Cellular Reproduction

All living things are composed of cells. The growth, development, and survival of all
organisms depend on their ability to produce new cells. Cell division is a process by which a
cell, called the parent cell, divides into two cells, called daughter cells. The production of
new cells is also important in human health: one of our major diseases, Cancer, is
essentially a disease of excess cell number.

When it was first realized in the early 19th century that cells make up all living things,
prominent scientists argued that new cells were assembled in the intercellular fluid or inside
other cells. By the 1850s, however, it became clear that all new cells arise by the
duplication and division of pre-existing cells. Thus, all cells in existence today are derived by
division from some ancestral cell that divided billions of years ago.

Cell reproduction depends on two processes: (1) duplication of the cells components, and
(2) distribution of those components into two daughter cells. The primary concern of cell
division is the maintenance of the original cell's genome. Before division can occur, the
genomic information which is stored in chromosomes must be replicated, and the duplicated
genome separated precisely between cells. It is particularly important that each daughter is
genetically identical. A great deal of cellular infrastructure is involved in keeping genomic
information consistent between "generations".

The process of DNA replication the way all of the DNA code of the mother cell duplicates
and one copy goes into each daughter cell is the most important aspect of cell division.
Other cell organelles also divide and split into two daughter cells. Once the process of DNA
replication is over, the new portion of the cell membrane gets built transecting the cell and
dividing all the genetic material into two cellular compartments, leading the cell to split into
two cells.

Cell division is usually a small segment of a larger cell cycle. In meiosis however, a cell is
permanently transformed and cannot divide again. For simple unicellular organisms such as
the Amoeba, one cell division reproduces an entire organism. On a larger scale, cell division
can create progeny from multicellular organisms, such as plants that grow from cuttings.
Cell division also enables sexually reproducing organisms to develop from the one-celled
zygote, which itself was produced by cell division from gametes. And after growth, cell
division allows for continual renewal and repair of the organism.
Cells are classified into two categories: simple, non-nucleated prokaryotic cells, and
complex, nucleated eukaryotic cells. By dint of their structural differences, eukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells do not divide in the same way. Furthermore, the pattern of cell division
that transforms eukaryotic stem cells into gametes (sperm in males or ova in females) is
different from that of eukaryotic somatic (non-germ) cells.

Some Basic Definitions:

In order to better understand the concept of cell division and genetics, some basic
definitions are in order:

Gene - basic unit of heredity; codes for a specific trait

Locus - the specific location of a gene on a chromosome (locus - plural loci)
Genome - the total hereditary endowment of DNA of a cell or organism
Somatic cell - all body cells except reproductive cells
Gamete - reproductive cells (i.e. sperm & eggs)
Chromosome - elongate cellular structure composed of DNA and protein - they are
the vehicles which carry DNA in cells
Diploid (2n) - cellular condition where each chromosome type is represented by
two homologous chromosomes
Haploid (n) - cellular condition where each chromosome type is represented by only
one chromosome

Homologous chromosome - chromosome of the same size and shape which carry
the same type of genes
Chromatid - one of two duplicated chromosomes connected at the centromere
Centromere - region of chromosome where microtubules attach during mitosis and
meiosis
Chromosome Structure:

Chromosome is composed of DNA and protein (histones) all tightly wrapped up in one
package. Duplicated chromosomes are connected by a Centromere.

Karyotype:
A karyotype is an organized profile of a person's chromosomes. One regular human cell has
46 chromosomes: 44 autosomes, which come in pairs, and 2 sex chromosomes, which
specify gender (XX and XY).

The pairs of autosomes are called "homologous chromosomes." One of each pair came from
mom and the other came from dad. Homologous chromosomes have all of the same genes
arranged in the same order, but with slight differences in the DNA sequences of the genes.

Two chromosomes specify gender XX for female and XY for male. The rest are arranged
in pairs, numbered 1 through 22, from largest to smallest.

To make a karyotype, scientists take a picture of the chromosome from one cell, cut them
out, and arrange them using size, banding pattern, and centromere position as guides. The
chromosomes are visualized using Giemsa Stain. This arrangement of Karyotype helps
scientists to quickly identify chromosomal alterations that may result in a genetic disorder.
Will the baby be a Boy or Girl?

A newly fertilized egg usually has 46 chromosomes, arranged in 23 pairs. One pair of these
chromosomes decides whether the embryo will grow into a boy or a girl: the sex
chromosomes, X and Y named after their shapes.

At conception, gender is determined by chromosome characteristics - and it will be the male

(or rather the male's sperm) that dictates whether the baby will be a boy or a girl.

Prior to conception, the unfertilized egg carries an X chromosome while the sperm can carry
either an X or a Y chromosome. The gender of the baby comes down to one simple event:

If the sperm carrying an X chromosome fertilizes the egg, a girl will be conceived.
If the sperm carrying a Y chromosome fertilizes the egg, a boy will be conceived.
Types of Reproduction

Reproduction is the process whereby all living organisms produce offspring. There are basically two
types of reproduction: sexual and asexual reproduction.

Sexual Reproduction
In sexual reproduction, two special sex cells unite. These reproductive cells are called gametes. In some
species, the gametes are alike. However, in many species the two gametes are different. In this case,
one is called a male gamete, or sperm. The other is called a female gamete, or egg. Usually a male
parent reproduces the sperm and female parent produces the egg. However, some species can produce
both sperm and egg in one individual. Such individuals are called hermaphrodites. The earthworm is a
hermaphrodite as are many species of snails. Most flowering plants are also hermaphrodite. They
produce male and female gametes in each flower.

When a male gamete unites with a female gamete, a cell results that is called a zygote. The process by
which gametes unite is called fertilization.

Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction is the formation of a new individual from cells of the parent, without the union of
gametes (sex cells, sperm and egg), meiosis, gamete formation, or fertilization. The offspring of
organisms that reproduce asexually are genetically identical to their parents and to each other. Without
sexual reproduction, the species cannot benefit from the variability introduced by mixing genes.
Therefore, evolutionary adaptation to changing environmental conditions may proceed slowly.

There are several types of asexual reproduction.

1. Binary Fission: Binary fission is the simplest form and involves the division of a single organism
into two complete organisms, each identical to the other and to the parent. Fission is common
among unicellular organisms such as bacteria, many protists, some algae such as Spirogyra and
Euglena, as well as a few higher organisms such as flatworms and certain species of polychaete
worms.

2. Regeneration: A similar form of asexual reproduction is regeneration, in which an entire

organism may be generated from a part of its parent. The term regeneration normally refers to
re-growth of missing, or damaged body parts in higher organisms, but whole body regeneration
occurs in Hydra, starfish, and many plants.

3. Asexual Spore: Spores are another form of asexual reproduction and are common among
bacteria, protists, and fungi. Spores are DNA-containing capsules capable of sprouting into new
organisms; unlike most seeds, spores are produced without sexual union of gametes, that is,
reproductive cells.

4. Budding: Budding is another method of asexual reproduction in which a group of self-supportive

cells sprouts from and then detaches from the parent organism. Unlike eggs or spores, buds are
multicellular and usually contain more than one cell layer. Hydra and sea squirts reproduce by
budding.
 5. Vegetative Reproduction: Vegetative reproduction is common among plants and consists of
certain parts that grow out from a main parent plant and eventually root and sprout to form
new, independent plants. Examples are the runners of strawberries, the tubers of potatoes, and
the bulbs of onions.

6. Parthenogenesis: Parthenogenesis is an important means of asexual reproduction in which new

individuals are formed from unfertilized eggs. It occurs in some insects, amphibians, reptiles,
and birds and in some species of plants.

Review Questions

1. Define the terms: homologous chromosomes, diploid cells, haploid cells, crossing over,
centromere, chromatids.
2. Distinguish between sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction.
3. Describe different types of asexual reproduction.
4. Define the following terms: gametes, zygote and fertilization.

Cell Division in Prokaryotes

Binary Fission
Prokaryotes, such as bacteria, propagate by binary fission. Asexual reproduction in
unicellular organisms in which a single cell divides to form a two new cells is called Binary
Fission. It is like mitosis.
Figure: Binary Fission in bacteria

The environment that bacteria live in is very harsh and there is a tough competition for
survival. There is a limited amount of food and predators lurking everywhere. So for the
species to survive, it should have an effective and fast way to reproduce.Binary Fission" is
the answer for bacteria in this case.

Benefits of Binary Fission

1- Only one parent is needed to reproduce.

2- Rapid division eg. Escherichia coli can divide every 20 minutes.

3- Daughter cells are clones of their parent cells.

4- A lot of daughter cells are produced in a limited time.

Chromosome, Cell Division: Mitosis
Chromosome
Chromosome, microscopic structure within cells, carries deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule, the
hereditary material that influences the development and characteristics of each organism.

Chromosome Number and Structure

Following facts about chromosomes are needed to know for better understanding of mitosis, and
meiosis.

1. Every body cell in an organism has the same number of chromosomes (chromosome number).

2. The body cells of all normal individuals of the same species have the same chromosome number.
A normal human cell has 46 chromosomes, a crayfish 200, a fruit fly 8, and a garden pea 14.

3. The chromosomes in each body cell normally occur in pairs. The chromosomes in a homologous
pair are similar in structure and in the arrangement of genetic information they carry. Such a
pair of chromosomes is called a homologous pair. Thus the 46 chromosomes in a human cell
make up 23 homologous pairs. The genetic information of the chromosomes is located at
specific points or position called genes. The number of chromosomes in a complete set of
homologous chromosomes is called the diploid number. This number is represented by 2n. Thus
the diploid number (2n) for human is 46. Every body cell that we have contains the diploid
number of chromosomes. That is 2n = 46. This diploid number is arranged in 23 homologous
pairs.

4. A gamete contains one homologue from each homologous pair of chromosomes. In other
words, it has half the diploid number of chromosomes. The number is called the haploid
number. It is represented by n. The haploid number for humans is 23. That is, n = 23. A human
sperm (male gamete) contains 23 chromosomes (one of each homologous pair). A human egg
(female gamete) also contains 23 chromosomes (one of each homologous pair). During
fertilization, the sperm and egg unite to form zygote. The zygote will have 46 chromosomes, in
23 homologous pairs. Thus fertilization has restored the diploid number of chromosomes. All
our body cells came from that zygote by mitosis. Therefore, all our body cells also have diploid
number of chromosomes, which is 46. Some diploid (2n) body cells in our reproductive organs
produce haploid (n) gametes by meiosis.

Cell Division
Reproduction is important for the existence of species. All organisms existing today are present because
their ancestors have reproduced. These ancestors can be traced backwards in geological time to the
origin of life about 3.8 billion years ago. Some of the organisms that existed at that time reproduced,
then their offspring reproduced, and so on through evolution till the present day.
The cell theory consisted of three points:

1. Cells are the structural units of all living things.

2. Cells are the functional units of all living things.
3. All cells come from living cells.

All new cells come from previously existing cells. New cells are formed by the process of cell division,
which involves both replication of the cell's nucleus (karyokinesis) and division of the cytoplasm
(cytokinesis).

There are two types of nuclear division: mitosis and meiosis.

Mitosis
Mitosis typically results in new somatic (body) cells. Formation of an adult organism from a fertilized
egg, asexual reproduction, regeneration, and maintenance or repair of body parts is accomplished
through mitotic cell division.

Importance of Mitosis
The goal of mitosis is to produce two identical daughter cells from one cell. In sexually reproducing
multicellular organisms, mitosis is often concerned with increasing cell numbers, for example:

a unicellular zygote divides to produce the billions of cells necessary to form an adult
multicellular organism
skin cells divide to replace tissue lost due to injury or wear (repair).

Mitosis ensures genetic continuity. That is, it ensures that the daughter cells carry the same genetic
information as the mother cell.

It does this by making sure that each daughter cell has the same number and kind of chromosomes as
the mother cell. Every cell in an organism has the same number of chromosomes. In fact, the body cells
of all normal individuals of the same species have the same number of chromosomes. For example, all
normal human cells have 46 chromosomes, and all onion plant cells have 16.

Stages of Mitosis

The process of mitosis is divided into 6 stages.

1. The Interphase,
2. Prophase,
3. Metaphase,
4. Anaphase,
5. Telophase, and
6. Cytokinasis.

At Interphase, there is only one cell, but after cytokinasis there are two identical cells. Before mitosis
can take place, the cell needs to store enough energy to drive the chemical processes during the cell
division. During this period of time, there is intense cellular activity. The cell grows in size. The length of
the growth phase varies between a few hours to a few months. When the cell has stored enough
energy, it is ready to divide itself.
The following pictures show a series of steps of how chromosomes divide. Note that for simplicity, only
a few chromosomes are drawn.

1. Interphase

DNA has replicated, but has not formed the condensed structure of chromosome. They
remain as loosely coiled chromatin.
The nuclear membrane is still intact to protect the DNA molecules from undergoing mutation.

2. Prophase

The DNA molecules progressively shorten and condense by coiling, to form chromosomes.
The nuclear membrane and nucleolus are no longer visible.
The Centrosomes has migrated to opposite poles of the cell.

3. Metaphase

The spindle fibers attach themselves to the centromeres of the chromosomes and align the
chromosomes at the equatorial plate.
4. Anaphase

The spindle fibers shorten and the centromere splits, separated sister chromatids are pulled along
behind the centromeres.

5. Telophase

The chromosomes reach the poles of their respective spindles. Nuclear envelope reform
before the chromosomes uncoils. The spindle fibers disintegrate.

6. Cytokinasis

This is the last stage of mitosis. It is the process of splitting the daughter cells apart. A furrow forms
and the cell is pinched in two. Each daughter cell contains the same number and same quality of
chromosomes.

Review Questions:
1. Define mitosis. What the stages of mitosis?
2. Describe the importance of mitosis.
3. What is a chromosome?
4. What is meant by chromosome number?
5. What are homologues? What is the origin of each homologue of a homologous pair?
6. Distinguish between the diploid and the haploid number of chromosomes.
7. Why must gametes contain only the haploid number of chromosomes?
Meiosis
Meiosis: Importance of meiosis, Stages of meiosis.

Meiosis
The process of meiosis takes place only in the cells, which will form either the sperm or egg. Meiosis
results in the formation of either gametes (in animals) or spores (in plants). These cells have half the
chromosome number of the parent cell.

Importance of Meiosis
The goal of meiosis is to produce four cells with half the original genetic information of the mother cell.
Each daughter cell must end up with a complete set of genes, but only half the number of copies found
in the original cell. Meiosis involves two divisions and only the first division results in a reduction (by 1/2)
of the homologous chromosomes. No two chromosomes of a homologous pair segregate together.

We began life when a sperm cell from our father united with an egg cell from our mother. A cell called a
zygote was formed by this union. If the sperm and egg each had 46 chromosomes, the zygote would
have 92. You developed from the zygote by mitosis. Therefore, every cell in your body would have 92
chromosomes. But this is not so. If it were, you would not be a human. Clearly something has happened
along the way to reduce the number of chromosomes from possible 92 to 46.

A process called meiosis ensures that the chromosomes number stays constant from generation to
generation. Also, meiosis contributes to genetic variation of the offspring.

Stages of Meiosis
Meiosis comprises two successive nuclear divisions with only one round of DNA replication. That is, two
cell divisions occur to produce four daughter cells. This results in each daughter cell, or gamete,
receiving the haploid number of chromosomes (half the number of the mother cell). Four stages can be
described for each nuclear division.

First Division of Meiosis (Chromosomal Reduction Division)

1. Prophase 1
2. Metaphase 1
3. Anaphase 1
4. Telophase 1

Second Division of Meiosis: Gamete Formation

1. Prophase 2
2. Metaphase 2
3. Anaphase 2
4. Telophase 2

One parent cell produces four daughter cells. Daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes
found in the original parent cell and with crossing over, are genetically different.
Differences Between Mitosis and Meiosis

Summary of Mitosis and Meiosis

Meiosis ensures genetic continuity by reducing the chromosome number of male and female gametes
to the haploid number (gamete formation). Then, when these gametes unite to form a zygote during
fertilization, the diploid number is restored. The zygote develops through mitosis and cell division into
an organism with body cells that have the diploid number of chromosomes (development).