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Deus Ex-Machina Reconstruction in the theatre

of Phlius

Article in Journal of Mechanical Design January 2009

DOI: 10.1115/1.4000530

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PROOF COPY [MD-08-1330] 002001JMD

Argyris S. Papadogiannis
Deus-Ex-Machina Mechanism
Research Associate
Department of Mechanical Engineering and
Aeronautics,
Reconstruction in the Theater of
University of Patras
Phlius, Corinthia
PR
e-mail: papadogiannisgr@yahoo.gr

Marilena C. Tsakoumaki In some ancient Greek drama plays, the stage machine used to bring the gods or the
22 Research Associate heroes of the tragedy on stage, known with the Latin term deus-ex-machina, was used for AQ:
Business Kings College London Strand,
O
23 the solution of an apparently insoluble crisis. A twin-facing stone base was found in the #1
24 London WC2R 2LS, UK theater of Phlius in Corinthia, Greece, behind the stage building. The existence of similar
25 e-mail: mtsakoumaki@hotmail.com foundations in other ancient theaters indicates their use for specific purposes connected
OF
26 with the needs of the play. An attempt to reconstruct the mechanism is presented based on
27 Thomas G. Chondros archeological evidence and literary descriptions. The reconstructed mechanism was de-
28 Assistant Professor signed for path generation and comprised a single beam with ropes controlling its planar
Department of Mechanical Engineering and motion and a sidle twin lifting system. DOI: 10.1115/1.4000530
29
Aeronautics,
CO

30 University of Patras Keywords: deus-ex-machina, theatrical mechanism reconstruction, ancient Greek

31 e-mail: chondros@mech.upatras.gr theater, Phlius (Corinthia)
PY

1 1 Introduction doors through which the actors made their entrances. Flights of 39
steps led from the orchestra to the stage, with others leading to 40
2 1.1 The Ancient Greek Theatre. The ancient Greek theater chambers below, and were known as Charons stairways for they 41
3 was born in the 6th century B.C. out of a form of a single actor were used for the entrance of specters from the nether world and 42
[M

4 dance drama that flourished in the Dorian parts of Greece. It for the ghostly apparitions of the dead. In earlier times, the skene 43
5 reached a period of maturity by the 5th century B.C., following the building of the Athens theater was about 4 m high and 27 m wide. 44
6 victorious wars against the Persian empire and the rise of Greek At later times the skene was a two-story building according to 45
7 drama 13. Early Greek theaters were probably little more than some authors. The skene building had an almost flat roof on which 46
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8 open areas in city centers or next to hillsides where the audience, the actors performed in some plays. Otherwise, the play was per- 47
9 standing or sitting, could watch and listen to the chorus singing formed in the orchestra 19. 48
10 about the exploits of a god or hero. Greek tragedies and comedies Aeschylos, who was himself a war hero, won his first literary 49
were always performed in outdoor theaters. Performances were
08

11 victory in the dramatic festival of 484 in Athens. In 472 he pre- 50

12 given throughout the day and lasted for several days. From the sented the Persians, where he introduced the second actor besides 51
13 late 6th century B.C. to the 4th century B.C. and 3rd century B.C. himself and, thus, created the multi-actor theatrical play. 52
14 there was a gradual evolution toward more elaborate theater struc- Sophocles, Euripedes, and Aristophanes made great contributions 53
-1

15 tures, but the basic layout of the Greek theater remained the same to the Greek theater of the 5th century 1,9,10. Phlius in Pelopon- 54
16 46. nesus was the birth city of Pratinas one of the earliest tragic poets 55
17 A substantial number of ancient Greek theaters have survived
33

of Athens and, therefore, by birth a Dorian. It is not stated at what 56

18 the time to the extent that their architecture can be reconstructed time he went to Athens, but he was older than Aeschylus and 57
19 with some precision. The top view of the typical 5th century Ath- younger than Chrilus, with both of whom he competed for the 58
20 ens theater of Dionysus Eleuthereus is shown in Fig. 1. The the- prize at about 500 B.C. For some time previous to this poet, and 59
0]

21 ater was built on the southeast slope of Acropolis, and later was probably as early as Thespis, tragedy had been gradually depart- 60
22 modified under the orator Lykourgos, in the times of Alexander ing more and more from its old characteristics and inclining to 61
23 the Great 7,8. The seats were constructed in the hillside and heroic fables, to which the chorus of satyrs was not a fit accom- 62
24 lined with rows of stone benches, the steps being faced with paniment. The step in the progress of the art, which was ascribed 63
00

25 marble. The auditorium was divided by broad concentric belts, to Pratinas, was the separation of the satyric from the tragic 64
26 named diazomata, which served as lobbies, with 11 rows of seats drama. His plays were much esteemed. Pratinas also ranked high 65
27 between each, and these were further divided into wedges by among the lyric, as well as among the dramatic, poets of the day. 66
20

28 transverse flights of stairs between the lobbies, converging on the About 500 B.C. he competed with Aeschylus, when the latter made 67
29 center of the orchestra, the circular area below the front row of his first appearance as a writer for the stage. Pratinas was also the 68
30 seats, which formed its boundary, the original meaning of which introducer of satyr plays as a species of entertainment distinct 69
31 was dance-area. A portion of its space is occupied by a raised from tragedy 10. Pausanias 2nd century A.D. 11, in his de-
01

70
32 platform, which presently superseded the altar of Dionysus in the scription of Phlius, mentions the tomb of Pratinas son Aristias, 71
33 center, though still known as the thymele. also a famous play writer who with his father enjoyed the reputa- 72
34 In front of the orchestra, and on a level with the lowest tier of tion of exceling all, with the exception of Aeschylus, in the com- 73
JM

35 seats, was the stage, the skene, or house, consisting usually of two position of satyric dramas. 74
36 stories to which a third was sometimes added. They were divided Aeschylos introduced the idea of a god, which would emerge 75
37 by a continuous balcony, adorned with columns corresponding to suddenly from behind the skene building, over the roof, and per- 76
38 the dimensions of the orchestra and stage, and contained five haps into the orchestra area to conclude the drama. The prepara- 77
tion and pick-up of the actors and in some cases of horses and
D

78
chariots too was done from behind the skene building. The in- 79
Contributed by the Mechanisms and Robotics Committee of ASME for publica-
tion in the JOURNAL OF MECHANICAL DESIGN. Manuscript received October 31, 2008;
strument for this operation was called mechane equivalent to the 80
final manuscript received October 15, 2009; published online xxxxx-xxxxx-xxxxx. Latin term machine known with the Latin term deus-ex-machina. 81
Assoc. Editor: Panos Y. Papalambros. While the Greek word mechane was used for the first time by 82

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Fig. 2 Sharpedon, son of Europa, carried through the air by

Sleep Ypnos and Death Thanatos, most probably from Ae-
CO
schylos Europa

hind the stage, so it would have more than one moving link and it 113
could carry substantial load. There is indirect information about 114
PY

the timing of these mechanisms. During the loading and the mo- 115
tion there were specific lines of the chorus, from which we can 116
infer the duration of the respective operation. The fact that the 117
designer himself operates the machine could only point to a com- 118
plex mechanical device 1,12,13. 119
[M

Detailed information on stage scenery and machinery in the 120

ancient theater are given by Vitruvius 1st century A.D. 14 and 121
Pollux 3rd century A.D.. It is described by Pollux 15 as follows: 122
The machine shows gods or heroes-Bellerophons or Perseuses-in 123
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the air. It is situated by the left parodos at a height above the 124
skene. Parodos sidewalk is the narrow pass to the orchestra on 125
Fig. 1 Plan of the Athens theater in the 5th century B.C. 7 each side. This defines the position of the main body of the 126
08

mechanism, though it is not known at which side. It defines also 127

the range of operation, since deus-ex-machina appeared at about 128
the middle of the skene building. 129
83 Homer in the Iliad to describe the political manipulation, it was
Although there are numerous illustrations of plays involving the 130
-1

84 used with its modern meaning for the first time in Aeschylos times
theatrical machine in vase paintings, there is very little informa- 131
85 to describe the stage machine used to bring the gods or the heroes
tion about the machine itself, which seems to be invisible. Figure 132
86 of the tragedy on stage, the deus-ex-machina. The intervention of
33

2 shows the body of Sharpedon, son of Europa, carried through 133

87 a god or a hero brought on stage for the solution of an apparently
the air by Sleep Ypnos and Death Thanatos, most probably 134
88 insoluble crisis was possible by this elaborate piece of equipment.
from Aeschylos Europa illustrated on an Apulin vase in the Met- 135
89 The deus-ex-machina becomes an established stage machine with
ropolitan Museum of Art in New York. There is an important 136
Euripides 1,12,13.
0]

90
piece of information in this, however, since it indicates that the 137
91 1.2 Mechanisms of the Ancient Greek Theatre. Deus-ex- mechanism was, at least, not very visible. This also agrees with 138
92 machina refers to the intervention of a divinity in the action of a aesthetic considerations, since a highly visible mechanism would 139
drama to resolve a conflict and, often, to bring the action to a not be in tune with the scenery, costumes, and masks they were 140
00

93
94 conclusion. Its literal sense, god from the machine comes from using. 141
95 ancient stagecraft, in which an actor playing the deity would be Figure 3 shows a vase painting of a scene from Euripides 142
96 physically lowered by a cranelike mechanism into the stage area. Medea. Medea is ready to drive off to Athens in a snake-drawn 143
20

97 Sometimes the term is used referring to a miraculous or just

98 improbable external influence that brings about the resolution of
99 a problem or conflict. Aristotle ca. 330 B.C., on the contrary,
100 recommends against using this technique to resolve the plots of
01

101 tragedies, suggesting that its proper place is for staging commen-
102 taries by the gods that lie outside the actual action of the drama
103 2.
JM

104 None of these theatrical machines, made of perishable materi-

105 als, is extant. However, there are numerous references to such
106 machines in extant Greek plays and also in vase paintings. They
107 were large mechanisms consisting of booms, wheels, and ropes
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108 that could raise weights perhaps as great as one ton and, in some
109 cases move them back and forth violently to depict traveling
110 through space, when the play demanded it. They were probably
111 several meters high and operated above the stage and roof of the
112 theater. In a fully retracted position a mechanism was hidden be- Fig. 3 A vase painting of a scene from Euripides Medea

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Fig. 5 The mechanism reconstruction of the Athens theater

CO

rotations about the pivot both about the vertical pole and about a 172
horizontal axis fixed on the vertical pole. This suggestion incor- 173
porates some technical problems 1. 174
PY

a It cannot unload the actor to the orchestra floor. 175

b It is very visible, since the size of such beam would have 176
been substantial. 177
c It would be impossible for the operator to have any con- 178
[M

trol of the motion. 179

Hourmouziades 20 proposed a small superstructure on the top 180

of the skene to hide the mechanisms, but this seems technically 181
and aesthetically improbable 1.
D-

182
Very few details are known about the theatrical mechanism, but 183
it is certain that they were substantial mechanisms for path and 184
Fig. 4 Painting from a Phlyakes vase shows Zeus threatening motion generation. In attempting a rational reconstruction effort, 185
08

Apollon with the thunderbolt and the club, probably in the com- Dimarogonas 1 and Chondros 16 proposed a solution for the 186
edy Heracles of Rhinthon
theater of Athens consisting of a pivoted beam with ropes and 187
pulleys capable for lifting weights up to 10,000 N by first locating 188
-1

the support of the machine behind the skene and near the left 189
144 chariot of the Sun, which would have been on the machine, while parodos Fig. 5. 190
145 below there are her dead children, on the left is Jason, and on the The length of the beam between the pivot and the hook was 191
33

146 right the teacher and, probably, Aphrodite. Again, the machine about 10 m. To attach the balance weights, an additional length of 192
147 seems invisible. about 4 m was necessary. This yields a total length of 14 m, about 193
148 In Fig. 4 a painting from a Phlyakes vase shows Zeus threaten- the maximum length of a cypress tree found in Greece, which 194
0]

149 ing Apollon with the thunderbolt and the club, probably in the could be used for the main beam. This mechanism permitted load- 195
150 comedy Heracles of Rhinthon. It is interesting that Apollon is ing and unloading from behind the 4 m high skene building to the 196
151 seated on a scaffold, which seems out of place and, most probably, orchestra area in front of the skene building. Static and dynamic 197
152 is a caricature of the mechanism 1,16. analysis and simulation of the mechanism kinematics were per- 198
00

153 The designers and builders of these mechanisms were called by formed. 199
154 Aristophanes mechanopoioi machine-makers, meaning machine
155 designers in modern terminology. They designed and built the 1.4 The Ancient Theater of Phlius. The ancient theater of 200
156 machine not by evolution or invention but to the order and speci- Phlius was discovered in 1924 by Bleyen and in the years 1970 201
20

157 fications of the playwright, Aeschylus in this case, and they truly 1973 after extended excavations; most of its architectural charac- 202
158 deserve to be called the first mechanical designers. The machine teristics were revealed and a description of its reconstruction is 203
159 does not appear to have any close predecessor, and its develop- presented in Fig. 6. The location of the theater was established for 204
the first time in 1924 by C.W. Blegen during the preliminary
01

160 ment is of great engineering significance since it appears that it 205

161 was designed to meet very close requirements of the play and it excavations of the American School of Classical Studies at the site 206
162 was not arrived at by long evolution. The design of this theatrical of ancient Phlius. Proper excavations took place in the period 207
163 machine is composed of evolvements in machines, mechanisms, 19701973 by the University of Missouri, Columbia, under the 208
JM

164 and mathematics and may be considered as the first evidence of a direction of W.R. Biers 21,22. Until today, the theater remains 209
165 systematic engineering design process 1719 partly uncovered. It is a Hellenistic urban theater facing south. 210
The original construction of the theater is dated in the 4th century 211
166 1.3 Mechanisms Reconstruction of the Ancient Theater. B.C., probably as a replacement of a classical theater, but the 212
D

167 Two main models for the theatrical machine have been advocated completion of the koilon and the remodeling of the skene building 213
168 by classicists. Bieber 6 suggested a sliding device on the roof of date from the 1st century B.C. to the 1st century A.D. and 2nd 214
169 the skene on which the actors would be carried forward. Mastr- century A.D. 215
170 onarde 12 suggested a pivoted beam, which, in the horizontal The theater is located on the southwest slope of the Acropolis 216
171 position, would be slightly above the skene roof and would have hill of the ancient city of Phlius. Pausanias 11 says that the 217

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PY

Fig. 6 Plan of the Phlius theater in the 1st century B.C. 22.
The pair of stone foundations is indicated by the arrow. Cau-
tion: the arrow has to be put to its final location by left-click
[M

selecting and moving in place.

218 location of the theater is below the temple of Asclepios. As the

D-

219 area has never been thoroughly excavated, the topography of the
220 city is not very well known. At least two more public buildings Fig. 7 The east foundation from northeast in situ, and stone
221 exist in the vicinity of the theater, a Hypostele Hall on its west and foundations with iron clamp isometric, from Refs. 21,22
08

222 a Hellenistic basilica type construction immediately south of the

223 skene building shown in Fig. 6. The proximity of the three build-
224 ings indicates the public character of the area, in which the theater 22. With regard to their function and with reference to the mor- 255
was located. Today, it lies 3.5 km northwest of the city of Nemea phology and design, the twin-facing machine foundations in Ph- 256
-1

225
226 22. lius are the only ones with an inclined level in one side. They are 257
227 The orchestra is defined in the central part by a shallow circular differentiated both in appearance and function from other similar 258
33

228 drain bridged by rectangular blocks at the entrances of the main foundations in other theaters and, more importantly, its position 259
229 stairways. The original level, shape, and function of the space of behind the skene building makes it improbable to interpret it as a 260
230 the orchestra remain unspecified due to lack of excavation, to the drawing machine or a wooden mast support but rather as parts of 261
231 irregular shape of the koilon and, more importantly, due to its a deus-ex-machina configuration. This evidence was initially ana- 262
0]

232 large distance from the skene building. It is generally accepted lyzed by the authors as a first attempt for the reconstruction of 263
233 though that the 17 m distance between the orchestra and the later deus-ex-machina used in the theater of Phlius 23. 264
234 skene building indicated the existence of a prior larger circular The pair of stone foundations situated behind the west side of 265
orchestra. The koilon forms a segmental arch of approximately the rear wall of the skene building shown in Fig. 6 are of rectan- 266
00

235
236 one-third of a circle, and seems to have been divided into four gular shape measuring 1300 800 mm2, open on one short side, 267
237 wedges by five stairways, two external and three internal. The as shown in Fig. 7. The two long blocks formed the sides with a 268
238 ratio of steps to seats is 2:1. A large series of bases with post holes rectangular cut around the middle of their length, and a short one 269
20

239 behind the Hellenistic skene might relate to the classical skene connected with iron clamps to the latter and closed one side of the 270
240 building, abolished in the Hellenistic period. The theater went out rectangle. They are each constructed of three poros slabs. The two 271
241 of use in the late third or early 4th century A.D. 15,16. The closed ends face each other at a distance of 1180 mm in a 272
architectural characteristics of the theater of Phlius are width of northwest-southeast line. The side walls meet the short walls at 273
01

242
243 approximately 23 m, length of the recovered part of the skene right angles and are secured by iron hook clamps set in lead. All 274
244 building of 21.7 m, skene building depth of 7.1 m, seat height of four of these clamps have survived in situ. Rectangular cuttings 275
245 0.32 m, seat depth of 0.410.44 m, and seat length of 1.101.20 exist in the upper surfaces of the side walls. The open ends of 276
JM

246 m. This theater had a small seating capacity estimated to be 2000 each construction are partially blocked by a rectangular slab, 277
247 spectators as compared with the theater in Megalopolis with which provides an angled floor between the two side walls, posi- 278
248 20,000 seats in 330 B.C., and Epidavros with 16,000 seats in the tioned at a 30 deg angle sloping inward, ending at the level of the 279
249 4th century B.C. cuts of the side blocks, and facing the short side of the rectangle. 280
D

250 An important piece of archeological evidence found behind the This ends just slightly beyond the beginnings of the cuttings on 281
251 skene building in the ancient theater of Phlius indicates a direct the upper surfaces of the walls, leaving open a square area ap- 282
252 relation with the operation of the theatrical machine, the deus-ex- proximately 300 340 mm2. 283
253 machina. A pair of stone foundations is located behind the skene Constructions of similar dimensions and general shape but 284
254 building indicated with an arrow at the lower left end in Fig. 6 without a sloping floor are known from theaters at Megalopolis, 285

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Fig. 8 3D sketch of the skene with the mechanism at the an-
cient theater of Phlius. Principle of operation. Side view

286 Eretria, Sparta, and Elis. In each case they appear to come in pairs
CO

Fig. 9 The mechanism in operation position, back view

287 and to be located some distance apart from one another, often at
288 the sides of the scene building or actually outside it, as at Eretria
289 24,25. Fiechter 24 suggested a windlass of some form for the
290 movable wooden stage at Megalopolis but considered the ex- 3. The actors were carried to the roof at about the middle of the 334
amples at Eretria as bases for heavy vertical timbers 25. Bulle
PY

291 skene building. 335

292 8 also favored masts with the cuttings in the side walls as in the 4. The load carried was around 2500 N. 336
293 example from Phlius used to secure cross pieces to hold the ver- 5. The main element was a beam having plane motion about a 337
294 tical masts in place. He further suggested that perhaps these masts pivot. 338
295 extended up through the stage building and supported a rope from 6. The mechanism could provide vertical motion in addition to 339
motion to the plane of operation.
[M

296 which puppen were suspended over the roof of the building. 340
297 Biers 21,22 mentioned that none of the other stone founda-
298 tions are as carefully built as those at the Phlius theater, with their 8. The operators could control the vertical motion of the load. 341
299 well-preserved iron clamps, nor do they have sloping stone blocks 9. Wheels were used in some control function by the operators. 342
10. It would have substantial mechanical advantage. 343
D-

300 as floors. The clamps might indicate an attempt to overcome pres-

301 sure such as might occur when a windlass drags a heavy object. 11. The actors were supported depending on the needs of the 344
302 These foundations were perceived by Biers as some kind of play by a harness or a trapeze, which itself was hanging 345
from the beam end. 346
08

303 windlass, connected to a movable apparatus.

304 The foundations in the Phlious theater are unique; they are lo- 12. The spectators, even during the day, could see very little of 347
305 cated directly behind the line of the skene and, on its west side, the mechanism. 348
306 placed closely together and not oriented with the present skene
Considering a 2 m height for the skene building above ground
-1

349
307 building but more southeast-northwest at an angle of 7 deg head-
and a 2 m height for the back wall on the skene roof, the required 350
308 ing to the skene center. This evidence will be used in attempting a
vertical clearance for the hook travel above the roof would be 351
309 rational reconstruction of the mechanism in the Phlius theater with
33

about 4 m. In this position its distance from ground behind the 352
310 a different configuration from the one reported previously by Di-
skene building would be 6 m. This yields a total length of 8.5 m 353
311 marogonas 1 and Chondros 16.
required for the main beam. An 8.5 m long cypress tree was se- 354
312 It will be assumed here that this pair of stone foundations was
lected as the main beam for the theatrical mechanism, as shown in 355
0]

313 used for some windlass operation of the theatrical mechanism.

Fig. 9. This length is well below the maximum of 14 m for a 356
314 These stone foundations will be assigned with the function of
cypress tree found in Greece. For the load to be raised from the 357
315 supporting the axles of fixed blocks serving to guide the ropes of
ground behind the skene building and reach the roof of the skene 358
316 a ground winch for raising the load. The kinematics and an initial
above the rear wall, the tilt angle for the beam varies between 61
00

359
317 design approach of deus-ex-machina, as proposed in Ref. 22,
deg and 77 deg. 360
318 will serve as a basis for a detailed design configuration.
The beam is pivoted between the stone foundations. Four ropes 361
319 The operation of the deus-ex-machina is for lifting the actors
connecting the upper end of the beam with the ground serve as the 362
from behind the skene building, lowering them on the roof, and
20

320
supporting links. The two front supporting links form a plane with 363
321 vice-versa. This task has to be performed in a short time. The
the beam, thus, permitting a circular motion of the tracer point of 364
322 mechanism will be located behind the skene and near the right
the mechanism. The two rear supporting links serve as safety links 365
323 parodos of the theater. In the proposed solution the lifting capacity
to prevent an accidental collision of the beam with the skene
01

366
324 will be assumed to be 2500 N, which seems reasonable for most
building. 367
325 theatrical plays in a small theater like the one in Phlius Fig. 8.
AQ: Two ground winches with horizontal drums with capstans num- 368
#2 bered 1 and 4 in Fig. 9 are used to tilt the beam with the aid of the 369
JM

326 2 The Mechanism Reconstruction fixed blocks 2 and 3. After raising the load above the height of the 370
327 From the archeological and historical evidence discussed skene roof, the beam will bow toward the skene roof while the 371
328 above, the dimensions of the skene building in the theater of Ph- weight is locked in the raised position. Then the operators are 372
329 lius, and the spatial envelope in which the theatrical mechanism lowering the load on the skene roof with the aid of the two hori- 373
D

330 would operate the following specifications for the mechanism in zontal drums with capstans numbered 5 and 8, the fixed blocks in 374
331 the Phlius theater seem rational. the stone foundations to change the ropes direction, the fixed 375
blocks 6 and 7 on the beam, and the running block 9. The reverse 376
332 1. It was situated by the right parodos. operation would pick-up the load from the skene roof and lower it 377
333 2. It operated at a height above the skene. behind the skene building. 378

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Fig. 10 The mechanism in its resting position, hidden behind

OF
the skene
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379 The reconstructed mechanism is a plane four or six bar linkage

380 designed for path generation. The tracer point is the upper end of
381 the main beam, in this case the carriage hanging point. This tracer
382 point follows a circular path. The mechanism may be considered
383 as a four bar mechanism with two flexible links, the ropes con-
PY

384 necting the ground winch 1 with pulley 2, and the ground winch 3
385 with pulley 4, as shown in Fig. 9. The parts of the rope for raising
386 and lowering the beam connected with the ground winches 1 and Fig. 11 A monokolos and a trikolos crane with compound pul-
387 4 are considered as planar connection if the rope remains tight leys systems as used by the Romans 14,30
388 26,27. Furthermore, the instantaneous-velocity equivalent lower-
[M

389 pair connection to the rope and pulley for the pair of ground
390 winches 1 and 4 is considered as a Watt-II linkage 27.
391 It is difficult to hide in the daytime where the performances 3 Design Evaluation 429
392 were given: an 8.5 m long 0.3 diameter beam. Therefore, the main The first written information on the use of hoisting mechanisms 430
D-

393 beam ought to bow behind the skene building and below the level in ancient Greece appeared around 530 B.C., mainly concerning 431
394 of the roof. A supporting frame is positioned, as shown in Fig. 10, the construction of the first temple of Artemis in Ephesus 28. 432
395 for the beam to rest when out of operation. Therefore, in this After 515 B.C. cranes were in common use. There is evidence of 433
08

396 position the mechanism is completely hidden. It is natural to as- lifting by crane in early buildings of this time with various cut- 434
397 sume that the vertical or nearly vertical position of the beam was tings on building blocks, which are interpreted as sockets to take 435
398 the resting position for loading. iron hooks attached to a hoist 29. The problem of lifting heavy 436
After completing its operation the mechanism could be re- architectural members is considered mainly in terms of the vari- 437
-1

399
400 tracted in its resting position on the back vertical support with ous cranes and hoists based on compound pulley systems, which 438
401 ground winches 1 and 4, as shown in Fig. 10. From this resting are described by Vitruvius and Hero of Alexandria. Cranes and 439
33

402 position the mechanism could be erected in vertical position with hoists in Greece and Rome were used as lifting devices only, and 440
403 the use of the pair of ground winches 1 and 4 Fig. 9 and an not to move loads for a considerable distance horizontally as mod- 441
404 additional pulley could be secured on the skene back wall. ern cranes do 28. With the monokolos with a single timber 442
405 It will be assumed that the maximum lifting capacity of this forming the jib some motion in any direction was possible by 443
0]

406 type of theatrical mechanism will be 2500 N. One man can hardly adjusting the supporting guy ropes, but the scope for movement 444
407 apply the force required but one can assume that two operators was limited. The dikolos with a jib of two timbers could only 445
408 were required. In this reconstruction a similar pair of ground move its load back and forth, while the trikolos and tetrakolos 446
winches 5 and 8 in Fig. 9 is used for raising the load and the with a supporting frame of three and four timbers could not 447
00

409
410 beam operations as it is reasonable. Moreover, since the load had move the load horizontally at all 29,30. 448
411 to be lowered only with the winch, the rope friction at the drum A monokolos and a trikolos crane described by Vitruvius are 449
412 and the pulley at the beam end would help the operator during shown in Fig. 11 30. The monokolos is operating with a block 450
20

413 unloading. With the two lateral links the operator could have pre- system using three or five pulleys. These pulley systems were 451
414 cise control of the motion, this leading to path control. most used in the classic ages and were widely described starting 452
415 It is impossible to time exactly the motion of the mechanism. from Vitruvius up to the Renaissance called trispaston or pen- 453
We can safely assume, however, in view of the above observations taspaston, respectively, after their names in ancient Greek. The 454
01

416
417 and contemporary theatrical interpretations that it would be in the compound pulley system if combined with the use of a winch 455
418 order of a few seconds. If 15 s were assumed for raising the load would increase the mechanical advantage, perhaps ten times or 456
419 from the skene roof to the higher point above it, i.e., 4 m, six more; but there is a limit to the amount of power that can be 457
JM

420 revolutions of the drum would be required for a 0.21 m drum harnessed to a winch with a horizontal axle. It would be easy 458
421 diameter. Then the beam had to be retrieved by an angle of 16 enough to set two men to work at each end of the winch axle, but 459
422 deg, this requiring 1.5 turns of the horizontal drum or 3 s. Then, hard to increase the number of men efficiently employed much 460
423 another 10 s was required to lower the load beneath the back wall. beyond that number. A pair of men working a winch can apply a 461
D

424 The total time to hide the load from the spectators and to lower it continuous force of about 700 N for a limited period of time. 462
425 to the ground beneath the skene building is summed up to 30 s. For the main beam an 8.5 m cypress tree will be used. The 463
426 After that the main beam had to lean backward on the vertical Youngs modulus is 1.16 10 N / m2, material density 464
427 support, as shown in Fig. 10, this requiring another 5 s. Thus, the 609 kg/ m3, and beam mass 260 kg. The reconstructed mecha- 465
428 total required time to hide the mechanism is 35 s. nism although similar in operation with the monokolos crane in 466

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Fig. 13 Beam lower modes of vibration, first mode: 0 Hz, sec-

PR
ond mode: 13.54 Hz, and third mode: 36.88 Hz

sive stress on the loaded beam was 2.61 106 N / m2. For cypress 511
O
tree timber the compressive yield strength is 4.70 106 N / m2 512
perpendicular to grain and 33.00 106 N / m2 parallel to grain. 513
OF
This yields a safe operation margin for the mechanism. 514
The dynamics of structures were possibly considered in ancient 515
times 35. From the dynamic analysis the beams lower natural 516
Fig. 12 Forces acting on the beam frequencies were investigated 36. Figure 13 shows the modes of 517
vibration for the first three harmonics: 0 Hz, the free body motion, 518
13.54 Hz, and 36.88 Hz. The relatively high frequencies for the 519
CO

467 Fig. 11 has some design features that are intended for its specific free vibration of the beam indicate that vibration was not per- 520
468 use, i.e., not only to lift the load, but allow for precise control of ceived by the actors during their transfer on the skene. 521
469 the motion, following a circular path defined by its operator. The simple pulley, used not to gain mechanical advantage but 522
470 In Fig. 12 the forces acting on the main beam of the mechanism just to change the direction of pull, is first known from the 9th 523
PY

471 are shown. Considering that the beams CG is located at 2/5 of its century B.C. and may well have been known to the Greeks before 524
472 length, the force P applied through the rope on the upper end of they began to build in megalithic masonry in the late 7th century 525
473 the beam required to raise it toward its vertical position is calcu- B.C.. The earliest indisputable evidence for knowledge of com- 526
474 lated as pound pulley systems is referred to in the Mechanical Problems 527
attributed to Aristotle, in the early 3rd century B.C. 29. Com- 528
475 P = QL cos + 2B/5L cos /L sin tan1L sin /OC
[M

pound pulley systems described by Vitruvius and Hero of Alex- 529

476 + L cos 1 andria are considered mainly to operate with various types of 530
cranes and hoists. In ancient times a rope of diameter 0.02 m had 531
477 where Q = 2500 N is the load to be lifted, B = 2600 N the beam a loading capacity of 5000 N 3032. 532
weight, L = 8.5 m is the beams length, is the beams angle of
D-

478 Wooden pulleys used in antiquity formed the plain bearings for 533
479 inclination, and OC = 5 m the distance of the pivot to the rear the iron shafts supporting them. Today, wooden bearings are still 534
480 ground winch. From Eq. 1 the maximum force required to raise in operation for specific engineering applications. Plain bearings 535
481 the beam from a tilt angle = 66 deg to = 77 deg is calculated as
08

are analyzed in terms of the mean bearing pressure p exerted on 536

482 P = 3620 N. the rubbing surfaces, the peripheral speed of the journal surface v, 537
483 Then, the maximum compressive force at the beams upper end and the specific work done by the friction forces pv. The maxi- 538
484 is calculated as mum safe values for modern wood bearings are p = 13.8 539
-1

PC = Q/cos90 + P/cos tan1L sin /OC + L cos 106 N / m2 and v = 10.16 m / s 3133,37. 540
Assuming that all the blocks of the mechanism used pulleys 541
485 2 220 mm in diameter, width l = 75 mm, with an iron shaft of di- 542
33

486 where Q = 2500 N and P = 3620 N. ameter d = 50 mm, then the maximum peripheral speed on the 543
487 From Eq. 2 the maximum compressive force applied at the pulley for lifting the weight 4 m high in 15 s would be 0.26 m/s. 544
488 beams end for tilt angle = 77 deg is calculated as PC = 6640 N. Then the peripheral speed on the journal surface is calculated as 545
0]

489 The maximum compressive load that this beam could carry at v = 0.05 m / s. Considering radial force Fr = 1250 N for each pul- 546
490 the end, assuming Youngs modulus of elasticity for wood E ley, and A = ld the area of the journal as projected on the diametral 547
491 = 1.16 10 N / m2, is calculated as 3134 plane, the surface pressure is calculated as 548
00

492 Pcr = 2EJ/4L2 3 p = Fr/A = 0.63 106 N/m2 4 549

493 where L = 8.5 m the length of the beam, D = 0.25 m the mean Both values for the bearing pressure and the peripheral speed of 550
494 beam diameter, J = D4 / 64= 1.92 104 m4, and thus Pcr the journal surface lie well below the maximum safe values for 551
20

495 = 85, 622 N. This maximum loading capacity of the beam is well wood bearings: p = 13.8 106 N / m2 and v = 10.16 m / s, respec- 552
496 above the maximum compressive force PC = 6640 N during op- tively 3133. 553
497 eration. The capacity of the fixed block guide at the free end of the 554
Static and dynamic analyses were performed without consider- beam Fig. 14a serving to guide the ropes raising the running 555
01

498
499 ing the friction at the beams pivot at the lower point of the beam. block and the capacity of the running block used to support the 556
500 This friction might change some of the characteristics investi- hook Fig. 14b is calculated as follows. 557
501 gated, but the preceding analysis holds for all the extreme possible If load Q is hoisted with a fixed block and the force to be 558
JM

502 situations that could arise during the operation of the mechanism. applied to hoist the load then the ratio P / Q = specifies the resis- 559
503 A parametric finite element method of analysis using a commer- tance of the block since work is spent to on rope deformation and 560
504 cial code 34 with three-dimensional solid elements was used for to overcome the friction in supports 38. For blocks with wooden 561
505 static and dynamic analysis of the mechanism. Linear tetrahedron bearings and lubricant animal fat, an efficiency of 0.9 could be 562
feasible 2830. n blocks used for a mechanical advantage Fig. 563
D

506 elements along with 2380 nodes were used. The beam is consid-
507 ered fixed at the lower end, and loading is applied at the upper 14b with a fixed end for the rope, the path traversed by force 564
508 end. The finite element method FEM analysis was performed for is twice as much as the path h traversed by load Q, i.e., s = 2h 37. 565
509 beam tilt angles from 61 deg to 77 deg, with 2 deg increment per The speed v of force is twice the speed v1 of load Q, i.e., v 566
510 iteration. From the analysis it was found that maximum compres- = 2v1. With the two ground winches 5 and 8 Fig. 9 used for the 567

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PR
O

Fig. 14 The fixed block guide at the free end of the beam a,
OF
and the running block used to support the hook b 37

568 mechanism under investigation, the path traversed by force is

equal to the path h traversed by load Q, i.e., s = h, while the force
CO
569
570 required by each of the two operators equals half load.
571 A reasonable diameter for the ground winch drum would be
572 0.25 m, with handles turning through a circle about 1.50 m in
573 diameter, so giving a mechanical advantage of 1:6 Fig. 13. If this
PY

574 was used and worked by two men, the maximum loading capacity
575 would be 6 2 350 N = 4200 N. The resistance of the three
576 blocks used for lifting the load would reduce this maximum in
577 practice by 27% to 3000 N, and thus it seems reasonable that the
578 mechanism is capable for lifting the 2500 N load.
[M

579 The force required by the operators to raise the beam toward
580 its vertical position considering the resistance of the fixed block
581 on the upper end of the beam and the ground winch would in-
582 crease the maximum force P = 3620 N calculated with Eq. 1 by
D-

583 19 % to 4470 N.
584 Consequently, for a ground winch with a mechanical advantage
585 of 1:6 the force required by the two operators for lifting the beam
would be 4470 N / 6 2 = 3725 N. This force can be easily ap-
08

586
587 plied from the two operators for a short time, since this operation
AQ: 588 lasted for only 3 s, as mentioned above Fig. 15.
#3 589 For lifting the weight with the running block 9 shown in Fig. 9
-1

590 an iron hook with a rectangular cross section will be considered

591 Fig. 16. The dimensions of the cross section are: b = 0.0508 m and Fig. 16 The hook attached to the running block 9 and the
stress distribution on cross section A-A
h = 0.0381 m, and cross section area A = 0.0019 m2. For Q
33

592
593 = 5000 N, the force acting on the hook attached to the running
594 block 9, FEM analysis was performed for the investigation of the
595 state of stresses on the hooks cross section 34. Results shown in Fig. 16 provide the maximum stress = 37.0 106 N / m2 and, 596
0]

thus, this configuration seems possible for this application. 597

4 Conclusions 598
Deus-ex-machina was the achievement of engineering intelli-
00

599
gence in response to specifications imposed by the needs of the 600
stage production. The mechanism together with other mechanical 601
devices, such as the periaktos and the ekkyklema used as stage 602
20

machinery in the ancient Greek theater, are the very early heritage 603
of mechanical engineering. Mechanical engineering has its roots 604
in the mechanopoioi of Aristophanes, the pioneers who designed, 605
built and operated the mechanism for the needs of the drama. The
01

606
existence of similar foundations in the theaters of Megalopolis 607
and Eretria, indicating their use for specific purposes connected 608
with the needs of the drama makes the twin-facing stone base in 609
JM

the theater of Phlius unique. 610

An attempt to reconstruct the twin-facing stone foundations and 611
its superstructure based on archeological evidence, static, kine- 612
matic, and dynamic analysis and literary descriptions are pre- 613
D

sented. The reconstructed mechanism consists of a planar single 614

beam, a sidle twin lifting system, and a beam lowering system 615
designed for path generation. It may be assumed that the mecha- 616
Fig. 15 Top view and cross section of the ground winch and nism operator was able to push or pull the capstans with a force 617
the stone foundation with the fixed block for raising the load equal to 350 N. Under this assumption, for the case of 2500 N 618

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PROOF COPY [MD-08-1330] 002001JMD
619 load at the beams end and 6:1 mechanical advantage of the International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms, Proceed- 662
620 winches used, two operators were needed. For the planar move- ings of the HMM2004, M. Ceccarelli, ed., Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, the 663
Netherlands. 664
621 ment of the main beam the existence of the two lateral rope guides 17 Papalambros, P. Y., 2008, The Evolution and the Future of Mechanical De- 665
622 guarantee the accuracy of the motion. This approach will be useful sign, ASME J. Mech. Des., 1302, p. 020201. 666
623 for the reconstruction of mechanisms that may apply in the the- 18 Papalambros, P. Y., 2008, A View of Design Research, ASME J. Mech. Des., 667
624 aters of Megalopolis and Eretria, where similar stone foundations 1308, p. 080201. 668 AQ:
19 Ceccarelli, M., and Koetsier, T., 2008, Burmester and Allievi: A Theory and 669 #10
AQ:
625 exist. #11
Its Application for Mechanism Design at the End of 19th Century, ASME J. 670
671
PR
Mech. Des., 1307, p. 072301.
626 Acknowledgment 20 Hourmouziades, N. C., 1965, Production and Imagination in Euripides, 672
627 Acknowledgment is addressed to Professors Emeritus S. Paipe- Greek Humanistic Society Journal, 5, pp. . 673 AQ:
21 Biers, W. R., 1973, Excavations at Phlius, Hesperia, 421, pp. 102120. 674 #12
628 tis and T. Tassios for their valuable support to this research work. 22 Biers, W. R., 1975, The Theater at Phlius: Excavations, Hesperia, 441, pp. 675
5168. 676
O
629 References 23 Papadogiannis, A. S., Tsakoumaki, M. C., and Chondros, T. G., 2008, Deus 677
Ex-Machina in Phlius Theatre, Proceedings of EUCOMES 08 Second Eu- 678
630 1 Dimarogonas, A. D., 1992, Mechanisms of the Ancient Greek Theater, ropean Conference on Mechanism Science, M. Ceccarelli, ed., Sept. 1720, 679
OF
AQ: 631 ASME Design Conference, Phoenix, AZ, ASME, New York, Vol. DE 46, pp. Cassino, Italy, Springer, New York, pp. 1120. 680
#4 632 229234. 24 Fiechter, E., 1931, Das Theater in Megalopolis Antike Griechische Theater- 681 AQ:
633 2 Aristotle, Poetic, Vol. iii, p. 3. bauten, Vol. IV, , Stuttgart, Germany. 682 #13
AQ: 634 3 Ridgeway, W., 1915, The Origin of Tragedy: Introduction, The Dramas and 25 Fiechter, E., 1937, Das Theater in Eretria Antike Griechische Theaterbauten, 683
#5 635 Dramatic Dances of Non-European Races, Cambridge University Press, Cam- Vol. VIII, , Stuttgart, Germany. 684
636 bridge, England. 26 Hartenberg, R., and Denavit, J., 1964, Kinematic Synthesis of Linkages, 685
637 4 Pickard-Cambridge, A. W., 1927, Dithyramb, Tragedy, and Comedy, ,
CO

McGraw Hill, New York. 686

AQ: 638 second edition by Webster, T.B.L. 1962.
27 Erdman, A., and Sandor, G. N., 1984, Mechanism Design, Analysis and Syn- 687
#6 639 5 WilamowitzMoellendorf, U., 1907, Einleitung in der GriechischenTragoedie,
thesis, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 688
640 Weidmann Buchhandlung, Berlin.
28 Zrnic, N., Hoffmann, K., and Bonjak, S., 2007, A Note on the History of 689
641 6 Bieber, M., 1939, The History of Greek and Roman Theatre, Princeton Uni-
642 versity Press, Princeton, NJ.
Handling in Ports: From Ancient to Medieval Cranes, 12th IFToMM World 690
AQ: 643 7 Fiechter, E., 1930, Antike Griechesche Theaterbauten, , Stuttgart, Germany.
Congress, Besanon, France, Jun. 1821. 691
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#7 644 8 Bulle, H., 1928, Untersuchungen an Griecheschen Theatern, Abhandlungen, 29 Coulton, J. J., 1974, Lifting in Early Greek Architecture, The Journal of 692
645 Bayrischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Munich, Germany. Hellenic Studies, 94, pp. 119. 693
646 9 1906, The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization, Vol. 1, 30 Dimarogonas, A. D., 2001, History of Technology, Macedonian, Athens, 694
AQ: 647 A. Bates, ed., Historical, London. Greece. 695
#8 648 10 Anthon, C., 1853, Origins of the Satyric Drama, Manual of Greek Literature 31 Dimarogonas, A. D., 2001, Machine Design a CAD Approach, Wiley, New 696
649 From the Earliest Authentic Periods to the Close of the Byzantine Era, Harper, York. 697
[M

650 New York. 32 Shigley, J. E., Mischke, C. R., and Budynas, R. G., 2004, Mechanical Engi- 698
AQ: 651 11 Pausanias, I. I., and Suidas, Q. V., , Fragments in T. Bergk, Poetae Lyrici neering Design, McGraw-Hill, New York. 699
#9 652 Graeci, Vol. III. 33 Feodosyev, V., 1973, Strength of Materials, Mir, Moscow, Russia. 700
653 12 Mastronarde, D. J., 1990, Actors at High: The Scene Roof, the Crane and the 34 ANSYS, Inc., 2003, ANSYS ver. 7.1. 701
654 35 Dimarogonas, A. D., 1990, The Origins of Vibration Theory, J. Sound Vib., 702
D-

Gods in Attic Drama, Classical Antiquity, University of California, Berkeley.

655 13 Dimarogonas, A. D., 1991, The Origins of the Theory of Machines and 140, pp. 181189. 703
656 Mechanisms, Proceedings of the 40 Years of Modern Kinematics: A Tribute 36 Dimarogonas, A. D., 1996, Vibrations for Engineers, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall, 704
657 to Ferdinand Freudenstein Conference, Minneapolis, MN. Upper Saddle River, NJ. 705
658 14 Vitruvius, M.P., 1st Century AD, De Architectura (On Architecture) BOOKS 37 Galperin, M., Dombrovsky, N., and Mestechkin, L., 1982, Construction 706
08

659 I-V, Loeb Classical Library, Translator Frank Granger. Equipment, Mir, Moscow, Russia. 707
660 15 Pollux, J., 3rd Century AD, Onomasticon. 38 Sorge, F., 2008, A Note on the Shear Influence on Belt Drive Mechanics, 708
661 16 Chondros, T. G., 2004, Deus-Ex-Machina Reconstruction and Dynamics, ASME J. Mech. Des., 1302, p. 024502. 709
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