Anatomy and Physiology

Musculoskeletal System

Structures of musculoskeletal are essential for standing erect and locomotion.

It also gives the human body form and stability while protecting the bodys vital organs.
It also plays a role in homeostasis and is the site for hematopoiesis.
The musculoskeletal system consist of bones, joints, muscles, ligaments, tendons, and other
connective tissue that work together to accomplish these functions. Connective tissue describes
biologic material that supports and binds tissues and organs together. Chief components of
connective tissue include elastic fibers and collagen (a protein substance).

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

The shape and construction of a specific bone are determined by its function and the forces exerted on it.
Bones are constructed of cancellous (trabecular) or cortical (compact) bone tissue. Long bones are shaped
like rods or shafts with rounded ends. The shaft, known as the diaphysis, is primarily cortical bone. The
ends of the long bones, called epiphyses, are primarily cancellous bone. The epiphyseal plate separates the
epiphyses from the diaphysis and is the center for longitudinal growth in children. In the adult, it is calcified.
The ends of long bones are covered at the joints by articular cartilage, which is a tough, elastic, avascular
tissue. Long bones are designed for weight bearing and movement. Short bones consist of cancellous bone
covered by a layer of compact bone. Flat bones are important sites for hematopoiesis and frequently provide
vital organ protection. They are made of cancellous bone layered between compact bone. Irregular bones
have unique shapes related to their functions. Generally, irregular bone structure is similar to that of flat
bones. Bone is composed of cells, protein matrix, and mineral deposits. The cells are of three basic types
osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts. Osteoblasts function in bone formation by secreting bone matrix.
The matrix, which consists of collagen and ground substances (glycoproteins and proteoglycans), provides
a framework in which inorganic mineral salts are deposited. Osteocytes are mature bone cells involved in
bone-maintenance functions; they are located in lacunae (bone matrix units). Osteoclasts, located in shallow
Howships lacunae (small pits in bones), are multinuclear cells involved in destroying, resorbing, and
remolding bone.

Bones

Specialized form of connective tissue.

At first glance, appears to be a dry, dead material, and in fact, the word skeleton is derived from a
Greek word that means dried up body.
But, bone is living, metabolically active tissue. Wherein this tissue is the site of fat and mineral
storage (especially calcium) as well as hematopoiesis.
The human body contains 206 bones of varying shapes and sizes that make up the skeleton.
Wherein, this skeleton provides support and protection for vital organs such as the heart, lungs, and
brain.
The skeleton is divided into two division-axial and appendicular. The axial skeleton forms the long
axis of the body and includes the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage. The appendicular skeleton
consists of bones that form the arms, shoulder, pelvis and legs.
Five Types of Bone

They are found in skeleton----long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid bones.
Long bones are bones that have bodies (diaphyses) that are longer than they are wide, growth plates
(epiphyses) ateither end, hard outer surfaces (compact bone), and inner regions (spongy bone) that
are less dense than the outer regions and contain bone marrow. Bothe ends of long bones are
covered in hyaline cartilage to help protect the bone by reducing friction and absorbing shock.
Long bones include some of the longest bones in the body (e.g., femur, humerus, and tibia) as well
as some of the smallest (e.g., metacarplas, and phalanges.
Short bones are bones that are approximately as wie as they are long, and their primary function is
providing support and stability with little movement. Short bones contain only a thin layer of
compact bone along with spongy bone ad relatively large amounts of bone marrow. Examples of
short bones include the carpals and tarsals.
Flat bones are strong, level plates of bone that provide protection to the bodys vital organs and a
base for muscular attachment. Anterior and posterior surfaces of flat bones are fored from compact
bone to provide strength, and the center consists of spongy bone and varying amounts of bone
marrow. In adults, most red blood cells are formed in flat bones. Exampes of flat bones include
the scapula, sternum, skull, pelvis, and ribs.
Irregular bones do not fall into any other category, due to their nonuniform shape. Irregular bones
primarily consist of spongy bone, with a thin outer laye of compact bone. Examples of irregular
bones include the vertebrae, sacrum, and mandible.
Sesamoid bones are usually short or irregular bones embedded in a tendon. Sesamoid bones are
often present in a tendon where it passes over a joint and serve to protect the tendon. Examples of
sesamoid bones include the patella, pisiform (smallest of the carpals), and the two small bones at
the base of the first metatarsal.

A layer of connective tissue called the periosteum covers compact bone surfaces. The periosteum
serves as the site of muscle attachment (via tendons). Tendons connect muscle to bone. The outer surface
of the periosteum contains cells that aid in remodeling and repairs (osteoblast- bone forming cells). The
periosteum is richly supplied with blood vessels that enter the bone at numerous sites. These vessels travel
through small tubes (haversian canals) in the compact bone and flow through the spongy bone, providing
nutrients and oxygen while removing waste products. The periosteum is also richly supplied with nerve
fibers. Inside the shaft of long bones is a large cavity for bone marrow. Marrow cavities in most bones of a
fetus or because of its color, serves as the blood-cell factory (hematopoiesis). As human age, this red
marrow is slowly replaced by fat, creating yellow marrow. Yellow marrow begins to form during
adolescence and is present in most bones by adulthood. At this point, hematopoiesis continues in the
vertebrae, pelvis, and few other sites. The yellow marrow can be reactivated to produce blood cells under
certain circumstances (e.g., after an injury).

The bone is dynamic tissue that is constantly undergoing remodeling to repair aging bone or to adjust
for things such as changes in activity. For example, spongy bone is remodelled to increase bone strength
when a persons activity level increases after period of inactivity. During remodeling, cells called
osteoclasts break down some spongy bone while osteoblasts rebuild new compact bone to increase bone
strength. Osteoblasts lay down new bone during remodeling, and when osteoblasts become surrounded by
calcified organized in thin layers called lamellae. The osteocytes are embedded in extracellular material,
referred to as the matrix. The matrix consists of calcium phosphate crystals (hydroxyapatite) that makes the
bones hard and strong. The matrix also contains collagen fibers that reinforce the bone, giving it flexible
strength. Balance between the mineral and collagen is necessary for optimal bone function. Bone without
adequate collagen amounts is extremely brittle.

Several hormones influence bone structure. Growth hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland
works with thyroid hormones to control normal bone growth. Growth hormone increases the rate of growth
by causing cartilage and bone cells to reproduce and lay down their intercellular matrix as well as
stimulating mineralization within the matrix. bones grow in two ways-----appositional growth and
endochondral growth. In appositional growth, new bone forms on the surface of a bone. In endochondral
growth, bone eventually replaces new cartilage growth in the epiphyseal plate. Calcitonin and parathyroid
hormone regulate bone remodelling and mineralization of calcium. Estrogen inhibits formation of osteoclast
in women, whereas testosterone increases bone length and density in men.

Vitamin D also plays a critical role in bone metabolism. Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that controls
the absorption of calcium from the intestine and increases calcium and phosphate reabsorption in the
kidneys. Proper nutrition (including adequate intake of dietary calcium and vitamin D) and physical activity
from childhood onward are essential for the development and maintenance of healthy bone.

During fetal development, the skeleton forms from hyaline cartilage. Cartilage is a shiny connective tissue
that is tough and flexible and keeps the bones from rubbing directly against each other. Several types of
cartilage can be found throughout the body in the ears, nose, and joints, but hyaline cartilage is the type
most associated with one. This cartilage is often found in joints----structures that connect bones of the
skeleton A tough, fibrous sheath called the joint capsule surrounds the articulating bones. The capsule is
lined with a membrane, the synovium, which secretes the lubricating and shock-absorbing synovial fluid
into the joint capsule. Therefore, the bone surfaces are not in direct contact. In some synovial joints (eg, the
knee), fibrocartilage disks (eg, medial meniscus) are located between the articular cartilage surfaces. These
disks provide shock absorption. Ligaments (fibrous connective tissue bands) bind the articulating bones
together. Ligaments and muscle tendons, which pass over the joint, provide joint stability. In some joints,
interosseous ligaments (eg, the cruciate ligaments of the knee) are found within the capsule and add stability
to the joint. A bursa is a sac filled with synovial fluid that cushions the movement of tendons, ligaments,
and bones at a point of friction. Bursae are found at the elbow, shoulder, knee, and some other joints. .
Joints are classified by their degree of movement----moveable, slightly moveable, and immoveable. The
most common type of joint is freely moveable, or synovial, joint.

Synovial Joint or Diarthrosis are complex and vary significantly, but they all have similar features.
Synovial joints contain cartilage that is lubricated by a transparent fluid (synovial fluid) secreted
by the synovial membrane (soft tissue that lines the no-cartilaginous surfaces within joints). This
lubricated cartilage reduces friction by provding a slippery surface for bones to move freely. In
addition to lubrication, synovial fluid contains leukocytes to fight infections in the joints and
provides nutrients to the cartilage. The second commonality is the presence of a joint capsule, a
structure that joins one bone to another. The outer layer of the synovial joint capsule consists of
dense connective tissue that attaches to periosteum of adjacent bones. Many of these joints contain
parallel bundles of dense connective tissue called ligaments. Ligaments connect one bone to
another bone in a joint and provide support to the joint.
 There are several types of diarthrosis joints:
Ball-and-socket joints, best exemplified by the hip and the shoulder, permit full freedom of
movement. The most mobile type of joint. They allow you to move your arms and legs in many
different directions.
Hinge joints permit bending in one direction only and are best exemplified by the elbow and
the knee.
Saddle joints allow movement in two planes at right angles to each other. The joint at the base
of the thumb is a saddle, biaxial joint.
Pivot joints are characterized by the articulation between the radius and the ulna. They permit
rotation for such activities as turning a doorknob.
Gliding joints allow fora limited movement in all directions and are represented by the joints of
the carpal bones in the wrist.

Slightly moveable joints or amphiartroses can bee seen in the vertebral column. An intervertebral
disk unites each vertebra. The inner portion of the disk serves as a cushion, absorbing the impact
of walking and running. The outer, fibrous portion holds the disk in place and joints one vertebra
to the next.
Immoveable joints or synarthroses, the skull is an example of synathroses. In the skull, the bones
interlock together to form immoveable joints called sutures. Fibrous connective tissue extends the
space between the interlocking bones, holding them together. Another immoveable joint is the
pubic symphysis, the two pubic bones come together to form the pubic symphysis. Fibrocartilage
holds these bones together.

Fun Facts About Bones

Did You Know?

At birth the human skeleton is made up of around 300 bones. By adulthood, some bones have fused
together to end up with 206 bones.
There are 26 bones in the human foot.
The human hand, including the wrist, contains 54 bones.
The femur, or thighbone, is the longest and strongest bone of the human skeleton.
The stapes, in the middle ear, is the smallest and lightest bone of the human skeleton.
Arms are among the most commonly broken bones, accounting for almost half of all adults' broken bones.
The collarbone is the most commonly broken bone among children.
The only bone in the human body not connected to another is the hyoid, a V-shaped bone located at the
base of the tongue. The hyoid is often considered the anatomical foundation of speech; because of where
it's located, it can work with the larynx (voice box) and tongue to produce the range of human
vocalizations
Most Fragile Bone in the Body: The Toe Bones. The small toe bones break the easier and most often.
Almost everyone has broken a toe, even a small one, in their life. And theres really you can do about it,
but let it heal.