GENERAL EDUCATION: ENGLISH

Focus: Writing in the Discipline

By: Prof. Ma. Concepcion Y. Raymundo
Prof. Matthew M. Nepomuceno

Competencies: Use English accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately in written discourse

PART 1- CONTENT UPDATE

This review material consists of the following:

I. Common Sentence Error

A. Fragments
B. Misplaced/Dangling Modifiers
C. Comma Splice
D. Run-ons
E. Faulty Parallelism
F. Faulty Coordination

II. Errors in Mechanics

A. Punctuation
B. Capitalization

III. Achieving unity and coherence

A. Using Transitional Devices
1. Types
2. Uses
B. Outlining
1. Writing effective thesis statements

IV. Patterns of Paragraph Development/ Writing Genres

I.COMMON SENTENCE ERRORS

A. Fragments

A fragment is a group of words that looks like a sentence but is in fact only part of
a sentence. (Hogue, 2003)
Fragments are only parts of the sentence but they are not exactly the sentence for
the reason that the thought is not completely conveyed. While it is true that good
writing suggests brevity, it does not mean that shortening the sentences without
considering its effects on the meaning is correct. This is where most fragments
occur.
A possible cause for committing fragments is when we speak when we write that
is, when we scribble down something that we usually hear or say. In spoken
 conversations, sentence fragments normally occur and most of the time, they are
acceptable since the most important objective of speaking is to get a message
across as briefly yet as accurately as possible.

Hey George, wanna watch a movie tonight?

I cant. Too much work in the office.

In the sample conversation above, notice that Georges reply to the question is constructed
incompletely. However, the message got across and the sender was able to understand it. But
try to read the italicized part independently and you will notice that you cannot extract any idea
from it.

Two basic causes of fragments

1. When there are no verbs
2. When a subordinating conjunction is placed before an independent clause

Five Types of fragments:

1. Dependent Clauses

A dependent clause is often mistaken as a complete sentence, since it looks like a sentence in
terms of its construction. However, it should be remembered that a dependent clause cannot
stand on its own and it requires an independent clause in order to complete its thought. In the
example below, you will notice that ideas can be extracted from the second sentence. This
confirms that not all long sentences or long strings of words are sentences.

Buying grocery supplies for the whole month saves time and energy because you do not need
to go to the market from time to time.

2. Participial Phrases

Participial phrases usually start with an ingor ed word, which functions as a noun or subject of
the sentence. In some cases, when a group of words begin with participial phrases the tendency
is for the writer to think that it is already a sentence. However, in the sample sentence below,
you will notice that the second sentence does not possess a complete thought because of the
participial phrase.

Oliver jumps every New Year season. Believing that he will become taller.

There are various means in order to connect this type of fragment. One is to interchange the
position of the clauses, placing the dependent before the independent clause and separating
them using a comma.

Believing that he will become taller, Oliver jumps every New Year season.
Another is by adding a subordinating conjunction before the dependent clause.

Because he believes that he will become taller, Oliver jumps every New Year Season.

Finally, this fragment may also be corrected by removing the participial phrase in the second
sentence

Oliver jumps every New Year Season. He believes that he will become taller.

3. Infinitive Phrase Fragments

Infinitive phrases begin with the infinitive marker to + the base form of the verb. Similar to
participial phrases, infinitives can also function as nouns in a sentence, and they can also be a
part of a group of words that appears as a sentence.

Jacob went to his grandmothers house last week. To check if she is recovering from the
accident.

Try to read the second sentence and you will notice that it does not convey a complete
thought. This fragment can be corrected by removing the period and making the capitalized
infinitive marker into a small letter.

Jacob went to his grandmothers house last week to check if she is recovering from the
accident.

Another way is by interchanging the position of the infinitive phrase with that of the independent
clause, and dividing them using a comma.

To check if she is recovering from the accident, Jacob went to his grandmothers house last
week.

Lastly, this fragment may also be corrected by adding a subject and a verb (e.g. He and
wants) to the second sentence with the infinitive phrase.

Jacob went to his grandmothers house last week. He wants to check if she is recovering
from the accident.

4. Afterthought Fragments
Afterthoughts are additional or extension ideas that writers express in order to expand the
previous idea that he/she has discussed. Afterthoughts usually begin with transitions like: for
example, for instance, like, such as, including, and except. In the sample sentence below,
notice that the second sentence where an afterthought is present does not express a complete
idea.
Freckles can do a lot of tricks. Such as flushing the toilet, throwing the trash in a garbage
bin, and walking on two legs.

This type of fragment may be corrected by combining the two sentences into one. This can be
done by removing the period and replacing it with a comma, then by changing the capitalized
letter into a small one.

Freckles can do a lot of tricks, such as flushing the toilet, throwing the thrash in a garbage
bin, and walking on two legs.

Another possible way to correct this is by interchanging the afterthought statement with the
independent clause. In this case, the transition should be removed. Moreover, the independent
clause will have to be rearranged to construct the sentence clearly. Study the corrected version
below.

Flushing the toilet, throwing the trash in a garbage bin, and walking on two legs are the
tricks that Freckles can do.

5. Appositives

An appositive or appositive phrase is a noun or noun phrase that renames another noun or
noun phrase [Hogue, 2003]. We use appositives to add more details about the noun or the
subject of the sentence. Appositive phrases tend to be extended especially when the writer
wants to provide a detailed description of the subject. This is most probably the reason why
strings of words that include appositives are mistaken to be a sentence. In the sample text
below, you will notice that the second sentence, which gives more information about the first
one, does not actually have a complete thought. As a reader, you will be left hanging in
understanding the text.

Jeremy boasted about his newest cellphone last night. A very thin silver-colored camera
phone with 20 GB capacity and a 4-megapixel lens.

One way to correct this is by combining the two sentences, following the tips discussed above.

Jeremy boasted about his newest cellphone last night, a very thin silver-colored camera
phone with 20 GB capacity and a 4- megapixel lens.

It can also be corrected by adding a subject and a verb (e.g. It and is) in the second
sentence.

Jeremy boasted about his newest cellphone last night. It is a very thin silver-colored camera
phone with 20 GB capacity, a 4-megapixel camera.

B. Run-on Sentences and Comma Splice

 A run-on sentence [sometimes called run-together or fused sentences] results when
one attempts to correct a comma splice by merely removing the comma between the two
coordinate clauses. [Tiempo&Tiempo, 1980]\
A run-on sentence is a combination of two sentences without a punctuation to divide the
ideas presented in them. In the example below, notice that there are two sentences that
are merged as one, resulting in a run-on sentence.

Jims father passed the board exam for merchant marine officers he will be the captain of the
ship next month.

Three ways to correct run-on sentences:

1. Place a semi-colon in between the two sentences

Jims father passed the board exam for merchant marine officers; he will be the captain of the
ship next month.

2. Add a transitional marker: a subordinating conjunction, or a coordinating conjunction (it

depends upon the nature of the sentence) between the two sentences

Jims father passed the board exam for merchant marine officers, and he will be the captain of
the ship next month.

3. Divide the sentence into two.

Jims father passed the board exam for merchant marine officers. He will be the captain of the
ship next month.

A comma splice is committed when a writer uses a comma without the proper
connective. This, according to Tiempo and Tiempo, destroys the unity of the sentence.
(Tiempo&Tiempo, 1980). The sample sentence below looks almost the same with the
sample run-on sentence. The only difference is the fact that the sentence uses a comma
to divide the two independent clauses.

The crowd cheered loudly when the band emerged from the backstage, Eric stood quietly.

Five ways to correct a comma splice:

1. Place a proper coordinating conjunction after the comma to connect the two sentences.
The crowd cheered loudly when the band emerged from the backstage, but Eric stood quietly.

2. Use a semi-colon in between the two clauses in place of the comma and the coordinating
conjunction. However, this depends on the degree of separation necessary in the sentence.
The crowd cheered loudly when the band emerged from the backstage; Eric stood quietly.
3. Use a semicolon followed by the proper transitional device. A common error is when we place
a comma before a transitional device.

Wrong: The crowd cheered loudly when the band emerged from the backstage, however, Eric
stood quietly.
Correct: The crowd cheered loudly when the band emerged from the backstage; however, Eric
stood quietly.

4. Subordinate the lesser clause to the main clause.

Wrong: The crowd cheered loudly, Eric stood quietly.

Correct: When the crowd cheered loudly, Eric stood quietly.

5. Separate them into two sentences, especially when the two sentences are too closely related.

The crowd cheered loudly when the band emerged from the backstage. Eric stood quietly.

C. Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

A dangling modifier is usually a phrase or an elliptical clause (a dependent clause whose

subject and verb are implied rather than expressed) misplaced beside a word that it
does not intend to modify. It is said to dangle or hang loosely, without any clear
relationship with the sentence that it belongs to.
Dangling modifiers pose a problem regarding the meaning that a sentence projects
versus the meaning that it intends to express. In the sample sentence below, the idea
that the writer intends to express becomes ambiguous to that sentence projects because
of the dangling modifier.

At five years old, Marcus taught his son the basics of playing drums.

The phrase At five years old is misplaced beside the subject Marcus since this phrase refers to
the son. In effect, the sentence presents a wrong message to its reader, even posing a
ridiculous meaning.

Common Types of Dangling/ Misplaced Modifiers & Ways to Correct Them

1. Dangling Participial Phrase

Wrong: Having practiced their musical piece, Kina told the band to take their dinner.
Correct: Having practiced their musical piece, the band was told to take their dinner.

2. Dangling Infinitive Phrases

Wrong: To read with speed and comfort, the light must be sufficient but not glaring. (No subject)
Correct: To read with speed and comfort, one must be in a place with sufficient but not glaring
light.
3. Dangling Gerund Phrases
Wrong: Hanging on the wall, the Chief Engineer fixed his cover-all.
Correct: Hanging on the wall, the cover-all was fixed by the Chief Engineer

D. Faulty Parallelism

A stylistic arrangement in which similar syntactic patterns repeat, thus allowing reader
or listener to rely on the grammatical repetition to echo the logical similarity of the
thought and thus improving the clarity and efficiency of the passage.
[http://www.bartleby.com]
In extending sentences, one should remember that there should be a parallel structure
in the sentence-elements: a noun should go with nouns, adjectives with adjectives and
so on and so forth. Moreover, for more complex forms, such as gerund phrases,
participial phrases, adverbial phrases, adjectival phrases and others, the same rule
applies. Observe the various ambiguous statements exemplified and corrected below
and you will notice how important parallelism is from the smallest word combination to
the long phrases and clauses.

Wrong: The cadets dream is to become a ship captain, to but=y his own car, and establishing a
business of his own.
Correct: The cadets dream is to become a ship captain, to buy his own car, and to establish a
business of his own.

The above example is a usual case of faulty parallelism. The first two phrases (to become and
to buy) are infinitive phrases while the last phrase (establishing a business) is a gerundial
phrase. The following discussions will further provide you with situations where parallelism is
often forgotten.

E. Faulty Coordination

Faulty coordination occurs when two or more ideas are not of equal value, and when
these ideas are connected by a coordinating conjunction.
Correcting Faulty Coordination

Subordinate one of the independent clauses (using subordinating conjunctions or by making

one of the clauses an appositive)

Ambiguous: The captain kept on sailing and the weather was fine.

Better: The captain kept on sailing because the weather was fine.

Ambiguous: Soren Kierkegaard is a Danish philosopher who pioneered existentialism and he

believes that each person has to individually make the choices that make up his or her
existence.
II. ERRORS IN MECHANICS

A. Capitalization

Capital letters are used to emphasize a certain word in a sentence. When reading, we often see
words that are capitalized as more important than the rest of the words. It is therefore important
to know which word should be capitalized to make your sentences clearer.

The following rules will help you assess and decide whether the word should be capitalized or
not.

1. Capitalize the first person singular pronoun I

My cousin and I went to Cebu last month.

NOTE: The pronouns He, Thy, Thou, Thine, His and other pronouns referring to God are
also capitalized.

Jesus loves us thstHe died on the cross to pay for our sins.

2. Capitalize the first word of:

a. Every sentence
Every person has the power to decide for his own life.

b. A quoted sentence
The teacher said, Pick up the pieces of paper.
NOTE: Do not capitalize the continuation of a quotation.

Pick up the pieces of paper, the teacher said, arrange your chairs.

c. An outline
7.1 Orientation
7.1.1 Course Orientation
7.1.2 Diagnostic Reading and Writing

3. Capitalize titles that precede names. However, they should not be capitalized if they are
not accompanied by names.

Correct: I saw Dr. Padilla this morning

Wrong: I saw the Doctor this morning

NOTE: In some literary pieces, titles are capitalized when they are used as the characters
pseudonym.
 The Teacher called Bishop Aringarosa this morning and ordered for the plan to be carried
out immediately

NOTE: Capitalize the title when only one person holds the title.

The Dalai Lama and the Pope met at the United Nations forum for peace.

NOTE: Do not capitalize the names of academic degrees except if it is affixed after a persons
name, e.g., master of arts degree

Kurt Thomas, Master of Arts or Kurt Thomas, MA

4. Capitalize the first letter of the title of a composition and all the important words in it
except for prepositions, conjunctions and articles. However, if these conjunctions and
prepositions consist of more than four letters (e.g. among, between, because, etc.), they should
be capitalized as well
Grapes of Wrath
Living Among the Wolves

5. Capitalize nationalities, languages, ethnic groups and races

Filipinos French
QuetzalcaoatlChicano

6. Capitalize names of God, religions and their followers, holy books, and holy days.
God, Allah, Buddah
Easter, Ramadan
Bible, Koran, Rig Veda
Muslim, Christian, Buddhist

7. Capitalize specific places and geographic areas.

theMiddle EastGulf of Mexico
Pearl Harbor Nagasaki

8. Capitalize specific structures such as buildings, bridges, roads, dams, monuments,

and parks
MalacananPalace Golden Bridge
Skyway Suez Canal
LunetaPark BonifacioMonument

9. Capitalize specific times, like days of the week, months of the year and holidays.
Friday May
Independence Day Mothers Day

NOTE: Do not capitalize the names of the seasons. (winter, spring, summer, fall)
 10. Capitalize historical events, periods, and documents.
Spanish Civil WarPeople Power
Tokugawa Era the Philippine Constitution

11. Capitalize names of organizations, companies, schools, sports teams, etc.

theEuropean Union the New York Knicks Harvard University

NOTE: Do not capitalize these entities (university, corporation, college, avenue, etc.) unless they are
preceded by a proper noun. However, as the language continues to evolve, it is possible that
these entities are used as proper names of business establishments. In this case, they should be
capitalized.

12. Capitalize titles of school courses.

D11-Ships, Ship Routines and Construction
Introduction to Mass Communication

NOTE: Do not capitalize the names of subjects or fields except languages and names of nationalities,
religions and ethnic groups.
calculusMandarin
trigonometryAsia cuisine

13. Capitalize trademark names

Pepsi Nokia
Toyota Sony

14. Capitalize names of ships, airplanes, and trains.

MV Asuka F-14 Tomcat
Shinkansen

15. Capitalize salutations and complimentary endings in letters.

Dear Mr. Chavez Sincerely yours

16. Most proper adjectives- those that are formed from proper nouns-are capitalized.
Shakespearean play Pythagorean theorem

NOTE: Adjectives and nouns which were once proper names but are presently regarded as common
nouns and adjectives are not to be capitalized
herculean task quixotic person

NOTE: Some proper adjectives are capitalized, while some are not. Consult a dictionary
(printed or online) to verify whether it should be capitalized or not.

17. Some abbreviations are capitalized while others are not. In general, abbreviations are
capitalized when they stand for the first letter of the word.
 UN- United Nations

NOTE: However, there are exceptions to this rule, like most Latin abbreviations. In order to
be sure, it is best to consult a dictionary (printed or online) to verify whether it should be
capitalized or not.
i.e-id est mph-miles per hour

B. Punctuation

Punctuations are small symbols or characters that are placed in strategic parts of the
sentence in order to make the idea that the writer wishes to convey clearer. There are
various kinds of punctuations carry out specific functions in the discourse. Hence, a writer
must know what punctuation should be used in a specific situation when writing, because
a wrong punctuation may pose a possible misinformation of the meaning of the text.

1. End Punctuations

Uses of the period ( . )

1. Use a period at the end of a declarative (statement) and an imperative sentence

(command)
Lalaine is pretty and sweet
Pick up your shoes

2. Use a period as a decimal point in numbers

3.14 P3.50

3. Use a period after an abbreviated personal title and after some abbreviations that are
written in small letters or end with a small letter.
Mr. Ph.D. Capt.
Co. Inc. Prof.
i.e. e.g. ibid.
a.m/ p.m. or A.M./ P.M.

NOTE: British English does not use periods in these abbreviations.

4. If the sentence ends with a quotation, enclose the period inside the quotation
marks.
The commander said hastily, Get up and pack up your things.

Uses of the question mark (?)

 1. Use the question mark after the direct questions, tag questions, and polite
requests
Whats your name?
You love me, dont you?
Could you help me fix this table?

NOTE: Do not use the question mark after indirect questions. An indirect question is
reported by another person.

Wrong: Raiden wants to know if you are an engineer?

Correct: Raiden wants to know if you are an engineer.

2. Use a question mark in a series of questions even if they are not complete
sentences.
I sometimes ask myself. Why on earth am I here for? Whats my purpose? How
will I attain it?

3. If the information in a certain statement is not certain, a question mark,

enclosed in parentheses, is placed after the doubtful detail.
In 1885 (?) Walt Whitman published a collection of poems entitled Leaves of
Grass.

Uses of the exclamation point (!)

1. The exclamation point is almost never used in business or academic writing since it
expresses strong emotion. The exclamation point may be used more effectively in other
forms of writing, especially in literary pieces because it conveys the feeling of the writer and
the characters that are involved in the text
Ouch! Fire!

NOTE: Do not overuse exclamation points when writing. Too many exclamation
points lessen the emotions set within the text. For example, the storys climax will be
less thrilling if every sentence preceding the climatic part uses an exclamation point
instead of a period.

2. If the sentence ends with a quoted exclamatory sentence, enclose the exclamation
point within the quotation marks. However, if only the final word is quoted, the
exclamation point should be placed outside the quotation marks.

Everybody panicked inside the cinema, when someone shouted, There is a bomb inside
this, movie house!

Its unfair because Martin did his best just to be branded as a cheater!
 Comma (,)

Commas seem to be just a slight mark that we use as a pause marker especially in
long sentences. However, this punctuation mark plays a very important role in making
clear ideas when writing. It avoids confusion on the part of the reader and it avoids
ideas from overflowing in sentences. Compare the difference in the meaning of the
two sentences below:

Vote, Vivian! (the speaker tells Vivian to vote)

Vote Vivian! (the speaker tells other people to vote for Vivian)

The following provides you with the guidelines in using commas that one should take
into consideration when writing.

1. Use a comma before coordinating conjunctions that join independent clauses in a

compound sentence.
Jason loves writing essays, and he loves to read voluminous novels as well

Artists possess a higher level of intelligence, but they are often regarded as insane
and deviants

NOTE: Commas are used to separate parts of sentences, and they are never used to
separate sentences. Hence, it is wrong to put a comma in between a sentence which
has only one independent clause.

Wrong: Jareds car is sleek, and new.

This sentence has only one independent clause and a comma is not necessary to
separate the adjectives sleek and new.

Correct: Jareds car is sleek and new.

1Or
Correct: Jareds car is sleek, and it is new.

2. Put a comma after introducers. Introducers may be words, phrases or dependent

clauses that introduce the first independent clause in a sentence.

Word Introducer: Primarily, the captain decided to dock at the port of Miami, but the
situation there led them to go on with their journey.

Phrase Introducer: For example, automobile in British English is car in American

English.

Dependent clause:Since Michael left to work abroad, her girlfriend has become
melancholic.
 3. Put a comma around a modifier that provides extra information. An extra-
information is a modifier that the writer wishes to add within his train of thought; we
may also call this as a spur- of- the-moment modifier. It is dubbed as extra-information
since it is not needed to identify the object that is modifies.

Necessary modifier: A person who can write on both hands is an ambidextrous person.

In this sentence, the modifier who can write on both hands is necessary to tell something
about what as ambidextrous person is.

Extra-information modifier: Albert, who can write on both hands, is an ambidextrous

person.

In this sentence, the clause who can write on both hands is not needed to discuss
what ambidextrous is, since it does not tell anything about it. If you remove this clause,
the sentence still makes sense. Moreover, extra-information may be found in the
sentence initially, medially, and finally. Hence, in tis type of modifier, a comma should be
used.

Initial: Crawling silently, the soldiers entered the enemys camp.

Medial: Gina, a sweet and smart lady, achieved the highest award in their batch
Final: The judged stop in front of the booth of Michelle and Hazel, who were selling
hand-woven blankets.

4. Use a comma to separate transitional signals from the independent clause that it
belongs. These transitional markers can be found in the initial, medial, and final positions.

Initial:Moreover, the labor leaders asked for an increase in the daily wage of laborers.
Medial: In Middle Eastern countries, for instance, women are required to serve the grooms
family.
Final: Captains and Engineers experienced hardships on their way to success, of course.

5. Use a comma to separate a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence.
The ream captain said, Focus on your tasks and we will win this match.

NOTE: As a rule, commas are always placed to the left of a quotation mark. Observe the
example below ad the one above.

Focus on your tasks and we will win this match. The team captain said.

NOTE: Do not use commas with indirect quotations.

Wrong: The team captain said, that we should focus on our tasks to win the match.

Correct: The team captain said that we should focus on our tasks to win the match.
6. Use a comma to separate items in a series. These items may be words, phrases, or
clauses.

Words: Today, there are a lot of means for communicating such as telephones, mails. And
cellphones

Phrase: Every Friday night I go home early, wash my clothes, study my lessons, and sleep
really late.

Clauses: her boyfriend always want to know where is she going, who she is going with, and
what time she will be home.

NOTE:Do not use a comma if there are only two items, moreover, to create a clearer
presentation of items on a series, it would be best to include a comma before the conjunction
and.

7. Aside from its function in sentences, commas also function in various elements in the
English language, they are listed below:

a. Names
Dela Cruz, Juan
b. Titles
Venancio L. Mendiola, Ph. D
Fernando Poe, Jr
Danny P. Rosal, MM
c. Names of place and addresses
San Augustin Church is located at. Gen. Luna cor. Sta. Potenciana Streets,
Intramuros, Manila, Philippines
d. Dates
Kramer was born on November 23, 1989, at exactly 3:09am
NOTE: Commas are deleted if the day is not included (July 1956) and if the date is written using
the British English style (24 December 2009)

e. Numbers
Todays jackpot prize in lottery costs $1, 238, 098.

f. Nouns of direct address

Please keep quiet, Jimmy.
Daddy please come home early tonight.

g. Yes, no, and mild interjections ( oh and well)

Yes, we are allowed to take 9 units every semester
Well, what we could do is to pray for their safety.
h. Tag questions
You love me, dont you?
I passed the test, didnt I?
i. Salutations and complimentary clos
Dear Charo,
Sincerely yours,

Semicolon
 It is used to separate independent clause when the relationship between them is clear
even without a connecting word. This type of sentence is possible only if the two
independent clauses re closely related in meaning.

My older is working in the office; my younger sister is still in elementary school.

There are two instance in writing where a semi-colon should be used. One is when you
use a transition signal in between independent clauses to make a compound sentence,
and the other is when separating a series which contains commas in it. In the first
function, a semicolon should be used before the transitional signal and a comma after
it.

Seafarers receive high salaries and just compensation; in fact there are many aspiring
seafarers in the Philippines.

On the second hand, the second function of the semicolon is to make a clearer
separation between items in a series, especially those that have been separated by a
comma.

Should we go to the Palawan, where there are beautiful underwater caves and clean
rivers; to Boracay, where there are beautiful white sand beaches; or to Sagada where
there are clean mountains for hiking?

Colon

1. A colon is placed at the end of an independent clause and is followed by the items
in a series. These items should not be capitalized unless they are proper nouns.

Please bring the following tomorrow: pentel pens, cartolina, and crayons

You are required to the following novels: War and Peace, The Red and the Black,
Tale of Genji, and Ulysses.

2. A colon may also be used before an appositive a noun or noun phrase that
describes another noun or noun phrase and before a direct quotation.

Marcus has one great love in his life: music.

Freddies last words were: take care of my family.

NOTE: Do not use a colon after a preposition or a verb. Unless the words the
following are affixed after the verb.

Wrong: After this trip, we are going to: Brazil, China, and London.
Correct: After this trip, we are going to Brazil, China, and London.
Wrong: The criteria for judging are: originality, relevance to the topic, and artistry.
Correct: The criteria for judging are the following: originality, relevance to the
topic, and
artistry.
Or
The criteria for judging are originality, relevance to the topic, and
artistry.
 3. Colons could be used before a subtitle, to give time and after business letter
salutations.

2001: A Space Odyssey is one fiction film that one should watch.
Meet me at the parking lot at 2:45PM today.
Dear Mr. Perez:

Apostrophe
Apostrophes are commonly neglected in expressing possessions. Like the
comma, an apostrophe is just a slight mark, but it plays a very important role to
make the meaning of the sentences clearer. It has three main uses: to make
noun and indefinite pronoun possessive. To make contractions, and make a few
special plurals.

Possession with nouns

The captains cabin
Seniors committee
Editor-in-chief table
Bonnie and Clydes loot

Possession with pronouns

Somebodys ballpen
Someones car

Contractions and years

Are not = arent
She would = shed
Cannot = cant
Edmond is a member of Batch 06.
Jazz music first became popular in the 20s.

In special plural
There are four ss and four is in the word Mississippi
Michelle got five straight As last semester

NOTE: Do not be confused in using the apostrophe. Never interchange the use
of Its to its. Its is a contraction of it is, while Its is a possessive adjective.
Moreover, do not be confused with the contraction of a noun + is and the
possessive form (Jacks <Jack is> going to manila) (Jacks parents will visit him.).
Be sure that you are using the correct one when writing to avoid confusion in
meaning.

2.6 Quotation marks

Quotation marks are always used in pairs. Its main function is to present a direct quotation. A
direct quotation is someones exact words or report. However, there are other uses of quotation
marks. They are used to emphasize the titles of newspaper and magazine articles, short stories,
poems, books, songs, movies and television programs among others. Furthermore, they are
usually used to emphasize an unusual word especially those with ironic or sarcastic meanings
or foreign words.
Submit your report tomorrow, the professor told the class.

Conrado de Quiros article Enchanted Kingdom criticized the governments ability to carry
out its objectives.

In the movie The Last Samurai, Tom Cruise presented a very colorful and patriotic Japanese
culture.

His palace is made of junk plywood and zinc sheets.

The childs masterpiece was treasured by her parents.

The Filipino spirit of bayanihan does not have any equivalent in the western societies.

Note: Punctuations should be enclosed inside the quotation marks, as in the example below.

Father asked, Where are you going?

Where are you going? Father asked.

If an interrogative sentence has an intervening phrase or clause, which is enclosed in a

quotation mark, the question mark should be placed outside the quotation marks. On the other
hand, if the interrogative sentence is the quoted part itself, the punctuation should be inside the
quotation mark.

Did you participate in the donate a blood, save a life campaign?

The principal asked us, Did you participate in the donate a blood, save a life campaign?

2.7 Parentheses

Similar to the quotation marks. Parentheses also go in pairs. Parentheses have two uses, one is
to enclose an information that is not essential, yet may be helpful to your reader, such as a
second thought and the other is to enclose numbers and letters that label items in a list.

Soren Kiekegard (1813-1855) is considered as the father of Existentialism.

Parentheses singular: parentheses) have two uses.

The decision was based on the (1) eligibility of the candidate, (2) achievements in the academic
field, and (3) ability to lead the university

Each member of the group has the privilege to choose from a (a) car loan or (b) housing loan.

2.8 Brackets and Ellipses

Brackets appear as a modification of the parentheses. There are various forms of brackets that
are available, namely: the box or square brackets; the curly brackets; and the angle
brackets <.>. Although all of them are brackets, they function differently. The square bracket is
used to enclose an explanation or additional information inserted by a person or editor quoting a
text. These explanations are done to clarify the message that the original text-from which the
writer discusses-presents.

I appreciate it the award but I refuse to accept it, this was the son of the murdered writer
wrote in an open letter to the local government.
The ambassador stressed that children sic should be educated.

Here, the Latin abbreviation sic (which literally means stand as it is) shows that the writer did
not change anything-including the error-from the ambassadors statement.

Moreover, square brackets are used to enclose stage directions in a play. Although these
directions are often in words, phrase, or fragments, the initial letter is capitalized and a period is
used to terminate the enclosed words.

Fidel: My God! What I have done?! I must get out of here Runs out of the stage.
Enter policeman.

2.9 Dashes and Hyphens

The dash and the hyphen-though both of them are short lines-are often interchanged. Moreover,
most people are not even acquainted with their difference. In this regard, it should be
remembered that a hyphen (which is longer than the words dash) is shorter in measure. Some
would call it the n-dash or en-dash because it has the same width with the letter n. On the
other hand, the dash is no longer one, which is also called the m-dash em-dash because of
its measure as well.

Hyphens are usually used to indicate ranges or connections between two things, such as the
examples below:
4-8 years old
June-July 1946
Pp. 169-175
Detroit Pistons beat L.A. Lakers 100-101
Sino-Japanese war
Father-son camping
The Liberal party won the senatorial slate 13-0

On the other hand, the dash or m-dash usually functions as a substitute for the parentheses or
commas. Dashes are more informal that commas and they are not usually seen in formal
writing. Moreover, the dash also presents an additional idea that the writer wishes to include in
between the train thought in the sentence. This idea is not grammatically subordinate to the
main sentence.
The dash is useful in three situations: for emphasis, around appositives containing commas,
and before dramatic shifts.

For emphasis

Everyone in the team-from the deans down to the staffs- is working hand in hand to
accomplish the task.

Around appositives containing commas

Everyone in the university-deans, professors, staff, and students-was disappointed with the
decision of the board of regents.

Before dramatic shifts

He walked elegantly down the street, sat down in an antique bench at the park-and put a bullet
through his head.

III. ACHIEVING UNITY AND COHERENCE

Unity and coherence are two of the most basic criteria that writers should observe.
Unity deals with the oneness of ideas, i.e. the overall presentation of the written output
should show relevant ideas.
Coherence, which comes from the Latin word cohere or to stick together, deals with
the way ideas are interconnected.
Thus, written outputs should not just have a single unifying idea; these ideas should be
presented in relation to each, i.e., transfer of discussion from one
idea/sentence/paragraph/to another should be smooth.
One of the ways to maintain unity and coherence is through the use of transitional or
cohesive devices. These are words that function as bridges among ideas, examples,
and/or illustrations.

Table of Transitional/Cohesive Devices

Function Transitional/cohesive Device
To show addition again, also, and, and then, equally
important, finally, first, further, furthermore,
in addition, in the first place, last, likewise,
moreover, next, or, still, then, too
To compare Also, in comparison, in the same way,
likewise, similarly
To contrast Although, and yet, at the same time, but,
conversely, despite, even so, even though,
for all that, however, in contrast, in spite of,
nevertheless, nonetheless, not
withstanding, on the contrary, on the other
hand, otherwise, regardless, still though,
yet
To give examples or intensify After all, as an illustration, certainly, even,
for example, for instance, indeed, in fact, it
is true that, namely, of course, specifically,
that is, to be sure, to illustrate, to tell the
truth, truly
To summarize, repeat, or conclude All in all, all together as a result, as had
been noted, basically, finally, in brief, in
conclusion, in other words, in particular, in
short, in simpler terms, in summary, on the
whole, that is, therefore, to put it differently,
to summarize
To indicate time After a while, afterward, as long as, as soon
as, at length, at that time, before, currently,
earlier, eventually, first (second, third, etc.)
finally, formerly, immediately, in the
meantime, in the past (future), lately, later,
meanwhile, now, presently, shortly,
simultaneously, since so far, soon, still,

To indicate place
To indicate cause and effect
subsequently, then, thereafter, until, until
now, when, while
Above, adjacent to, below, elsewhere,
father on, here, near, nearby, on the other
side, opposite to, there, to the east, to the
left.
Accordingly, as a result, because,
consequently, for this purpose, hence,
otherwise, since, so, then, therefore,
thereupon, thus, to this end, with this object

Another way to maintain unity and coherence is by preparing an outline. An outline

is the overall plan of the essay that you will write in the Academic Writing class. It
serves as the blueprint of your essay, which means that it presents a detailed
picture of your paper. It may also be regarded as the pipeline that makes the ideas
flow clearly from one to another-just like a water pipeline that guides the flow of
water.

There are two types of outline: the sentence outline which consists of complete
sentences that would expound the ideas that will be presented in the written
output; and the topic outline which presents keywords or phrases.

An outline should include a thesis statement, which is the overview of the entire
essay. This may be regarded as the synopsis of the essay. However, take note
that this is a thesis statement NOT statements.

SAMPLE OUTLINE
Thesis Statement: Abortion, an act of forcibly ejecting a fetus out of the mothers women,
should be legalized because this helps solve the problems of population, allows women to
solve, unwanted pregnancy, and prevents the birth of children with abnormalities or health
problems-which could bring long-term problems to the child and to the mother.

I. Introduction (This portion is very important because it catches the interest of the leader)
A. Grab attention (possible options are)
1. Questions
2. Anecdotes
3. Line from movie/song/poem etc.

B. State thesis or reason for writing this or importance of your essay

II. Body
A. Build points (idea 1)
1. Develop ideas
2. Support main claims

B. Build points (idea 2)

1. Develop ideas
2. Support main claims

C. Build points (idea 3)

1. Develop ideas
2. Support main claims

III. Conclusion
A.(Option1) Reemphasize main idea
B.(Option 2) Answer the question in introduction
C.(Option 3) Connect with the story/anecdote in introduction
D.(Option 4) Continue line of song/poem/movie etc.

IV. PATTERNS OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT/WRITING GENRES

These are various Writing Genres or Pattern of Paragraph Development, and
each pattern ore genre has a specific function. Often these genres are merged
with each other to make the written output more effective. For example, in writing
an Argumentative essay. The writer may include a cause-effect essay to show
his arguments (e.g. We should legalize abortion because presently, the
Philippine population is 90-million. This situation sinks us into poverty. Naturally,
more people mean more responsibility If we dont legalize it now, our country
will more likely be over populated and tremendously poor.)

Each genre uses a particular transitional device presented above.

Descriptive Essay
The descriptive essay relies on concrete, sensory detail to communicate its
point.
When writing a descriptive essay, writers should have a broad fund of modifiers
i.e., adjectives. Moreover, writers should be specific in using adjectives and
 other words that would describe the topic, i.e., beautiful may be different from
pretty, cute, gorgeous, etc.
Figures of speech may also be used but these shouldnt be clichs like
Boracay is the apple of my eye.

Sample Descriptive Paragraph

Ice is the name given to any of the 14 known solid phases of water. In non-scientific
contexts, it is a crystalline solid, which can appear transparent or an opaque bluish-white color
depending on the presence of impurities as air.

Process Essay
A process essay may either be How to do or How something works
In a How to do essay the objective of the writer is to tell the reader how a certain
product is produced. Most often, this type of essay uses the first person point of view
because it demonstrates how something is does to the reader. (e.g. How to apply for
the Fulbright Scholarship Grant)
A How something Works essay shows or explains how a certain process or method
works. (e.g. Process of Digestion)

Sample How something works Paragraph

Many people are very curious on how a caterpillar can transform into a very beautiful butterfly.
Each evolution has its own scientific explanation. First, it will start from being a caterpillar.
Second, the caterpillar will release a silk produce by its body and will create a cocoon for its
protection for the third process and for it to take place. Third, after the evolution/ transformation
of the caterpillar inside the cocoon is finally completed, the caterpillar will break out of the
cocoon and spread it wings and is already considered a butterfly.

Comparison-Contrast
A comparison-contrast essay presents the relationship between two items; this may be
in the form of similarities and differences.
This essay may include descriptions so as to clearly express the degree of similarity of
difference between the two topics.
This essay may help readers in choosing, i.e., between two schools, brand of cellphone,
place for vacation, etc.
This essay may be organized by using either the point-by-point organization or the
block organization
In the point-by-point organization similarities or differences are the primary concern.

Point-by-point or Alternating Arrangement

I. Introduction in which you state your purpose
I. First difference
A. Topic 1
B. Topic 2
II. Second difference
A. Topic 1
B. Topic 2
III. Third difference
 A. Topic 1
B. Topic 2
IV. Conclusion

In the block organization, the focus is on the two topics.

Block Arrangement
I. Introduction in which you state your purpose
II. Topic 1
A. Similarity/Difference or Factor 1
B. Similarity/Difference or Factor 1
C. Similarity/Difference or Factor 1
III. Topic 1
A. Similarity/Difference or Factor 1
B. Similarity/Difference or Factor 1
C. Similarity/Difference or Factor 1
IV. Conclusion

Sample Comparison-Contrast Paragraph

A scientist and a poet both strive for perfection: the
poet refines his sensibilities, while the scientist reduces
everything to precise measurements. Both share the beauty
of a rainbow; but while the poet imagines a pot of gold at the
end of it, the scientist wants to spell it out in angstrom units
measuring wavelength.

Cause-Effect
The cause-effect essay presents the reasons or result for something.
It is an important writing genre because it analyzes the factors involved in the topic.
There are two possible ways to outline a cause-effect essay: (a) single cause, multiple
effect or (b) multiple causes, single effect.

Sample Cause-Effect Paragraph

The tropical rainforest of West Africa, Brazil, Latin America and Southeast Asia
are some of the most important are some of the most important environmental
regions of the world because they hold millions of unique plants, animals and
people. However, they are being destroyed rapidly for agriculture, mining and
logging. This is logging for timber. Millions of hectares of trees are cut down
every year, often illegally. The most valuable wood is taken and not

Argumentative
An argumentative essay presents premises and conclusions regarding an issue.
It presents the writers stand-whether he/she agrees or not. However it should be
noted that an argumentative essay is different from an opinion simply because an
 argumentative essay shows evidence and support details, while most opinions
are based on beliefs and personal ideologies.
Premises are reasons that support conclusions, while a conclusion is the key
assertion, or claim.
In the sample statement: Because the poor spend proportionately more of their
income on gambling than higher income groups and because gambling sends a
something for nothing message that erodes the work ethic, government should
take steps to contain and curtail the spreading of gambling the underlined part
are premises, while the italicized part is the conclusion

Sample Argumentative Paragraph

Because of the pressing issues regarding global economic recession, it is high time that
the government support programs that would boost the countrys economy. We should set aside
moral issues and start thinking of ways to curb to growing problems in finance. One way to deal
with this is by legalizing prostitution.
We all know that this is the oldest profession and legalizing this will allow more revenues.
How? Well, basically, legalizing prostitution is tantamount to taxation. Each prostitute will be
taxed. Hence, a portion of their profits will contribute to the needs of the nation.

PART II ANALYZING TEST ITEMS

Part I: Sample Test Items

1. Oliver jumps every New Year season. Believing that he will become taller. The
error in these statements may be corrected using the following versions, except:
A. Because he believes that he will become taller, Oliver jumps every New Year
season.
B. Oliver jumps every New Year season, and he believes that he will become
taller.
C. Oliver jumps every New Year season. He believes that he will become taller.
D. Believing that he will become taller, Oliver jumps every New Year season.

The answer is B. Fragments may be corrected by making one of the sentences a subordinating
clause (just like A & D). Fragments may also be eliminated by simply making two sentences (just
like C). B is not acceptable simply because it led to another common sentence error. Faulty
Coordination.

2. Which of the following will best complete the sentence below?

The demonstrators were so enraged___________
A. because they threw tomatoes to the effigy and burned it afterwards.
B. since they threw tomatoes to the effigy and burned it afterwards.
C. that they threw tomatoes to the effigy and burned it afterwards.
D. for they threw tomatoes to the effigy and burned it afterwards.

The answer is C. Options A, B, and D present subordination, i.e. idea presented

is a reason. However, the sentence should present a result idea i.e. what the
demonstrators did because of their anger.
 3. All of the transitional/cohesive devices below maybe used when writing a
comparison-contrast essay, except
A. consequently C. conversely
B. nevertheless D. similarly

The answer is A.Consequently would be more useful in a cause-effect essay.

All the other options may be used when comparing and contrasting.

PART II: Analyzing Test Items

1. The residents were told to evacuate their houses immediately_________

A. at the time when the water began to go up
B. in the time when the water raised
C. when the water began to rise
D. when the water was raised

2. What pattern of the paragraph development was used in the excerpt below?

The fragile white skeleton lay half-buried in the sand at my feet. I stopped to pick it up,
and brushed away the fine sand clinging to its rough, dry surface. I was holding a flat,
round disk in my hand. Four V-shaped notches were equally spaced around its outer
edge, making it look like a fat cross.

A. Comparison-Contrast C. Description
B. Cause-Effect D. Process

3. Which is the BEST WAY to write the underlined portion of this sentence?
A person should keep in mind some basic safety rules when you are deciding whether or
not to use a fire extinguisher.
A. rules when you decided C. rules when deciding
B. rules you are deciding D. rules you decide

4. What pattern of paragraph development was used in the expert below?

Smoking has been proven dangerous to peoples health, yet many continue to smoke for
various reasons. For young people, smoking often represents maturity and individuality.
May smoke as a way to reduce tension. In addition, the regular smoker becomes
addicted psychologically and physically to the nicotine in cigarettes.
A. Comparison-Contrast C. Description
B. Cause-Effect D. Process

5. Which is the best way to edit the erroneous sentence below?

My father was upset all day he could not see his car keys.
A. My father was upset all day, but he could not see his car keys.
B. My father was upset all day, yet he could not see his car keys.
C. My father was upset all day, and he could not see his car keys.
D. My father was upset all day because he could not see his car keys.
6. What makes the sentence below wrong?
Patrick brought a new car-a Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution VIII-last week.
A. The indefinite article a was overused.
B. The verb bought should have been has bought.
C. The verb bought should have been has been buying.
D. The writer should have used a dash instead of hyphen.

7. What error is committed in the sentence below?

While hanging on the trees, the children watched the monkeys.
A. Faulty Coordination C. Faulty Parallelism
B. Misplaced Modifier D. Comma Splice

8. What is the best way to correct the sentence in #7?

A. The children watched the monkeys while hanging on the trees.
B. The monkeys watched the children while hanging on the trees.
C. While hanging on the trees, the monkeys were watched by the children.
D. The children watched the monkeys while they were hanging on the trees.

9. What makes the sentence erroneous?

My favorite movies are the following; The Last Samurai, The Road Home, Bruce
Almighty, and dreams.
A. There should be no comma in between Almighty and and.
B. The writer should have used a colon instead of a semi-colon
C. The phrase the following should have been omitted.
D. Both A and B

10. What correction should be made to this sentence?

First-born often pattern their behavior after theyre parents and other adults.
A. Change pattern to patterned C. Replace their to theyre
B. No correction in necessary D. Replace theyre to their

11. Which part of the given sentence is an example of adjectival modifiers?

Skiers, balancing lightly with bent knees, glided swiftly down the slope.
A. Skiers C. down the slope
B. Glided swiftly D. balancing lightly with bent knees

12. Which is an example of sentence?

A. The sun sinking below the horizon. C. After taking this note to your
father.
B. A heat wave to try our patience D. It was not easy to be correct.

13. Which would be the appropriate subordinator to be used to complete this sentence?
__________ she finally grew accustomed to the dark, she noticed a small chest in the
corner of the room.
A. When C. While
B. Where D. Because

14. Which is the most appropriate noun clause marker to use in this sentence?
We saw ___________ we could not over take them.
A. What C. Why
B. Whatever D. that
 15. Which of the following illustrates a compound sentence?
A. Do you know the mountains around Mt. Makiling, Marian?
B. A rainy day will please many children who want to play card games.
C. The water situation became a serious problem and we met it with increasing
difficulty.
D. We had to labor up, sometimes in second and sometimes in first gear, until the
engine boiled.

16. Which punctuation mark is needed in the following sentence?

Run for your life__________
A. . C. !
B. ? D. ,

17. Which illustrates the proper use of a comma?

A. When you call, and needed someone, Rommel will come.
B. When you call and needed someone Rommel, will come.
C. When, you call and needed someone Rommel will come.
D. When you, call and needed someone Rommel will come.

18. Which illustrates the proper use of a (;)?

A. JC knows every part of the game therefore; he should be made captain.
B. Harry is interested in business; John prefers medicine as a profession.
C. After Jason had finished playing; he opened the door and looked at the glowing sky.
D. Marla had planned exactly what she would say consequently; she held the attention
of the audience and made her point.

19. Which illustrates the appropriate use of an ()?

A. I saw a store window filled with artists supplies.
B. Alices mother always goes with us.
C. Do you spell this word with two rs?
D. Youre not very helpful.

20. Which is a sample of a proper use of ( )?

A. Irene laughed nervously and began, Ladies and gentlemen.
B. Irene laughed nervously and began, Ladies and gentlemen.
C. Irene laughed nervously and began, ladies and gentlemen.
D. Irene laughed nervously and began, ladies and gentlemen.

PART III ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS

Part III: Practice Test

1. Which among the following may be used to fill in the blank?

One of the obvious differences between colleges and universities is the degree
programs they offer. Usually, colleges have limited course offerings. _________
Universities offer a wide range of degree programs to choose from. They even offer
graduate degree programs, such as masters and doctorate.
A. Similarly C. Futhermore
B. Likewise D. On the other hand

2. When quoting a source, what should be done if a writer encounters an erroneous statement,
such as the one below?
This philosophies is very essential in curriculum designing, because they serve as the guiding
principle of curriculum designers.
A. Change philosophies into philosophy.
B. Insert the Latin abbreviation sic at the end of the statement.
C. Insert the Latin abbreviation sic after philosophies
D. Insert the Latin abbreviation sic after philosophies enclosed in square brackets.

3. What should be done to correct the error in the sentence below?

In Middle Eastern countries for instance women required to serve the grooms family.
A. Insert a comma after countries
B. Insert a comma after instance
C. Insert a comma after countries and instance
D. Insert a comma after countries and women

4. The sentence below is wrong because

Half of the applicants passed the exam the other half of them flunked the test.
A. It is run-on sentence. C. It is a faulty coordination
B. It shows faulty parallelism D. It has a dangling modifier