Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Abstract Mathematics
Introduction to Mathematical Logic & Set Theory
Volume 1
AUREA Z. ROSAL
ii
Preface
Mathematics can not live on computations alone, but by every rule that
proceeds out of the concepts of logic and set theory.
Excuse the lame imitation to a famous Biblical verse, but the author be-
lieves that the above is true.
It is with these in mind that the author, in her first attempt in writing a
book, has deemed it necessary to start where the beginning should be.
This work is an introductory book to the concepts of mathematical logic
and set theory. It is designed to be a textbook to a one semester course in,
you guessed it right, mathematical logic and set theory. A good command of
the English language as well as a little a mathematical maturity are to the
users advantage but not necessity. Students are also advised to somehow
forget about common sense and instead stick to the definitions and rules
of reasoning given in the book.
Do enjoy reading and using the book, and feel free to contact the author in
any comments you want to give or any errors you have noticed.
a.z.rosal
azrosal@yahoo.com
Contents
1 Communication in Mathematics 1
2 Logic 5
2.1 Proposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Negation and Compound Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.1 Negation, Disjunction, Conjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.2 Conditional and Biconditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.3 Truth Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Tautologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.1 Propositional Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4 Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4.1 Direct Method of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4.2 Indirect Method of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4.3 Some Challenging Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5 Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.5.1 Propositional Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.5.2 Existential Quantifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.5.3 Universal Quantifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.5.4 Negations of Quantified Statements . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.5.5 Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements . . . . . . . 46
3 Sets 49
3.1 Roster and Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2 Set Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2.1 Null set, Universal set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2.2 Equal Sets, Subset, Superset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2.3 Power Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3 Set Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
iii
iv CONTENTS
Communication in
Mathematics
Mathematics, like love and poetry is discussed in sentences. This may not
be obvious to a lot of people, as many mathematical sentences are presented
in a format far different from what most are accustomed to. For example,
AB = (1)
2
3x 2x + 3 = 0 (2)
may not seem like sentences to some, but indeed they both are. Sentence
(1) is read:
1
2 CHAPTER 1. COMMUNICATION IN MATHEMATICS
We shall assume that the readers know what a sentence or a statement is,
and the difference between the adjectives true and false. Also, our concern
will be declarative sentences that are either true or false (but not simulta-
neously both).
The meaning of a word is either given formally using other terms already
known to us, by experiencing examples of its use or by sensing the common
properties of the examples.
Since mathematics has to begin somewhere (or else, this discussion may
not see its end), mathematicians have agreed to accept the existence of
mathematical terms even without the benefit of a formal definition, or if
they are just intuitively defined. They are known as the undefined terms.
Some of these terms are: points, line, set, collection, element, belonging.
There are statements though which are accepted as true only after a
proof has been given to establish its validity. These statements are known
as theorems. A proof is a chain of statements leading implicity or ex-
plicitly from the axioms, definitions or previously proven theorems, to the
statement under consideration, convincing us to agree that the given state-
ment is in fact true. The method by which a proof is established follows the
rules of logic, either inductively or deductively.
These rules, together with the foundations of set theory, will be discussed
in this course.
4 CHAPTER 1. COMMUNICATION IN MATHEMATICS
Chapter 2
Logic
Logic is the study of the methods and principles used to distinguish good (or
correct) from bad (or incorrect) reasoning. Logic focuses on the relationship
among statements rather than to the content of just one statement. Consider
the following:
In the above set of statements, common sense would tell us that the
above argument can not be true. But if the first three statements are as-
sumed to be true, logic assures us that everybody loves broccoli.
Logical statements may not make (common) sense. Most of the time,
people tend to confuse common sense with logic. In the study of logic, it is
advised that one has to somewhat leave common sense behind and focus
on the rules of reasoning instead.
2.1 Proposition
As what we have discussed in Chapter 1, we shall focus on declarative sen-
tences which may be determined to be either true or false (but not simulta-
5
6 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC
5. 3x 4 = 0
Sentence (1) is a declarative sentence which is always true, while (3) and
(4) are false declarative sentences. Sentence (5) may either be true or false
(but not both), depending at the value of the variable x at a given time.
However, (2) is not a declarative sentence since it is a command. Likewise,
it is impossible to determine whether (6) is true or not since it is a question.
(7) is false for any x R, while (8) is false only if the waves are rough but
the dogs are not barking. Statement (9) is a declarative sentence, although
it is not possible for us at this time to determine whether it is true or not.
However we know that exactly one of the possibilities above exist. Finally,
statement (10) may be a declarative sentence but is highly subjective. What
may be cold for one person may not be so for another and thus, the chance
of both the weather is cold or not may happen in this situation.
In the above examples, (1), (3), (4), (7), (8) and (9) are propositions.
Although, (8) seems a bit odd and may seem to defy common sense. How-
ever, after studying the rules of logic, you can rest assure that (8) is indeed
a logical statement. Statement (10) is not a proposition since, although it
is a declarative sentence, it can be both true and false at the same time..
Hb 2.1.1.
2. q: Dogs fly.
4. r: Today is Monday.
5. v: 2 is prime.
10. b: The product of two real numbers is zero if and only if both of them
are zero.
Propositions p, t and s are true, while propositions q, u and v are all
false. However, proposition r is true if statement is stated on a Monday, but
false when stated on other days.
The following section will discuss how two or more propositions may be
combined to form another proposition.
Exercises 2.1.1.
Determine which of the following is a proposition.
1. The Earth is the fifth planet from the sun.
3. 3x + 6 = 0 if and only if x = 2.
6. 5 + 9 = 3
8. Hello, sister!
9. 10x2 4x + 2
10. The University of Sto. Tomas is the oldest school in the Philippines.
1. p : 3 6 = 5.
p : 3 6 6= 5.
Definition 2.2.2. A proposition which can not be broken down further into
two or more smaller sentences is called simple or elementary proposition
or primitive.
Hb 2.2.2. Let
p: 3 > 0
q: 7 + 8 = 3
r: Charice will hold a concert in Tutuban Mall.
10 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC
1. p q: Either 3 > 0 or 7 + 8 = 3
Hb 2.2.3.
Note that all of the above statements are exor statements as the elemen-
tary statements that form the compound propositions can happen at the
same time. In general, if p is a proposition, then the proposition p p is
an exclusive or statement. Furthermore, this proposition is always true for
any proposition p.
Note 2.2.1. If p and q are propositions, then we can see that p q is false
if at least one of p and q is false.
Hb 2.2.4.
Hb 2.2.5. Let
p : Jonathan is sleeping
r : Alec is studying.
Then
Can you give alternative ways of expressing the above compound state-
ments?
Exercises 2.2.1.
II. Given the following simple propositions, form the compound state-
ments as required.
14 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC
(a) p q
(b) r t
(c) p r
(d) p t
(e) r q
(f ) (r q)
(g) (p r) (q t)
III. Identify the elementary propositions that formed the following com-
pound propositions. Represent the elementary propositions with vari-
ables. From these variables, give the sentential forms.
1. The set of real numbers is infinite while the set of letters in the
English language is finite.
2. Either the sun revolves around the Earth or it is a made up of
ice.
3. Either Joy or Gina is going to Hong Kong to go shopping.
4. Kangaroos and koala are either marsupials or monotremes.
5. Amie is going to the market to buy fish and pork but not eggs.
6. Jesus is my Savior and He is also my Lord.
1. Whenever p then q
2. p only if q
3. p is sufficient for q
4. p implies q.
The two later forms of the conditional statements shall be used only when
the conditional is a tautology. Tautology shall be defined later.
Hb 2.2.6. Let
p: 5 is irrational.
q: 5 is odd.
w: is an algebraic number.
Then,
1. p q : If 5 is irrational, then 5 is odd.
2. p w : If 5 is irrational, then is an algebraic number.
If p q, then:
q p is its converse
q p is its contrapositive
p q is its inverse.
Hb 2.2.7.
Then:
1. If a b, then its:
converse is b a : If you clean your room, then Nanay will give you
your allowance.
contrapositive is b a: If you will not clean your room, then
Nanay will not give you your allowance.
inverse is a b: If Nanay will not give you your allowance, then
you will not clean your room.
(a) converse
(b) contrapositive
(c) inverse
(p g) (g p).
Hb 2.2.8.
Let
a : 3 is odd.
b : 4 is prime.
d : 8 is a perfect cube.
e : 6 + 9 = 10
f : A whale is a mammal.
Then:
Exercises 2.2.2. Which of the propositions above are true and which are
false? Justify.
As of this time, we have not yet developed tools that we may use in order
to prove the above theorem. To remedy this, we now introduce a method of
showing the truth values of compound propositions depending on the truth
values of their component parts.
The following are the basic truth tables of the sentential forms we have
discussed earlier.
Table 2.1: p
p p
1 0
0 1
Table 2.2: p q
p q pq
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
Table 2.4 proves Theorem 2.2.1. From the table, we could see that
(p q) (q p) (p q) since their truth values agree relative to the
truth values of p and q. Hence, we could say that one can replace the other
when the need arises.
Truth tables may be used to list all possible truth values of any conpound
proposition, although the table might be big for compound propotions that
2.2. NEGATION AND COMPOUND STATEMENTS 19
Table 2.3: p q
p q pq
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
tmay contain 3 or more simple propositions. Suppose there are n distinct el-
ementary propositions that consists the compound proposition. How many
rows and combinations of 1s and 0s will there be in the table? Since there
are two choices of truth value for each elementary proposition, then there are
2n possible rows for the truth value of the compound proposition. There will
be a total of 2n1 1s and 0s for each column of the elementary propositions.
Table 2.5: (p q) (q r)
p q r pq qr t
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 1
where
t : (p q) (q r)
Exercises 2.2.3.
Construct the truth tables for the following compound propositions.
1. (p q) r
2. [(u v) (u w)] (u (v w)
3. (u w) w
4. (t s) (t s)
5. [(a b) c] [a (b c)]
2.3 Tautologies
A proposition is said to be a tautology iff its sentential form always gen-
erates a true truth value. On the other hand, a proposition whose senten-
tial form always generates a false truth value is called a contradiction.
A proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is known as a
contingency . A tautology is sometimes symbolized by t and a contincengy
by c. A conditional statement which is a tautology is called an implica-
tion, while a biconditional that is a tautology is a called an equivalence.
An implication is denoted by while an equivalence is denoted by .
If p q, then we say that p and q are equivalent. Notice that the defini-
tion equivalence above is consistent with our new definition.
2.3. TAUTOLOGIES 21
The proposition,
The sun is hot.
is a true proposition but not a tautology. This is so since its sentential form
p can take the truth values True or False. Thus, a tautology should not be
mistaken for a true proposition.
The statement
If it is given that, if 10 is prime then 12 is odd, and if 12 is
odd, then 5 is irrational, thus, if 10 is prime then 5 is irrational.
is a tautology, even if none of the elementary propositions above is true. To
prove that above is a tautology, we represent each elementary proposition by
propositional variable and form the sentential form. Next, we construct the
truth table in order to determine the possible truth values of the sentential
form.
p : 10 is prime.
o : 12 is odd.
i : 5 is irrational.
where:
22 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC
s : (p o) (o i)
t:pi
u:st
If we let,
e : 8 is even.
m : 49 is a multiple of 7.
Table 2.7: (e m) (e m)
e m m e m e m (e m) (e m)
1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0
Observe that the last column of Table 2.7 consists of all 0s. Thus,
(e m) (e m)
is a contradiction.
Exercises 2.3.1.
1. (p w) s
2.3. TAUTOLOGIES 23
2. p q
3. [(j z) ( z)] j
4. u (v w)
5. (u v) (u w)
1. [ (p q)] ( p q)
2. [(p q) p] q
3. ( p q) (p q)
4. [(f g) (f h)] (f (g h))
5. (w r) ( w r)
Hb 2.3.1.
1. The statement, It is not true that the sun is not hot.is equivalent to
saying The sun is hot.
7. The statement The moon is round and 10 is both even and odd. is
a contradiction.
Hb 2.3.2.
2.3. TAUTOLOGIES 25
The above theorem completes our rules of replacement. The next set
of theorems will give us the Rules of Inference. Rules of inference are
implication laws. In these laws, propositions to the left of the implication
symbol are sufficient conditions for the propositions on the right. The propo-
sitions to the right of the implication symbol is called necessary conditions
for propositions on the left.
1. Law of addition p = (p q)
2. Law of simplification (p q) = p
3. Modus ponens ((p q) p) = q
4. Modus tollens ((p q) q) = p
5. Hypothetical syllogism ((p q) (q r)) = (p r)
6. Disjunctive syllogism ((p q) p) = q
7. Absurdity (p 0) = p
8. [(p r) (q s)] = [(p q) (r s)]
9. (p q) = [(p r) (q r)]
10. (0 p) = 1
11. (p 1) = 1
Hb 2.3.3.
3. Either the Seven Dwarfs have taken growth pills or Snow White has
eaten a spoiled apple. Snow White did not eat a spoiled apple. Hence,
the Seven Dwarfs have taken growth pills. is logically true.
Exercises 2.3.2.
I. Using the tautologies given in the section, prove or justify why the
following are tautologies. Assume that p, q and r are propositions.
1. (p q) q
2. (( p q) p) q
3. (p q) ( p q)
4. (p q) ( q p)
5. (p (q p)) (p q)
6. (p (q r)) ((p q) r)
7. (p q) (p q)
8. ((p q) r) (p r)
9. (p p) p
10. (p p) q
1. ( p q) ( q p)
2. (p (q r)) ((p q) r)
3. (p q) q
4. ((p q) r) (p r) (q q) (q q)
III. Which of the following propositions are tautologies and which are not?
Justify your answers.
2.4 Arguments
We always hear people argue on certain things and more often than not,
nobody wins. This is so since the arguers do not meet on the same level. In
logic, how does one define an argument and how do we win an argument?
(p1 p2 pk ) q
p1
p2
..
.
pk
q
Every theorem under the rules of inference is a valid argument and may
be written vertically too.
Conjunction
p
q
pq
p (q r)
qr
rp
p
p (q r)
qr
rp
p
Having tested an argument for validity, we then prove its validity using
any of the two methods: direct or indirect.
Principle of Demonstration2
2. si a tautology
Hb 2.4.3.
pq
r q
p r
Proof:
Step Proposition Reason
1. pq Given
2. r q Given
3. ( q) r 2., Contrapositive
4. q r 3., Double negation
5. p r 1. and 4., Hypothetical syllogism
2. Prove ([(u v) r] u) = r
(u v) r
u
r
2
Kurtz, David C., Foundations of Abstract Mathematics, 1992, Mc Graw Hill-
Singapore
2.4. ARGUMENTS 33
Proof:
Step Proposition Reason
1. (u v) r Given
2. u Given
3. uv 2., Law of addition
4. r 1. and 2, Modus ponens
Exercises 2.4.1.
( g f ) (a b)
gh
(d g) (b d)
gd
ad
34 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC
11.
ab
f d
ae
gd
b f
12. p = (q q)
II. Write the following arguments into sentential forms. Identify well your
variables and prove or disprove the arguments.
Contrapositive law. (p q) ( q p)
Hb 2.4.4.
1.
Prove:
36 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC
p (q r)
qr
rp
p
Proof:
1. p Negation of conclusion
2. p (q r) Given
3. qr 2., Disjunctive syllogism
4. rp Given
5. r 1., and 4., Modus tollens
6. qr Given
7. q 5., and 6., Disjunctive syllogism
8. r 3., and 7., Modus ponens
9. r r 8., and 5., Conjunction
10. C 9., Negation of the
Law of excluded middle
2.
Prove:
nk
(n p) k
It is easy to show that the above argument is valid. We now use the
contrapositive law.
Proof:
2.4. ARGUMENTS 37
1. (n p) k Negation of conclusion
2. n (p k) 1., Associativity of conjunction
3. n ( k p) 2., Commutativity of conjunction
4. (n k) p 3., Associativity of conjunction
5. n k 4., Simplification
6. nk Given
7. (n k) (n k) 5., 6., Negation of conditional
Hb 2.4.5.
id
ip
d p
m
The conclusion in the first argument does not involve any of the elemen-
tary propositions in the hypothesis. Thus, assigning any truth value to the
conclusion may not seem to have any effect on the premises, and the usual
test of validity may not be useful. This may not be apparent at first, but we
may still assign truth values to the premises to test validity of the argument.
Bear in mind that if the hypothesis is false, regardless of the truth value of
the conclusion, the argument is still true. We take some cases.
f
c c
Again, the conclusion may not seem to have anything to do with the
premise. However, since the conclusion is always true by the law of ex-
cluded middle, then any hypothesis may preceed it. Thus, the argument is
valid.
True or False.
2.5 Quantifiers
2.5.1 Propositional Function
In Chapter 2, we have defined a proposition. Clearly, not all declarative
sentences are propositions. Take for example the statement, x > 5. This
40 CHAPTER 2. LOGIC
Let U be a non empty set and let p(x) be a declarative statement in some
variable x. If, when an element a U is substituted to x in p(x) and p(a)
becomes a proposition, then we say that p(x) is a propositional function
over U. The set U is sometimes called the domain or the universe of
discourse or simply the universe. The set Tp = {a U|p(a) is true } is
called the truth set of p(x).
1. p(x) : x < 7
2. q(x) : x2 4 > 0
p(x, y) : x loves y.
Hb 2.5.2.
1. x R such that x2 2 = 0.
2. x N such that x2 2 = 0.
Surely this statement is true because the author is a person (the last time I
checked) and loves ice cream a lot!
Hb 2.5.3.
1. x R, x R.
2. x R, x1 R.
If we use the symbols in Hb. 2.5.2(3), the third statement may be sym-
bolized as follows.
x I, then i(x).
This statement now is false because some people are vegans, and vegans
do not eat anything that comes from animals. Since the basic ingredient of
ice cream is obviously, cream, which comes from cows milk, then vegans do
not like ice cream.
2.5. QUANTIFIERS 43
If x U, then p(x).
Also, we can say that the existential statement is false, if its propositional
function is a contradiction over its universe.
Answers:
1. Since penguins are birds, and they can not fly, then we have found a
counter example to the statement.
4. The author is a Facebook user who does not know how to play Mafia
Wars.
There are cases when the two quantifiers are combined in one statement.
A very common example is the definition of the limit of a function at a
certain point.
Hb 2.5.6.
4. For every real numbers a and b, there exists a real number c such that
a + c = b.
Unique Existence
Universal Generalization
Let U be a universe of discourse and p(x) is a proposition over U, if for any
c U, then p(c) is true, it follows that the statement, x U, then p(x).
is true.
mean
Above does not meet that when there exists an element c U such that
p(c) is true, then we can generalize it for all elements of U. What the above
is saying is that, if we can not find a counterexample to the statement p(x)
among the elements of U, then the statement x U then p(x) is true.
This is easy to show for a finite set U but not so much if otherwise.
Existential Instantiation
Let U be a universe of discourse and p(x) is a proposition over U. Suppose
that the statement x U such that p(x). is true, then we know that for
some c U, p(c) is true. In symbols,
(x U such that p(x)) = p(c).
The above is usually used in solving linear equations. For example, if
AX = B is an n n system of linear equations in matrix form with A as
the coefficient matrix, then we know that a unique solution will exist if and
only if A is nonsingular. Here, a solution is not actually found but because
we know that the previous statement is true, we are sure to find a unique
solution for X.
2.5. QUANTIFIERS 47
Existential Generalization
Let U be a universe of discourse and p(x) is a proposition over U. If it is
true that for some a U, then p(a) is true, then the statement x U
such that p(x) is true.
The integer 2 is both even and prime. Thus, the claim that there exists
an even prime is true by existential generalization.
Remark 2.5.1.
By the universal instantiation and existential generalization, if it is true
that for all x U then p(x) is true, then it is true that there exists an x U
such that p(x) is true. In symbols,
Exercises 2.5.1.
I. True or false.
1. u Z such that u3 3 = 0.
2. u R such that u3 3 = 0
3. n N, n3 n + 8 is even.
4. If all students have Saturday classes, then there exists a student
with a Saturday class.
5. If not all solution to a system of equation is zero, then the solution
to the system of equation is all not zero.
6. If the solution to a system of equation is not all zero, then the
system has a nonzero solution.
7. By definition, an n n matrix [aij ] is upper triangular if for all
i > j, then aij = 0, then the nn zero matrix is upper triangular.
8. There exists one and only one mother for every child.
9. Since it is true that chickens are exclusive either hens or cocks,
then every hen is a chicken.
10. There exists one and only one real number a such that a2 + 1 =
1.
Sets
is read: The object (element) x belongs to (is an element of) the set .
If for example, is the set of letters in the word conclusion, then x may
be any of the letters, c, o, n, l, u, s, i.
In the roster method, the names of the elements of the set are listed
down horizontally, in any order, only once and are separated by commas.
This list is now enclosed in braces.
49
50 CHAPTER 3. SETS
Hb 3.1.1.
1. M = {x, y, pencil, 1}
2. = {0, a, b, 3}
4. Z = {0, 1, 1, 2, 2, . . .}
There are cases though, when it is not possible to enumerate all the el-
ements of a set, or at least give an idea of what the other elements of the
set are by just listing some of the elements (such as in the case of Z). In
this case, we can use the rule method. Rule method may also be used for
sets with large number of elements, provided the elements have common
conditions that they satisfy.
In the rule method, we use what we call the set builder notation. This
notation looks like:
A = {x|p(x)}
The above may be read as: The set A of all elements, say, x, such that
the statement P (x) is true. p(x) is called the defining condition satisfied
by the elements of the set A. Given any object, y, if p(y) holds, then y A,
otherwise, we say that y is not in A. Essentially, p(x) enables us to decide
whether or not x is in A. Another way of using the rule method is by writing
the conditions without the braces. For example: D = set of all integers
greater than 3.
Hb 3.1.2.
Hb 3.1.3.
1. B = {x Z|x > 3}
2. N = {(x, y)|x2 + y 2 = 9}
4. = {w Z||w| < 5}
Exercises 3.1.1.
(e) {q Q|6q 2 q = 1}
2. What are the elements of the collection of all dogs that can fly?
There are cases when the elements of the sets being considered at any
given time may belong to a bigger set. For example, the set of all letters
in the word Mississippi and the set of all vowels in the English alphabet
are all elements of the set of English alphabet. Similarly, the elements of
{x R|x2 1 = 0} and {2, 3, 5, 7} are members of the set Z. These bigger
sets are known as universal sets. Formally, a universal set is a set of all
elements being considered at any given time. Usually, we denote a universal
set by U .
Definition 3.2.1. Two sets A and B are said to be equal if every element
of A is found in B and every element of B is found in A. We denote this
relation by the A = B and read: A is equal to B.
(b) {r R|r2 + 1 = 0}
Remark 3.2.1.
If U 6= is a universal set and p(x) and q(x) are propositions over U,
then p(x) q(x) iff Tp = Tq .
Thus, to show that A = {x|p(x)} and B = {x|q(x)} are equal, we may
just show that p(x) and q(x) are equivalent statements.
(i) Reflexivity: A = A
Proof.
Suppose the theorem is not true, that is, * A for some set A. Then it
follows that there exists an element x of , such that x
/ A. This contradicts
the definition of . Consequently, A, A. TN
Hb 3.2.2.
Let
U =R
Z = the set of integers
K = {x|x3 = y for some y R}
J = {w|w = bac for a R}
M = {q|1/q Q}
V = {t Z|1/t Q+ }
1. J Z
3. Z K. Why?
Hb 3.2.3.
2. Let P be the set of all people in the Philippines, N be the set of all
nations in Asia. Hence, Aurea Z. Rosal P and P N . Now, Aurea
Z. Rosal
/ N , therefore, P " N .
3. {} as well as {}.
4. Relative to the example above, let M be the set of all people who lives
in Manila, and K be the set of all people who lives in V. Mapa . Now,
every person who lives in V. Mapa, lives in Manila. Likewise, every
person who lives in Manila, lives in the Philippines. Hence, K M
and M P . Notice also that every person who lives in V. Mapa
lives in the Philippines. Thus, K P . Consequently, the following
sequence of set inclusion is true: K M P .
Hb 3.2.4. 1. P() = {}
Definition 3.3.2. Let A and B be sets. The union of A and B is the set
A B = {x|x A or x B}.
Remark 3.3.2. Because of the use of the connective or, A B has three
possibilities. If x A B, then
1. x A but not in B
2. x B but not in A
3. x A and x B.
Hb 3.3.2.
1. A A B.
2. A = A
3. If A C, then A C = C
4. A B = B A
5. A (B C) = (A B) C.
Proof.
58 CHAPTER 3. SETS
4. The proof makes use of the definition of union and the commutativity
of disjunction.
5. Exercise
TN
Hb 3.3.3.
1. A B A
2. A B = B A
3. A =
4. A (B C) = (A B) C.
5. (A B) (A B).
6. (Distributive Laws)
(a) A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
(b) A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
Proof.
4. Exercise
TN
Hb 3.3.4.
(a) U = {d, e, v, l, o, p, m, n, t, c, s, i, r, a}
(b) K L = {d, e, o, n, t}
(c) K 0 = {c, s, i, r, a}
(d) L0 = {v, l, m, p}
(e) (K L)0 = {v, l, p, m, c, s, i, r, a}
(f ) K 0 L0 = {c, s, i, r, a, v, l, m, p}
(g) What can you say about (K L)0 and K 0 L0 ?
1. (A B)0 = A0 B 0
2. (A B)0 = A0 B 0
The first identity shall be proven here. The other one is left for you to
do.
3.3. SET OPERATIONS 61
Proof.
To show (A B)0 = A0 B 0 , we show that (A B)0 A0 B 0 and
A B 0 (A B)0 .
0
Let x (AB)0 . Then x is not in AB, that is, it is not true that x A
or x B. By de Morgans law for propositions, it follows that x is not A
and x is not in B. Thus, x A0 and x B 0 . By definition of intersection of
sets, x A0 B 0 . Therefore, (A B)0 A0 B 0 .
Thus, (A B)0 = A0 B 0 .
TN
A B = {x A|x
/ B}.
Hb 3.3.5.
Let A = {21, 32, 19, 0, 11, 12} and B = {52, 0, 34, 12, 21, 13, 12},
then
4. A B = {21, 0, 12}
5. |A| = 6, |B| = 7
|A B| = |A| + |B| |A B|
Above theorem is quite easy to show. Notice that the elements common
to both A and B would be counted twice when the orders of A and B are
added. Thus, there is a need for the order of the intersection to be deducted
from the sum to get the order of A B.
Exercises 3.3.1. I. Describe the following finite sets by listing their ele-
ments.
1. The set of all integers whose absolute value is less than or equal
to 5.
2. The set of all integers whose distance from 5 is less than or equal
to 8.
3. The set of all integral divisors of 105.
4. The set of all positive integral divisors of 105.
5. The set of all living mathematicians 200 years old and above.
1. A = {x R| x2 2x 15 0}
2. The set of all real numbers x greater than 2 and satisfies
x2 2x 15 0
3. S = {n Z| n2 + 3n 12 < 2} {n Z| |n| > 2}.
4. B = {w R| |x| > 5 but |x 5| < 6}.
5. M = {l|l is a letter in the word mangga}, where l is a letter in
the Filipino alphabet.