4/12/2017 Mining

Home TheElements TheProblem TheSolution AboutUs ContactUs WorksCited

Mining
TheSolution>>Mining
TheSolution ImprovingTechnology

Mining Mining Recycling

Locationsof InternationalRegulation
Deposits Iscurrentminingyieldsustainable?
ImprovingAwareness
OpeningNew Mining is the extraction of minerals and elements of economic interest from the earth's
Mines surface. As the demandSpecializedSolutions
for natural resources increases, the amount of material in mineral
deposits decreases. An increase in price of these materials allows companies to continue to
MiningOceans
profit from mining deposits with lower ore grades. Mining and subsequent processing of
MiningAsteroids strategic elements can be harmful to the environment. As lower ore grades start to be
mined, we must be more and more conscious of waste and habitat destruction in order to
minimize the environmental footprint of such decisions. To increase mining yield and
Improving
decreasepotentialenvironmentalconsequences,weareproposingseveralmethodsandtools
Technology accordingtowhichnewminesshouldbasetheiroperations.
GreenMining
To fully understand how strategic resources make it from ore to a useable form, it is
GreenRefining
necessarytolookattheminingandpurificationprocesses.Theoverallprocesscanbebroken
Alternative intofourmajorsteps:
Technologies

Recycling
MiningLandfills
1.FindingaDeposit
Stockpiling
FutureProspects When a mining company is interested in opening a new mine, they begin with one of two
steps. If the company already knows the ore content of a region (see location of deposits
page),theywillbeginsamplingandconductingfeasibilitystudies.However,iftheyhaveno
International prior knowledge of a potential deposit, they will begin mineral exploration. Currently,
Regulation companies such as UCore Rare Metals Inc. and other junior research companies, which are
Trade companies that search for new deposits in properties that are believed to have significant
potential, are searching for new locations of deposits of strategic elements (UCore, 2012).
Regulation
Once discovered, these locations can be further analyzed for the feasibility of developing a
WorkerSafety mine. Not all of these companies will succeed in finding profitable deposits, but their
Protocol exploration research ultimately contributes to global reserve estimates. Reserve estimates
determinewhereminescanbesetup(seelocationsofdepositspage)anddiscoveryofnew
deposits can increase the number of reserves. Often, exploration companies will employ a
ImprovingAwareness variety of techniques known as "greenfield exploration" in a preliminary survey of the land
Information (Hatch,2012).Thesemethodsinclude:
Exchange
DetectingRadiationGeigercountersdetectradioactivitysuchasgammarays,xrays,
Transparent andalphaandbetaradiationfromsourceslikebastnaesiteanduranium.
SupplyChain Measuring Magnetism Magnetometers detect irregularities in the Earth's magnetic
Recycling field,indicatingamagneticmineraldeposit.
Variations in magnetic field exploration geologists use gravimeters to measure the
Awareness
densityofsegmentsofthecrustwhichvarybasedontheuniquedensitiesofdifferent
minerals. The structure and composition of rocks underneath the surface can thus be
SpecializedSolutions determined.
SatellitePhotographyPhotostakenfromabovecanshowcharacteristicsindicativeof
PlatinumGroup
certaindeposits.Thesesatellitescanevencreateelementalmaps.
FissileElements Geologicmappinggeologistsperformfieldsurveysandlookatrocksamplesinorder
Phosphorus todeterminethelocationandstructureofrockdeposits

Once a location shows evidence for an economic deposit, samples are drilled and sent for
geochemical analysis. At this time, the exact mineral composition of the samples and ore
grade is determined. Economic feasibility of the mine depends on weighing the cost of
extractingandrefiningtheoretohowmuchoftheoreiscomposedofthevaluableelement.

2.EstablishingaMine

http://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2016/finalwebsite/solutions/mining.html 1/5
4/12/2017 Mining
After locating a deposit, additional testing must be done to prove it can be profitable. This
testingbeginswithdrillingalongawidelyspacedgridthatprogressivelynarrowsinspacing
topreciselydeterminethelocation'ssuitabilityformining.Thetypeofmineralbeingmined
and surrounding environmental conditions are taken into account when determining the
machinery, ventilation systems, disposal systems, power supply, and water supply of the
facilities. Permits for the proposed mine are obtained through the local government. These
permitswillonlybeissuedifenvironmentalstandardsandsafetystandardshavebeenmet
in the mining plans, and can take from 110 years to obtain, depending on the country
("CriticalMaterialsStrategy",2012).Constructionandoperationcanthenbegin.

Mine setup costs include expenses from everything from feasibility studies to constructing
facilities: a mine similar to Mountain Pass or Mt. Weld costs ~$500 million to set up
(Molycorp,n.d.).Formoredetailedcostsandprojectionsbasedonsupplyanddemand,see
theopeningnewminespage.

3.Mining

Thefollowingminingtechniquesarestandardformanymineralsandelementsthetypeof
depositdictateswhichtechniqueisemployed:

OpenPit Mining: Ores closer to the surface are accessed by creating an open pit and
then excavating the ore below for further processing. In most cases, a significant
amountofoverburden,whichisalayerofrockorsoilthatcoversthedeposit,mustbe
removed.
UndergroundMining:Oresinburiedbedrockdepositsareusuallyaccessedthroughthe
constructionofaccessshaftsandtunnels.Theyprovideforlesswasterockremovaland
they offer less environmental impact than openpit mining because these deposits
typicallyhavemuchhigheroregrades.
InSitu Leach (ISL) Mining: Some ore bodies, due to ore concentration or the
surrounding material, can only be accessed by dissolving the ore body using water
soluble acids or alkalis and then pumping out the solution. The ore body is then
recovered as a precipitate. This method is common when extracting minerals near
aquifers.Itisalsousediforesarenotlocallyconcentratedbutspreadoverawidearea.
In certain circumstances, the environmental impact may be low compared to other
miningmethods,althoughRangerMineinAustraliaisanexception.
Heap Leaching: Very lowgrade ore is treated by heap leaching. In this process, the
oreisstackeduponanimpermeablepadandirrigatedwithacidoranalkalinesolution
overseveralweeks.Thesolutionisthencollectedandtreatedusingionicexchangeto
recover the metal, similar to the ISL process. The tailings are toxic and require safe
storage("UraniumMining",2012).
Brine mining: Brines are saline waters with high concentrations of dissolved salts.
Brines,whicharebyproductsofgeothermaloroilwells,canbeextractedandpumped
into evaporation ponds to be evaporated under controlled conditions to eliminate
deleterious elements and compounds. The remaining precipitate is then processed for
elementremoval(Gruber,Medina,Keoleian,Kesler,Everson&Wallington,2011).

Mining is commonly associated with a variety of environmental problems including water

pollution, radioactive tailings, erosion, sinkholes, biodiversity loss, and soil contamination
(see environmental problems page). Additionally, groundwater and surface water can be
contaminated by chemicals from processing and/or leakage. Some of the most severe
environmentaldamageresultsfromillegalmining,includingthatofChineseorganizedcrime.
TheChinesegovernmenthasworkedtoaddresstheseproblemsthroughstricterregulations,
limiting production, and by consolidating the industry (see mining problems page) ("Rare
earths",2012).

Mine workers are potentially subject to dangerous conditions, including exposure to

hazardousgases,radioactivityexposure,lossofpower(inparticularinundergroundmines),
collapsing tunnels, dust inhalation and toxic runoff (see Human Rights Violations page).
Many of these dangers involve carcinogens that can be fatal if a significant amount
accumulates in the body. Poor conditions such as these pose issues for neighboring
communitiesaswellifregulationsarenotstrictlyenforced.

Here is an interactive map of the locations of the current major rare earth mines, which
Mission2016focusedmostondevelopingnewminesfor(seetheopeningnewminespage).

http://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2016/finalwebsite/solutions/mining.html 2/5
4/12/2017 Mining

Clickoneachlocationforfurtherinformation.Note,otherminesnotincludedinthemapmay
produce REEs but they often produce other elements in greater quantities and REE
productioncanbesmallincomparison.

4.Refinement

The purification of extracted ores requires a variety of techniques unique to each ore. New
processes for refinement of rare earth elements (REEs) in particular are still under
experimentation by many organizations, such as Molycorp for example. Often, a great
quantityofrareearthoreiswastedduetononideal,underresearchedmethodsofrefining.
Mitigatingthecurrentinefficienciesinthisextensiveprocesscanlowerthewasteofenergy,
timeandmaterials.

Themostcommonmethodofextractingandseparatingrareearthelementsfromminedrock
is the solvent exchange method. This process consists of at least eight steps, the first of
whichiscrushingtheoreintosmallerfragments,andthenintoveryfineparticles.Thisfine
powder is then put through a series of processes aimed at separating it based on density,
shape,magnetismandchemicalproperties.Varyingstepsareusedtoseparatetheresulting
material into individual elements ("Density separation and shape separation", n.d.). Major
issues with the refinement of REEs include the amount of energy required to perform this
process ("Rare Earth Processing 101", 2011) and disposal of radioactive byproducts such as
uraniumandthorium(Long,VanGosen,Foley&Cordier,n.d.).

Refining other strategic metals is often less complicated than refining REEs. Processes to
refine uranium, platinum, lithium, phosphorus and other strategic elements are becoming
more efficient over time. Purification of mined platinum, phosphorus and uranium involve
similar techniques: the rock is crushed into small particles, which are then subjected to
varying solutions to sort out extraneous elements by solubility (Long, n.d.) ("Most
sophisticated industrial inorganic chemistry", n.d.). Purification of lithium from pegmatite
oresisconductedbycrushingandfloatingfollowedbyacidleaching(Gruber,2011).Global
ownership issues concerning platinumgroup elements (PGE), lithium, phosphorus and
radioactivemineralsresultprimarilyfromlackofdistributionafterrefinement/productionand
not a lack of production efficiency. Since the most common methods of refining REEs are
largely inefficient, complex, and costly, improving these processes is vital to increasing the
globalsupplyofREEsandwillbeaddressed(seeRefiningPage).

Otherconcernsthatmustbetakenintoaccountbeforeestablishingamineinclude:

MarketingPlan

http://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2016/finalwebsite/solutions/mining.html 3/5
4/12/2017 Mining
In order to maximize profit, a mining company should have a marketing plan. The current
problem with these strategic minerals is that the market is volatile because the producers
(miningandrefiningcompanies)areoftennotwellconnectedtothesuppliersandprocessors
(companies that make the final products). Therefore, we propose that a company should
haveanideaoftheirconsumerbasebeforeminingoccurs.Then,thecompaniescanperform
boutique mining a customization of mining and refinement to fit the needs of customers.
Most established mining companies have longstanding customer contracts already set up,
withcontinuingcustomeroutreachconductedbythesalesrepresentativesoftherespective
miningcompany.

PublicSupport

Mining companies that want to open a mine or refinery are often faced with resistance and
lackofsupportfromthelocalcommunity.Ourplanrequiresthatminingcompaniesneedto
ensurethattheyminimizelocalenvironmentalimpactsandpublicizehowtheirpresencewill
benefitlocalcommunitiesthroughprovidinganinfusionofjobsandcapital("Environmental
andSocialAspectsofMining").Anotherfactorthatmustbeconsiderediswhetherthelocal
communitycansupporttheroadsandutilitiesneededbeforesettingupamine.Iftheyare
notalreadyinplace,thecostofaddingthemwillincreasethecapitalcostofthemine.Hiring
local workers is also beneficial for the company in terms of establishing rapport from
community,savingtimeandmoney,andgaininglocalexpertise(Kirkwood,2011).

EnvironmentalApproval

By its very nature, mining is an environmentally disruptive process. Currently, much

research is focused on improving techniques to reduce the environmental impact (see the
green mining page). National governments, the Mining Safety and Health Administration
(seeminingregulations page), or our international regulatory subcommittee of the UN will
set aside a budget for investigation of mitigating the most toxic effects of mining (for
example, radioactive tailing and flue dust). While there currently investigations into new,
greener methods of mining, there has yet to be any particularly groundbreaking research
that is publicly acknowledged and budgeted for. While these environmental safety
procedures are projected to take a minimal amount of time and funding in the overarching
processofmining,thebiggestproblemisthelackofknowledgeastowhattheseprocedures
areandhowtocarrythemout(Davis,2012).

Additionally,beforesetup,minesmustobtainenvironmentalpermitsthatmustfollowaset
of standards. For example, mining pollution has recently improved in China because in the
past the mines were not bound by environmental regulations and now they are ("China to
unveil new mining standards", 2011). New, environmentallyfriendly mining standards will
involvesomebasicoutlinesforcleanminingandwasteremoval.Thesestandardsshouldalso
require that mines should not be situated nearby a nature reserve or another naturally
pristine site, similar to what is spelled out in the Environmental Protection Agency's
guidelines("Mining",2010).Formoredetails,seetheregulationspage.

EnvironmentalApproval:

Miningisnotclean,norshoulditbeprofessedassuch.Thereisalotofresearchbeingdone
intoprocessestomakeitcleaner(seethegreenminingPage).However,havingabudgetset
asidetolookintocleaningupthemosttoxiceffectsofmininginabetterway,inparticular
radioactivetailingsandfluedust,shouldbedonebygovernmentsofcountries,orthrougha
body such as the Mining Safety and Health Administration (see the mining regulations
page).$2millionwouldnotbealot,inparticularifthepayoffwasalsomoreefficientwaste
disposal (number based on estimates of costs for more efficient refining practices, see the
refiningpage).Forexample,Molycorp'snewPhoenixProjectprofessestohaveamethodfor
better processing that is both greener and cheaper. Though the details are secret, the
procedure was worked out by several undergrads fresh out of college. Thus, these
procedures,inparticularforREEs,needminimaltimeandfunding,comparedtothewholeof
the mining process, to make big advances in result, since the biggest problem is that they
haven'tbeeninvestigatedindetailyet[16].

Additionally,minesmustobtainenvironmentalpermitsbeforebeingsetup,andthepermits
mustfollowasetofstandards.InChina,minesdidn'thaveverygoodstandardsatfirstand
the pollution was much worse than it is now that things have been regulated [17]. These
standards should have some basic outlines for clean mining and waste removal, and
generally spell out that mines should not be situated nearby a nature reserve or other
naturally pristine sites, similar to what is spelled out in the Environmental Protection
Agency's guidelines [18], or if they are, precautions must be taken to ensure mining does
notleakintoanundergroundaquifer,forexample.Establishingregulationsandagoverning
bodyforthismustbedone(seetheminingregulationspage).

http://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2016/finalwebsite/solutions/mining.html 4/5
4/12/2017 Mining
SafetyRegulations

Everyminemustobtainsafetyandconstructionpermitsbyapplicationtothegovernmentof
thecountrytheminewillbeinbeforeitcanbeginbuilding.Theprocessvariesfrom1to10
yearstoobtainallpertinentlicenses(environmental,health,safety,etc)tomineinacertain
location. These licenses will vary by country in the detail and strictness of regulation, and
mustbebetterorganizedandenforcedifsafeminingistobeestablishedworldwide.Health
issuessuchasradioactivepoisoningassociatedwithuraniummines,hazardousgases,mines
collapsing, and dust coating the lungs of miners will also affect the regulation and type of
permitissuedforamine.Permitsmustalsotakeintoaccountthesocialenvironmentofthe
mine,i.e.thestabilityoftheregionandthefrequenciesoflocalconflicts.Regulations,such
as those Mission 2016 proposes (see the mining regulations page) can help reduce these
negative impacts, improve safety and health of mining, and address cultural aspects
unrelated to mining but influential in the establishment of a mine (see the transparent
supplychainpage).

Environmentalandsocialimpactsofmining.(n.d.).Retrievedfrom
http://pdf.wri.org/mining_background_literature_review.pdf

Chinatounveilnewminingstandardstoreducepollution&regulatepractices.(2011,January2011).Retrieved
fromhttp://www.whatsonningbo.com/news1195chinatounveilnewminingstandardstoreducepollution
regulatepractices.html

Densityseparationandshapeseparation.(n.d.).Geochronology.RetrievedNovember10,2012,from
http://epsc.wustl.edu/geochronology/wirfley.htm

Davis,A.(2012,November14).Molycorpq&a[Interview].

Gruber,P.W.,Medina,P.A.,Keoleian,G.A.,Kesler,S.E.,Everson,M.P.,&Wallington,T.J.(2011).Global
lithiumavailability:Aconstraintforelectricvehicles?JournalofIndustrialEcology,00(00).RetrievedNovember3,
2012,fromhttp://www.eenews.net/

Hatch,GarethP.'DynamicsintheGlobalMarketforRareEarths.'ElementsOct.2012:34146.Print.
1U.S.,U.S.DepartmentofEnergy.(n.d.).CriticalMaterialsStrategy.RetrievedNovember5,2012,from
http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/edg/news/documents/criticalmaterialsstrategy.pdf

http://ucore.com/.(2012).Retrievedfromhttp://ucore.com/

KidelaCapitalGroup.(2011,May10).Rareearthprocessing101.Kitco.RetrievedNovember10,2012,from
http://www.kitco.com/ind/Kidela/may102011.html

Kirkwood,C.(2011,December11).Communityinfluenceonmininginfrastructureinachangingglobal
environment.Retrievedfrom
http://www.pbworld.com/pdfs/regional/australia_nz/community_influence_on_mining_infrastructure_dec2011.pdf

Long,K.R.,VanGosen,B.S.,Foley,N.K.,&Cordier,D.(n.d.).Thegeologyofrareearthelements.Geology.com.
RetrievedNovember15,2012.

Mining.(2010,July21).Retrievedfromhttp://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/indpermitting/mining.cfm

Molycorp:Therareearthscompany:Annualreport(Rep.).(n.d.).RetrievedNovember10,2012,fromMolycorp
website:
http://www.envisionreports.com/MCP/2011/31506AP11E/04ae05e5300b4e7bbf14b3d4c411cafc/MOLYCORP_10K_
v3Mike_42111_SECURED.pdf

Mostsophisticatedindustrialinorganicchemistry.(n.d.).Halwachs.RetrievedNovember19,2012,from
http://www.halwachs.de/pgmrefining.htm

Rareearths.(2012,March13).NewYorkTimes.

Uraniummining.(2011,October).WorldNuclear.RetrievedNovember18,2012,fromhttp://www.world
nuclear.org/education/mining.htm

UraniumMining.(2012,May).:Education:WorldNuclearAssociation.RetrievedNovember15,2012,from
http://www.worldnuclear.org/education/mining.htm

http://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2016/finalwebsite/solutions/mining.html 5/5