POSTCOLONIAL STUDIES INTRODUCTION

BHABHA: postcolonial criticism is evidence of unequal and unexpected forces of cultural representation.
The postcolonial perspectives emerge from the colonial testimony of Third World countries and the
discourse of "minorities" within the geopolitical divisions between East and West, North and South of
the world.

Colonialism is an epochal phenomenon that has led over 80% of the planet's population over the past
two centuries the dominance of the major European nations in the name of a pretended "civilizing
mission". The "post" of the definition does not underestimate the overcoming of colonialism, but wants
to counteract how the entire world of the new millennium is still strongly influenced by social, economic
and cultural phenomena catalyzed by colonialism itself. As far as the term "studies" is concerned, it has
been chosen to emphasize an unstable and constant relationship between various disciplines that the
postcolonial is more traditionally associated with. Neither history, nor literature, nor criticism, or
philosophy or psychology, postcolonial studies are a form of interdisciplinary "bricolage" that
appropriates the tools and concepts of various knowledge, sinking its roots in the political struggles of
didecolonization and in the experiences of colonized subjects.

FRANTZ FANON

Postcolonial studies find one of their points of reference in the works of Frantz Fanon, psychiatrist who
adopts the tools of psychoanalysis to analyze the algerian society objected to the French dominion.
Fanon's reflection therefore proves not only fundamental to understanding the dynamics of algerians,
but also to reform psychoanalysis, highlighting one of the finest principles of studicolostcolonialism:
colonialism influences the life and vision of the world of colonizers as well as of those de-colonized.

DAVID SCOTT: "postcolonialism is to be understood not as much as a canon (the sum of postcolonial
texts) or as a chronlogic definition (the period after colonialism) as a style of divination."

Postcolonial studies can therefore be understood as an interpretative key to the world.

The fundamental question is what has led some nations to dominate and proclaim their own superiority
on most of the planet and to establish strong relations that persist despite the political independence of
African and Asian states? It is necessary to deny a series of clichs common to the postcolonial studies,
nicknamed sarcastic victim studies ("victimism"). Inadvertent adversity insinua in fact that a post-clonial
perspective has a function of closing enon of openness, a paralyzing power, or even judging and
venicing, a burden of resentimentovolta to make clean square of a European civilization guilty only of
terrible disadvantages. Provincializing Europe does not mean to demonize or idealize other civilizations
as pure and primitive as corrupt Western "modernity".

Contradiction: postcolonial studies have developed in English-speaking countries and then spread in
cultural diversity, having as a main communication vehicle the English, a language that today has a
hegemonic role not only because of the political and economic role played by the USA but as a landmark
of the wide spread that the GB gave to its colonies, educating local elites to their own civilization.
So what is the relationship between colonists and colonists? Globalization is understood by some as a
form of imperialism that tends to the homogenization of cultures by killing its specificity. Unsurprisingly
unjustified comes from the sociologist ARJUN APPADURAI who noted that the cultural forms of
globalization are unlikely to remain identical in their planetary transmissions, which are appropriate and
modified in individual contexts, depending on local needs.

Secondly, the question of language is important in postcolonial studies. to the achievement of political
independence, in states like India, he was the one who had proposed to get rid of English in quantitative
colonialism. The prevailing intellectual response was to appropriate the language: it is unwitting not to
be passive, simple imitators, not to speak and write it like the British. The betrayal of keeping it,
alongside the other languages, means that English is not only one of the many Indian languages today,
but also that which allows this country to play a primary role on the world stage.

In this postcolonial postgraduate study manual is a thread that is rooted in the autobiographical and
analytic accounts of thinkers, for which colonialism was a direct existential epithetic experience (Frantz
Fanon, Ghandi, Memmi etc).

Postcolonial studies acquire their recognizability from an exemplary "ORIENTALISM" text by Edward
Said. Published in 1978, it remains a text based on postcolonial studies for at least three motifs. The first
is the object of the study: in order to address the theme of the West Midlands culture, Said is not limited
to literature and art, but opens to genres such as historiography, philology, politics, journalism, the
memorial. Said noted how building and reproducing the standardized and projection image of an
indistinct East and incapable of self-government, even colored ones have helped to make known these
"exotic" cultures in Europe have built a huge research web that has represented a far-away world in the
image and likeness of desires , of the good expansionist anxieties of Europe. Strongly linked to this
element there is a second methodological dinosaur. Said adopted one of the founding concepts of
philosopher Michael Faucault, that of "speech". A discourse for Faucault is a set of statements that
constructs an object that is not pre-existent to the discourse itself but is delimited and identified by it. In
other words, the East is not a physical illusion that a number of scientific and artistic representations
contribute to describing; these representations that lead to the definition of a heterogeneous series of
places and civilizations like Orient, an Orient in which the confirmation of the a priori created
stereotypes is sought (eg, the ingenious indignation, the sensuality of women, the inability to govern,
etc). Concepts such as "race" or "nation" also reveal speeches that are built over time through complex
rhetorical and political processes. The distinctive feature of Said's work is that the author explicitly calls
into question the identity of a Palestinian intellectual transplanted into the US as a constitutive of his
own distaste perspective, starting with a quotation from Gramsci: "the beginning of critical processing is
the consciousness of what is really, that is, a know yourself as a product of the historical process so far
that it has left an infinity of traces without any inventory benefit. "

The autobiography of many post-colonial critics expresses the need to emphasize the existential
experience to which his critical meditation was born. But this personal perspective does not mean taking
a stand against an objectic and neutral investigation, but instead argues that there is never a completely
objectist and disinterested divisive point, and that the subject's position should not be deleted or date
persecuted. One might say that one of the tangible results of postcolonial studies is to have revealed
that the implicit and implicit voice of the human sciences is almost systematically the voice of a man

European, which stands in a clear position of superiority over all other categories, such as women and
non-Western colonial subjects.

Said was criticized for privileging Western sources at Orientalism at the expense of the Arabs, ignoring
the voices of the inhabitants of his "East".

Only if the inhabitants of colonies and ex-clones are able to represent themselves, to tell laprope history
outside the colonists' schemes can cast off their imaginary and idle institutions, they can escape an
inferiority condition that forces them to a way of thinking that conveys the West as a bearer of values
and progress and other countries as inferior morally and incapable of governing and self-development.
For paraphrases the title of an important book by Ngugi Wa Thiong'o "decolonized states must proceed
to the decolonization of the mind".

Said states that "the more you are able to break away from your own cultural home, the easier it is to
judge it a true vision of things and the more I will be able to evaluate oneself and other cultures with the
identical combination of intimacy and distance."

Moving towards Great Britain, a decisive factor for postcolonial studies is the affirmation of the 70 years
of Ottoman Cultural Studies. Along the 1980s, several essays of two critics of indians, transplanted in
England and the United States respectively, came to be joined by Edward Saidcome leaders recognized
by postcolonial studies: Bhabha and Spivak. Both exegetes of post-structuralism, sum of theories of
French dervification, which are particularly striking in the English-speaking countries of the United
States. The great novelty they have to do is to reverse the post-structuralist attitudes of the post-
structuralism outside of Western culture. In particular, Spivak pays particular attention to the instances
of feminism (and in particular to the controversial relationship between the demands of Western
feminism and those of women from the Third World), and to pedagogy, by emphasizing how
postcolonial studies are framed in a certain "pedagogical machine ", A cornice institution that you
should always pay attention to. It is with these two scholars and with their more specialized language
than that of Said who begins to speak of postcolonial theory.

The 90s are also the time when the US is questioning its own identity and creating allied culture wars
that see feminism, ethnic and sexual minorities battling for the recognition of what is now more
commonly known as multiculturalism against latraditional hegemony, Anglo-Saxon and Protestant. The
centrality of the US must not fail to point out that postcolonial studies have continued to develop in
different ways in different places. Il Sudafrica has had to deal with the colossal political problem of the
Parthenon and the dual English and Afrikaner legacies.

Born as a thought of marginality, postcolonial studies have become an established and uncertain
hegemonic field of study.
"TROUBLESHOOMES": THE LANGUAGE OF POSTCOLONICAL THEORY

Anna Maria Cimitile

1. Political novelties introduced by Spivak, Said, Fanon, Bhabha.2. The questioning of the supposed
universality of Western knowledge3. Conceptual nodes (hybridization, mimicry = imitation, ambiguity,
third space) 4. It presents the main terms and stems of the recent critical debate

Anna Maria Cimitile examines the main concepts behind the postcolonial discourse. Starting with
general considerations on the important "political" novelties introduced by theorists such as Fanon,
Said, Bhabha, Spivak and their ability to question the claimed universality of Western knowledge, the
stereotype analyzes specifically some conceptual nodes (ambiguity, hybridization, mimicry, third space
etc.) is the main terms and stars of the recent critical debate.

As Stuart Hall writes: "Post-colonial" refers to a general colonization process that has given colonization
societies as deeply as colonized ones.

Margins ...

Fanon, Spivak, Said and Bhabha have made a significant contribution to postcolonial theory in
questioning the supposed universality of Western knowledge. The Occident's speeches were thus re-
opened from the new perspective so open.

Placing the colony in the center of reflection did not mean to operate a reversal of the central and
marginalized archery. If it had been, it would not have been a reiteration of the subordinate structure,
only with the terms of the place being exchanged. The alternative Spivak proposes is to meditate on
"the wholly otherness of margins", rather than marginally marginalize the margins that want to lead
them to the center. The margin as an inert space and always elusive, vacillating acausa of its marginality,
must be preserved by marginalizing it. Which means: ignoring precariousness, acting as if it were not
there. Margin and marginality are probably the most recurring terms in the postcolonial age. Despite
their high degree of abstraction, the reference is concrete. And it's letting it offer the most truthful yield
of the possible relationship with the margins in deconstruction

Literary space is an important ally of postcolonial theory. Deconstruction is the space in which the text
(philosophical, historical, cultural, literary) comes from which from time to time it chooses to let itself
imply; better yet, it is the space in which the other voices of the text emerge through that involvement,
which is indeed a corpus body with its language and its testuality.

Postcolonial theory plunges into the Western discourses to rewrite them from the point of view of the
margin. Spivak writes that the "historical case" of the de-constructionist position is precisely
postcoloniality. "

Ambiguity, Hybridity and Cataclysm in the Postcolonial Debate

During the criticism of the language of postcolonial theory in the following terms: postcolonialism has
ended up signifying something remote from self-determination and autonomy. Developing and utilizing
categorical hybrids, mimicry, ambivalence ... that all have intrinsically intertwined cultures

Colonized with colonizing cultures, post-colonialism has in fact become a rather conciliatory, critical and
anti-colonial category.

Sandro Mezzadra invokes the opportunities and potentials of hybridization, in which he identifies a
"critical antithesis of any neutralization of theoretical and political radicality" of a critical thought.

Bhabha, in theory, identified a conscious look at "the contradictions and ambivalences that change the
very structure of human subjectivity and its system of cultural representation".

This makes of those metaphors-concepts (drawn from a narration), when invoked in the sphere of de-
colonization, of catacresi, or of the -metaphore concepts that lack a historically appropriate reference-
their referent would be found in much space and even in that colonial center of the yoke is called for
liberation.

There is no linearity or simplicity in the postcolonial space. These are crossings, echoing discursive, as
well as theoretical and conceptual, those millions of individuals who migrate into vile shapes and
defective titles continue to do so in the postcolonial world.

Inventions of the other: in-betweenness, mimicry, third space

Postcolonial discussion (of) is debate, negotiation, redefinition, difference; the postcolonial is not only a
chronological term, but it also refers, above all, to an epistemic space whose figure is proprioil conscious
relationship, never simply opposition or collision with an alterity.

The Western discourse that has more complexly thought of alterity is certainly psychoanalysis. Child
psychology is one of the most involved in the postcolonial.

How can colonized hate colonists and at the same time admire them with such passion? The colonial
critic who has developed a theory of the ambivalence of colonial desire is Homi Bhabha. What haanche
theorized the related concept of cultural hybridity. Bhabha uses the concept of psychoanalytic
dimimetry to describe the condition of the colonist. Mimism is that of the colonized cheimita the
colonizer and represents at the same time "resemblance and threat" for that. They colonize almost the
same but not exactly identical to the colonizer. Colonial mimetism of the colonized is the almost
identical repetition of the colonizer.

The ambivalence of the colonial relationship opens up a new space, which is characterized by
overlapping and that is the gap between the two, or the in-between which is defined as the space in
which differencial cultures approach. Bhabha is also the theorist of the third space; For him colonial
culture is already intrinsic, in the sense that it is the cultural space that is generated in proximity to one
another: the culture of the cosmonitor thinks itself as homogeneous and integral, but it is necessarily
already "contaminated", from the contact with culture of the colonized, and the same applies to
colonized culture.

Hybridity is truly the third space for Bhabha; it is to be understood as hybridization or process of doing
something else (of culture) in proximity to each other. This is the condition of culture.

"Translation"

Bhabha speaks of cultural translation, meaning the transformation that is always in the process of
dealing with the other people who are involved in a meeting with the "difference of the other": the
encounter reveals the inadequacy of deeper reference systems, norms, values for the new report, and
accordingly needs to be revised.

IN CONSTRUCTION: NATIONALISM AND POSTCOLONIAL NATIONS

Annalisa Oboe

Annalisa Oboe reflects on the elusive definitions of nation and nationality and how the history of the
nation-states emerged after the end of colonialism and the destinies of their inhabitants has highlighted
the contradictions of these forms of politics. The analysis then moves on the literary aspects and how
some Romans and postcolonial authors have contributed to redesigning a concept of nationalities
outside of traditional and Eurocentric daglischemi.

Membership to a nation is one of the privileges that lie to the person as such and negate the dignity and
value. Nationality is negotiable because it recognizes the individual's ability to choose or modify their
national affiliation. Born Italian or English therefore do not mean Italian or English forever.

It should be recognized that nations find roots in modern history and are the product of conscience
projects which are the foundation or "building" of collectivity. The nation would therefore be an artifact
created historically unresolved in the interaction between ideology, culture and society.

BENEDICT ANDERSON: Defines the nation as a "imagined political community". The nation is imagined as
limited, that is, contained by boundaries that separate it from other nations; sovereign, as well as the
idea of freedom and self-determination of peoples; and as a community, because it is always perceived
as a deep horizontal connection even where internal fractures or inequalities exist. Anderson underlined
the cultural aspect of national formation. The nation's idea can have the most varied connotations if
transported to America, Africa, India. The nation is what MichaelFaucault has called a "discursive
formation", not just an imaginary vision, a myth, an allegory, but a political structure that the non-
European and postcolonial world in the 900 has differently sought to direct or still suffer from.

Anti-colonialism and Postcolonie

The achievement of independence: at the political level implied the construction of the state through
newcomers and institutions, while in the economy it involved control over the resources of the territory
and production suites.
Nationalism served as a tool of resistance to racist discourse that had a value of cultural value and
dignity to the subjugated peoples, defining themselves as incapable of self-government in the modern
world.

Frantz Fanon and Amilcar Cabral have largely discussed the need to redefine the concepts of ecological
culture once independence has been obtained, to avoid antique constraints, oppression and injustice.
The struggle for national liberation can only start from the small bourgeoisie, but its true success will
only be determined by the wide popular participation. The need to rediscover local culture and form a
national consciousness after colonialism does not therefore coincide with a reductive view of the
culturalegata to the traditional past. To survive, postcolonial nations have to live in idleness and
participate in the creation of "A new culture, albeit based on our traditions, mindful of all that the world
of today has conquered and put into the service of humanity."

Nations and narratives

The nation's idea is always inseparable from its narration: at the basis of national life there is always a
clue about the origins in which history is a function of the foundation process, because it identifies and
combines the space and time of the beginnings that serve to represent the imagined community.

Nationalist writers emphasize the link between people and territory to denounce illegal intimidation by
colonizers, breaking the balance between earth and man caused by the violent impact of European
soldiers, merchants, missionaries, officials and settlers. Finally, they tend to characterize the
representations of the colonial dominion and of nationalistic resistance from a gender perspective: the
texts often include the relationship between father and son as a figure of the relationship between the
patriarchal power of the colonizer and colonial resistance, accompanied by a frequent " feminisation "of
the nation, represented as a" motherland "in an ideological contrast to the idea of European" fatherland
". Representing the nation as" mother "in recurring images of" Mother Africa "or" Mother India
"threatened by aggression of the male and violent alien, means to symbolically mobilize the female
body idea to be defended in the name of independence and the future.

The national liberation of a people is the recovery of the people's historical personality, it is his returning
history. The nation's perspective as narration will define the colonial cultural boundaries in the
consciousness that contain thresholds of meaning that must be crossed, deleted, and traded as a
continuous process of cultural production. The nation's narrative must be constantly rewritten.

The nation, the globe

Moving and moving beyond national borders has become one of the ways to resist oppression, conflict,
exploitation and economic discomfort. The "freedom to move" is today one of the straightforward
acquisitions for millions of people. Ius movendi or migraines has become a necessity given the
disengagement of the wealth and quality of individual, social and political life on the world level.
Words like "immigrant, expatriate, refugee, exile communities are today the semantic domain of
transnationalism. Culture as a survival strategy is transnational and incontinent translation. Culture is
not the expression of a pre-existing or predetermined identity but is rather an incessant work with
which conflicting demands of collective self-representation are contradicted. Identities help us to
understand not so much what we are but what we could become.

WORLDS FOR THE WORLD: ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF POSTCOLONIAL DIASPORA

Alessandra Di Maio

Alessandra Di Maio starts from an etymological and historical reflection on the concept of diaspora to
arrive at a contemporary analysis of its importance in the field of postcolonial studies. The scholar
denounces poialcuni examples of contemporary diasporic communities, focusing in particular on African
Africans in America, by the slave tradea Barack Obama.

The term diaspora means "dispersion", "dissemination". The expression refers to the invasion of regions
of the world of a people forced to leave their homeland due to forced labor, which can be of a political
nature (ethnic or religious persecution) or a natural disaster (tnusami, famine).

For more than 2 millennia, the diasporic condition has contributed to the cultural identity of the
populacean, a people who still live largely in the diaspora. Recently, however, the term "erestension" is
increasingly common to all peoples who over the centuries have left their terrestrial origins scattering
around the world to escape genocide, civil wars, natural calamities, or extreme extravagance poverty or
deprivation of human rights.

Diaspora is therefore a phenomenon that has affected many communities in the history of humanity.
Involve various and diverse occupations, an existential condition that ensures the survival of a group of
people to disperse, as well as a dynamic process of continuous renegotiation of cultural-cultural identity.

TOLOYAN states that if once the expression meant the great historical dispersions, it is primarily Jewish,
Armenian; today the word recalls and implies concepts such as refugees, immigrants, expatriates,
migrant workers, exile communities and ethnicities.

By summing up the various theories and critical positions, one can conclude that 4 are the elements that
make up a diaspora. The first is to recognize as the principle of the diaspora the dispersion of the
collective, and in several directions, of an ethnic group, mostly caused by force majeure

predominantly but not exclusively of a political-economic nature. Consequently, the former is probably a
sovereign national community undergoing a process of fragmentation, transforming itself into a set of
expatriate communities welcomed by other nations in which they are identified as minorities. However,
there remains the widespread desire for a possible return to the land of origin, which is another
important aspect of the diaspora. Already these first basic definitions are not exempt from diacritics.
When a fleeing community predominates in a region of the world, magarilinguistically similar, rather
than dispersing to a rays of countries scattered in the most remote corners of the earth's globe, it is
legitimate to talk about diaspora or to talk about immigration (immigration, depending on point of
view?) What are the differences and contact points between diaspora emigration? A group argues that
where diaspora always implies a massive movement of people, not all migratory flows are necessarily
diaspora because of the potential freedom of the subject or the migrant community to go back to their
own liking, even for limited periods of time, which is not guaranteed to the diasporic community.
According to this view, diasporic subjects are therefore refugees, asylum seekers, exiles, refugees,
deporters, however human beings at risk, leaving their country behind to ensure survival.

Another group believes that even contemporary mass migrations, even quandovolontarie, all take place
for reasons of force majeure, that is, to escape the conditions of vitamins resulting partly from centuries
of imperialist oppression and the consequent disappearance of the Colosseum and in any case definable
as diasporic movements; From this point of view, even chimigra for economic reasons is diaspora.

Gabriel Sheffer theorized that regardless of the cause of dispersalism, anyone who suffices to belong to
the same "ethnic-national" community participates in the diaspora.

Clifford points out what the conceptual differences between "travel" and "diaspora" mean: while the
primary is a temporary experience that implies a return home, the second is always an expeditionary
experience that leads to the creation of a new community - the diasporic one

in fact- and a new home for everyone; in this sense, the diaspora also opposes exile, they say Clifford
remains an individual experience.

The nostalgia for the land of origin left behind and the desire for a possible return are the faintest faces
of the second distinctive feature of the Diaspora, which in turn is indissolubly linked to a third
requirement: to keep alive the memories of the motherland through a whole series cultural practices
(language, religion, customs) and a network of political and economic support (eg NGOs) in order to
ensure the survival of collective identity. collective memory is therefore entrusted with the
responsibility of bringing to the new communities the cultural heritage of the group of origin - that is,
language, letraditions, uses, religion, rituals, historical events that have marked the dispersal and

saying.

A key role in the process of conservation and transmission of cultural heritage is playful oral tradition,
which ensured that the stories and customs of the people were "remarried".

The survival of traditions in the diaspora is accompanied by phenomena of peripheral transformation.

However, whatever the degree of innovation is left, the nostalgia of abandoned land remains, especially
in the first generation who have actually traveled, and the desire for delusion, which at times, like in the
case of the African diaspora, can assume mythical-symbolic connotations of hospitality .

Ultimately, it is the will of the missing groups to preserve intact their cultural identity. What
characterizes the diaspora is therefore the willpower of the group, the tenacity of wanting to live in new
societies as a minority with a specific, traditionally-derived and handed down history and traditions from
generation to generation.

All migrant communities experience the experience of hybridization, of being in balance, in a mid space
(the Bhabha in-between) between the place (society, culture, language) of origin and arrival; and is
mediating this hybridization experience that redefines collective and individual identities.

Second generations, especially, are usually the ones who experience the most profound conflict,
rebelled not so often by the cultural authority of parents who tend to impose traditions of origin
(lamentable, food, religion, dress) .

This is the case, for example, of Italy, France and other European countries, where citizenship is
transmitted through that of their parents and not through the dynastic ground, as is the rule in many
American continent nations, including Canada and the USA.

The diaspora opens up trading spaces between cultures, which doubts the alleged national
homogeneity. The term diaspora does not take on a fundamental political value, as it does not only
mean transcendence and global movement but it also leads to a redefinition of what is local,
characteristic, and even native. Sometimes it happens that part of the dispersed community stays for a
period of time in a host country, and then, after a few years, resettle and settle in another. Not only that
diaspora is marked by a spatial relocation, but also by temporal unadl.

The various diasporic communities develop independently, as well as in relation to each other, following
different assimilation and integration processes depending on the host society. Alcoholism has a
tendency for osmotic relationships with the communities with which they interact and which contribute
to forge, tarnish to become absurd; others integrate by keeping a strong one

cultural autonomy (religious, for example, as in the case of Jews); others still remain discriminated and
marginalized (such as Gypsies for example).

We rebuild the fundamental stages of the African diaspora. After Europeans settled in the American
continent, as early as 1492, they realized that there was a need for manpower low cost, to maximize the
system of plantations that had repetitively installed them. That was how they started slave trade, which
was the beginning of what would become the modern capitalist world. For over three centuries a large
number of slave ships (slaveships) moved from the European coasts - predominantly from Portugal,
Spain, Holland, England and France - and, descending along the Atlantic, reached the coasts of West
Africa, from where, tired of Africans slaughtered in slavery, parted in the Americas by shedding their
booty. Imilions of men, women and children came from various regions of Africa. In order to avoid the
danger of possible mutilations, the merchants were reluctant to charge each ship with people of
different ethnic backgrounds so that it was impossible for them to communicate with each other that
they could make a point to the commander. The practices of oppression were perpetuated in the
plantations with the stigma, or fear of possible insurrections against the master. When new creatures
came to light, it was not uncommon for them to sell or otherwise move away from any parental pseudo-
guardianship because neither the newborns nor any other slave enjoyed any rights and were treated as
objects.

In fact, African is today one of the most investigated diasporic formations. He contributes to a
prominent role in so-called "race" studies.

The historical process of slavery, continued with colonialism in Africa, the decolonization and economic
and political collusion of the postcolonial world is responsible for mixing throughout the various secular
groups of people, languages, tales, religious visions, nature, time and of space, and created a diaspora
culture, united and yet composite, that maintains the memory of dispersion and identity and difference.

BEYOND THE "RACE": race and ethnicity in postcolonial studiesShaul BassiShaul Bassi emphasizes that
"race" and "ethnicity" are political categories that change in history and that

they define different phenomena in different cultures. The wise try to show how on the one hand there
is a need for a lexicon that helps us to conceptualize human difference, but on the other hand, the
categories of validity invisibled and compromised by their colonial history.

"But you have not seen me?" She asked accusingly. Actually she had not seen Victoria because she was
black.

Lessing illustrates a typical example of stereotypical stereotype thinking about human diversity deeply
embedded in our imagination: in the mind of Democrat Edward, "a little girl ebasta" can only be a
"white" girl. Over time, the ideal of "white" and European man has been built that has been made
equivalent to and synonymous with humanity, with the retrograde of others, less than the hypothesis to
less advanced specimens of the same species, and worst to inferior creatures can be bent for the
purpose of the "White". "Man is enough" is the European with his own, while others are "ethnic" types.
Postcolonial studies help us to uncover mechanisms such as these, asking us first of all to consider the
victim's point of view.

White being is not a simple physical datum, but a historical and political building formed in the timely,
often violent and repressive relationship between Europe and the other continents. Only in the
sixteenth century, Indeed, the European countries are beginning to define themselves as "white", and
the same attribute as "black" is not in itself a banal datocromatic, and has historically been used
extensively and always bent on question policy. In England or the USA, Italians and Jews have long been
considered "non-whites" by a Protestant and Anglo-Saxon majority demonstrating how the issue of
"race" or skin color is always interwoven with (pre) ethnic, religious or national.

Razziologie

The history of colonialism and imperialism would not be possible without human distinctions and
hierarchies which allowed colonizers to proclaim their superiority over colonists. The main category that
allowed this distinction is the "race", defined as "raziology"; the most devastating racism is "racism",
whose extreme philosophy is well synthesized by Albert Memmi:
there are pure races that are biologically superior to the others in psychological, social, cultural, and
spiritual superiority. These extraordinary superiority speaks and legitimize the dominance and privileges
of the groups

superior.

The "race" in sisntesi is not atural but cultural. The "race" to dirt with Michael Faucault is a "discredited"
of great circulation power, of great metamorphosis, of a sort of strategic polarity. The English word
"race" is different from the Spanish word "raza" which is different from the Italian "race", which is
different from the French word "race". If in the US the word race infects the color-coded color line that
historically divides white and black, in Spanish-speaking America "el dia de la raza" celebrates the
inconsistency and fusion between spangles and other populations.

The idea of "race" engages the roots of the inequality of European cultural traditions.

Classifications

The first great racial classifications come from the fathers of the Enlightenment. The idea of improving
the human race crosses the force of the genetic properties considered to be milky. But the "race" is an
arbitrary category, it is already revealed in the middle of 800 Charles Darwin who is caught by some to
be an inspiration for racism.

If today's common perception is associated with the breed in the color of the skin, in other ages other
isic factors, such as the shape of the skull or the shape of the hair, were equally discriminating factors.
The case-eyebrow is emblematic and central to European consciousness: during the Middle Ages and
the first modern Heebrean age, considered irreducibly different on a spiritual level, they are forced to
wear marks distinguishing themselves from their clothing, demonstrating that their physical appearance
does not make them so different from their neighbors Christians.

Racial categories are often the result of recent inventions and political choices, often linked to their own
colonial period.

This fear of being contaminated by other "races" remains a floating obsession in the political and daily
nostrils. Representations

Kipling condenses stereotypes about the racist ideology of colonialism. But the "race" can also be
elaborated allegories. Let's take a text like Kipling's "Jungle Book" in which there is a clash of British and
Indian stereotypes to justify their civilizing mission. Like the monkeys, the Indians were characterized as
unlawful.

Beyond the "race"

The "race" is not a person's property, but a speech and a policy. The election of Barack Obama, the
African-American prime minister of a country, the United States, where racial segregation existed until a
few decades ago, is a disruptive sign and has told someone who started a post-racial era. To deny the
existence of races means affirming a) that there are no net boned boundaries between these groups.B)
that there is no relationship of equivalence between physical characteristics and moral and intellectual
characteristics. C) that human diversity exists and needs to be analyzed with conceptual tools that does
not compromise colonial and genocidal policies.

The category of "ethnicity" has a "breed" relationship with a narrow nonfacient definition. An ethnic
group is a group that manifests six main characteristics: a proper name, a myth of origins that links the
group of common ancestors, a shared historical memory, one or more common cultural elements
(religion, language, traditions, etc.) homeland and a sense of solidarity shared by at least a partedel
group. The etymological dictionary defines "ethnic" what "it is of a race, of a people". In Italian cultural
terms this term is still predominantly associated with domestic environments (ethnic cleansing) or
conflict situations (policemen entica).

Ethnicity, therefore, seems to refer to a minority or other situation compared to a duna condition, which
is seen as a norm, and a primitive condition with respect to modernity. "Ethnicity" is a symbolic
construction by which a group produces a definition of the self and / or the opposite.

The British colonizers have redefined their identity as a function of their civilization mission to be
realized in Asia and Africa, so the populations subjected to a negative pattern of acute counter-forces
and forcing their elites to angry. The colonizers, for their part, in the impossibility of returning to the
countries or traditions from which they had been violently uprooted (ie a pre-colonial condition), made
a wonderful and terrible effort to reinvent new postcolonial identities by wiping them to the inferiority
comforter imposed by colonizers , allowed the recovery of traditional forms of life and culture, but
mixed them with other forms inherited by the co-existence. That is why the post-colonial era has
generated new languages, new myths, new memory memories, new names that could account for the
colonization cataclysm.

WHITE WOMEN LISTEN! THE LINE OF GENERATION IN POSTCOLONIAL STUDIES EllenLiliana Ellena
addresses the relationship between feminist theories and postcolonial theories. Inspire both of them by
the need

to give voice to marginalized groups. The postcolonial and the feminist theory seemed to have worked
side by side without knowing how to cross.

white woman listen!

To support that sexism does not presuppose only the position of victims for all women, and it does not
depend solely on the subject of male dominance, it also meant historical legacy of slavery and racism.
Western feminist criticism was the "Third World Woman" as an object of its own categories of analysis.
The question asked by the Nigerian sociologist IfiAmadiume "why do we care? Why do you want to
study African women? "It is the creation of a study and knowledge gap in which women from ex-colonial
and developing countries are called to portray the mark of historical retardation as opposed to Western
female emancipation.
From the margins to the center

Rey Chow questions the ways in which "sexuality and female sexuality are constantly inserted and
mutuated, between different contexts involving peoples of different races and cultures." Very important
is also the controversial debate on genital mutilation. Similarly, the link between job-laundering and
femalization of work breaks the traditional distinctions between productive work, work of care and
sexual work involving women, migrants and transsexuals.

Counter-geography of the European archives

Anthropologist Ann Laura Stoler has, for example, shown how non-existence on colonial sexually
transmitted sex metaphors has prevented the colony as the laws and prohibitions relating to sexuality
create the terrain on which the racial boundaries have been traced and produced in colony and in
metropolis. between the control of sexuality and racist practices also explains why the studies have
been dredging to solicit a new season in colonial studies.

The representation of the civilizing mission of suffragists in assisting colonial women, exile them from
patriarchal oppression, has played a crucial role in the struggle for the rights of the politics and in the
emergence of a female political subjectivity.

Gender and otherness in postcolonial Europe

Ann DuCille, asks "Why did we black women become subjects subjected to scientific research, peasants
under the glass of intellectual research of the '90s?" The language of feminism and the liberation of
women has been captured in the salvific discourse of the "subaltern woman" to build consensus around
the paradigm of civilization or the cultural incompatibility between Islam and Europe.

If postcolonial criticism has contributed to decentralizing the subject of theoretical and political
practices of feminism, the challenge remains to open the gap between gender and "race" in the
representation of "whiteness", without which the "migrant", "black women" "," Diasporic subjectivity
"risks lending to new forms of naturalization of differences such as variations of the "normabianca"
whose partiality and historicity remain invisible.

Postcolonial architectures: megacities and transnational spaces

Carmen Concilio

Carmen Concilio examines the relationship between spaces and colonization, starting from an
atoponomic consideration as a symbol of cultural export. The scholar continues by analyzing the various
urban structures and their consequences on social life.

Explorations and colonial space

One of the pretexts for colonization was the exercise of the right of possession of so-called land nullius.
Uninhabited space has always been the precondition for the colonization of new territories.

Colonial topography

The names assigned by the British colonizers to countries, cities, and roads in colonized territories are a
flag of significance whose meaning refers to the Eurocentric origins of colonial ideology of conquest;
often, in fact, the names assigned to colonized sites reproduce names of places in the motherland.
Settlers inglesitendendo to reproduce the motherland elsewhere, not only through the toponyms, but
by exporting to the English wordradition, language and culture.

Indigenous space

It is evident how the white man's baptism and land appropriation go hand in hand, erasing the mythical,
indigenous and linguistic pastat of the place.

Wilderness, Borders and Borders

The colonization of the territory also proceeds with the intent of tame the wilderness (wilderness) by
privatizing and parceling the space, drawing boundaries to delimit the properties. These borders
(border) soon reveal their precious nature, porous, as borderland negotiation sites.

This kind of landscape and nature murders, repressed in the space drifting away from daacons, is
opposed to the urban environment, the "white" city, a symbol of civilization, bastion and bourgeoisie of
European civilization.

The colonial city and the grid

As has been said, occupation of the territory continues with the attribution of a British toponym.
Squared legeometries and abhorrence of curved shapes / lines are typical aspects of the Eurocentric
architectural disadvantage. The classical binary opposition of many colonial and postcolonial literature
tracitt / campagna, culture / nature, light / darkness also includes the opposition of the grid to the curc
line, as is deduced from the first segregationist doctrines of South Africa at the time of apartheid.

Postcolonial cities and inurbation The over-development of the northern cities is intrinsically linked to
and largely responsible for the underdevelopment of the cities of the South of the world, now
monitored and controlled with interest but perhaps also with terror as emerging capitals of the
economy.

Before the British crossed the scene, India and China controlled half of the trade. When they left both of
these countries were completely impoverished, disenchanted, and we are about to see - 50 years ago
the colonialism that these countries are finally beginning to regain their role in the past. It took almost
60 years to begin to recover.

Postcolonial cities and slums

In addition to the exploration of curved shapes / lines in architecture and urban planning, one of the first
lessons in the slums of the South and East of the world is a sense of community based on the value of
solidarity.

"A chawl is a multi-story condo, built around a central courtyard, with small appliances looking inside
and sharing a common alcoho, and usually even a common bathroom, as neighbors share these spaces,
there is a way to meet often . Kids run in and out of the houses, doors are always open all day. An
interesting phenomenon occurs when delchawl residents, who achieve economic strength to allow them
to move to more modern condos, do not endure isolation and solitude. I have heard of some cases of
people coming back. In the city, human relationships are cold. "

Solidarity as the only system of survival in the ever-worse world of the 21st century is one of the
elements that inspires us to look to the future of postcoloniality.

megacities

The market strategies of the big shopping malls. Speaking of megatheth and housing, and here is the
slum, forms of interstitial and informal dwellings that are infiltrated, sometimes abusive of urban fabric.
These zoos are neither mapped nor mapped where new immigrants find themselves creative, but they
are deprived of existence. Mumbai is an exemplary and explosive case at the same time, as its reception
capacity has reached the limit, though the slums are not necessarily bidonvilles, squalid and degraded
peripheries, but rather villages organized in the middle of the city, causing absolute and serious shortage
infrastructure-electricity, running water, sewerage.

We will all benefit from helping the megalopolis inhabitants like Mumbai. The desperation of chivive in
city slums as this directly affects the economic outcomes of NewYork or Los Angeles populations.

Although the slums are not desirable or exportable patterns of disturbance in the West, there is a study
of a possible "creolized architecture".

Megacity and vertical challenges

The liveliness of artistic production proves that cities are places where individuals live, live, walk in their
"daily practice". The September 11th tragedy in addition to the cost viteumane has shown how
vulnerable the megacities are and how much the dream of verticality is deprecating, but haanche
reaffirmed the meaning of the "nation" in economic and geostrategic terms, thus bothering the post-
nationalist utopias of the immediately preceding years. Yet the towers, the skyscrapers, are technical
and futuristic. The skyscraper, however, has been found to be bankrupt

literature.

"Context / postcolonial actions": the dialogue with the canon and the rewrite of the classical grains

Maria Renata Dolce

Maria Renata Dolce exemplifies the relations between postcolonial literature and the English literary
canon, by analizing the various forms of re-reading and rewriting of the radition. The author furnishes
esemu how the kanon has been used in the past as a weapon of indoctrination and the role that English
literature has had in consolidating imperialist ideology, thus showing how the authors of former colonies
haggard for this improperly improper use

The role of literary canon in British colonial politics: schizophrenic imagination and cultural kings

English literature has played a central role in the spread and consolidation of the imperialist ideology,
and once translated into the outskirts of IMPERO, A SURROUNDED FUNCTION, TRADITIONALLY
RESERVED TO INSTITUTIONS WHICH THE CHURCH IS TO GUARANTEE THE EXISTENCE OF ECONOMY OF
THE PRINCIPLE REGULATION. Classics are celebrated as the absolute reference model. The subsequent
construction of the Other, inferior and different, on the one hand sedimented the dichotomy of the
center and its suburbs by consolidating the superiotity of the West as guardian of civilization and
culture, on the other led to colonized peoples the conviction of their own connaturatainferiorit,
favoring the supine acceptance of the system of power imposed by colonizers. A systemappartment that
is not limited to the control of the submissive people, but erases identity by depriving it of anarchy and
traditions through an emptying of the past that is distorted and disfigured:

Colonialism for a sort of pheasant logic, it is oriented towards the past of the oppressed people, and it
distorts, sfogues, undermines it.

The intellectual and writer Kenyota Ngugi Wa Thiong'o complains of the broken harmony of traditional
society, denouncing the alienation condition determined by a culture and culture that its people can not
recognize. While colonialism has been an imposing military, political and economic control, comments
Ngugi, "the most important area of domination was the mental universe of populated colonization,
control, culture, how peoples they perceived themselves and their relationships with the world. Political
and economic control can never be complete or effective without the control of the mind. " The
condition of what he termed "colonial alienation" is determined by the unadaptation of the sensitivity
already generated in the child who sees broken the profound bond between his natural and social
environment and the language that represents them.

This state of inner fragmentation is being investigated by the Zimbabwe Tsitsi Dngarembga advisor, who
in the Preliminary Condition denudes the effects of colonial weight education on adolescents.

The dialogue with the canon: modes and forms of writing back

The goal is to reappear the interpretation of the past and to claim an autonomous, albeit hybridized,
identity, claiming a space of action and contemplating alternative views of the world. Therefore, writing
back is a targeted decolonization strategy of the trappressor and oppressed relationship, the reality of
the other forged and conditioned by stereotyped and phytozeous visions of the present, the traces still
visible in the present, a present marked by forms of cultural and ideological neocolonization in spite of
the alleged "postcoloniality".
The reinterpretation and revision of the classics therefore promotes the critical questioning of the
dominant discourse through its contextualization revealing the dynamics of oppressive activation of the
dalsistemacolonial which have found expression and instrument of conveying in the classics of western
canon. The process of rewriting involves, first of all, the dismantling of the universe of literary textuality,
the mastery of the literary culture of the West. Crossing his criticism of re-reading, utterly obscure the
underlying ideologies, the assumptions preconceived and spoiled by an Orientalist vision; it has been
brought back to the context, cracking the abstract concept of literacy that has allowed us to immortalize
the devotees and the consecrated ideas in its pages, thus making canon the stronghold of dominant
culture, guaranteeing its stability and the perpetual indisputable of its axioms.

The rewriting of classics questions the rigidity of any good opposing logic and advances a critical mode
of dialogue and openness. Such dialectics challenges the closure and rigidity of the western canon to
encourage the abolition of cultural and idiosyncratic barriers and to propose a model of collaboration,
exchange, and mutual respect between cultural universes in constant becoming. It is precisely in the
dialectical context enella propensity to the dialogue that postcolonial literary production finds a
common ground of growth and definition.

"Translating to the other shore": the journey through postcolonial literature

Viktoria Tchernichova

Vikotira reflects on the translation of the postcolonial texts and on some basic concepts that a translator
must be aware of before starting his own journey towards the alterity of the text. The essay addresses
the interpretative literature of the postcolonial text, its linguistic hybridism, the responsibility of
translating the translator, and its delicate task of mediating between the author, the work and the
reader.

Introduction

Translation is one of the most difficult disciplines to define. The essence of the essay is to reflect on
some conceptual bases which a postcolonial literature translator must be aware of before embarking on
his or her own side of the other text. A good start could be to overcome a somewhat subtle common
lion and loosen some of the opposing attitude. In the first case you have to do with the so-called
"langiageof loss", the language of the loss that accompanies the comments on the translation. Many
students undergo their studies under the "threats" that the text of arrival will undoubtedly be inferior
and debiled to the original.

Often in the translating process there is an inverse pricing, far from losing, which exacerbates something
in the translation. An extraordinary and fascinating example of this process is the "pollinated and
enriched language" of English literature. Translation is synonymous with transport, "transporting the
ego to another plane and in another language" and "transculturation". The task of translation today is to
invent "a language of language from one language to another, a common language, but in quaches
unpredictable in relation to each one of them."
In the essays dedicated to the translation of postcolonial texts, attention is drawn to the relationship
between translating power structures, translation and creation of stereotypes, translation and genre,
translation and subtree (Spivak). In many essays on the subject often comes a reflection on the inability,
or at least the great difficulty of the Western reader to "correctly" comprehend texts from others

latitudes without taming them-imposing their own categories and values, and without falling into the
trap of the imperative of cultural imperialism and its universalizing principles.

Text analysis

Critical reading of a text presupposes far more than the mastery of the starting language. The reading
and translacing of the postcolonial text require not only "documentary requirements of many
speculations, of nature and politics", but also a long process of interdisciplinary reflection and
acculturation that allows to undertake some of the questions of equivalence and fosters research into
the factors involved in the theatrasposition of text from one culture to another.

Translation forces you to choose, to declare with full honesty the image that you have made of the past.
to be interested in the life of the ship and the circumstances that have influenced the composition of
the attempt to reconstruct precisely its intention, is undoubtedly useful. The poetic conception of the
author can address us in the interpretation of the text.

Analling the structure of the inner structure of the work, identifying the keywords, the dominant topics,
the main semantic areas, are just some of the refinements that help the reader to go through a text of
his internal ribs and not according to data imported from the outside. Although we possessed its own
proprietary properties, the text is updated, that is, it is invested with specific content in different ways
to second particular relevance criteria adopted by each interpreter. As Umberto Eco argues, a text is
incomplete without the intervention of a reader who, with his interpretive activity, fills in meaning the
"spazibianchi" of which the text is necessarily woven.

It is true that each reader approaches the work with a repertoire of social, historical and ecological
standards, such as the necessary reading baggage. And it is true when a text passes from a context
cultural-historical to another, new meanings are given to him, not foreseen by either the author or the
first readers. However, an interpretative act will imply a fusion of the horizons of the reader's work, an
intersection between the reader's repertoire and the repertoire of the text. Such fusion and intersection
must not imply an imperialist appropriation of the text and a distortion of its content.

A good starting point for reflection on what hermeneutic attitude assumes in front of untree that
belongs to another latitude could be the concept of interpetitive cooperation between the body and the
reader, a concept that combines intentio operis and intentio lectoris .

A translation devoted to a particular attention to the rhythm, peculiarity and systematism, its polysemy,
its syntactic, vocal and phonetic fabric is undoubtedly a good antifoto against deforming descriptors that
in the past characterized the western translation of the translation: processes such as rationalizing,
explicating, embracing, exoticizing the eementim are just a few text decipherments that distort the
original and present to the public the adjusted works and "modify their oddities."

The linguistic hybridism of the postcolonial text

The works produced by authors from the former British colonies capture, mix, and console not only
many languages, codes and traditions, but also a series of apparently oxymorphic processes.

As far as linguistic expression is concerned, many authors chose to write in the European language in
their countries following colonization and then become an official language or a free language. The
Englishman immediately underwent profound metamorphosis and gave rise to numerous variants,
dialects, pidgins and creoles. Testimonials from the postcolonial world are always linguistically
contaminated, they have aspects of diplurilingualism, bilingualism and diglossia. The new languages
emerging from these extraordinary hybridization processes become both the medium and the message
of the narrative: "what is transmitted to the wise choice is another culture, an entire opposite of the
references that postcolonial literature invites us to discover." This plurality within the text, its various
linguistic realities lead us to recognize the importance of translation and also lead the most Eurocentric
reader to renounce a visionary-peopled of dominant cultures and languages of greater or lesser
prestige. In postcolonial texts, "crinalid't eternity" can be perceived, for example, in the insertion of
untranslated words or translittered limbs, by resorting to strategies such as glossa (obi [hut]), code-
mixing or code-switching, in 'use figure figures directed to a different cultural imagery.

The postcolonial translator, once acquired the specific cultural preparation, must be able to seize the
existing tension and integration in the original between the koin and the vernacular, between the
unusual language and the underlying language.

In the language and culture of arrival, there are often no equivalent words. Attention will not be
focussed mainly on the search for equivalent terms. Antoine Berman argues that, "in front of a
multiplicity of words seeks matching in his own language, the translator will find more choice" ranging
from the use of neologism, loans, neologie, to resort to strategies such as "compensation, offsetting,
until the term of the term is translated. The translator must have a relationship with the text that does
not run out in a binary relationship but is rather unmatched by the cultural, linguistic and literary
experiences of the present.

The "foreign test" and the appraisal of one's own

The translator, in translating postcolonial texts, must make an effort to decentralize, obliging the illiter
to "go out of himself, to perceive the foreign author in his being of a foreigner." On the other hand, the
translator must have an attentive and endearing ear, a particular readiness to listen to his space
linguistics, to explore the "non-standard language zones" that allow to maximize the ethology, to convey
neologism, to lengthen the sense of the words with foreign exceptions, and increase, sensationalism,
the elasticity of language.