful in
steering horizontal wells, where it is important to determine neighbouring formation boundaries before
they are penetrated. With the resistivity data borehole resistivity images are produced. That can be used
to establish the stratigraphic or sedimentary dip and/or presence of fractures/vugs.
New types of tools for LWD, which are in development now, include nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR),
formation pressure, and shear sonic.
2.1.2 Wireline Openhole Logging

After a section of well is completed, the bit is pulled out and there is an opportunity to do Openhole logs
either on the wireline or on the drillstring before the hole is closed or abandoned. Additionally to the
wireline versions of the LWD tools described above, following tools may be run:
Gamma Ray: With this tool the natural radioactivity of the formation can be measured. This is
important to distinguish between sands and shales in siliciclastic environments.
Natural gamma ray spectroscopy: It works like the gamma ray, but it also separates the
gamma ray counts into three energy windows to determine the different sources of the
radioactivity in the formation which are uranium, potassium and thorium. With this additional
information it is possible to estimate the relative proportions of certain minerals in the formation.
Caliper: It measures the diameter of the hole with either two, four or even more arms and sends
the data to the surface.
Density: The difference to tho LWD tool is that the wireline version of this tool has a much
stronger source and also includes a Pe curve, which is useful in complex formation evaluation.
Neutron porosity: The standardized device is a thermal neutron, while newer ones often use
epithermal (advantage of less salinity dependence), which rely on minitrone-type neutron
generators rather than chemical sources
Full-waveform sonic: Advanced tools may measure the shear velocity, Stonely velocity, and
various other sound modes in the borehole and the formation, additionally to the basic
compressional velocity.
Resistivity: There are two main categories of these tools: laterolog and induction type.
Laterolog tools measure the potential, caused by a low frequency source, over an array of
detectors. Induction-type tools induce eddy currents in the formation via primary coils and then,
a secondary array of coils to measure the magnetic fields caused by these currents. They can
be used in oil based mud systems because of their high frequencies. There are tools for
different depths of investigation, the shallower the depth, the better the vertical resolution.
Microresistivity: With these tools the formation resistivity in the invaded zone close to the
borehole wall can be measured. Low frequency current is used, what means that they are not
suitable in oil-based mud. The estimation of the invaded zone saturation and picking up bedding
features too small to be resolved by the deeper reading tools is done by these tools.

Well Logging
Imaging tools: They work either acoustic or a resistivity principle and are designed to provide
an image of the borehole wall and to give us information about stratigraphic r sedimentary dip
and/or presence of fractures/vugs.
Formation pressure sampling: They acquire formation samples and/or measure the formation
pressure at a discrete point in the system.
Sidewall sampling: Its an explosive-type device which shoots a sampling bullet into the
borehole wall that is retrieved by a cable linking the gun and the bullet. 52 shots per gun can
typically be done.
Sidewall coring: A better version of the sidewall sampling, where a sample from the borehole
wall is drilled out. That means that the structure of the rock is kept for future geological and
petrophysical analyses.
2.1.3 Wireline Cased Hole Logging

After the hole has been cased and a completion string is run for producing the well, some other logging
tools may be run for monitoring purposes. These include:
Thermal decay tool (TDT): They work like the neutron porosity tool but instead of measuring the
HI they use the neutron capture cross-section, which principally depends on the amount of
chlorine in the formation. The water saturation SW may be determined if the porosity and the
formation salinity are known.
Gamma ray spectroscopy tools (GST): It works on the same principle as the density tool, but the
relative proportions of elements can be measured too. In particular, by achieving the relative
amounts of carbon and oxygen, SW can be received (salinity independent).
Production logging: With this tool flow contributions from various intervals in the formation are
determined by using a spinner.
Cement bond log: This tool is run to evaluate the quality of the cement bond between casing
and formation. This is important because the quality of the cement bond affects the quality of
other tools like the TDT or GST.
Casing collar locator (CCL): It is run to identify the positions of casing collars and perforated
intervals in a well. It shows the points where the thickness of the steel changes.
2.1.4 Pipe Conveyed Logging

Where conventional wireline logging is not possible because of borehole deviation or doglegs, tools are
typically run on drillpipe. After running the toolstring in the hole to a certain depth a special connector
(called wet-connector) is pumped down to provide electrical contact to the toolstring by connects the
cable to the tools. Then a side-entry sub (SES) is installed in the drillpipe, which allows the cable to pass
from the inside of the pipe to the annulus. Then the toolstring can be run in farther to the deepest logging
point. Pipe-conveyed logging is expensive because and for that only performed when acquire data via
LWD is not possible.
Nowadays most contractors offer a means to convert an operation to pipe-conveyed logging if a
conventional wireline-toolstring got stuck in the hole. This is called logging while fishing.
2.2 Logging Contracts

Well Logging
An oil company will typically set up contracts with more than one contractor for the provision of logging
services to be sure to get good biddings. Elements that exist in common contracts include the following:
Depth charge: The deepest depth a tool will be run in the hole.
Survey charge: The interval where the particular tool is actually logging in the hole.
Station charge: For tools like the formation pressure sampling tool and sidewall samples, this is
a charge per station measurement. It has to be cleared what happens when such a charge may
be dropped (e.g., if no useful data are recovered).
Tool rental: Usually a daily charge for the tools to be on the rig, either on standby prior or during
a logging job.
Logging unit rental charge: Usually a monthly charge for a logging tool (winch, tool shed,
computers) while it is on the rig.
Base rental: Maybe a monthly charge for a couple of tools which have to be available for the
client.
Engineer charge: A day rate for a specialist, engineer or assistant present for a logging job.
Newest technologies are often unavailable without somebody who takes care of it.
In-hole charge: An hourly charge for some LWD contracts while tools are actually in the hole.
Lost-in-hole charge: That any tools which are lost in the hole during operations can be replaced.
Some contractors provide insurances for fixed sums to preserve companies of lost-in-hole
charges.
Cable splice charge: When tools get stuck in the hole and the wireline has to be cut.
Processing charges: Where data require postprocessing, charges are usually applied in a
similar way to survey charges.
Data charges: Additional copies of log prints or data storage may require additional charges.
Real-time data transmission charges: If the oil company, as usually, wants the data transmitted
directly from the wellsite to the offices as digital data.
To incentive their contractor most oil companies discuss conditions to penalize the contractors for lost
time or get bonuses for good safety performance.
When the contractor has introduced new tools, which are not covered by the contract, and tests
elements in the new tool, there should be a benefit for the contractor. Companies argue that the testing
tool should be run for free, while the contractors argue that the company benefits of the new
technological advantages. An arrangement could be that the new tool is run for the charge of the tool it
replaces until its usefulness is proven and the charges rise. Typically the contractor wants the right for
the acquired data for promotion of the tool.
Decisions, how data has to be delivered to their offices and about quality control during logging, are
specified by the oil companies either in the contract or in separate documents. These items usually
include:
Pre and post run tool calibration procedures
Sampling increments
Repeat sections to be performed
Data items and format to be included in the log header
Procedures for numbering and splicing different runs in a hole
Scales to be used in the presentation of logs
Format and media required for digital data
Requirements of reporting of time breakdown of logging operations, personnel on site, serial
numbers of tools used, inventory of explosives, and radioactive sources

Well Logging
Specific safety procedures to be followed

Provision of backup tools
Fishing equipment to be provided
The more specified the requirements of the oil companies are, the better. Strict systems for controlling
the logging operations and presentation of results lead to high-quality data and smooth operations.
2.3 Preparing a Logging Program
The logging strategy should be developed at the FDP stage in a field development. Based on the type of
well, decisions have to be made whether LWD or wireline and which types of tool to be run. Already
during the exploration phase of a field data has to be available to be able to predict the reserves and
develop a strategy. Lack of good-quality data can be very expensive, particularly for offshore wells, if too
small or too big facilities are designed.
Later in field life, particularly in times of production, data becomes much less, but is still used for updating
the static model. Even in mature fields, because of extensions of accumulations have been discovered,
data have to be locally revised.
The strategy for data acquisition is determined by the FDP, and takes into account the relative
uncertainties in the STOIIP (stock tank oil initially in place) and further development strategy. It is very
important the there are discussions between petrophysicist and geologist about the need for coring and
the analyses which have to be done when the core is recovered.
In a well proposal the detailed requirements for logging operations is specified. These will be agreed on
with other partners and the government and usually not be the exact models of tool, but show the
general types for the different hole-sections.
Typically it is not necessary to specify the SP log because it is usually run for free within the first toolstring
in the hole. Thermometers are usually run as standard and the highest temperature is indicated in the
log header. A program is usually sent to the rig for a logging job in each section, which includes:
The actual mnemonics of tools to be run
Intervals to be logged, if different from the total openhole action
Which combination or tools is used to form the toolstring
Data transmission/delivery requirements
For conventional logs (GR, resistivity, sonic, density, neutron) it is not necessary to be very specific.
Most companies will have established guidelines for the tool parameters. The type of resistivity tool will
usually depend on the kind of mud (OBM or WBM) and the expected resistivity. Induction logs will be
used in OBM, also in WBM, if the ratio of the mud filtrate resistivity (Rmf) to the water resistivity (RW) is
higher than two, while laterologs tend to be more accurate in highly resistive formations ( resistivity at
room temperature higher than 200 m). The problem of induction tools is that they become saturated
when used above 200 m. Although definitely preferred in WBM, resistivity tools can also be used in
OBM for formation imaging. In OBM it is necessary to use ultrasonic device.
2.4 Operational Decisions

The logging program covers most eventualities during the logging job, but there are still situations, not
everybody can be called to a meeting, and decisions have to be made on the rig. Things that are likely to
happen and some decision considerations are listed below:

Well Logging
2.4.1 Tool failures

Tools are usually being replaced by a backup and the job is continued. If special interval, particularly a
reservoir interval, is to be measured and to ensure good-quality data, it can be useful to do more runs.
However, the following situations may occur:
When logging while drilling, it may be much more cost-effective to simply continue drilling at the
end of a section if the data are not critical. The memory data may still be useable.
If a wireline tool starts running erratically, it is not absolutely necessary to rerun it, because the
data may be postprocessed if it is not critical.
If advanced tools fail a backup tool is often not available on the rig. This problem can be solved
by repairing the tool, get a backup tool sent from another location, or most commonly use an
earlier version of the tool.
For failures that lead to safety problems (e.g. explosive charges going off accidentally)
operations are used to be suspended, until the cause for the event is cleared.
2.4.2 Stuck tools

Either temporarily or permanently, tools get stuck in the hole fairly regularly. Often bad hole conditions
are indicated, but this will be considered in logging program adjustments. The time a hole is kept open,
the more bad the problems might become. There are three sorts of sticking:
Differential sticking
Key seating
Holding up
Differential sticking means that either the cable or the toolstring gets embedded in the wall of the
borehole and is held in place because of the different pressures of mud and formation. Then a
procedure of pull and slack is started and after about 30 minutes of cycling the moveability should be
back. The pulling is done with up to 90% of the weakpoint of the cable (the point at which cable and tool
get separate ways).
Key seating occurs when a groove is cut into one side of the borehole, with the consequence that the
cable can still be pulled upwards but not the toolstring. This often means that the force of pulling exceeds
the weakpoint of the cable and the toolstring drops down and is hard to be recovered, or might be
damaged.
Holding up occurs, when constriction, blockage, doglegs or shelf occurs in the borehole so that the
toolstring can not be moved downwards. In such a case the toolstring is retrieved to the surface and its
length is made either shorter or in some cases longer.
If a tool cant be recovered anymore, there are two procedures: cutting-and-threading (the cable is cut at
the surface) or breaking the weakpoint (accidentally or on purpose).
Most oil companies will specify that they dont want to break the weakpoint on purpose even if the other
procedure costs much more time. In the situation of using nuclear sources this is particularly true
because the tools have to be recovered undamaged. But it also can happen that nuclear sources are
lost irretrievably and then there are special procedures to be followed, which include notification of
government bodies and avoiding any nuclear contamination.

Well Logging
2.5 Coring
2.5.1 Core Acquisition

Coring is an important source of gaining additional information about the reservoir not obtainable by logs
and a mean to calibrate the petrophysical model during the exploration phase of a field.
The decisions for time and place of coring will be made by the operational department in corporation with
the geologist, taking into account the data requirements and the cost of the operations. Usually at least a
core is get out of the main reservoir during exploration and the appraisal phase of drilling.
A conventional core will be 18 meters long and four inch in diameter. After drilling it, a barrel with an outer
diameter of 6 in. will be used to transport it to the surface, where it is recovered and separated into
pieces of 3 feet length. Later the parts of the core will be brought to a core laboratory. To improve the
quality of the core special techniques may be used, which include:
Using a larger core diameter (5 in)
Using a sleeve of aluminium or fibreglass which is cut into sections to safe the core of breaking
into smaller parts, because the core doesnt leave the sleeve
Sponge coring, what means that formation fluids are absorbed by a polyurethane material which
surrounds the core in the sleeve
Resin coring, where a special resin is used at the surface of the core to seal the fluids inside
Freezing the core as soon as it reaches the surface, also not to lose the fluids inside
Cutting plugs from the core at the wellsite and sealing these to get information about the
formation fluids
Using tracers in the mud to attempt to quantify the extent of invasion of drilling mud.
If assumed that the in-situ fluids represent the formation fluids, the following techniques may be applied:
Centrifuging of samples to get formation water out, which is then analysed chemically and
electrically
Use Dean-Stark analysis to determine the amounts of water and hydrocarbons, and to measure
SW
2.5.2 Conventional Core Analysis

After drilling, sections of the core are sealed (usually 0.5m every 10 min) and kept as preserved
samples. The remaining part of the core is then cleaned, slabbed, laid out and visually inspected by the
geologist and the petrophysicist. Important information a petrophysicist can get by such an inspection
are:
The homogeneity of the reservoir and further information about variation, not determined by the
logging tools
The type of cementation and distribution of porosity and permeability, including presence of
fractures (either natural, cemented, or drilling induced) and their orientation.
The presence of hydrocarbons by smelling or under ultraviolet light (UV)
The types of minerals present
Dip features that may influence the logging results
Usually plugs of a diameter of 0.5 in are cut at regular intervals after slabbing. These are then cleaned by
refluxing with a solvent for 24 hours and dried at a temperature that will remove any water. With the

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plugs, the porosity (using a helium porosimeter), horizontal permeability and grain density is measured.
To determine the vertical permeability, some other plugs have to be cut in the axis of the core.
Normally a reference log, which can be put in correlation to the wireline data, is made by running a
gamma ray detector or density-type device over the whole core. When the depths of the core and the log
are different, it is necessary to shift the data before it can be compared. Also the pressure at which the
core is measured will not be the same as in the formation and so it has to be corrected with a factor that
is determined by further special core analysis (SCAL).
2.5.3 Special Core Analysis

SCAL measurements are typically done on a set of larger diameter plugs (1.5in). These may either be
cut at regular increments or the petrophysicist may decide certain depth of interest. It is most important to
get a broad spectrum of properties which reflect the range of properties seen in the reservoir.
The homogeneity of the SCAL plugs has to be checked by using computed axial tomography (CAT).
The number of plugs needed for a typical program is hard to say because it depends on the reservoir
type, thickness and homogeneity. In general such a SCAL program may use between five and 50 plugs.
Some measurements directly relevant to the petrophysical model follow:
Porosity and permeability at overburden conditions. Here it is important to state the
pressures at which the measurements are done. Typically the measurements are performed at
five different pressures, which are expected during the depletion of the reservoir.
Cementation exponent (m). Plugs, 100 % saturated with brine representative for the formation
salinity are measured for resistivity. This is usually done at ambient conditions but may also be
performed at in-situ pressure.
Saturation exponent (n). The resistivity of the plugs as a function of SW, with the resistivity fluid
either being air or kerosene, typically measured at ambient conditions.
Capillary pressure (Pc). The saturation of a nonwetting fluid (air, mercury, or kerosene) is
measured as a function of an applied Pc. The brine is steadily replaced by the nonwetting fluid in
a drainage cycle. In the next step, an imbibition cycle, brine is reintroduced to replace the
nonwetting phase.
These measurements can be done by different techniques. Traditionally m, n, Pc would be measured
using the porous plate method, with air as the nonwetting phase. But this procedure is limited to a
pressure of 100 psi, so other Pc measurements will be performed using mercury injection up to 60,000
psi and thereby also determining the pore-size distribution.
There are some reasons why many oil companies no longer favour these techniques:
Using mercury leads to a destruction of the plugs and is a potential source of danger concerning
environment and health.
Measurements including air or mercury are not representative of true reservoir conditions and
may give misleading results.
Additional to the ineffectiveness in time of the porous plate technique, results are inaccurate if
grain loss occurs, and the electrical measurements tend to be operator dependant.
Preferred techniques to avoid these problems are following:
Measuring of m and n should be done by using a continuous injection apparatus. The procedure
the sample has to be mounted vertically, flushed with brine, then kerosene is injected at a
continuous rate, while resistivity and saturation are monitored continually.
The capillary pressure should be measured using a centrifuge capable of a pressure up to
200psi. The plug is flushed with brine and then rotated at different rotational speeds equivalent
to different pressures), while the amount of exiting fluid is monitored. An additional advantage of
this technique is that the sample is not handled during the procedure.

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2.5.4 Limitations of core measurements

Petrophysicists tend to treat measurements made on cores as completely true for the reservoir
parameters, but some reasons, that explain why this is not always the case follow:
A core is only a small part of rock, taken from a very point of the formation and there is no priori
reason why it should be representative for the whole reservoir.
Stress and temperature changes coming from coring and recovery process may affect the
structure of the rock.
The plugging, cleaning and drying process may completely change the wettability of a plug,
making it unrepresentative of downhole conditions.
Measurements of resistivity with air as the nonwetting phase may highly differ from the real
value for reservoir conditions. Brine has a totally different resistivity at ambient temperature.
Experiments have shown that the values of m and n measured under real in-situ conditions
differ completely from those under ambient conditions.
When measuring m, n, and Pc on lets say 10 plugs, it can easily happen that the results will
show us 10 different values. It is the question, if 10 plugs can ever be representative for a
reservoir of thousands of acre-feet.
Although core-derived data should never be treated as completely reliable, using data of cores will be
better than having nothing at all.
2.6 Wellsite mud logging
There are two main responsibilities for typically heaving a mud-logging unit present on the rig during the
drilling of a well, which include:
Monitoring the drilling parameters and gas/liquid/solids that return from the well to help the
drilling department to increase safety and optimize the drilling process
Providing information that can be used for evaluation purposes
Usually a daily mud log will be sent to the oil company office which includes information about gas
readings, a check for poisonous gases (H2S, SO2), a report of received cuttings, rate of penetration
(ROP) and hydrocarbon indications in samples.
Mud logs can be of great use for petrophysicist and geologist in operational decision making and
evaluation. They are also important for identification of the lithology, formation type, porous and
permeable zones, and picking of depth for coring and casing.
From time to time samples of cuttings are taken from the shale shakers, typically in periods of about five
minutes, not to miss any changes in the formation. These samples are then either sealed as wet
samples or as dry samples (washed, dried) and retained. Washed ones are examined under the
microscope in the mud logging unit, so that important information can be sent to the oil companies
office. For usefulness of this information some reporting standards have to be laid down. Items that
should be included are:
Grain properties
o Texture (muddy/composite)
o Type (pelletoid/micropelletoid)

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o Colour
o Roundness or sphericity
o Sorting
o Hardness
o Size
o Additional trace minerals (e.g. pyrite, calcite, dolomite, siderite)
o Carbonate particle types
o Skeletal particles (fossils, foraminifera)
o Nonskeletal particles lithoclasts, aggregates, rounded particles)
o Coated particles
Porosity and permeability
o Porosity type (intergranular, fracture, vuggy)
o Permeability (qualitative as tight, slightly or highly permeable)
Hydrocarbon detection
The detection of hydrocarbons may be done by using the following procedures:

Natural fluorescence. In this method the property of oil is used, that it fluoresces under the UV
light. But you cant be sure that the fluorescent material is moveable oil because there are some
other: OBM or lubricants used, other sources of carbon (dead oil or bitumen), gilsonite cement
Solvent cut. In this procedure about 3 cm of dried and crushed sample is placed in a test tube
and solvent (typically chlorothen, ether, and chloroform, all of them toxic and flammable and so
to be handled carefully) is added to about 1 cm above the sample. After shaking the test tube for
a few minutes the change of colour is measured. This colour change is the solvent cut. Heavy
oil (e.g. asphalts) generally has a stronger cut than lighter oil (e.g. paraffins). Additionally the test
tube may be put under the UV light and the results compared with these of the pure solvent, to
check if any fluorescence is present.
Acetone test. A sample of washed, dried and crushed cuttings is put in a test tube together with
acetone. This tube is shaken and afterwards the acetone is filtered into another tube, to which
the same amount of water is added. By the reason that acetone is dissolvable in water, but
hydrocarbons are not the water becomes milky in colour. This test is useful where only light oil
or condensate is present.
Visible staining. If the permeability and/or viscosity is poor, oil may remain in cuttings and be
visible under the microscope as a form of stain on the surface of the cuttings.
Odour. During the cleaning and drying process the characteristic smell of oil may be discerned.
Gas detection analysis. This works by passing air, drawn from the bell nipple (the point where
the mud reaches the surface) over a detector filament. By inducing different voltages, which
leads to combustion of components of different weight in the gas (at lower voltages the lower
components burn, at higher voltages all the burnable parts), followed by a rising of temperature
and finally to changes in resistance of the filament, what can be measured. In this way the
proportions of the various components can be estimated.

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3. Quicklook log interpretation
When the total depth (TD) of a well has been reached, an interpretation of the openhole logs will be done
by the petrophysicist. Before starting his interpretation he needs:
All the relevant daily drilling reports (including latest deviation, last casing depth and mud data)
All the latest mud log information (including description of the cuttings, gas reading, shows, and
rate of penetration)
Logs and interpretations of other wells penetrating the same formation (m, n, Rw, rhog, fluid
contacts)
Copy of contractors chart book
3.1 Basic quality control

The petrophysicist has to ensure that the quality of the log data after getting them. He should perform the
following points:
Control if the loggers total depth and last casing shoe depths roughly matches those of the last
drilling reports.
Check if derrick floor elevation and ground level positions are correct.
Log curves have to be on depth with each other. Zones of temporarily sticking can be
determined using the tension curve. These Zones will put the curves off depth and result in
flatlining.
Check that the caliper reads correctly inside the casing for measuring true values for the inner
diameter (ID) and that measurement is done in nonpermeable zones which are not washed out.
Check the density borehole correction curve. For clearly washed out sections (>18 inch in
diameter) the density curve will be unusable in most cases.
Look at the resistivity curves. If OBM is used, shallow curves will typically read higher values
than deeper curves, except in highly oil or gas saturated zones. Using WBM leads to lower
readings of shallow curves, providing Rmf < Rw, or in hydrocarbon bearing zones. Theoretically
the curves overlie each other in nonpermeable zones such as shales. Practically anisotropy or
shoulder-bed effects often lead to divergence.
Check if the sonic log shows a transit time of 47s/ft in the casing.
Watch out for any cycle-type behaviour in any of the curves. This may cause an irregular
borehole shape.
Check that acceptable industry norms are used for the presentation scales. These are
generally:
o GR: 0 50 API
o Caliper: 8 - 18
o Resistivity: 0.2 2000 m on log scale
o Density: 1.95 2.95 g/cm3 (solid line)
o Neutron: -0.15 0.45 (porosity fraction) (dashed line)
o Sonic: 140 40 s/ft

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3.2 Identifying the reservoir

The behaviour of density and neutron logs will be the most reliable indicator of reservoir rock, with the
density moving to the left (lower density) and touching or crossing the neutron curve. This will in most
cases lead to a fall of the gamma ray log in clastic reservoirs. In some reservoirs the gamma ray is not a
reliable indicator of sands, due to the presence in sands of radioactive minerals. Zones of high density
(typically 6 or more neutron porosity units) can easily be determined as shales.
The quality of a reservoir increases with the size of the crossover between density and neutron logs.
However, for the same porosity, zones of gas have a greater crossover the zones of oil or water,
because both the neutron and density logs are determined statistically. They will wiggle even in
completely homogeneous formations. Therefore it is dangerous to say there is net sand if there is a
crossover. For most reservoirs the following approach is safer:
Take an average reading for the gamma ray in clean sands (GRsa) and for shales (GRsh) better
the mode than the highest reading.
Calculate the volume of shale as:
Vsh = (GR GRsa) / (GRsh GRsa)
Then determine a value of Vsh to use as a cut-off, by comparing Vsh with the density and neutron
log. Typically 50% is used.
If you cant use the gamma ray as a sand indicator in a special case, use the entire gross as being net
sand and apply a porosity cut-off at a later stage.
7 Identifying net reservoir

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3.3 Identifying the fluid type and contacts

The porosity calculation depends on the formation fluid type. Therefore you should have a working
assumption regarding the fluids at this stage. If there is information available from other wells in the
same region, you can take the depth of gas/oil or oil/water contact, convert sub sea depths into
measured depth and mark it on your logs. If the pressures have already been determined, what is
usually never the case, any information on possible free water levels (FWLs) or GOCs can be marked
on the logs too.
For any evidence of hydrocarbons, start with comparing the density and deepest reading resistivity log. In
the clastic response, resistivity and density will follow each other to the left and to the right in water
sands; they will be a mirror image of each other in hydrocarbon sands. Not all of the hydrocarbon and
water zones will show their typical behaviour. Reasons for this can be:
In the case of very high formation-water salinity, the resistivity may also drop in clean sands.
A rise of the resistivity may be missing, if shaly sand zones have a high proportion of conductive
dispersed shales.
If there are thinly laminated sands between shales, the deep resistivity may not be able to see
the sands and the value may fail to rise.
If drilling has been done very heavy overbalanced, the mud may have entered the formation so
deep that the invaded zone completely prevents a deeper look into the formation.
Very fresh formation water (high Rw) may also lead to wrong results for resistivity, in water
bearing formation.
8 Identifying net pay

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9 Identifying gas sands from Vp/Vs versus Vp plot
When one of the first two situations occurs, you have to look at the absolute value of the deep resistivity,
but not only at the behaviour compared with the density. When water sand has been penetrated in the
well, somebody should know about resistivity of water-bearing sand. If the measured resistivity is higher
than the one of the water bearing sand, the presence of hydrocarbons can be expected.
When it is not clear if there are hydrocarbons in the formation, any mud log data should be examined.
You should not always expect that mud logging gives an answer to the question if there are
hydrocarbons or not, particularly if the sands are thin and the overbalance is high. Moreover, some minor
gas peaks may be observed even in sand that is water bearing.
Any GOC can very easily be determined on the log in very clean porous sands. However, practically
GOCs will only be determined correctly in about 50% of the cases. Secondary gas caps, which appear in
depleted reservoirs, are typically not picked up in this way. A more reliable way to identify GOCs
formation-pressure plots, but these will only be useful in virgin reservoirs. In the past there have many
cross plots been proposed to identify gas caps, including neutron, density, sonic, and gamma ray logs,
but they are not really reliable. In completed reservoirs where gas has started to come out of solution in
an oil zone, but had no chance to equilibrate (form a gas cap), the gas may only form football-sized
pockets in between the oil. In this situation the basic logs will give no satisfactory answer.
10 Selection of the fluid density for porosity calculation, using a density tool

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3.4 Calculating the porosity

The porosity should be determined from the density log, using the following equation:
= (rhom density) / (rhom rhof)
where rhom is the matrix density (in g/cm3) and rhof the density of the fluid (in g/cm3).
The density tool injects gamma rays into the formation, which are then scattered by the electrons in the
formation, a process known as Compton scattering. Two detectors then detect these gamma rays. By
the fact that the tool measures electron density, there will be a little miscalibration due to the variation in
electron density between different materials. The correction is typically small (1% or less) and so no
major cause for concern. The density porosity will at some stage be calibrated against core data, so for
Quicklook purposes the correction can be ignored.
The rhom value for sandstone lies somewhere between 2.65 and 2.67 g/cm3. If core data is available, the
value can be taken from the average measured on core plugs. The fluid density depends on the mud
type, formation fluid properties and extent of invasion seen by the density log. For information about the
accuracy of the values, following tests may be applied:
If information about other wells in the same region is available, the average zonal porosities may
be compared.
Across any contact there should be no jump in porosity, except for diagenetic OWC occurring.
Porosities of sandstone will not be expected to exceed 36%.
By using the density log the total porosity is calculated, including water bound to clays or held in clay
porosity. The advantage is that these porosities can directly be compared with the ones measured on
plugs, when there is all clay-bound and free water removed.
You have to check for washed-out zones, which can result in high density values and unrealistically high
porosities. In same cases it is enough to set a value limit. Zones often wash out because they are soft
and have a high porosity. In water bearing zones the true resistivity (Rt) and the Archie equation
Rt = Rw * -m * Sw-n
or
Sw = [(Rt / Rw) * m]-1/n
may be used to get a good estimate of the porosity.
The effective porosity is the total porosity minus the clay bound water and the water held in clay porosity.
It may be defined as:
eff = total * (1 C * Vsh)
where the factor C depends on the shale porosity and the cation exchange capacity (CEC). It may be
determined by calculating the total porosity in pure shales (Vsh = 1) and setting eff to zero. But its not
sure that taking the properties of non-reservoir zones, for shales within sands in the reservoir, leads to
correct results.
Some people mean that calculating eff should not be part of a Quicklook interpretation, and using a
neutron density crossplot is not the best way to determine porosities in sandstone. You should use the
neutron log for only two things
Qualitative identification (using the density) of shale/sand zones
Identification of gas zones
They do also not favour the use of the sonic log for porosity determination under any circumstances.

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3.5 Calculating hydrocarbon saturation

For calculating saturations of clastic reservoirs by Quicklook evaluations, it is in most cases sufficient to
take the deepest reading resistivity tool directly as Rt and put it into the Archie equation. If there are no
regional core values available its recommended to put m = n = 2.
Rw is the parameter to be determined when m and n are predefined. The best way to do this issue is a
Pickett plot over a known water bearing section of the formation. By plotting log(Rt) versus log(), m may
be determined from the gradient of the line drawn through the points and Rw may be read from the
intercept of the line with the Rt axis.
If m is fixed, the line can be shifted only up and down. If the slope doesnt correspond with the assumed
m value, changing m within a reasonable range (1.5 2.5) is recommended.
Also values for Rw may be available from nearby wells, but will usually be expressed as NaCl
concentration [ppm or mg/l] and has therefore to be converted using the contractors chart book and
knowledge of the formation temperature.
In the case that no clear water section has been logged in the well, regional data has to be used,
although the Pickett plot may give other results than expected because of regional information. That can
have the following reasons:
Porosities calculated in the well are not correct
100% water bearing is assumed, but not really the case
m needs to be adjusted
Regional data doesnt suit to the well
This last point can have as reason:
Different salinities in the wells
The chart book may assume that Rw is influenced by the conductivity of brine only coming from
the presence of NaCl. But there can also be other chlorides (e.g. MgCl).
The water zone may originally have been an oil bearing zone, but became flushed by injection
(seawater is often used for injection offshore)
Other problems caused by the treatment of samples
11 Pickett Plot

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In theory there is a procedure using the spontaneous potential curve to derive a measurement of Rw,
which functions the following way:
1. Draw a shale baseline on the SP log, which defines an average of the SP readings in 100%
shale zones
2. Determine the maximum Sp deflection observed in thick porous parts of the reservoir
3. To correct for invasion, borehole, and bed effects, use the appropriate chart supplied by the
contractor and convert the SP deflection to a static spontaneous potential (SSP)
4. By taking use of the appropriate chart, determine the kinetic energy (Ek), and the mud cake
contribution (mc)
5. Get Ek, shale using Ek, and shale (= P[bar] / 6.9, where P is the difference between mud
pressure and formation pressure)
6. Calculate the Eckert number (Ec) at BHT in C:
Ec(BHT) = SSP + Ek, mc - Eksh
7. A correction of Ec(BHT) to the standard temperature has to be done
Ec(25C) = Ec(BHT) *298 / (273 + BHT)
8. Get the mud filtrate salinity by using Rmf and temperature
9. Determine Qvshale using the contractors charts or else set Qvshale = 4 mmol/cm3
10. Determine the formation water salinity by taking use of the appropriate chart( Ec(25C) ), the
mud salinity and Qvshale
11. Reconvert the formation water salinity to the bottom hole temperature
After all it is essential that the used model calculates 100% water in known water bearing reservoirs.
Otherwise, the calculated Sw will not be correct.
3.6 Presenting the results

After porosity and water saturations are calculated, it is usually required to provide averages over
formation zones. First define the depths for which the results should be broken up, taking into account
changes in fluid type, poor quality zones, or any point of change in log character. Then a table should be
produced.
The average porosity is given by:
(average) = i / h, where h is the net thickness
The average value of Sw is calculated with:
Sw(average) = i * Swi / i
For zones of permeability transformation, an average permeability for each major sand body should be
presented. Usually the net is defined on the basis of a Vsh cut-off, but when this is not possible, a
porosity cut-off can be used. The cut-off point should be set at a value equivalent to a permeability of 1
millidarcy (md) for sections of oil and 0.1 md for gas zones. Using cut-offs is not always a good solution,
although they will be necessary if Archies equation gives nonzero hydrocarbon saturations in completely
nonreservoir shales.
In practise the zones worth to be perforated are chosen in assistance of a 1:200 print of the evaluated
logs. For presentation purposes the use of a 1:500 version of the evaluated logs, including all the
possible data, is useful. Although it is different from company to company, it is common to use red for oil,
green for gas, blue for water and yellow for unidentified hydrocarbons.

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12 A report of the evaluated results
Adding a curve called SHPOR, derived from (1 Sw) * , and shading from zero to the curve with the
appropriate colour, is recommended. This curve helps to represent the total volume of the fluid. Thin
zones with higher porosity should be put more attention on, as thicker zones of lower porosity.
3.7 Pressure/sampling
A requirement to run the pressure/sampling tool to acquire pretests and possibly downhole samples will
be given in most cases. These data can be really valuable to the petrophysicist in determining which
fluids are present in the formation, and are also used by the reservoir engineer and production
technologist.
Pretests can give the following information:
Depths of any free water levels and gas oil contacts in the well
In-situ fluid densities of the oil, gas, and water legs
Absolute values for aquifer and formation pressure
Qualitative mobility and permeability indications
Bottomhole pressure and temperature in the wellbore
Additional downhole samples can provide the following information:
Pressure/volume/temperature (PVT) properties of oil and gas in the reservoir
Formation-water salinity
More information about mobility/permeability
Typically a probe is mechanically forced into the formation and chambers are opened in the tool where
the formation flows in. For pretests small chambers of only a few cubic centimetres are used, which can
be emptied before the next pretest station. In downhole sampling, larger chambers of 2 or 6 gallons
are used, because the first fluids, entering, may be contaminated by mud filtrate. In the typical procedure
two chambers are used. The one that is filled first should contain all the contaminated fluid, and then the
second one is filled with hopefully only representative fluid of the formation. After retrieving the samples
at the surface, they can either be drained on the well site, or kept sealed while bringing them to the PVT
laboratory.
Pretests and sampling are often not successful. By leaving the tool in the borehole, the problem of
getting stuck can occur by one of the following reasons:

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Seal failure. Around the probe a rubber pad is placed, which provides a seal between the mud
pressure and the formation pressure. This pad may fail, resulting in a rapid pressure build-up in
the mud.
Supercharging. Some higher pressure occurring during the drilling process may be retained by
tight sections of the formation. For pretests anomalously high pressures are measured.
Dry test. In very tight formations the pressure is very slowly built up in the chambers and it is not
used to wail till equilibrium is reached.
Anomalous gradients. Sands may lie on different pressure trends when they have been
isolated even over geological time scales and not share a common aquifer of FWL. Gradients
may also not be meaningful, when any depletion has occurred in the reservoir or it is not in a
true equilibrium state (slowly leaking seal or fault).
Now it will be useful to know how to distinguish between free water level (FWL), free oil level (FOL), oil
water contact (OWC), gas water contact (GWC) and gas oil contact (GOC), and in which relation they
are in pressure measurements.
At the FWL of a reservoir, the capillary pressure Pc is zero and below it, no hydrocarbons are in that
pressure system. The intersection of the oil and water, or gas and water points will fall on the FWL on the
pressure-depth-plot. Above the FWL, water may be drained by hydrocarbons. But particularly in low
permeable rocks, a certain entry pressure has to be given to get Sw under a certain unity. When such a
pressure is reached, hydrocarbons will be found in the rock and the OWC or GWC is crossed. Between
FWL and OWC or GWC, pressure points will continue to fall on a waterline.
The pressure will be above the OWC for a gas or oil reservoir, following a trend corresponding to an oil
gradient (but intersecting the waterline at the FWL).
For the GOC the situation is not the same as for the OWC, because there are three phases (water, oil,
gas) instead of two. The GOC is commonly treated as being the intersection of the gas and oil pressure
lines, what is technically incorrect, but causes no problems. For a pure gas reservoir, the pressure will
rise above the GWC on a trend corresponding to a gas gradient (intersecting the waterline at the FWL).
Remind that these considerations have nothing to do with the transition zone. In reservoirs changing in
quality, the OWC and GWC may vary in depth across the field, by the reason that poor-quality rocks may
show the effect of entry height, which can reach tens of meters.
13 Formation pressure plot

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3.8 Permeability determination

Like in a production test, the behaviour of the pressure build-up may be used to estimate the properties
of the formation. The mobility M of the formation is defined by:
M=k/
where k is the permeability [md] of the formation, and the viscosity [cp] of the fluid that enters the
chamber.
Theoretically M is related to the drawdown pressure, drawdown time and the flow rate. The contractor
usually makes mobility estimation by using the analysis of the build-up. With known viscosity, the mobility
can be converted to the permeability. Usually the pretest chamber is filled with either water or oil-based
mud filtrate. Some values are given in figure 11.
The information received by pretests is whether some permeability is present if a good build-up is
obtained, but it will only be a point measurement. In fact, by just moving the probe a few centimetres up
or down, the results for mobility may become completely different ones. With a bit of bad luck, the place
where the probe is taken from doesnt give a good build-up. Additionally, the permeability of a zone may
not be represented.
Practically pretests should only be used for determining if there is any porosity, but for achieving values
to use in dynamic models, other methods are used. Formation damage occurring while drilling, may lead
to too low pretest permeability, compared with a poroperm relationship. The same may happen, when
the zone is tested for production.
The contractor should always hand the actual field prints to the petrophysicist, to allow him to have a look
at the estimated permeability and fluid contacts. Reasons for this are:
Older tools may use other units (psig, what means psi per gauge, instead of absolute psi, psia).
If the wrong-unit-values are entered into the database, this will lead to a shift equivalent to
atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi).
Sometimes not all the field data are entered into the database when a field is created, such as
data of tight zones. But it is crucial to know about that.
When there is no data for such a tight zone, an estimation of formation pressure may be made
by extrapolating the build-up pressures.
There will typically be a measured depth for the pretest and a true vertical depth, referenced to
the derrick floor, be given. It is very important to check, if the pressures are referenced properly
to the best estimate of true vertical depth relative to the datum (usually mean sea level). Usually
a gyro survey is run after the final casing has been set, to convert all measured depths to TVD
relative to the datum, after the pressure tool is run.
The quick look interpretations presented in this chapter will suffice for operational decisions on the well.
The evaluated logs are usually presented at scales of 1: 200 and 1: 500 with the sums and averages
marked on the logs, and the pore fluids represented by their colours.
14 Typical viscosities of borehole fluids

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15 Typical behaviour of the pressure during a pretest

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4. Full interpretation
When the final data and prints are available, the digital data should be stored within a corporate
database. At the stage the petrophysicist is used to do a full interpretation, which can still be revised,
when further core analysis or information from offset wells become available.
In some cases the only thing to do is to refine the conventional Archie interpretation, while in other cases
this rapid interpretation may be completely laid aside in favour of a more advanced model. The ways the
Archie model may be refined will be discussed in this chapter.
4.1 Net sand definition

The petrophysicist should visit the core laboratory as soon as core data has been acquired, to investigate
the slabbed core. He has to check that there hasnt happened any wrong interpretation. Core that can be
easily determined as reservoir rock, the exact net sand footage should be measured with, to be able to
check some measured values against the calculations made on the logs. Therefore the shale volume
may be varied. Additionally photographs of the cores are taken, either under normal and UV light, which
assist in the determination of net reservoir. After the conventional core analysis measurements of core
porosity, grain density, and permeability will be done.
If measurements happened at overburden conditions, the results have to be converted to in-situ
conditions, using conversion factors. If these are not available, regional data will help to assume some,
while true ones are calculated out of core analysis.
Commonly the in-situ porosity versus logarithm of permeability is plotted, if necessary divided into
sections, so that a single line can be fitted to the data with reasonable accuracy. As the result we get the
so called poroperm relationship, which is typically of the form:
k = 10^ (ka + kb * )
Where k is the permeability of the reservoir, and typical values for ka and kb are -2 and 20.
The sands of the chosen Vsh cut-off should show no porosities corresponding to 1md in oil zones and 0.1
md in gas zones. If this is not the case, an additional cut-off will be necessary, to check if a tight zone has
been investigated. When having no core data, it is useful to plot the gamma ray versus the density log to
find the best point to distinguish between net and non-net from the gamma ray.
16 Determination of reservoir cut-offs by using a GR-density cross plot

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Shale becomes dispersed in pore space (increasing GR) and now the density increases until the point is
reached, where no more pore space is available for free fluids. Beyond this point shale becomes still
more and finally reaches 100% of the formation, but during this process the density changes only slightly
(difference between densities of quartz and shale is small). The correct cut-off is therefore the point at
which the gradient changes, corresponding to zero effective porosity.
The GR will not be the only source needed to get Vsh if radioactive minerals are present in the sands. In
such a situation only a porosity cut-off may be used. If thin laminated sands are thought to be non-
reservoir by using a Vsh or porosity cut-off, no cut-offs should be used at all. Because the Archie
approach gives no satisfactory results any more, advanced techniques have to be used.
4.2 Porosity calculation

In most cases the density porosity should be determined, by using a fluid with an appropriate density.
The conventional core analysis helps to calibrate it, before correcting it to in-situ conditions. Core data
and calculated porosity have to be shifted so they match and are plotted together. With the core grain
density measurements a histogram should be made, which can be used to determine the appropriate
value to use in the sands. This histogram should indication of the possible spread of values, and the
mean grain density. Therefore plugs taken from clearly non-reservoir formation must not be used. Then
a cross plot of the log density against the in-situ core porosity values is made.
The density should be equivalent to the core grain density at zero core porosity, while for a unit core
porosity the core porosity is used to be equivalent to the fluid density. The usual procedure is to place an
appropriate line in between the data points and then extrapolate the line to the unity porosity to get an
appropriate fluid density. For any gas/oil/water zone this has to be done separately. Theoretically the
results should be almost the same as the assumed ones of the quick look analysis. Differences can
occur because of:
Miscalibration of the density log
Mud chemicals (e.g. barite) may effect the density log
Higher or lower amount of invasion as assumed
Problems with core plug measurement or during conversion to in-situ conditions
Where anomalous fluid densities are determined, they will commonly only be used for the current well
and possibly only for the cored zone, while densities which agree with the expected values will be used
for other wells with comparable parameters too.
17 Porosity calibrated by a core

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4.3 Archie saturation

Cementation (m) and saturation (n) exponents measured in special core analysis (SCAL) can be
included into the Archie model. For determining m, the resistivity of a plug flushed with brine, having the
expected salinity of the reservoir, is measured. The logarithm of formation factor, given by log(F) =
log(R0/Rw), is plotted against log(porosity), what looks similar to the Archie model:
log(F) = -m * log()
Here m is given by the gradient of line. Remember, the higher the value for m, the higher the calculated
water saturation Sw and the other way around.
In n measurements the plugs are desaturated (with either air or kerosene) after being flushed with brine.
By performing this way, the true resistivity Rt can be measured and plotted versus Sw. Here a
resemblance to the Archie model can be watched too, by plotting the logarithm of the resistivity index
given by log(I) = log(Rt/R0) versus log(Sw):
log(I) = -n * log(Sw)
In this procedure the gradient of the line gives n. The higher the n value, the higher the calculated Sw and
vice versa. Anomalously high n values (higher than 2.5) may indicate a mixed or oil-wet system, for that
further investigation is needed. Low n values typically belong to good-quality water-wet permeable rock.
From the time on, m and n are set, the value for Rw, which might be required to calculate Sw = 100% in
known water sands, can not be completely free chosen.
If formation water salinity has been determined by produced water samples, an issue can be to choose
whether to trust m or Rw. But the problem of not knowing what to use can also depend on an error in the
porosity calculation. However, it should always be checked if the values for cementation exponent are
reliable. If measurements come from oil legs instead of water legs, it is possible that the values are not
representative for the reservoir because of diagenetic effects.
Further should be checked if either invasion or shoulder bed effects are significantly influencing the
deepest reading resistivity tool. For a well drilled with oil based mud includes thick sand. Whatsoever, the
deep resistivity tool should be used as it is. But if there really are effects of invasion or shoulders, it is
better to use a saturation/height approach instead of an Archie model. In the case that one wants to go
on with correcting the resistivity, he may use the contractors chart book or computer based algorithms.
4.4 Permeability
The final evaluation of the static and dynamic model makes it necessary to use a permeability log as well
as zonal averages for input. To get a permeability log out of the data of a porosity log, the poroperm
relationship may be used. When the log is finished, it will be necessary to check if there are any sections
of anomalously high values. Common sandstones do not exceed about 1500md, although top-quality
sands with porosities above 35% may have permeabilities up to about 4000md. If necessary, do a cut-off
at a value corresponding to the core data. Permeabilities of non-reservoir zones should be set to a very
low value (e.g. 0.001md). Permeabilities calculated using different sources (nuclear magnetic resonance
NMR, formation pressure tool, and production tests) should give roughly the same results.
There are three types for making zonal averages of the permeability, which are:
The arithmetic average, that is calculated as follows:
karith = ki * hi / hi
where hi is the space between the different places of measurements. This average can be used
if the flow in the reservoir is in the direction of the bedding plane. Small impermeable streaks
affect the average very little.
The geometric average is given by:

Well Logging
Kgeom = exp( log(ki) * hi / hi)

This average is used where parts of the flow are directed as the bedding plane and parts normal
to it. Impermeable streaks may have some influence on the calculated average, but not make it
useless.
The harmonic average is determined with:
kharm = 1 / ( (hi / ki) / hi)
This average is used in the case of the flow being normal to the direction of the bedding plane.
The values will be completely dominated by impermeable streaks.
In horizontal wells it comes to another effect, due to the fact that kv / kh in the microscopic scale is usually
less than one. This effect may be estimated as follows. Let be equal kv / kh, where kv is the vertical
permeability and kh the horizontal one. The average permeability, which is influenced either of the vertical
and the horizontal part, is given by:
kav = kh * (1 + ) / 2
The typical procedure is to assume the parameters of kv and kh over an entire reservoir within a dynamic
model. Typical values for kv / kh are between 0.1 and 0.3. But even if the formation appears completely
homogenous, the permeabilities, determined in a poroperm relationship, need to be adjusted for a
horizontal well.
18 Effect of kv / kh < 1 in horizontal wells on the permeability
For the print of zonal averages, it is common to add the product k * h, where h is the thickness of the
zone and can be related to the flow, generated in a production test. Arithmetic averages will often be
higher than those yielding from a production test. This can have the following reasons:

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The flow doesnt run through the entire perforated zone, what results in a smaller value of h,
than the one assumed in the petrophysical calculation.
Some of the flow deviates from the direction of the bedding plane.
After the Openhole logging, but still before the testing operation, some formation damage
(called skin) has occurred.
The in-situ brine permeability, calibrated in the laboratory may be inappropriate, because of
relative permeability effects, such as gas blocking.
Although there may be differences between the log-derived and the test permeability, which is fact of life
in real reservoirs, the log-derived permeabilities will find their way into the static and dynamic models.
Practically, the permeabilities may be adjusted, either globally or near certain wells to make the predicted
flow rates match the production data, in the simulator during the history-matching process.

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5. Value of information
A petrophysicist should have an idea of the economic part of the work he is performing. He has to have a
feeling, whether the cost of running a certain log is really justified, what means that it brings more money
than it costs.
In a typical oilfield model money is spent, until a discovery is made. In the following discovery there is a
development phase, involving significant capital expense (called CapEx) on wells and facilities. When
producing, money start to come back and the CapEx will be paid back. There will also be operating
expenses (OpEx) and tax for revenues. At the payback time, the income will have covered the lowered
CapEx and OpEx and the project starts to put off some profits. At any time the field has a future value
(ignoring all the sunk costs), which is called the net present value (NPV). This NPV is calculated from
production forecasts, together with assumptions about hydrocarbon prices, taxes, future OpEx and
abandonment costs.
It is important to know how information is related to NPV. The better and more information you have, the
more wisely the CapEx may be spent, and the greater the revenues. But there will be an effect that
diminishes the returns. This is shown in the following figure.
Information will be reflected either in a raise of costs and NPV, although the NPV will fall exceeding a
certain limit of information. In the case, that a constant value of money is spent, there comes a time
during the life of a field, when the income is getting less, what cant be stopped because there are no
revenue-increasing decisions left. For example, getting a core out of a well one month before
abandonment will be just a waste of money.
At this point it is important to get a feeling for the amount of money, spent for logging. Lets say there is a
field of about 50-MMbbl and the facilities have to be designed. It can be helpful to use nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR) tools, which are assumed to always give correct answers, in all the early development
wells, what costs about half a million dollars, if there is a chance, of let say 30%, that the stock tank oil
initially in place (STOIIP) is seriously underestimated and could be 75-MMbbl.
In the case that these logs are not run, and the 500,000$ are not spent, there is a 70% chance, that the
facilities are designed correctly. Then the field may realize an NPV of lets say 500 million $. However,
there is a 30% possibility, that the STOIIP is in fact 75-MMbbl. With the same utilities, an NPV of 650
million $ may be achieved, but by using fitting facilities for this case, an NPV of may be 700 million $ may
be reached. The estimated additional monetary value (EMV) of using the NMR log can be evaluated
by:
EMV = (0.3 * 700 + 0.7 * 500 0.5) (0.3 * 650 + 0.7 * 500) = 14.5 million dollar
19 The costs for information

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20 Decision tree
Remember, that running the NMR logs in this case is expected to make a profit, but this logging method
doesnt add the 25-MMbbl to the reservoir. Most of the 75-MMbbl will be produced anyway, but the NMR
allows you to make the right decisions for an optimal output.
Practically tools may lead to not completely the right results, but there is a confidence expressed by a
fraction R. It can happen, that you expect field of lets say 75-MMbbl and in real it is only of a size of 50-
MMbbl. With the facilities of the bigger field you might make a NPV of only 400 million $. A help for
decision making can be a decision tree, shown in the following picture.
Calculating the EMV the same way as before:
EMV = (R * (0.3 * 700 + 0.7 * 500) + (1 R) * (0.3 * 650 + 0.7 * 400) 0.5)
((0.3 * 650 + 0.7 * 500)
with an R value of 0.5, results in an EMV of:
EMV = 517 545 = -28
In this case, running an NMR log will cost the company 28 million dollars.
With the above equation the value of R can be calculated, where using NMR tools, becomes worthwhile.
By plotting R versus EMV, you come to figure 18, where a good value of R can easily be read from.
Such plots, maybe with additional techniques (e.g. further tool calibration, special studies) to improve
the reliability of the tool, are used to convince the management about the benefits of running various
tools.
By the reason, that the loss in NPV when making facilities too small is much less than the costs of
making them too large, the negative EMV of misleading information is generally higher than the positive
EMV of correct information, in the early stage of a field. Small facilities may only lead to a later depletion,
while greater facilities result in a loss of money. And do not forget, that you had to pay for the information
too. If your field is older, the situation has changed. You might find out that the STOIIP of your field is
higher than expected, but this will not lead to great changing in development, you will just make more
money than expected. In the situation that you find out that the STOIIP is less, theres nothing you can do
against it, and while the acquisition cost remains the same, the value of information becomes less.
Summarized, at the end of the life of a field, the costs of information play a more important role than the
reliability of the data.

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21 EMV versus R
The following points are investigated, when deciding whether a course of data acquisition was justified or
not:
The economic effect of finding additional hydrocarbons can not directly be correlated with the
spot price of these hydrocarbons
After getting some information, whether true or not, theres also a possibility that you make
wrong decisions.
There is the chance that you dont trust your data, or it just confirms with the assumptions you
already made. Nevertheless you have to pay for any of this information.
Some kind of data can be acquired only at a certain point of time. For example virgin data can
be determined only at a very early stage of the field development. Therefore you should think
about acquiring data for a later time.

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References
Stefan M. Luthi (2001) Geological Well Logs. Their use in reservoir modelling: 3 7, 12 - 20
Toby Darling (2005) Well Logging and Formation Evaluation: 3 57, 119 - 124
Homepage of the company Baker & Hughes (www.bakerhughes.com)
Homepage of the company Schlumberger (www.slb.com)

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Markus Bernhart

Supervised by: Prof. Dr. Franz Kessler

7 Identifying net reservoir.................................................................................................................. 20

8 Identifying net pay .......................................................................................................................... 21

9 Identifying gas sands from Vp/Vs versus Vp plot ........................................................................... 22

11 Pickett Plot ................................................................................................................................... 24

12 A report of the evaluated results ................................................................................................. 26

13 Formation pressure plot .............................................................................................................. 27

14 Typical viscosities of borehole fluids ........................................................................................... 28

15 Typical behaviour of the pressure during a pretest .................................................................... 29

16 Determination of reservoir cut-offs by using a GR-density cross plot ....................................... 30

17 Porosity calibrated by a core ....................................................................................................... 31

18 Effect of kv / kh < 1 in horizontal wells on the permeability ......................................................... 33

19 The costs for information ............................................................................................................. 35

20 Decision tree ................................................................................................................................ 36

21 EMV versus R ........................................................................................................................... 37

Author: Markus Bernhart Page: 4

Author: Markus Bernhart Page: 5

Author: Markus Bernhart Page: 6

1.2 History of logging

Author: Markus Bernhart Page: 7

Author: Markus Bernhart Page: 8

2.1 Basic Log Types

2.1.1 Logging While Drilling (LWD)

Author: Markus Bernhart Page: 9

2.1.2 Wireline Openhole Logging

Author: Markus Bernhart Page: 10

2.1.3 Wireline Cased Hole Logging

2.1.4 Pipe Conveyed Logging

2.2 Logging Contracts

Author: Markus Bernhart Page: 11

Author: Markus Bernhart Page: 12

Specific safety procedures to be followed

2.3 Preparing a Logging Program

2.4 Operational Decisions

Author: Markus Bernhart Page: 13

2.4.1 Tool failures

2.4.2 Stuck tools

Author: Markus Bernhart Page: 14

2.5.1 Core Acquisition

2.5.2 Conventional Core Analysis

Author: Markus Bernhart Page: 15

2.5.3 Special Core Analysis

Author: Markus Bernhart Page: 16

2.5.4 Limitations of core measurements

2.6 Wellsite mud logging

Author: Markus Bernhart Page: 17

The detection of hydrocarbons may be done by using the following procedures:

Author: Markus Bernhart Page: 18

3. Quicklook log interpretation

3.1 Basic quality control

Author: Markus Bernhart Page: 19

3.2 Identifying the reservoir

7 Identifying net reservoir

Author: Markus Bernhart Page: 20

3.3 Identifying the fluid type and contacts

8 Identifying net pay

Author: Markus Bernhart Page: 21

9 Identifying gas sands from Vp/Vs versus Vp plot

Author: Markus Bernhart Page: 22

3.4 Calculating the porosity

Author: Markus Bernhart Page: 23

3.5 Calculating hydrocarbon saturation